Chapter 3: Limit State Design of Beams for 4/3/2025

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3.1 Introduction
Rectangular one way or two way slabs under normal
Chapter 3 uniform loading can be analyzed and then designed
using coefficients obtained from Tables published for
this purpose.

Yield Line Analysis of In a situation where irregular shapes, varied support

Slabs conditions, presence of openings, varied loading and
more complex conditions are encountered, the
established theory of elasticity or plasticity cannot be
employed straight. For these circumstances, the yield
line theory is found useful.

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• The yield line theory is an ultimate load method of 3.2 Upper and Lower Bound Theorem:
analysis of slab, i.e. the BM at the verge of collapse
is used as the basis for design. At collapse loads, an • Plastic analysis methods such as the yield line theory
under reinforced slab begins to crack with the derived from the general theory of structural plasticity,
reinforcement yielding at points of high moment. which states that the ultimate collapse load of a
The crack lines or the yield lines propagate with the structure lies between two limits, an upper bound and
increase in deflection until the slab is broken in to a a lower bound of the true collapse load.
number of segments.

• Lower bound theorem: If, for a given external load, it is

• A yield line is a line in the plane of the slab across possible to find a distribution of moments that satisfies
which reinforcing bars have yielded and about equilibrium requirements, with the moment not
which excessive deformation (Plastic rotation) exceeding the yield moment at any location, and if the
under constant limit moment (ultimate moment) boundary conditions are satisfied, then the given load is
continues to occur leading to failure.
a lower bound of the true carrying capacity.
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• Upper bound theorem: If, for a small increment • If the lower bound conditions are satisfied, the slab
can certainly carry the given load, although a higher
of displacement, the internal work done by the
load may be carried if internal distributions of
slab, assuming that the moment at every plastic moment occur.
hinge is equal to the yield moment and that
• If the upper bound conditions are satisfied, a load
boundary conditions are satisfied, is equal to the greater than the given load will certainly cause
external work done by the given load for that failure, although a lower load may produce collapse
same small increment of displacement, then if the selected failure mechanism is incorrect in any
that load is an upper bound of true carrying sense.
capacity. • Accordingly, the yield line method of analysis for
slabs is an upper bound method, and consequently
the failure load calculated for a slab with known
flexural resistance may be higher than the true
value..
5 6

The yield line phenomenon involves: 𝑎

 A slab under increasing loads where cracking

and reinforcement yielding occur in the most
highly stressed zone (i.e. around maximum
𝐴 𝑐
moment) Δ

 The highly stressed zone normally acts as a 𝑒 𝑏

plastic hinge where the subsequent loads are 𝐵
distributed to other region of the slab
 Cracks develop forming patterns of yield lines
until a mechanism is formed, 𝑑

 Collapse is then indicated by increasing

deflection under constant load Fig. 3.1 Deformation of slab with yield lines
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Sign Conventions Characteristic features of yield lines:

Positive Yield Line
• Yield lines are generally straight and end at a
Negative Yield Line slab boundary or the intersection of other yield
Axis of rotation lines
Unsupported edge/Free Boundary • Axes of rotation generally lie along lines of
support
End beam (Simply supported edge)
• Axes of rotation pass over column supports
Simply supported edge
• For a mechanism to develop, the yield line may
Built in edge/Fixed Edge pass through the intersection of the axes of
rotation of adjacent segments
Point Load Column Support
9 10

One way Continuous span

FBD for (a) Simply supported all sides One Side Free edge

(a) (c)
(d)
Non parallel supports

FBD for (b) Simply supported all sides

One Side Free edge

(e)
(b)
(d)
(d)
Fig. 3.2 Typical Yield line patterns Fig. 3.2 Typical Yield line patterns
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Columns

(f)
(h) 3.3 Method of yield line analysis
Axis of
rotation There are two methods of yield line analysis of slabs:
`
(a) The equilibrium method
(b) The virtual work method
Column
Column
In either method, a YL pattern is assumed so that a
(g) (i) collapse mechanism is produced.
Then for that failure mechanism, the geometric
parameters that define the exact location and
Fixed Supported two sides Simply Supported two sides orientation of the yield lines are determined and also
the relation between applied loads and resisting
Fig. 3.2 Typical Yield line patterns moments is solved.
13 14

It is necessary to investigate all possible mechanisms

for any slab to confirm that the correct solution,
(a) Equilibrium method of Analysis
giving the lowest failure load, has been found. For It makes use of the equilibrium equations for
example the following rectangular slab may fail by individual segment to obtain the collapse load.
either of the two mechanisms shown.
The FBD represented by each collapsing segment is in
equilibrium under;
 applied loads,
 yield moments and
 Reactions or shears along support lines
The method of segment equilibrium should not be
confused with a true equilibrium method such as the
strip method. A true equilibrium method is a lower
Fig. 3.3 Alterative mechanisms for bound method of analysis.
a slab supported on three sides
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Essentially, the yield lines form at lines of maximum

moment where neither shear nor torsion is typically
present at positive yield lines.

For demonstration purpose consider the one way

slab uniformly loaded and is continuous as shown in
Fig. 3.4 below.

Let the slab with span 𝐋 is reinforced to provide

resistance of 𝒎𝟐 kNm per m through the span and 𝒎𝟏
and 𝒎𝟑 kNm per m at the two supports. Suppose it is
desired to determine the collapse load 𝒘𝒖.
Fig. 3.4 Equilibrium Method
17 18

• For a known yield moments 𝒎𝟏, 𝒎𝟐 and 𝒎𝟑 a trail location

From right segment:
of the positive yield line is assumed. 2
𝑤𝑢 𝐿 − 𝑥
• Normally for a given loading and correct collapse pattern ෍ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 − =0
2
the solution is unique.
Solving for 𝒘𝒖from the two expressions and equating,
• However if a different pattern is assumed, this solution can one may obtain a practical solution for 𝒙 as:
describe nothing which pattern is the governing one.
Hence, it becomes essential to use the energy approach in 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑚3 − 𝑚1
𝑥= 𝐿 −1 + 1 +
completed problem for further verification. 𝑚3 − 𝑚1 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
• For the problem posed, consider the FBD in Figure 3.4 (c);
For instance, when L= 3m, m1 = m2 = 7 kNm/m and
From left segment: 𝑚3 = 10 𝑘𝑁𝑚/𝑚; 𝑥 = 1.427m & 𝑤𝑢 = 13.75 kN/m2
𝑤𝑢 𝑥 2 when m1 = m3 = 10 kNm/m and 𝑚2 = 7 𝑘𝑁𝑚/𝑚;
෍ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 − =0
2 𝐿 = 3𝑚 , 𝑥 = 1.5m & 𝑤𝑢 = 15.11 kN/m2
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i.e. Work done by external forces = Energy absorbed by

(b) Virtual work method of Analysis the hinges (internal work)
• Based on principle that work done by external forces 𝑊𝐸 = ඵ 𝑤𝑢 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝛿𝑥𝑦 = ∑𝑤𝑢 Δ
in undergoing a small virtual displacements is equal
to the internal virtual work done in rotations along
yield lines, the ultimate load which the slab can Where;
sustain is determined. In other words, the work 𝛿𝑥𝑦 = virtual displacement at load point considered
during small motion of collapse mechanism is equal 𝑤𝑢 = resultant of the load on each segment
to the work absorbed by the plastic hinges formed
along the yield lines. In here, the segment of the slab Δ = the corresponding displacement at centroid of the
with in the yield lines is assumed to go through rigid load in each segment
body displacement with the collapse load acting on
the structure. Since the relative rotation of the surface takes place about
yield line, one may obtain:
𝑾𝑬 = 𝑾𝑰 𝑊𝐼 = ∑𝑚𝑢 𝜃𝑛 𝐿𝑦
21 22

Where;
𝑚𝑢 = the ultimate moment across any yield line.
𝐿𝑦 = length of yield line
𝜃𝑛 = relative rotation of the two adjacent plates
perpendicular to the yield line
𝑊𝐸 = 𝑊𝐼
∑𝑤𝑢 Δ = ∑𝑚𝑢 𝜃𝑛 𝐿𝑦
For demonstration purpose, consider the one-way slab of
the previous example.
The slab is reinforced at left and right supports, and in
span in such a way that the capacities of the respective
sections are 𝒎𝟏 , 𝒎𝟑 and 𝒎𝟐 .
Fig. 3.5 Virtual Work Method
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Let ∆ be the plastic deflection at 𝒙 distance from left By principle of virtual work; 𝑊𝐸 = 𝑊𝐼 which simplifies
hand support to positive yield line. to give:
2 𝐿 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 − 𝑥(𝑚1 − 𝑚3 )
External Work: 𝑤𝑢 =
𝑥𝐿(𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝑤𝑢 𝑥Δ 𝑤𝑢 𝐿 − 𝑥 Δ 𝑤𝑢 Δ𝐿 𝑑𝑤𝑢
𝑊𝐸 = + = 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 To obtain 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑, =0
2 2 2 𝑑𝑥
Internal Work: −𝑥 𝑚1 − 𝑚3 𝑥𝐿 𝐿 − 𝑥
− 𝐿 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 − 𝑥 𝑚1 − 𝑚3 𝐿2 − 2𝑥𝐿 = 0
𝑊𝑖 = ∑𝑚𝑢 𝜃𝑛 𝐿𝑦
𝑊𝑖 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝜃1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 𝜃2 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 This gives the practical values of 𝑥 such that:
For small deflection tan 𝜃1 = 𝜃1 and tan 𝜃2 = 𝜃2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑚3 − 𝑚1
𝑥= 𝐿 −1 + 1 +
Δ Δ 𝑚3 − 𝑚1 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
𝜃1 = and 𝜃2 =
x L−x Thus, identical solution to the equilibrium methods is
Δ Δ
𝑊𝑖 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 obtained
x L−x 25 26

3.4 Moments along Skewed yield lines:

Y
Consider a two way slab orthogonally reinforced where U
Fig 4.7 Skewed Yield Lines – y bars

Yield Line
the yield lines are inclined at an angle 𝒂 with one of the
principal axes.
Y U Yield Line
Fig 4.6 Skewed Yield Lines

V
α
𝑚𝑥 𝑈
α
X
𝑎
X
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The above Fig. shows an orthogonal gird of reinforcement

having moment resistance my per unit length about the y
Y axis and moment resistance mx per unit length about x
U
Fig 4.8 Skewed Yield Lines – x bars

axis.
Yield Line
From Fig. 3.7:
The resisting moment per unit length along the 𝜶 axis
provided by the Y direction bars is:
V 𝑚𝑥 𝑈 cos 𝛼
𝑚𝑦 𝑉 𝑚𝑎𝑦 = = 𝑚𝑥 cos2 𝛼
𝑈
cos 𝛼
α The resisting moment per unit length perpendicular to
α 𝜶 axis provided by the Y direction bars is:
X 𝑚𝑥 𝑈 sin 𝛼
𝑚⊥𝑎𝑦 = = 𝑚𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 sin 𝛼
𝑈
29 cos 𝛼 30

From Fig. 3.8:  The resisting normal moment per unit length measured along the
α axis is:
The resisting moment per unit length along the 𝜶 axis
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦 + 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑥 cos 2 𝛼 + 𝑚𝑦 sin2 𝛼 … … … . (1)
provided by the X direction bars is:
 The resisting torsional moment per unit length measured along
𝑚𝑦 𝑉 sin 𝛼 the α axis is:
𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 𝑚𝑦 sin2 𝛼
𝑉 𝑚⊥𝑎 = 𝑚⊥𝑎𝑥 + 𝑚⊥𝑎𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 sin 𝛼 − 𝑚𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 sin 𝛼 . . (2)
sin 𝛼
The resisting moment per unit length perpendicular to 𝜶 Isotropic Vs Orthotropic Slabs
axis provided by the X direction bars is: An isotropically reinforced slab is one in which the ultimate
𝑚𝑦 𝑉 cos 𝛼 moment per unit length of the slab is the same in two orthogonal
𝑚⊥𝑎𝑥 = = 𝑚𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 sin 𝛼 directions.
𝑉
sin 𝛼 An orthotropically reinforced slab is one in which the ultimate
moment per unit length of the slab is different in the two
Thus for the combined set of bars: the resisting normal orthogonal directions.
(𝒎𝒂 ) and torsional (𝒎⊥𝒂 ) will be:
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 If a slab is isotropically reinforced with 𝑚𝑥 = What is it in other books?

𝑚𝑦 = 𝑚, equations (1) and (2) become: Orthotropic may some times be called as anisotropic.
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 𝒎𝒂 can sometimes be represented as normal bending
𝑚⊥𝑎 = 0 moment (𝒎𝒃) or simply Bending moment.
Therefore the ultimate moment resistance in an 𝒎⊥𝒂 can sometimes be represented as twisting
isotropically reinforced slabs in any direction is the moment (𝒎𝒕) as shown in fig 4.9 below
same.
 If a slab is orthothropically reinforced with 𝑚𝑥 =
𝑚 and 𝑚𝑦 = 𝜇𝑚, equations (1) and (2) become:
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚(𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 + 𝜇𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 )
𝑚⊥𝑎 = 𝑚(1 − 𝜇) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼

33
Fig. 3.9 Moments on an element 34

3.5 Effects of restrained corners

Corner lever is the effect of forking of the yield

line before reaching the corner. To this effect the
following schematic sketches the resulting yield
pattern at the corners.

The triangular segment fails to form when the

negative reinforcement is large and hence, the Uplift when the corners Corners held down but
are not held or fastened not well reinforced for
simple diagonal yield line in to the corner is negative moment
correct with out modification.
Fig. 3.10 Effects of restrained corners
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3.6 Slabs with more than one variable L

So far the slabs considered have only one variable
dimension which defines the yield line mechanism. When α(1-β1)L
the slab has more than one variable, the work equation,
together with equations obtained by differentiating with αL
respect to each unknown, give the necessary expressions to
obtain solution. For Example, for the case in figure 4.11 αβ1L
below, first develop suitable expression from the work
relation for 𝒘𝒖 in terms of 𝜷𝟏 & 𝜷𝟐 . Then:
𝝏𝒘𝒖 𝝏𝒘𝒖
=𝟎 & =𝟎 β 2L
𝝏𝜷𝟏 𝝏𝜷𝟐 (1-2β2)L β 2L
Will provide two additional equations to make the problem
solvable. Fig. 3.11 Slabs with more than one variable
37 38

3.7 Method of Strips Example 3.1: Rectangular slab Two edges supported

Determine the collapse load of the following slab

w/c is free on two opposite edges (continuous on
two other opposite sides): if 𝑚𝑦+ = 𝑚𝑦− = 𝑚

𝛼𝐿

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Solution: Internal Work Done, 𝑊𝑖 :

𝑊𝑖 = ∑𝑚𝑛 𝜃𝑛 𝐿𝑦 = 𝑚𝑦+ 𝜃𝑛 𝐿𝑦 + 𝑚𝑦− 𝜃𝑛 𝐿𝑦
2𝛥 2𝛥
𝑾𝒊 = 2 𝑚 𝛼𝐿 +2 𝑚 𝛼𝐿 = 𝟖𝒎𝜶𝜟
𝐿 𝐿

Equating external work done to internal work done:

Then the ultimate load can be calculated as follows.
𝑊𝑒 = 𝑊𝑖
𝛥 2𝛥
𝜃1 = 𝜃2 = 𝜃 =
𝐿
= 𝑤𝑢 𝛼𝐿2 𝛥
𝐿 = 8𝑚𝛼𝛥
2 2
8𝑚𝛼𝛥 16𝑚 𝑤𝑢 𝐿2
External Work Done, 𝑊𝑒 : 𝑤𝑢 = 2 = 2 𝒐𝒓 𝑚=
𝛼𝐿2 𝛥 𝐿 16
𝐿 𝛥 𝒘𝒖 𝜶𝑳𝟐 𝜟
𝑾𝒆 = 𝑊𝑢 𝛥 = 2 𝑤𝑢 𝛼𝐿 ∗ =
2 2 𝟐
41 42

Example 3.2: Rectangular slab Two edges supported Solution:

Since the shorter direction is free all the loads are
Find the intensity the uniformly distributed load “𝑤𝑢 ” transferred in one direction. Consider a strip in the
which causes collapse of the slab if L1=8m and L2= 6m. longer direction.
Assume an infinite capacity for plastic hinge rotation and 𝐿1 = 8m
𝑦
moment capacities 𝑀𝑦+ = 𝑀𝑦− = 50𝑘𝑁𝑚/m. (use yield
𝜃
𝐿2 = 6m

line method). 𝑥
∆

2𝜃
𝜃

𝐿1 = 8m 𝜃 ∆ 𝜃
𝑦 2𝜃
𝐿2 = 6m

External Work, 𝑊𝑒 :
𝑥
𝑤𝑢 (𝑥)(Δ) 𝑤𝑢 (𝐿 − 𝑥)Δ
𝑊𝐸 = + 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝
2 2
𝑤𝑢 (𝐿1 /2)(Δ) 𝑤𝑢 𝐿1 /2 Δ 𝑤𝑢 (8/2)(Δ) 𝑤𝑢 8/2 Δ
𝑊𝐸 = + = + = 𝟒𝒘𝒖 𝜟
2 2 2 2
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Internal Work, 𝑊𝑖 : 𝑚1 𝑤𝑢 𝑤𝑢 𝑚3 Example 3.3: YLA-Square Slab-Simply Supported

𝑚2 𝑚2 Determine the collapse load of an Isotropically reinforced

𝑊𝑖 = ∑𝑚𝑢 𝜃𝑛 𝐿𝑦 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑦 = 6𝑚 square slab, simply supported on all sides and uniformly
loaded.
𝑊𝑖 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝜃1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 𝜃2 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝
𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚3 = 50 𝑘𝑁𝑚/𝑚 & 𝜃1 = 𝜃2 = 𝜃
Δ 2Δ
tan 𝜃 = =
L/2 L
2Δ
For small deflection tan 𝜃 = 𝜃 ∴ 𝜃 =
L
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐿 = 8𝑚 L
2Δ 2Δ
𝑊𝑖 = 50 + 50 + 50 + 50 = 𝟓𝟎𝜟
8 8
Equating external work done to internal work done: 𝑊𝑒 = 𝑊𝑖
4𝑤𝑢 Δ = 50Δ
50Δ 50
𝑤𝑢 = = = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐 L
4Δ 4
45 46

Solution: Then the ultimate load can be calculated as follows.

Since it is a square slab the length of each The slab is isotropically reinforced, hence the moment
𝐿 2
yield line will be capacity along orthogonal reinforcement is the same and
2
b equal to 𝒎.
a
c Length of each diagonal yield line , 𝐿𝑦 = L 2
A Total rotation of diagonal segments = 𝜃 = 𝜃1 + 𝜃2
𝐿 2/2 Δ Δ 4Δ
𝜃= + =
L D e B L 2 L 2 L 2
e
∆

2 2
𝐿 2/2 Total internal work done by two diagonal yield lines, 𝑊𝑖 :
C 4Δ
𝑾𝒊 = ∑𝑚𝜃𝑛 𝐿𝑦 = 2 𝑚 L 2 = 𝟖𝒎𝜟
d L 2
c a
L
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If collapse load is 𝒘𝒖 per unit area, external work done by Equating external work done to internal work done:
one triangular segment = load x deflection
𝑊𝑒 = 𝑊𝑖
Here the load on the triangular area is:
1 𝑤𝑢 𝐿2 𝑤𝑢 𝐿2 𝛥
𝑊𝑢 = 𝑤𝑢 ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑤𝑢 ∗ 0.5𝐿 𝐿 = = 8𝑚𝛥
2 4 3
The average deflection of a triangular segment is Δ/3.
As ‘Δ’ appears on both sides of the equation deflection
The resultant of the UDL will pass through the centroid the
can also assumed as unity.
triangular area.
Deflection at the centroid of triangular area = Δ/3 8𝑚Δ 24𝑚 𝑤𝑢 𝐿2
𝑤𝑢 = 3 = 2 or 𝑚=
Therefore External work done by four such segments will 𝐿2 Δ 𝐿 24
be;
𝑤𝑢 𝐿2 Δ 𝒘𝒖 𝑳𝟐 𝜟
𝑾𝒆 = ∑𝑊𝑢 Δ = 4 =
4 3 𝟑
49 50

Example 3.4: Yield Line Analysis-Square Slab-Fixed all sides Solution:

The Fixed supported on each side of the square will
Determine the collapse load of the Square slab below give four negative yield lines having length 𝐿𝑦 = 𝐿
fixed on all edges (isotropically reinforced):

L
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Negative yield line formed at the supports. External work done is the same as the previous
problem, 𝑊𝑒 :
Length of each negative yield lines, 𝐿𝑦 = L
𝑤𝑢 𝐿2 Δ 𝒘𝒖 𝑳𝟐 𝜟
Rotation of negative yield line = 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 = Δ/(L/2) 𝑾𝒆 = ∑𝑊𝑢 Δ = 4 =
4 3 𝟑
Internal work done by negative yield lines, 𝑊𝑖−:
Equating external work done to internal work done:
Δ
𝑊𝑖− = ∑𝑚𝜃𝑛 𝐿𝑦 = 4 𝑚 𝐿 = 8𝑚𝛥
𝐿 𝑊𝑒 = 𝑊𝑖
2
𝑤𝑢 𝐿2 𝛥
Internal work done by positive yield lines is found in the = 16𝑚𝛥
3
previous problem, 𝑊𝑖+ = 8𝑚𝛥
16𝑚Δ 48𝑚 𝑤𝑢 𝐿2
Total internal work done, 𝑊𝑖 : 𝑤𝑢 = 3 = 2 or 𝑚=
𝐿2 Δ 𝐿 48
𝑾𝒊 = 𝑊𝑖+ + 𝑊𝑖− = 8𝑚𝛥 + 8𝑚𝛥 = 𝟏𝟔𝒎𝜟
53 54

Example 3.5: Equilateral triangle slab isotropicaly reinforced Solution:

Since it is Equilateral triangle angle CAB will be 60°
Determine the collapse load of the Equilateral
triangle slab below w/c is isotropicaly reinforced. and angle OAB will be 30°.

l
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Three triangular segments are formed and named 1, 2 Equating external work done to internal work done:
and 3.
𝑊𝑒 = 𝑊𝑖
Distance of O from AB = L / 2 3 2
𝑤𝑢 𝐿 𝛥
For segment 1: = 2 3𝑚𝛥
Internal work done, 𝑊𝑖 : 12 3
Δ For all 3 segments;
𝑾𝒊 = 𝑚𝜃𝑛 𝐿𝑦 = 𝑚 𝐿 = 𝟐 𝟑𝒎𝜟
𝐿
𝑤𝑢 𝐿2 𝛥
2 3 3 = 3 2 3𝑚𝛥
Internal work done, 𝑊𝑒 : 12 3
1 L Δ 𝒘𝒖 𝑳𝟐 𝜟 2 3𝑚𝛥 72𝑚 𝑤𝑢 𝐿2
𝑾𝒆 = 𝑊𝑢 Δ = (𝑤𝑢 ) L ∗ = 𝑤𝑢 = 12 3 = or 𝑚=
2 2 3 3 𝟏𝟐 𝟑 𝐿2 𝛥 𝐿2 72

57 58

Example 3.6: Polygonal Slabs Solution:

Lets assume the positive yield lines will propagate from
Determine the collapse load of the Polygonal slab each corner of the polygon to the center of the polygon
below (isotropic fixed along its boundaries): where maximum deflection or deformation is occurred.

A A

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Perpendicular distance of each side from center = r Equating external work done to internal work done:
Length of each side = L 𝑊𝑒 = 𝑊𝑖
Negative yield line will be formed along the boundaries. 𝐿 2
From any section ABO, 𝑤𝑢 𝐿𝛥 𝑟2 − 2 𝛥
= 𝑚𝑢+ + 𝑚𝑢− 𝐿
𝛥 6 𝑟
𝑾𝒊 = 𝑚𝑛 𝜃𝑛 𝐿𝑦 = 𝑚𝑢+ + 𝑚𝑢− 𝐿 + −
𝑟 1 𝑚𝑢 + 𝑚𝑢
𝑤𝑢 = 6 𝒐𝒓
𝑟 𝐿 2
2
𝐿 𝛥 𝑟2 − 2
𝑾𝒆 = 𝑊𝑢 Δ = 𝑤𝑢 0.5 𝐿 𝑟2 − ∗
2 3 𝐿 2
𝑤𝑢 𝑟2 − 2 ∗𝑟
2
𝐿 ( 𝑚𝑢+ +𝑚𝑢− ) =
𝑤𝑢 𝐿𝛥 𝑟2 − 2 6
𝑊𝑒 =
6
61 62

Example 3.7: Polar(Circular) Slabs Solution:

We can divide the circular slab into any reasonable no
Determine the collapse load of the circular slab below of segments. For this specific example lets divide the
(isotropic fixed along its boundaries): circular slab into 10 equal segments.

A o

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Perpendicular distance of each arc from center = r

Equating external work done to internal work done:
Length of each arc = L
𝑊𝑒 = 𝑊𝑖
For a circular slab there can be innumerable numbers of
𝑤𝑢 𝐿𝑟𝛥 𝛥
positive yield lines such that numbers of sides ‘n’ will tend = 𝑚𝑢+ + 𝑚𝑢− 𝑳
to be infinity and ‘L’ will tend to be zero. However ‘r’ will 6 𝑟
be the radius of the circle , and for any section ABO; 𝑚𝑢+ + 𝑚𝑢− 𝑤𝑢 𝑟 2
𝑤𝑢 = 6 𝒐𝒓 ( 𝑚𝑢+ +𝑚𝑢− ) =
Internal work done, 𝑊𝑖 : 𝑟2 6
𝜟
𝑾𝒊 = 𝑚𝑛 𝜃𝑛 𝐿𝑦 = 𝒎+ −
𝒖 + 𝒎𝒖 𝑳 Note: The above calculations are for one single segment
𝒓 and finally must be multiplied by total no of segments.
External work done, 𝑊𝑒 :
𝛥 𝒘𝒖 𝑳𝒓𝜟
𝑾𝒆 = 𝑊𝑢 Δ = 𝑤𝑢 0.5 𝐿 𝑟 ∗ =
3 𝟔

65 66

Example 3.8: Rectangular slab simply supported Solution:

This is a more general rectangular slab problem and its
Determine the collapse load of the rectangular slab very important to know the location of yield lines
below w/c is simply supported on all sides (vales of 𝜶 and 𝜷)
(orthotropically reinforced):

𝐿2

𝐿1
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Let 𝒎𝒖𝒙 = 𝒎 and 𝒎𝒖𝒚 = 𝝁𝒎

In general, internal work done, 𝑊𝑖 = ∑𝑚𝑛 𝜃𝑛 𝐿𝑦 , can be
represented as: For segment AED;
𝑊𝑖 = ∑𝑚𝑛 𝜃𝑛 𝐿𝑦
∑𝑚𝑛 𝜃𝑛 𝐿𝑦 = ∑ 𝑚𝑥 𝜃𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 𝜃𝑦 𝑦
𝛥
𝑊𝑖 = ∑ 𝑚𝑥 𝜃𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 𝜃𝑦 𝑦 = 0 + 𝜇𝑚 𝛼𝐿
Where 𝒎𝒙 and 𝒎𝒚 are ultimate moment per unit length 𝛽𝐿
in X and Y directions. 𝑊𝑖 = 𝝁𝒎𝛥𝛼/𝛽
Where; For segment ABFE;
𝑥 = projected length of the yield line on x−axis 𝑊𝑖 = ∑𝑚𝑛 𝜃𝑛 𝐿𝑦
y = projected length of the yield line on y−axis 𝛥
𝑊𝑖 = ∑ 𝑚𝑥 𝜃𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 𝜃𝑦 𝑦 = 𝑚 𝐿 +0
𝛼𝐿
𝜃𝑥 = rotation of the yield line about x−axis 2
𝜃𝑦 = rotation of the yield line about y−axis 𝑊𝑖 = 𝟐𝒎𝛥/𝛼
69 70

For segment BCF; Finally, summing up all 𝑚𝜃𝑛 𝐿𝑦 for all segments: Internal work
𝑊𝑖 = ∑𝑚𝑛 𝜃𝑛 𝐿𝑦 done, 𝑊𝑖 will be:
𝜇𝑚𝛥𝛼 2𝑚𝛥 𝝁𝒎𝜶 𝟐𝒎
𝛥 𝑾𝒊 = 2 +2 = 𝟐𝜟 +
𝑊𝑖 = ∑ 𝑚𝑥 𝜃𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 𝜃𝑦 𝑦 = 0 + 𝜇𝑚 𝛼𝐿 𝛽 𝛼 𝜷 𝜶
𝛽𝐿
Work done by external forces:
𝑊𝑖 = 𝝁𝒎𝛥𝛼/𝛽
For segments AED and BCF;
For segment CDEF; 1 𝛥 𝑤𝑢 𝛼𝛽𝐿2 𝛥
𝑊𝑖 = ∑𝑚𝑛 𝜃𝑛 𝐿𝑦 𝑊𝑒 = 𝑊𝑢 𝛥 = (𝑤𝑢 ) 𝛼𝐿 𝛽𝐿 ∗ =
2 3 6
𝛥
𝑊𝑖 = ∑ 𝑚𝑥 𝜃𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 𝜃𝑦 𝑦 = 𝑚 𝐿 +0 For segments ABEF and CDEF;
𝛼𝐿
2 𝑊𝑒 = 𝑊𝑢 𝛥
𝑊𝑖 = 𝟐𝒎𝛥/𝛼 1 𝛼𝐿 𝛥 𝛼𝐿 𝛥
𝑊𝑒 = 2 𝑊𝑢 𝛽𝐿 + 𝑊𝑢 1 − 2𝛽 𝐿
2 2 3 2 2
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Equating external work done to internal work done:

𝛼𝛽𝐿2 𝛥 𝛼𝛥𝐿2 2𝛽𝛼𝛥𝐿2
𝑊𝑒 = 𝑊𝑢 + 𝑊𝑢 − 𝑊𝑢 𝑊𝑒 = 𝑊𝑖
6 4 4
𝛽 1 𝛽 3 − 4𝛽 3 − 2𝛽 𝜇𝑚𝛼 2𝑚
𝑊𝑒 = 𝑊𝑢 𝛼𝛥𝐿2 + − = 𝑊𝑢 𝛼𝛥𝐿2 𝑤𝑢 𝛼𝛥𝐿2 = 2𝛥 +
6 4 2 12 6 𝛽 𝛼
𝜇𝑚𝛼 2𝑚 𝜇𝑚𝛼 2𝑚
Finally, summing up all 𝑊𝑢 𝛥 for all segments: 2𝛥 + 𝛼 12 + 𝛼
𝛽 𝛽
𝑤𝑢 = = 2
𝑊𝑒 = 𝑊𝑢 𝛥 2 3 − 2𝛽 𝛼𝐿 3 − 2𝛽
𝛼𝛥𝐿 6
𝑤𝑢 𝛼𝛽𝐿2 𝛥 3 − 4𝛽
𝑊𝑒 = 2 + 𝑊𝑢 𝛼𝛥𝐿2 12𝑚 𝜇𝛼 2 + 2𝛽 12𝑚 𝜇𝛼 2 + 2𝛽
6 12 𝑤𝑢 = = 𝑜𝑟
𝛽𝛼 2 𝐿2 3 − 2𝛽 𝛼 2 𝐿2 3𝛽 − 2𝛽 2
𝛽 3 − 4𝛽 𝟑 − 𝟐𝜷
𝑾𝒆 = 𝑤𝑢 𝛼𝛥𝐿2 + = 𝒘𝒖 𝜶𝜟𝑳𝟐 𝒘𝒖 𝜶𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟑𝜷 − 𝟐𝜷𝟐
3 6 𝟔 𝒎= … … … … … … … … . (3)
𝟏𝟐 𝝁𝜶𝟐 + 𝟐𝜷
73 74

In this equation 𝜷 is variable; Example 3.9: Rectangular slab simply supported

𝛽 can be determined from the maximum value of 𝒎 by
differentiation; 𝐝𝐦/𝐝𝜷 = 0 Finding ultimate load for isotropically square slab
supported on columns at the corners and uniformly
𝜷 is then found as:
1 1 loaded.
𝛽= 𝜇2 𝛼 4 + 3𝜇𝛼 2 2 − 𝜇𝛼 2 𝑎
2 𝐿
Substituting this value in equation (3) and simplifying 𝑏
we get:
𝑤𝑢 𝐿2 𝛼 2 1 1 2
𝑚= 3 + 𝜇𝛼 2 2 − 𝛼 𝜇 2
24
𝐿
For an isotropically reinforced rectangular slab, 𝜇 = 1
2
𝑤𝑢 𝐿2 𝛼 2 1
𝑚= 3 + 𝛼2 2 − 𝛼 𝑑 𝑐
24
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Solution:
Remember here that the slab is directly supported on Yield line starts from e and proceeds towards center of
the edges. AB, BC, CD, & DA are axis of rotation. Slab
columns which means that sides ab, ad, bc and dc will element P rotates about AB.
have positive yield lines too.
Unit displacement is given to ‘e’ . points ‘g’, ‘h’, ‘i’ and ‘j’
deflect by ½.

Internal work done (𝑾𝒊 ) by yield lines (four yield lines);

𝑊𝑖 = ∑𝑚𝑛 𝜃𝑛 𝐿𝑦
1 1
𝐿 𝐿
𝑾𝒊 = 4 𝑚 ∗ 2 ∗ +4 𝑚∗ 2 ∗ = 𝟒𝒎
𝐿 2 𝐿 2
2 2

77 78

External work done (𝑊𝑒 ):

𝐿 𝐿 1 𝒘𝒖 𝑳𝟐
𝑾𝒆 = 𝑊𝑢 𝛥 = 4 𝑤𝑢 ∗ =
2 2 2 𝟐

Equating external work done to internal work done:

𝑊𝑒 = 𝑊𝑖 Assignments #3:
𝑤𝑢 𝐿2
= 4𝑚
2 Two problems from [ Assignment 3.10, Assignment 3.11, Assignment 3.12]
4𝑚 8𝑚 𝑤𝑢 𝐿2 +
𝑤𝑢 = 2 2 = 2 𝒐𝒓 𝑚= Two problems from [ Assignment 3.13, Assignment 3.14, Assignment 3.15]
𝐿 𝐿 8
=
4 Problems

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Assignment 3.10: Rectangular slab simply supported Assignment 3.11: Rectangular slab simply supported

The triangular slab shown below is isotropic . (i.e it has The two way slab is simply supported on all four sides
the same moment capacity per unit breadth , in all and carries a uniformly distributed ultimate load 𝑤𝑢
dimensions). Determine the collapse load “𝑤𝑢 ”. M = 60 kN/m2. Determine the collapse load, 𝑤𝑢 , if Mx=My=40
kN-m/m. (use yield line method-virtual work method) kNm/m. (use yield line method-Virtual work method)

81 82

Assignment 3.12: Rectangular slab simply supported Assignment 3.13: Method of strips
Determine the load carrying capacity of the following A typical interior panel of a slab floor in which support is
simply supported one way slab. Materials used are C25 provided on beams on all column lines. Hence the slab
concrete and steel having 𝑓𝑦𝑘 = 460 Mpa and also can be considered fully restrained on all sides. The floor
assume class-I works. (use yield line method-Virtual must carry a live load of 6 kN/m2 with C-30 grade
Work method)
concrete and steel having 𝑓𝑦𝑘 of 420 Mpa. If the
dimensions of the slab are 7.5 m by 5m , find the
moment at all critical sections and determine the
required slab thickness and reinforcement using ‘strip
method’. Show also the reinforcement layout and bar
schedule for this slab.
(use method of strips)

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Assignment 3.14: Method of strips Assignment 3.15: Method of strips

The rectangular slab with long edge unsupported and A rectangular slab ,5m x 8m with fixed supports at all
remaining three fixed edges has dimensions of 3.65 m x the four sides has a central opening of 1.2m x 2.4 m.
5.8 m and is going to carry a uniformly distributed Slab thickness is calculated to be of 200mm. The slab is
service load of 6 kN/m2. Consider concrete grade to be to carry a uniformly distributed factored load of 15
used as C-30 and steel to be used has 𝑓𝑦𝑘 = 420 Mpa. kN/m2 including its self weight. Device an appropriate
Select an appropriate slab thickness , determine all system of strong bands to reinforce the opening and
factored moments in the slab, and select reinforcing bars determine moments to be resisted at all critical
and spacing for the slab. Show also the reinforcement sections of the slab . Materials used include: concrete
layout and bar schedule for this slab. C-25 and steel having 𝑓𝑦𝑘 = 300 Mpa class-I works.
(use method of strips) Show also the reinforcement layout and bar schedule
for this slab.
(use method of strips)

85 86

Thank You!

?
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