Geographic Information System GIS

A GIS is a computer-based decision-support tool that allows us

to transform geographic data into geographic information (GI)
GIS allows for the input, storage, analysis and output of
geographic data & information
Input: Aggregate and collate geographic data from
multiple sources
Storage: Retrieve and update data
Analysis: Identify spatial relationships, patterns and
trends across a range of phenomena
Output: Display GI in tabular, graph and map form to
allow other people to interact with the data

Introduction
The Importance of Location

Geographic location is an important attribute of activities,

policies, strategies, and plans

Geographic problems involve an aspect of location, either in

the information used to solve them, or in the solutions
themselves

There are three standard bases for classifying geographic

problems:
a. scale or level of geographic detail
b. timescale ⇒ short, medium, long
c. intent or purpose
problem solving ⇒ normative applications
curiosity driven ⇒ positivist approach

Introduction
The Importance of Location

Introduction
For Clarification

Geographic ⇒ the Earth’s surface and near-surface

Spatial ⇒ any space (not just the space of the Earth’s

surface)

Geospatial ⇒ a subset of spatial, applied specifically to the

Earth’s surface and near-surface

Introduction
Spatial is Special!

Almost all human activities and decisions involve an important

geographic component
⇒ tied to specific locations on Earth’s surface

It is always multidimensional!

Working with geographic information involves unique,

complex and difficult choices
⇒ which other fields choose not to make

Crucial to understanding both physical and human geography

⇒ understanding the variation in the Earth’s surface
⇒ both natural and man-made

Introduction
GI Systems (GIS) vs GI Science (GISc)

GIS are computer-based tools for collecting, storing,

processing, analyzing, and visualizing GI

GISc is the scientific context/underpinnings of GIS

• CSE (Computer science Engineering)underpinnings
of overlaying map data, faster queries, etc.

• Statistical approaches for analyzing spatial data

GISS combines GI Systems and Science!

Introduction
Data, Information, Knowledge, ...

Information systems enable us to make informed decisions:

Data are numbers or text
⇒ raw facts, a stream of bits

Information comes from refined data, given some amount of

interpretation

Knowledge comes from information only when the information

has been analyzed, understood, and synthesized

The final step is making decisions based on the knowledge

obtained from information, based on data
⇒Wisdom

Introduction
Decision-Making Support Infrastructure:

Introduction
Decision-Making Support Infrastructure:

Introduction
GISS: Six Components
Hardware: Desktop computers; mobile
devices; cellular phones
Software: Commercial or open source
Data: Digital representation of some
aspect of some specific area
Procedures: Standards to ensure quality,
efficiency, replicability, and accessibility of
GISbased knowledge
People: Expertise in a wide array of
subjects, such as data management,
computer programming, etc.
Network: Rapid communication and
sharing of digital information

Introduction
The Nature of Spatial Variation

Three principles of the nature of spatial variation:

1. Proximity effects are key to understanding spatial variation

2. Issues of geographic scale and level of detail are key to

building appropriate representations of the world

3. Different measures of the world co-vary, and understanding

the nature of co-variation can help us to predict

Representation of Geographic Data

The Task

Representing spatial and temporal phenomena in the real world:

• since the r eal world i s complex, this task i s difficult and
error prone!

• small things (i.e. human lives) are very complex in

detail

• viewed in aggregate, human activity exhibits structure

across geographic spaces

Representation of Geographic Data

The Fundamental Problem

• Deciding what data/information can be discarded as the

inessential while retaining the significant characteristics of the
observable world

• Distinguishing between controlled variation, which oscillates

around a steady state, and uncontrolled variation:

controlled variation ⇒ like utility management

uncontrolled variation ⇒ climate change

Representation of Geographic Data

Tobler’s First Law of Geography

Everything is related to everything

else, but near things are more
related than distant things

Tobler, 1970

Representation of Geographic Data

Spatial Autocorrelation

Autocorrelation is the similarity between observations as a function

of the time

Spatial autocorrelation is similarity in the location of spatial

objects and their attributes
manifestation of Tobler’s Law!

Is a measure of the degree to which a set of spatial features and

their associated data values tend to be clustered (positive spatial
autocorrelation) or dispersed (negative autocorrelation)

Representation of Geographic Data

Spatial Autocorrelation

how we should represent the real world in our digital GIS

Understanding :
spatial variation, the scale of spatial variation, and the way in
which geographic phenomena co-vary.

Spatial autocorrelation is determined both by similarities in

position, and by similarities in attributes:
positive, zero, or negative

Representation of Geographic Data

Contiguous Spatial Autocorrelation
Moran`s I interpretation

Representation of Geographic Data

Representation

All representation:
are needed to convey information

fit information into a standard form or model

almost always simplify the truth that is being represented

Digital representation:
digital & binary (1s and 0s)

The basis of almost all modern human communication

Representation of Geographic Data

The Fundamental Problem (Again)

Geographic data are built up from atomic elements, or facts about

the geographic world

At its most primitive, an atom of geographic data (strictly, a

datum) links a place, often a time, and some descriptive property

The fundamental problem: “the world is infinitely complex, but

computer systems are finite”

Representation of Geographic Data

What is a Data Model?

Levels of abstractions that convert

reality to data in the computer

Conceptual models ⇒ discrete

objects vs continuous fields

Logical models ⇒ rasters vs vectors

Physical models ⇒ Too many

Representation of Geographic Data

Discrete Objects vs Continuous Fields

Discrete Objects ⇒ the world is empty, except where it is

occupied by objects with well-defined boundaries that are instances
of generally recognized categories:
objects can be counted

objects have dimensionality:

0-dimension ⇒ points

1-dimension ⇒ lines

2-dimensions ⇒ areas

Representation of Geographic Data

Discrete Objects vs Continuous Fields

Continuous Field ⇒ a finite number of variables, each one

defined at every possible position:

omnipresent, everywhere dense

can be distinguished by what varies, and how smoothly

In this perspective, value (A) is a function of location (X):

A = f (X )

Contrast with the discrete object view ⇒ define the location of the
boundary of objects, or X = f (A)

Representation of Geographic Data

Rasters vs Vectors

There are two methods that are used to reduce geographic

phenomena to forms that can be coded in computer databases

Each can be used to represent both fields and discrete objects:

usually raster is used to represent fields

and vector for discrete objects

“Raster is faster, but vector is correcter”

Representation of Geographic Data

Raster

In a raster representation geographic space is divided into an array

of cells, each of which is usually square, but sometimes rectangular:

all geographic variation is then expressed by assigning

properties or attributes to these cells

cells are called pixels (short for picture elements)

In the raster data model, individual grid cells have one value that
represent a single phenomenon

IMPORTANT: Raster accuracy is limited by the resolution of the

cell

Representation of Geographic Data

Raster Representation
Each color represents a different value of a nominal-scale variable
denoting land-cover class

Representation of Geographic Data

Raster Representation
Effect of a raster representation using:
(A) the largest share rule
(B) the central point rule

Representation of Geographic Data

Vector

In a vector representation, features are captured as a series of

points or vertices connected by straight lines:

areas are often called polygons

lines are often called polylines

In the vector data model, discrete features can have many different
attributes representing numerous phenomena

Representation of Geographic Data

Vector Representation
Effect of a vector representation:
solid purple line ⇒ represents an area
dashed blue line ⇒ approximation by a polygon

Representation of Geographic Data

Generalization

Simplifying the view of the world:

describe entire areas, attributing uniform characteristics to
them, even when areas are not strictly uniform

identify features on the ground and describe their

characteristics, again assuming them to be uniform

some degree of generalization is almost inevitable in all

geographic data

A geographic database cannot contain a perfect description;

instead, its contents must be carefully selected to fit within the
limited capacity of computer storage devices!

Representation of Geographic Data

Data 6= Information

In the context of computing, both data and information refer to

facts and statistics collected

But data is the quantities, characters, or symbols on which

operations are performed by a computer, and information is the
context or meaning of data

GIS can deal with data easily

GIS can handle information too

But GIS often has trouble to effectively process knowledge and

wisdom

Representation of Geographic Data

Data Types

Data is organized in a GIS database based on whether it is a

collection of text symbols, numbers, or dates

Numbers are further classified into one of four data types:

Representation of Geographic Data

Data Types

Why does this matter?

because GIS databases can include tens of thousands of
records, it is useful to try and limit the memory allocated to
each record
With numerical values, you can designate:
precision ⇒ the length of the field
scale ⇒ the number of decimal places in the field

Number Precision Scale

13.56 4 2
1056 4 0
0.4326 ? ?

Representation of Geographic Data

GI Attribute Types

Attribute Types:
nominal ⇒ used to categorize

ordinal ⇒ ordered categories

interval ⇒ difference between values are constant

ratio ⇒ ratios between values are meaningful

Spatially Extensive vs. Spatially Intensive:

extensive ⇒ values aggregated over entire area
intensive ⇒ true for any sub-region of the area

Representation of Geographic Data