Lecture 2

Maxwell’s Equations,
Differential Operator Form

Maxwell’s equations were originally written in integral forms as has been shown in the previous
lecture. Integral forms have nice physical meaning and can be easily related to experimental
measurements. However, the differential operator forms1 can be easily converted to differential
equations or partial differential equations where a whole sleuth of mathematical methods and
numerical methods can be deployed. Therefore, it is prudent to derive the differential operator
form of Maxwell’s equations.

2.1 Gauss’s Divergence Theorem

The divergence theorem is one of the most important theorems in vector calculus [31–34].
First, we will need to prove Gauss’s divergence theorem, namely, that:
 
dV ∇ · D = D · dS (2.1.1)
V S

In the above, ∇ · D is defined as


D · dS
∆S
∇ · D = lim (2.1.2)
∆V →0 ∆V
The above implies that the divergence of the electric flux D, or ∇·D is given by first computing
the flux coming (or oozing) out of a small volume ∆V surrounded by a small surface ∆S and
taking their ratio as shown on the right-hand side. As shall be shown, the ratio has a limit
and eventually, we will find an expression for it. We know that if ∆V ≈ 0 or small, then the
1 We caution ourselves not to use the term “differential forms” which has a different meaning used in

differential geometry for another form of Maxwell’s equations.

17
18 Electromagnetic Field Theory

above,


∆V ∇ · D ≈ D · dS (2.1.3)
∆S

First, we assume that a volume V has been discretized2 into a sum of small cuboids, where
the i-th cuboid has a volume of ∆Vi as shown in Figure 2.1. Then

N
X
V ≈ ∆Vi (2.1.4)
i=1

Figure 2.1: The discretization of a volume V into a sum of small volumes ∆Vi each of which
is a small cuboid. Stair-casing error occurs near the boundary of the volume V but the error
diminishes as ∆Vi → 0.

2 Other terms used are “tesselated”, “meshed”, or “gridded”.

Maxwell’s Equations, Differential Operator Form 19

Figure 2.2: Fluxes from adjacent cuboids cancel each other leaving only the fluxes at the
boundary that remain uncancelled. Please imagine that there is a third dimension of the
cuboids in this picture where it comes out of the paper.

Then from (2.1.2),


∆Vi ∇ · Di ≈ Di · dSi (2.1.5)
∆Si

By summing the above over all the cuboids, or over i, one gets
X X 
∆Vi ∇ · Di ≈ Di · dSi ≈ D · dS (2.1.6)
i i ∆Si S

It is easily seen that the fluxes out of the inner surfaces of the cuboids cancel each other,
leaving only fluxes flowing out of the cuboids at the edge of the volume V as explained in
Figure 2.2. The right-hand side of the above equation (2.1.6) becomes a surface integral
over the surface S except for the stair-casing approximation (see Figure 2.1). However, this
approximation becomes increasingly good as ∆Vi → 0. Moreover, the left-hand side becomes
a volume integral, and we have
 
dV∇ · D = D · dS (2.1.7)
V S

The above is Gauss’s divergence theorem.

2.1.1 Some Details

Next, we will derive the details of the definition embodied in (2.1.2). To this end, we evaluate
the numerator of the right-hand side carefully, in accordance to Figure 2.3.
20 Electromagnetic Field Theory

Figure 2.3: Figure to illustrate the calculation of fluxes from a small cuboid where a corner
of the cuboid is located at (x0 , y0 , z0 ). There is a third z dimension of the cuboid not shown,
and coming out of the paper. Hence, this cuboid, unlike that shown in the figure, has six
faces.

Accounting for the fluxes going through all the six faces, assigning the appropriate signs
in accordance with the fluxes leaving and entering the cuboid, one arrives at

D · dS ≈ −Dx (x0 , y0 , z0 )∆y∆z + Dx (x0 + ∆x, y0 , z0 )∆y∆z
∆S
−Dy (x0 , y0 , z0 )∆x∆z + Dy (x0 , y0 + ∆y, z0 )∆x∆z
−Dz (x0 , y0 , z0 )∆x∆y + Dz (x0 , y0 , z0 + ∆z)∆x∆y (2.1.8)

Factoring out the volume of the cuboid ∆V = ∆x∆y∆z in the above, one gets

D · dS ≈ ∆V {[Dx (x0 + ∆x, . . .) − Dx (x0 , . . .)] /∆x
∆S
+ [Dy (. . . , y0 + ∆y, . . .) − Dy (. . . , y0 , . . .)] /∆y
+ [Dz (. . . , z0 + ∆z) − Dz (. . . , z0 )] /∆z} (2.1.9)

Or that
D · dS ∂Dx ∂Dy ∂Dz
≈ + + (2.1.10)
∆V ∂x ∂y ∂z
In the limit when ∆V → 0, then

D · dS ∂Dx ∂Dy ∂Dz

lim = + + =∇·D (2.1.11)
∆V →0 ∆V ∂x ∂y ∂z
Maxwell’s Equations, Differential Operator Form 21

where
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ (2.1.12)
∂x ∂y ∂z
D = x̂Dx + ŷDy + ẑDz (2.1.13)

The above is the definition of the divergence operator in Cartesian coordinates. The diver-
gence operator ∇· has its complicated representations in cylindrical and spherical coordinates,
a subject that we would not delve into in this course. But they can be derived, and are best
looked up at the back of some textbooks on electromagnetics.
Consequently, one gets Gauss’s divergence theorem given by
 
dV ∇ · D = D · dS (2.1.14)
V S

2.1.2 Gauss’s Law in Differential Operator Form

By further using Gauss’s or Coulomb’s law implies that
 
D · dS = Q = dV % (2.1.15)
S

We can esplace the left-hand side of the above by (2.1.14) to arrive at

 
dV ∇ · D = dV % (2.1.16)
V V

When V → 0, we arrive at the pointwise relationship, a relationship at an arbitrary point in

space. Therefore,

∇·D=% (2.1.17)

2.1.3 Physical Meaning of Divergence Operator

The physical meaning of divergence is that if ∇·D 6= 0 at a point in space, it implies that there
are fluxes oozing or exuding from that point in space [35]. On the other hand, if ∇ · D = 0,
it implies no flux oozing out from that point in space. In other words, whatever flux that
goes into the point must come out of it. The flux is termed divergence free. Thus, ∇ · D is a
measure of how much sources or sinks exist for the flux at a point. The sum of these sources
or sinks gives the amount of flux leaving or entering the surface that surrounds the sources
or sinks.
Moreover, if one were to integrate a divergence-free flux over a volume V , and invoking
Gauss’s divergence theorem, one gets

D · dS = 0 (2.1.18)
S

In such a scenerio, whatever flux that enters the surface S must leave it. In other words, what
comes in must go out of the volume V , or that flux is conserved. This is true of incompressible
22 Electromagnetic Field Theory

fluid flow, electric flux flow in a source free region, as well as magnetic flux flow, where the
flux is conserved.

Figure 2.4: In an incompressible flux flow, flux is conserved: whatever flux that enters a
volume V must leave the volume V .

2.2 Stokes’s Theorem

The mathematical description of fluid flow was well established before the establishment of
electromagnetic theory [36]. Hence, much mathematical description of electromagnetic theory
uses the language of fluid. In mathematical notations, Stokes’s theorem is

E · dl = ∇ × E · dS (2.2.1)
C S

In the above, the contour C is a closed contour, whereas the surface S is not closed.3
First, applying Stokes’s theorem to a small surface ∆S, we define a curl operator4 ∇× at
a point to be measured as

E · dl
∆C
(∇ × E) · n̂ = lim (2.2.2)
∆S→0 ∆S

In the above, ∇ × E is a vector. Taking ∆C E · dl as a measure of the rotation of the field

E around a small loop ∆C, the ratio of this rotation to the area of the loop ∆S has a limit
when ∆S becomes infinitesimally small. This ratio is related to ∇ × E.
3 In other words, C has no boundary whereas S has boundary. A closed surface S has no boundary like

when we were proving Gauss’s divergence theorem previously.

4 Sometimes called a rotation operator.
Maxwell’s Equations, Differential Operator Form 23

Figure 2.5: In proving Stokes’s theorem, a closed contour C is assumed to enclose an open
surface S. Then the surface S is tessellated into sum of small rects as shown. Stair-casing
error vanishes in the limit when the rects are made vanishingly small.

First, the surface S enclosed by C is tessellated (also called meshed, gridded, or discretized)
into sum of small rects (rectangles) as shown in Figure 2.5. Stokes’s theorem is then applied
to one of these small rects to arrive at

Ei · dli = (∇ × Ei ) · ∆Si (2.2.3)

∆Ci

where one defines ∆Si = n̂∆S. Next, we sum the above equation over i or over all the small
rects to arrive at

X X
Ei · dli = ∇ × Ei · ∆Si (2.2.4)
i ∆Ci i

Again, on the left-hand side of the above, all the contour integrals over the small rects cancel
each other internal to S save for those on the boundary. In the limit when ∆Si → 0, the
left-hand side becomes a contour integral over the larger contour C, and the right-hand side
becomes a surface integral over S. One arrives at Stokes’s theorem, which is


E · dl = (∇ × E) · dS (2.2.5)
C S
24 Electromagnetic Field Theory

Figure 2.6: We approximate the integration over a small rect using this figure. There are four
edges to this small rect.

Next, we need to prove the details of definition (2.2.2) using Figure 2.6. Performing the
integral over the small rect, one gets

E · dl = Ex (x0 , y0 , z0 )∆x + Ey (x0 + ∆x, y0 , z0 )∆y

∆C
− Ex (x0 , y0 + ∆y, z0 )∆x − Ey (x0 , y0 , z0 )∆y

Ex (x0 , y0 , z0 ) Ex (x0 , y0 + ∆y, z0 )
= ∆x∆y −
∆y ∆y

Ey (x0 , y0 , z0 ) Ey (x0 , y0 + ∆y, z0 )
− +
∆x ∆x
(2.2.6)

We have picked the normal to the incremental surface ∆S to be ẑ in the above example,
and hence, the above gives rise to the identity that

∆S
E · dl ∂ ∂
lim = Ey − Ex = ẑ · ∇ × E (2.2.7)
∆S→0 ∆S ∂x ∂y
Picking different ∆S with different orientations and normals n̂ where |hatn = x̂ or n̂ = ŷ, one
gets
∂ ∂
Ez − Ey = x̂ · ∇ × E (2.2.8)
∂y ∂z
∂ ∂
Ex − Ez = ŷ · ∇ × E (2.2.9)
∂z ∂x
Maxwell’s Equations, Differential Operator Form 25

The above gives the x, y, and z components of ∇ × E. It is to be noted that ∇ × E is a

vector. In other words, one gets
   
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × E = x̂ Ez − Ey + ŷ Ex − Ez
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x
 
∂ ∂
+ẑ Ey − Ex (2.2.10)
∂x ∂y

where
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ (2.2.11)
∂x ∂y ∂z

2.2.1 Faraday’s Law in Differential Operator Form

Faraday’s law is experimentally motivated. Michael Faraday (1791-1867) was an extraordi-
nary experimentalist who documented this law with meticulous care. It was only decades
later that a mathematical description of this law was arrived at.
Faraday’s law in integral form is given by5

d
E · dl = − B · dS (2.2.12)
C dt S

Assuming that the surface S is not time varying, one can take the time derivative into the
integrand and write the above as

∂
E · dl = − B · dS (2.2.13)
C S ∂t

One can replace the left-hand side with the use of Stokes’ theorem to arrive at
 
∂
∇ × E · dS = − B · dS (2.2.14)
S S ∂t

The normal of the surface element dS can be pointing in an arbitrary direction, and the
surface S can be made very small. Then the integral can be removed, and one has

∂
∇×E=− B (2.2.15)
∂t
The above is Faraday’s law in differential operator form.
In the static limit, ∂B
∂t = 0, giving

∇×E=0 (2.2.16)
5 Faraday’s law is experimentally motivated. Michael Faraday (1791-1867) was an extraordinary exper-

imentalist who documented this law with meticulous care. It was only decades later that a mathematical
description of this law was arrived at.
26 Electromagnetic Field Theory

2.2.2 Physical Meaning of Curl Operator

The curl operator ∇× is a measure of the rotation or the circulation of a field at a point in
space. On the other hand, ∆C E · dl is a measure of the circulation of the field E around the
loop formed by C. Again, the curl operator has its complicated representations in other co-
ordinate systems like cylindrical or spherical coordinates, a subject that will not be discussed
in detail here.
It is to be noted that our proof of the Stokes’s theorem is for a flat open surface S, and not
for a general curved open surface. Since all curved surfaces can be tessellated into a union of
flat triangular surfaces according to the tiling theorem, the generalization of the above proof
to curved surface is straightforward. An example of such a triangulation of a curved surface
into a union of flat triangular surfaces is shown in Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7: An arbitrary curved surface can be triangulated with flat triangular patches. The
triangulation can be made arbitrarily accurate by making the patches arbitrarily small.

2.3 Maxwell’s Equations in Differential Operator Form

With the use of Gauss’ divergence theorem and Stokes’ theorem, Maxwell’s equations can be
written more elegantly in differential operator forms. They are:

∂B
∇×E=− (2.3.1)
∂t
∂D
∇×H= +J (2.3.2)
∂t
∇·D=% (2.3.3)
∇·B=0 (2.3.4)

These equations are point-wise relations as they relate the left-hand side and right-hand side
field values at a given point in space. Moreover, they are not independent of each other. For
instance, one can take the divergence of the first equation (2.3.1), making use of the vector
Maxwell’s Equations, Differential Operator Form 27

identity that ∇ · (∇ × E) = 0, one gets

∂∇ · B
− = 0 → ∇ · B = constant (2.3.5)
∂t
This constant corresponds to magnetic charges, and since they have not been experimentally
observed, one can set the constant to zero. Thus the fourth of Maxwell’s equations, (2.3.4),
follows from the first (2.3.1).
Similarly, by taking the divergence of the second equation (2.3.2), and making use of the
current continuity equation that

∂%
∇·J+ =0 (2.3.6)
∂t
one can obtain the second last equation (2.3.3). Notice that in (2.3.3), the charge density %
can be time-varying, whereas in the previous lecture, we have “derived” this equation from
Coulomb’s law using electrostatic theory.
The above logic follows if ∂/∂t 6= 0, and is not valid for static case. In other words, for
statics, the third and the fourth equations are not derivable from the first two. Hence all
four Maxwell’s equations are needed for static problems. For electrodynamic problems, only
solving the first two suffices.
Something is amiss in the above. If J is known, then solving the first two equations implies
solving for four vector unknowns, E, H, B, D, which has 12 scalar unknowns. But there are
only two vector equations or 6 scalar equations in the first two equations. Thus one needs
more equations. These are provided by the constitutive relations that we shall discuss next.

2.4 Homework Examples

Example 1
If D = (2y 2 + z)x̂ + 4xy ŷ + xẑ, find:

1. Volume charge density ρv at (−1, 0, 3).

2. Electric flux through the cube defined by

0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1, 0 ≤ z ≤ 1.

3. Total charge enclosed by the cube.

Example 2

Suppose E = x̂3y + ŷx, calculate E · dl along a straight line in the x-y plane joining (0,0)
to (3,1).
28 Electromagnetic Field Theory

2.5 Historical Notes

There are several interesting historical notes about Maxwell.

ˆ It is to be noted that when James Clerk Maxwell first wrote his equations down, it was
in many equations and very difficult to digest [17, 37, 38]. It was Oliver Heaviside who
distilled those equations and presented them in the present form found in textbooks.
Putatively, most cannot read his treatise [37] beyond the first 50 pages [39].
ˆ Maxwell wrote many poems in his short lifespan (1831-1879) and they can be found
at [40].

ˆ Also, the ancestor of James Clerk Maxwell married from the Clerk family into the
Maxwell family. One of the conditions of marriage was that all the descendants of the
Clerk family would be named Clerk Maxwell. That was why Maxwell is addressed as
Professor Clerk Maxwell.