2.
3 Formulas (Continued)
(a) Write and construct equations (which should be balanced), including ionic
equations (which should not include spectator ions):
Balanced equations ensure the same number of atoms for each element on both sides
of the reaction. This includes balancing the charge in ionic equations, where ions
in a solution are shown explicitly.
Ionic equations omit spectator ions, which are ions that do not participate in the
reaction. For example, in the reaction between hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium
𝐻
hydroxide (NaOH), the full ionic equation is:
𝑎
(
𝑞
)
𝐶
+
𝑙
−
𝑎
(
𝑞
)
𝑁
+
𝑎
+
𝑎
(
𝑞
)
𝑂
+
𝐻
−
𝑎
(
𝑞
)
𝑁
→
𝑎
+
𝑎
(
𝑞
)
𝐶
+
𝑙
−
𝑎
(
𝑞
)
𝐻
+
𝑂
2
𝑙
(
)
H
+
(aq)+Cl
−
(aq)+Na
+
(aq)+OH
−
(aq)→Na
+
(aq)+Cl
−
(aq)+H
2
O(l)
𝑁
The spectator ions
𝑎
+
Na
+
𝐶
and
𝑙
−
Cl
−
𝐻
are omitted, leaving:
𝑎
(
𝑞
)
𝑂
+
𝐻
−
𝑎
(
𝑞
)
𝐻
→
𝑂
2
𝑙
(
)
H
+
(aq)+OH
−
(aq)→H
2
O(l)
(b) Use appropriate state symbols in equations:
The state symbols indicate the physical state of each substance in a reaction:
(s): solid
(l): liquid
(g): gas
(aq): aqueous (dissolved in water)
Define and use the terms empirical and molecular formula:
Empirical formula: The simplest whole-number ratio of atoms of each element in a
𝐻
compound. For example, the empirical formula of hydrogen peroxide is
𝑂
HO.
Molecular formula: The actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule of the
𝐻
compound. For hydrogen peroxide, the molecular formula is
𝑂
2
2
H
2
O
2
.
Understand and use the terms anhydrous, hydrated, and water of crystallization:
Anhydrous: A substance that contains no water molecules.
Hydrated: A substance that includes water molecules within its structure.
Water of crystallization: Water molecules that are part of the crystal structure of
a compound. For example, in copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate (CuSO₄·5H₂O), the five
water molecules are part of the crystal.
Calculate empirical and molecular formulas using given data:
Empirical and molecular formulas can be calculated based on mass data from a
chemical compound. For example, by finding the mass or percentage composition of
each element, you can determine the ratio of atoms and the molecular formula if the
molar mass is known.
2.4 Reacting Masses
Perform calculations including use of the mole concept, involving:
(a) Reacting masses (from formulas and equations), including percentage yield
calculations:
Reacting masses involve calculating the mass of reactants and products based on the
stoichiometric ratios in a balanced equation.
Percentage yield is calculated using the formula:
Percentage yield
=
(
actual yield
theoretical yield
)
×
100
Percentage yield=(
theoretical yield
actual yield
)×100
(b) Volumes of gases (e.g., in the burning of hydrocarbons):
The volume of gases involved in reactions can be calculated using the ideal gas law
or the molar volume at standard temperature and pressure (STP), where one mole of
gas occupies 22.4 liters at STP.
(c) Volumes and concentrations of solutions:
Calculating the volume and concentration of a solution in mol/dm³ using the
relationship:
Moles
=
Concentration
×
Volume
Moles=Concentration×Volume
This helps in determining the amount of a substance present in a given volume of
solution.
(d) Limiting reagent and excess reagent:
The limiting reagent is the reactant that is completely consumed in the reaction,
limiting the amount of product formed.
The excess reagent is the reactant that remains after the reaction is complete. The
calculations typically involve determining which reactant will run out first.
(e) Deduce stoichiometric relationships from calculations such as those in
2.4.1(a)-(d):
Stoichiometry involves using the coefficients in a balanced chemical equation to
relate the amounts of reactants and products. For example, if 2 moles of hydrogen
react with 1 mole of oxygen to produce 2 moles of water, this gives the
stoichiometric relationship between reactants and products.
These points cover calculations and problem-solving skills that are essential for
understanding and applying stoichiometry in chemistry.
If you'd like further explanations on any specific point, feel free to ask!