Chapter 27: The Crisis of the Imperial Order, 1900-1929

Chapter Thesis With the end of World War I, there had been many consequences that had been suffered
from all sides of the war, with only a few nations finding opportunities to advance forward. The
United States and Japan were both examples of those who had benefited off of the European
conflicts that had caused these European nations to rely on the U.S. as a supplier. Japan would
find a chance to attack and conquer many unprotected German colonies and China as well.
From the main powers in the war, Germany would see humiliation, Italy would have sacrificed
for little reward, and the Western Front would be observed with environmental destruction. We
would see later on that these nations would eventually be impacted and effect the future events
of the world later on, whether through advancement or bitter resentment.

Main Section I The Ottoman Empire would see decline in their power as they would fall behind in terms
Origins of the Crisis in Europe of technology and modernizations. Due to the many instances in which they would lose land to
and the Middle East other nations, they would attempt to create a new Turkish nation. Along with the Ottomans
would be the Germans who were looking to defeat France and dominate Europe with their
advanced technological standings. The Germans would later use the railroad system to their
advantage in order to exploit the time tables.
A.​ The Ottoman Empire fell behind in terms of advancements and other factors by the end
of the 19th century.
-​ It began to lose many territories and European states
-​ They lost Macedonia, Bosnia, Crete, Albania, lost Libya to Italy, and Serbia, Bulgaria,
Romania, and Greece chased Ottomans out of Europe
B. Therefore they decided due to the strict railroad systems, Germany believed that
they would easily defeat France before the British arrived to help
-​ Germany did not withdraw from Belgium, and the British declared war as a result of
their refusal

Sub Section A The Ottoman Empire declined in power and control as they would lack in terms of
The Ottoman Empire and the technology and modernizations. They would lose land to other nations, and as a result, they
Balkans would attempt to create a new Turkish nation. They overthrew Abdul Hamid and reinvigorated
the Tanzimat reform movement as well as hitting their minorities hard, aiming for Greeks and
the like. They would end up having a mix of modern army and nationalism, but we would later
see this in many other nations.
A.​ The Ottoman Empire fell behind in terms of technology, economy, military, and other
factors by the end of the 19th century.
-​ It began to lose many territories and European states
B.​ They lost Macedonia, Bosnia, Crete, Albania, lost Libya to Italy, and Serbia, Bulgaria,
Romania, and Greece chased Ottomans out of Europe
-​ Abdul Hamid was overthrow in which they mixed nationalism with modern armies
Sub Section B Along with the Ottomans would be the Germans who were looking to defeat France and
Nationalism, Alliances, and dominate Europe with their advanced technological standings. With the weakness after the
Military Strategy assassination of Franz Ferdinand, nationalism would be the unit that would connect these
citizens together. France and Germany would both implement a railroad system that they would
both use. The Germans would later use the railroad system to their advantage in order to exploit
the time tables.
A.​ Franz Ferdinand’s assassination would have triggered a chain of lost control in politics
and military
-​ Problem one: Nationalism. Problem two: Alliances. Problem three: Germany
-​ The war was seen as a crusade for victory
-​ Germany was the most industrialized in Europe
B.​ Therefore they decided due to the strict railroad systems, Germany believed that they
would easily defeat France before the British arrived to help
-​ Germany did not withdraw from Belgium, and the British declared war as a result of
their refusal

They would begin World War I as the German advance into Belgium would bring Britain
Main Section II
The “Great War” and the onto the war scene. However, there would be many factors that would turn the tides to the Allie.
Russian Revolutions, Due to the large amount of stalemates that occurred, such as the Western Front, there would be a
1914-19-18 large tip towards the European’s victory. Even if the Ottomans had joined or not would be
irrelevant as the balance was not tipped in any form. World War II would end up with the Allies
taking victory with the assistance of the United States of America.
A.​ The Western Front was a reason as to why Germany lost
-​ The naval blockade they had done blocked any trade that they would have had
-​ Due to Germany attacking American passengers on said boats, they would have
provoked the United States into the World War.
B.​ Many nations would be weakened after this World War
-​ Germany would be humiliated, the Ottoman Empire would be reformed, and no one was
satisfied
C.​ The Allies would claim victory with the U.S.’s support
-​ The U.S. supplied the Allies with troops and raw materials, gaining massive profit from
the war
The main interest of World War I would be the high levels of stalling the battle in a
Sub Section A
stalemate. This particular stalemate would ruin the environment as the battlefield began to fill
Stalemate, 1914-1917
with all of these trenches and ditches. The reason why this had occured is due to the highly
defense machine guns that were able to easily destroy a nearby target, but lacked mobility and
speed. In addition, supplies and work became much more important and relevant as men rushed
off to war, giving women the opportunity to fill in for their jobs.
A.​ The French tried to use their morale to bluff, which failed, leaving the Germans to
defeat England and France, taking Belgium and northern France
-​ The Germans were tired of battle after a month, and the battle of the Marne with
France's reserve would push them back
 B.​ They went into a stalemate, which leads to the western front
-​ They had many pointless bloody battles
C.​ Germany had blocked the British navy with submarines
-​ They attacked Lusitania with American people, so they stop because they wanted to
keep the US neutral

Sub Section B Supplies and work became much more important and relevant as men rushed off to war,
The Home Front and the War giving women the opportunity to fill in for their jobs. Unexpectedly, nutrition and living
Economy conditions, although strict, had improved for many of these citizens caught in this war
[Link] had been recruited for labor, women were given opportunities to work, and
further on. However, due to the concentration on the war, many colonies were neglected as they
were no longer a priority to fulfill.
A.​ Civilians had gotten positive and negative consequences
-​ Food was shared according to need, improving rations
-​ Immigrants were recruited for labor
-​ Women were hired to take jobs when men were off to war
B.​ Germany suffered from their blockade campaign and had little food due to the severed
trade
-​ European African colonies struggled but were used in the war as they were troops, tax
farms, and food sources
C.​ The U.S. became rich when they supplied France and Britain for two and a half years

Sub Section C On August 2nd, 1914, the Ottoman Empire would decide to ally with Germany. The
The Ottoman Empire at War Dardanelles were closed by the Turks, and the British attempted for capture but were
unsuccessful. The British promised the emir(hereditary governor) that if he leads a revolt, he
would get a kingdom of his own as a countermeasure to the closing of the Dardanelles. His son,
Faisal, would lead the revolt, becoming king of Iraq under British protection until 1933. Another
event that occured at this time was the Jews looking for a Jewish Homeland. Theodore Herzl
was an Austrian person who had also promised Jews of a national homeland. The Balfour
declaration would ensure conflict with Arabs in the area
A.​ On August 2nd, 1914, the Ottoman Empire allied with Germany
B.​ The Dardanelles were closed, and the British tried to reopen it but were pushed back to
sea
C.​ British promised the emir(hereditary governor) that if he leads a revolt, he would get a
kingdom of his own
-​ His son, Faisal, would lead the revolt, becoming king of Iraq under British protection
until 1933
D.​ Theodore Herzl was an Austrian person who had also promised Jews of a national
homeland
-​ The Balfour declaration would ensure conflict with Arabs in the area
Sub Section D Russia has a big army but lacked competent generals, supplies, and soldiers. An example
Double Revolution in Russia of this would be when Russian supplies had dropped so low that they have to reuse rifles from
dead comrades due to little ammunition available. The court of Tsar Nicholas II was still corrupt
and extravagant, but after food ran extremely low, they started to create unions. The February
rebellion, led by Alexander Kerensky, would appear to abdicate the tsar. However, a third party,
known as the Bolsheviks, which would later be known as the Communists, under the lead of
Vladimir Lenin, would interfere in the initial revolution.
A.​ Russia has a big army but lacked competent generals, supplies, and soldiers
-​ Supplies dropped so low that they have to reuse rifles due to little ammunition
-​ The court of Tsar Nicholas II was still corrupt and extravagant
B.​ After food ran extremely low, they started to create unions
-​ However, a third party, known as the Bolsheviks under the lead of Vladimir Lenin,
would interfere in the revolution
-​ This would ensure chaos in Russia but would give a chance for nations to become
independent

Sub Section E President Woodrow Wilson preferred to have stayed out of European conflicts, and in
The End of the War in Western order to do so he would make compromises with foreigners. Germany thought the submarine
Europe, 1917-1918 blockade, although at risk of provoking the US, would defeat France and England before the
U.S. would come to help. However, their gamble failed, and Wilson declared war on Germany
with Congress agreeing to it. The U.S. presented a peace plan that brought Wilson as the moral
leader, but Germany had rejected it
A.​ President Woodrow Wilson preferred to have stayed out of European conflicts
-​ Made compromises with foreigners
-​ Germany thought the submarine blockade, although at risk of provoking the US, would
defeat France and England before the U.S. would come to help
B.​ Their gamble failed, and Wilson declared war on Germany
-​ He created the fourteen points that Germany rejected, but the US presented a peace plan
that brought Wilson as the moral leader

World War I had resulted in the death of over millions of deaths, injured, and refugees.
Main Section III Within the Paris Peace Conference, the three main powers who won the battle, which were
Peace and Dislocation in France, Britain, and the United States, had dominated the conference. However, the U.S. would
Europe 1919-1929 refuse to join the League of Nations, weakening the power of said organization. Many of the
nations after the war were very disappointed in the results of the war.
A.​ The end result of World War I was disappointing for many nations
-​ 9 to 10 million people had died in the war
-​ smaller nations and foreign countries would be neglected
-​ The US Congress had chosen to refuse the invitation

9 to 10 million people had died in the war. The casualties from each nation are split to 2
million germans, 1.7 million Russians, 1.7 million french, 1 million British, 500 thousand
Sub Section A Ottomans, Italy suffered 460 thousands, and the USA lost 115 thousand soldiers. The end result
The Impact of the War of the war had forced the defeated to leave their homes and reached France, U.S., Australia,
New Zealand, Canada, and more. In conclusion, the Western Front left many scars and
destruction
A.​ 9 to 10 million people had died in the war
-​ 2 mil germans, 1.7 mil Russians, 1.7 mil french, 1 mil British, 500k ottoman, Italy
460k, and the USA lost 115k
B.​ Forced the defeated to leave their homes and reached french, us, Australia, New
Zealand, Canada, and more
-​ The western front left many scars and destruction

Sub Section B After the war, the Europeans created a nation known as the League of Nations that would
The Peace Treaties consist of the great powers. It would prove useful for stopping aggression in the 1930s. Smaller
nations and foreign countries would be neglected in these meetings
however, often leaving out Japan or Italy. The US Congress had chosen to refuse the invitation,
weakening the alliance badly.
A.​ After the war, the Europeans created a nation that would consist of the great powers
-​ It would prove useful for stopping aggression in the 1930s
-​ Smaller nations and foreign countries would be neglected
B.​ The treaty of Versailles left Germany in debt, responsible, and humiliated, but still
united

In December 1918, civil war broke out after the communists held central Russia. Both
Sub Section C sides would resort to burning down crops, in which a famine that followed claimed 3 million
Russian Civil War and the New lives. In 1921, the communists defeated their opponents due to the famine itself. Finland, the
Economic Policy Baltic States, and Poland remained independent, but Ukraine merged with Russia to create the
Soviet Union. After Lenin's death, Stalin would expel Trotsky and industrialize the Soviet
Union
A.​ In December 1918, civil war broke out after the communists held central Russia
-​ After burning down crops, a famine claimed 3 million lives
B.​ In 1921, the communists defeated their opponents
-​ Finland, the Baltic States, and Poland remained independent
-​ Ukraine merged with Russia to create the soviet union
C.​ The New Economic Policy would allow for the economy to return, but then it would be
taken back as the government used the workers for industry and forced farmers to pay
for government industrialization
-​ After Lenin's death, Stalin would expel Trotsky and industrialize the soviet union

Sub Section D Many were disappointed in the end result of the wars, as they had wished for pre-war
An Ephemeral Peace peace, felt cheated from a win, or had a little reward for their sacrifices. The hardest hit nation
would have been Germany, where it would have gone through an economic crisis as they
attempted to print out money after not paying reparation payments. After the crisis of 1923,
 Germany would make a three-way credit cycle that would restore the economy and
hyperinflation by using a cycle with the U.S. and the French.
A.​ Although peaceful, many were disappointed in the end result of the wars
-​ Many nations wished for pre-war peace, felt cheated from a win, and had a little reward
for their sacrifices
B.​ After the crisis of 1923, Germany would make a three-way credit cycle that would
restore the economy and hyperinflation
-​ Germany would have gone through an economic crisis as they attempted to print out
money after not paying reparation payments when France occupied Ruhr
-​ Germany and Russia secretly aligned, at the same time Germany had been part of the
league of nations

Main Section IV Japan had gained a lot from World War I as it profited off of the unprotected and weakened
China and Japan: Contrasting German colonies as well as preying on China. While in China itself, there is a large time period
Destinies in which reforms had been made. Unfortunately, the dictatorship that would follow had still only
benefited the strong and left the poor and weak to be drained of their resources at the hands of
Chiang Kai-Shek
-​ China remained a large, fast-growing country with over 400 mil people
-​ They remained based in agriculture, simply fearing floods, bandits, or tax collectors
-​ Japan was small in population and size, difficulties with the environment, and natural
disasters
-​ Japan allied with the Allies to advance their interests, such as conquering German
Pacific colonies as well as presenting China with the Twenty-One demands in 1921

Sub Section A China remained a large, fast-growing country with over 400 mil people. They remained
Social and Economic Change based in agriculture, simply fearing floods, bandits, or tax collectors as they had not reached
modernization yet. They split into many social groups, landowners, tenants, and more, such
opium addicts, prostitutes, and gangsters. Many of the educated had learned abroad in foreign
nations. In comparison, Japan was small in population and size, difficulties with the
environment, and natural disasters. Another factor was that foreign concepts clashed with
traditionalists as Japan was more focused on foreign trade.
A.​ China remained a large, fast-growing country with over 400 mil people
-​ They remained based in agriculture, simply fearing floods, bandits, or tax collectors
-​ They once again split into many social groups, landowners, tenants, and more
-​ Opium addiction, prostitutes, and gangsters appeared
-​ Many had learned abroad in foreign nations
B.​ Japan was small in population and size, difficulties with the environment, and natural
disasters
-​ Foreign concepts clashed with traditionalists
-​ More focused on foreign trade but suffered to economic swings in the process
Sub Section B The Chinese, after the reign of Dowager Cixi who tried to expel all foreigners, decided
Revolution and War, that they needed to modernize and reform. After her death, Sun Yat-Sen attempted for
1900-1918 revolution but was stopped by military leaders with modern [Link] Shikai refused to
defend the Qing, and he would gain presidency with the Guomindang party. During this time,
Japan allied with the Allies to advance their interests, such as conquering German Pacific
colonies as well as presenting China with the Twenty-One demands in 1921. These actions
caused resentment to ensure for 30 years
A.​ The Chinese, after the reign of Dowager Cixi who tried to expel all foreigners, decided
that they needed to modernize and reform
-​ After her death, Sun Yat-Sen attempted for revolution but was stopped by military
leaders
B.​ Yuan Shikai refused to defend the Qing, and he would gain presidency with the
Guomindang party
C.​ Japan allied with the Allies to advance their interests, such as conquering German
Pacific colonies as well as presenting China with the Twenty-One demands in 1921
-​ This action caused resentment to ensure for 30 years

Sub Section C The Chinese had been insulted by Japan’s seizure of the German enclaves. The May Fourth
Chinese Warlords and the Movement spread throughout China, even under a government ban when students stood in front
Guomindang, 1919-1929 of the Forbidden City of Beijing. Sun’s death in 1925 would be followed with the lead of
Chiang Kai-shek who would ally with Communist China, but quickly turn on them afterwards.
Although China reformed, the poor were still in poverty and squeezed for all of their resources
A.​ Sun’s death in 1925 would be followed with the lead of Chiang Kai-shek who would
ally with Communist China, but quickly turn on them after
-​ He sought to eliminate regional warlords
-​ Although China reformed, the poor were still in poverty and squeezed for all of their
resources
B.​ The Chinese were insulted by Japan’s seizure of the German enclaves
-​ May Fourth Movement spread throughout China, even under a government ban

Main Section V The former Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire became mandates, which were lettered
The New Middle East A, B, or C which would go under British or French control. In the Middle East itself,
specifically the Ottoman Empire, Ataturk had expelled the Greek minority, founded the Turkish
Republic, and reformed it. The Middle Eastern society would modernize as well as become
more politically active, but had to go through the mandates. In a different area, Jewish
immigration causes tensions in Palestine.
-​ In the Paris Peace Conference, all of the powers, specifically Britain, Germany, Italy,
and Japan discussed for the outcome of the Ottoman Empire
-​ The mandate system was created as a result of indecisive conclusions
 -​ In response, Mustafa Kemal had counter-attacked by fighting a war with the Greeks that
pushed them out of their ancestral home, establishing the Turkish Republic afterward in
1923
-​ He would abolish the Sultanate and create a similar style of government as European,
used the Latin alphabet, and suppressed Muslim power

Sub Section A In the Paris Peace Conference, all of the powers, specifically Britain, Germany, Italy, and
The Mandate System Japan discussed for the outcome of the Ottoman Empire. The mandate system was created as a
result of indecisive conclusions. It entails that the colonies would be under supervision and
monitored by the respective countries. Many conquered lands were treated like colonies while
fortunate mandates were able to rule independently without supervision by the powers.
A.​ In the Paris Peace Conference, all of the powers, specifically Britain, Germany, Italy,
and Japan discussed for the outcome of the Ottoman Empire
B.​ The mandate system was created as a result of indecisive conclusions
-​ Class C Mandates were those who were treated as colonies
-​ Class B Mandates were those who ruled under supervision
-​ Class A Mandates were those who were able to rule independently, leading to the rise of
Palestine, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon

Sub Section B The Ottoman Empire were weakened and lost Constantinople and other lands by the Treaty
The Rise of Modern Turkey of Sevres in 1920. In response, Mustafa Kemal had counter-attacked by fighting a war with the
Greeks that pushed them out of their ancestral home, establishing the Turkish Republic
afterwards in 1923. Using his power, he would suppress Muslim power and modernize Turkey.
He would take upon himself the name Ataturk, but he would still face resistance from the
Islamic conservatives.
A.​ The Ottoman Empire was weakened and lost Constantinople and other lands by the
Treaty of Sevres in 1920
-​ In response, Mustafa Kemal had counter-attacked by fighting a war with the Greeks that
pushed them out of their ancestral home, establishing the Turkish Republic afterward in
1923
B.​ He would abolish the Sultanate and create a similar style of government as European,
used the Latin alphabet, and suppressed Muslim power
-​ Women would receive equality, including the right to vote and be elected to the national
assembly
-​ He would take upon himself the name Ataturk, but he would still face resistance

Sub Section C The British would have attempted to manipulate the Middle East with intimidation and
Arab Lands and the Question bribes. They would have Egypt declare independence yet the British would still control the Suez
of Palestine Canal due to it being a strong source of transportation. The Jewish that would settle in Palestine
would clash with the Arabs in which occured due to the Balfour declaration of 1917. Conflicts
would erupt in which by 1930, the British was unable to suppress both sides from guerilla
warfare, but earned the hatred of both sides and high tensions.
 A.​ The consequences of the first world war resulted in many technological changes that
had caravans replaced with trucks, migrations to the bigger cities, and social classes
-​ Families sent their male successor to go abroad in Europe, universities, or more
B.​ The British would have attempted to manipulate the Middle East with intimidation and
bribes
-​ They would have Egypt declare independence yet the British would still control the
Suez canal
C.​ The Jewish that would settle in Palestine would clash with the Arabs in which occurred
due to the Balfour declaration of 1917
-​ Riots would erupt in which by 1930, the British could not restrain the sides from
guerilla warfare, but earned the hatred of both sides

Vocabulary

[Link] Front - A line of trenches and fortifications in World War I that stretched without a
break from Switzerland to the North Sea. Scene of most of the fighting between Germany, on
the one hand, and France and Britain, on the other.

2. Faisal - Arab prince, leader of the Arab Revolt in World War I. The British made him king of
Iraq in 1921, and he reigned under British protection until 1933.

3. Theodore Herzl - Austrian journalist and founder of the Zionist movement urging the creation
of a Jewish national homeland in Palestine.

4. Balfour Declaration - Statement issued by Britain's Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour in 1917
favoring the establishment of a Jewish national homeland in Palestine.

5. Bolsheviks - Radical Marxist political party founded by Vladimir Lenin in 1903. Under
Lenin's leadership, the Bolsheviks seized power in November 1917 during the Russian
Revolution.

6. Vladimir Lenin - Leader of the Bolshevik (later Communist) Party. He lived in exile in
Switzerland until 1917, then returned to Russia to lead the Bolsheviks to victory during the
Russian Revolution and the civil war that followed.

7. Woodrow Wilson - President of the United States (1913-1921) and the leading figure at the
Paris Peace Conference of 1919. He was unable to persuade the U.S. Congress to ratify the
Treaty of Versailles or join the League of Nations.

8. Fourteen Points - A peace program presented to the U.S. Congress by President Woodrow
Wilson in January 1918. It called for the evacuation of German-occupied lands, the drawing of
borders and the settling of territorial disputes by the self-determination of the affected
populations, and the founding of an association of nations to preserve the peace and guarantee
their territorial integrity. It was rejected by Germany, but it made Wilson the moral leader of the
Allies in the last year of World War I.

9. League of Nations - International organization founded in 1919 to promote world peace and
cooperation but greatly weakened by the refusal of the United States to join. It proved
ineffectual in stopping aggression by Italy, Japan, and Germany in the 1930s.

10. Treaty of Versailles - The treaty imposed on Germany by France, Great Britain, the United
States, and other Allied Powers after World War I. It demanded that Germany dismantle its
military and give up some lands to Poland. It was resented by many Germans.

11. New Economic Policy - Policy proclaimed by Vladimir Lenin in 1924 to encourage the
revival of the Soviet economy by allowing small private enterprises. Joseph Stalin ended the
N.E.P. in 1928 and replaced it with a series of Five-Year Plans.

12. Sun Yat-sen - Chinese nationalist revolutionary, founder and leader of the Guomindang until
his death. He attempted to create a liberal democratic political movement in China but was
thwarted by military leaders.

13. Yuan Shikai - Chinese general and first president of the Chinese Republic (1912-1916). He
stood in the way of the democratic movement led by Sun Yat-sen.

14. Guomindang - Nationalist political party founded on democratic principles by Sun Yat-sen
in 1912. After 1925, the party was headed by Chiang Kai-shek, who turned it into an
increasingly authoritarian movement.

15. Chiang Kai-shek - General and leader of Nationalist China after 1925. Although he
succeeded Sun Yat-sen as head of the Guomindang, he became a military dictator whose major
goal was to crush the communist movement led by Mao Zedong.

16. mandate system - Allocation of former German colonies and Ottoman possessions to the
victorious powers after World War I, to be administered under League of Nations supervision.

17. Ataturk - The founder of modern Turkey. He distinguished himself in the defense of
Gallipoli in World War I and expelled a Greek expeditionary army from Anatolia in 1921-1922.
He replaced the Ottoman Empire with the Turkish Republic in 1923. As president, he pushed
through a radical westernization and reform of Turkish society.