LESSON IV: DEONTOLOGY ●​ humans, they have the

ability to navigate and

DUTY AND AGENCY perceive the surroundings.
●​ moral theory that evaluates ●​ both humans and animals
actions that are done interact in and within the
because of duty is called world, reacting to external
DEONTOLOGY– comes from stimuli and the internal
the Greek word “deon” which impulses to survive and
means being necessary. thrive.
Hence, it refers to the study
of duty and obligation. RATIONAL WILL OR
●​ Immanuel Kant was the main RATIONALITY
proponent of this theory. He ●​ it is consists of the mental
was a German Enlightenment faculty to construct ideas and
philosopher who wrote thoughts that are beyond our
“Groundwork towards a immediate surroundings. This
Metaphysics of Morals” refers to the capacity for
(1785). mental abstraction, which
●​ In this work, Kant wrote that arises from the operations of
human beings have a faculty the faculty of reason.
called “rational will” which is ●​ thus, human beings have the
the capacity to act according ability to stop and think
to the principles that we about what we are doing.
determine for ourselves. Human beings can remove
themselves from the
SENTIENCE immediacy of their
●​ means that an organism has surroundings and reflect on
the ability to perceive and their actions how such
navigate its external actions affect the world.
environment.
●​ both animals and humans RATIONAL CAPACITY OF
are sentient but animals HUMAN BEINGS
don’t have rational will like
humans. Dogs are carabaos ●​ FIRST CONSTRUCTION
are sentient organisms, we consists in how we imagine
don’t see them bumping into things can be. we can
trees and walls since just like imagine different and better
world and create mental
 images of how we interact impulses. This capacity is
with other people in that called AGENCY or the ability
world. to act based on her
intentions and mental states.
●​ SECOND CONSTRUCTION,
on the other hand, is our AUTONOMY VS. HETERONOMY
ability to enact and make ●​ Kant claims that the property
real those mental images. of rational will is
This ability to enact thoughts AUTONOMY– iis the
is the basis for rational will. opposite of heteronomy. it
Rational will, therefore, comes from Greek words
refers to the faculty to “autos” which means self and
intervene in the world, to act “nomos” which means laws.
in a manner that is Hence, autonomy means
consistent with our reason. self-law or self-legislating.
●​ HETERONOMY on the other
IMMEDIACY VS. AGENCY hand, comes from the Greek
●​ animals only act according to words, “heteros” which
impulses, base don their means other and “nomos”
natural instincts. Thus, means law. Thus,
animals act with heteronomy means other
IMMEDIACY– from Latin : I law.
and medius, or “no middle” ●​ a scenario wherein children
with nothing that intervenes don’t like to brush their teeth
between the impulse and the but parents know that
action. Therefore, animals do children should in order to
not and cannot deliberate on maintain oral hygiene. So,
their actions. They don’t act parents try to find ways to
but only react. To their get their small children brush
external surroundings. their teeth before going to
●​ on the other hand, human bed using variety of
beings have the ability to incentives or threats of
stop and evaluate and think undesirable consequences.
about what we are doing. We (By incentivizing that they
have the capacity to act will play their computer
based on reasons and not games after brushing teeth)
merely to mindlessly react to ●​ this is an example of
the environment and base heteronomy in nature since
 the parents are the one who ●​ SUBJECT comes from the
legislate the principle that Latin words sub (under) and
children should brush their jacere (to throw).
teeth. ●​ when you say “subject to the
●​ a scenario wherein the law”, there is an imposing
children who used to be authority figure (
reminded by their parents to Heteronomous since there is
brush their teeth are now an authority figure) that uses
twenty years old. Suppose his power to control the
the brush their teeth every subject into complying with
night before going to bed his will. Therefore the will
without the advise of their should always be subject to
parents. The children the law.
reflected on the idea that ●​ “The will is thus not only
they need to brush their subject to the law, but it is
teeth for their oral hygiene also subject to the law in
and therefore they impose such a way that it gives the
themselves to brush their law to itself (self-legislating)
teeth before going to bed. and primarily just in this way
●​ this therefore refer to the that the will can be
autonomous act of the considered the author of the
individuals since no one law under which it is
imposed to them to brush subject.”
their teeth but themselves. ●​ the will must also give the
law to itself. (Dito papasok
WILL yong autonomy.) Meaning,
●​ “The will is thus not only the will is the authority figure
subject to the law, but it is giving the law to itself. This
also subject to the law in means that the will also
such a way that it gives the dictates someone’s action.
law to itself (self-legislating)
and primarily just in this way HETERONOMY VS. AUTONOMY
that the will can be
●​ the distinguishing point is the
considered the author of the
locus of the authorship of the
law under which it is
law. When you say
subject.”
authorship, who is the author
or source of the law. May it
be internal or external.
 ●​ if the author of the law is reason to intervene in
external, therefore the will of sensible impulses.
an individual is subject to an ●​ RATIONALITY described as
external authority, it is the mental capacity to
therefore heteronomous will. construct ideas and thoughts
●​ if the will itself (internal) is that are beyond one’s
imposing the law unto self, immediate surrounding.
then it is autonomous. Therefore, Kant describes
that human choice can be
RATIONAL WILL (PURE affected and but determined
REASON) VS. ANIMAL IMPULSE by sensible impulses. (You
(SENSIBLE IMPULSE) found a food that are not
yours and you are already
●​ animal choice or arbitrum
hungry, since you will not act
brutum refers to the set of
according to your sensible
actions that are caused by
impulse, you may think that
sensible impulse. Sensible
this food is not mine so I
impulses are usually bodily
should not eat this. There is
and emotional. These are
a pure reason or rationality
bodily instincts and desires
beyond your action.)
such as the urge to eat, drink
and sleep, or have sexual UNIVERSALIZABILITY
intercourse. This also
includes sentiments and 2 KINDS OF MORAL THEORY
emtions. Meaning, acting
without reason but due to 1.​ SUBSTANTIVE MORAL
sensible impulses are mere THEORY
animal choice. ●​ immediately promulgates the
●​ examples: a cat who ate the specific actions that comprise
food on the table. The cat dis that theory. It identifies the
not think that it not right to particular duties in a
eat the food on the table but straightforward manner that
merely followed his sensible the adherents of the theory
impulse or the desire to eat. must follow. Example of this
●​ FREE CHOICE, on the other is the set of Ten
hand, refers to the choice or Commandments of the
action that is determined by Judeo-Christian tradition
pure reason. Human freedom since these are articulated
resides in the capacity of mostly in the form of
 straightforward moral the rightness or wrongness
command. “Honor your of an action.
father.” , “Thou shall not kill”.
• this categorical imperative
provided four key elements such as
2.​ FORMAL MORAL THEORY action, maxim, will and universal
●​ it does not supply the rules law.
or commands right away. It
only provides the ‘form” or
“framework” of the moral
CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
theory. It means that this
only supply a procedure and ●​ Kant states that we must
the criteria for determining formulate an action as a
the rules and moral maxim, which he defines as
commands. It will not give the “subjective principle of
the exact list of rules or action”. Meaning, a maxim
commands, instead it will consists of a rule that we live
give a set of instructions on by in our day-to-day lives,
how to make a list of duties but it does not have the
or moral commands. status of a law that binds us
●​ example: a cookbook, to act in a certain way.
wherein you are given (Meaning, this maxim is only
instructions on how to cooks a formal moral theory since it
certain dish but not given the does not provide an exact or
actual food, you may add a specific rules.)
slight variation to the ●​ Maxims are akin to the
ingredients. “standard operating
procedures” SOPs in our
“ACT ONLY ACCORDING TO SUCH A
lives. People act according to
MAXIM, BY WHICH YOU CAN AT
a variety of maxims even if
ONCE WILL THAT IT BECAME A
we are not aware of them.
UNIVERSAL LAW.” – Kant, 1785

●​ a categorical imperative
written by Kant in the MAXIM MUST BE
“Grundlegung zur Metaphysik UNIVERSALIZABLE
der Sitten” which provides a
procedural way of identifying ●​ Kant claims that people
ought to act according to the
 maxim “by which you can at ●​ if borrowing money without
once will that it become a intending to pay were
universal law”. It means that everyone’s obligation to pay
maxim must be (universalized maxim), what
universalizable. This means would happen to the status
nothing other than the of the universalized maxim?
imagining a world in which The purpose of borrowing
the maxim or personal rule money would be defeated
that an individual live by because no one will lend
were adopted by everyone as money.
their own maxim. ●​ in a world where it is an
●​ Kant therefore telling us to obligation to borrow money
conceive of the maxim as if it without paying back, all
obligated everyone to lenders would know that they
comply. (That what’s will not be paid and they will
universalizable means) refuse to lend money. As a
UNIVERSALIZED MAXIM, it
would self-destruct because
it becomes impossible.
FALSE PROMISING
●​ therefore, false promising
●​ Kant explained this general would not be possible to
category of acts by giving an become a universalized
example of a man who needs maxim.
money but has no immediate
access to obtain it except by
borrowing it from a friend. REJECTED UNIVERSALIZE
This man knows that he will MAXIM
not be able to pay the money
back, but if he says he ●​ in the current maxim of
cannot return the money, borrowing money without the
then no money will be lent to intention to pay back, the
him. meaning of the act “to
●​ if we are going to formulate borrow” implies taking and
this act as a maxim, “When I using something with the
am need of money, I shall intent to return it. In the
borrow it even when I know I maxim, the claim is to
cannot pay back.” borrow money even when
you know you cannot pay it
 back. It contradicts the LESSON V: VIRTUE ETHICS
meaning of “to borrow”.
Therefore, the logical
plausibility of the
VIRTUE ETHICS
universalized maxim is at
stake since it contradicts the ●​ an ethical framework that is
very meaning of the word “to concerned with
borrow”. understanding the good as a
●​ thus, Kant discovers two matter of developing the
ways by which he rejects virtuous character of a
maxim. These are either (1) person.
self-contradictory (2) the act ●​ it focuses on the formation of
and its purpose become one's character brought
impossible. about by determining and
doing virtuous acts.
●​ thr two major thinkers of this
RATIONAL PERMISSIBILITY theory are Ancient Greek
Plato and Aristotle.
●​ it refers to the intrinsic
quality of an action that is
objectively and necessarily
ARISTOTLE (384 - 322 BCE)
rational.
●​ universalized maxims that ●​ his book entitled
are rejected are shown to be "Nicomachean Ethics" was
impermissible, irrational and the first comprehensive and
immoral. (The assumed programmatic study of virtue
universal maxim of ethics.
borrowing money without an ●​ for him, the real is found
intention to pay) within our everyday
●​ therefore, borrowing money encounter with objects in the
without intending to pay, as a world. What makes nature
kind of false promise, is intelligible is its character of
objectively and necessarily having both form and matter.
wrong, insofar as it Therefore the truth and the
encounters a good cannot exist apart from
self-contradiction and logical the object and are not
impossibility when it is independent of or
universalized as a maxim. experience. Meaning,
 according to him, the truth action manifests a good that
and the good can be attained she wants.
through experience. ●​ every pursuit of a person
●​ his theory of the good is hopes to achieve a good or
engaging in our day-to-day happiness. For example, one
living. person pursues a chosen
career aiming for a good
hzand that is to provide a
better future for his family.
PLATO
Meaning, a person would not
●​ Plato had a different do anything that is not
appreciation of reality and beneficial to him/her. For
nature with compare to Aristotle, the good is
Aristotle. For Plato, the real considered to be the telos or
is outside the realm of any purpose for which all acts
human sensory experience seek to achieve.
but can somehow be grasped ●​ with the condition that there
by one's intellect. The truth is a hierarchy of "telos",
and the good are in the hierarchy of "telos" means
sphere of forms or ideas there is a different level of
transcending daily human purpose and there is the
condition. Meaning the truth so-called highest purpose,
and good can be obtained which is the ultimate good of
not through experience but a human being.
through human's intellect. ●​ according to Aristotle, there
are general criteria in order
for one to recognize the
highest good of a man. First,
HAPPINESS AND ULTIMATE
the highest good of a person
PURPOSE
must be final. As a final end,
●​ Aristotle discussed that every it is no longer utilized for the
act that a person does is sake of arriving at a much
directed toward a particular higher end. Second, the
purpose, aim or what the ultimate telos of a person
Greeks called telos. For must be self-sufficient.
Aristotle, there is always a Satisfaction in life arrives
purpose why one does once this highest good is
something and a person's attained.
●​ applying the general criteria having achieved the
of Aristotle, the purpose of condition .
remembering the lessons in
the course when one writes
down is not the final end.
HOW DOES A PERSON ARRIVE
There must be a much a
AT HER HIGHEST GOOD?
higher goal behind doing it
which is to pass the course. •​ according to Aristotle, if an
With regards to self- individual's action can achieve the
sufficient, there is always highest good, then one must
satisfaction after achieving investigate how she functions
the highest goal or after which enables her to achieve her
passing the course. ultimate purpose . If she performs
●​ according to Aristotle, older her function well, then she is
individuals would agree that capable of arriving at happiness.
the highest purpose and the
ultimate good of man is • in short, man must always
happiness, or for the Greeks, performs his/her function to
eudaimonia. Therefore, achieve his/her ultimate end/telos
happiness seems to fit the or highest good which is happiness.
1st criterion of being the final
end of a human being.
●​ for example, having wealth, HOW DOES A HUMAN BEING
power and pleasures are FUNCTION WHICH SETS HER
chosen for the sake of APART FROM THE REST?
happiness. By having wealth,
it would probably lead to ●​ for Aristotle, what defines
attaining honor and human beings is her function
pleasures but all of these are or activity of reason. This
ultimately for the sake of the function makes her different
final end which is happiness. from the rest of the beings.
No other superior end is still An action to be considered as
being desired for. truly human must be an act
●​ for Aristotle, happiness is the that is always in accordance
only self-sufficient aim that to reason. The function of a
one can aspire for. No human being is to act
amount of wealth and power following the dictates of her
can be more fulfilling than reason.
 ●​ what distinguishes a good One learns and gains wisdom
person from other human by being taught or by
beings is her rational activity learning.
that is performed well or ●​ There are two ways to attain
excellently. The local saying intellectual excellence:
"Madaling maging tao, ●​ 1. PHILOSOPHIC WISDOM -
mahirap magpakatao." can deals with attaining
be an example application of knowledge about the
Aristotle's thought. Any fundamental principles and
human being can perform truths that govern the
the activity of reason; thus universe. It helps to
being human is achievable. understand the meaning of
life.
●​ 2. PRACTICAL WISDOM - is
an excellence in knowing the
VIRTUE AS EXCELLENCE
right conduct in carrying out
●​ achieving the highest a particular act. It can
purpose of a human person provides us the wisdom on
concerns the ability to how to behave in our daily
function according to reason lives.
and to perform an activity ●​ rational faculty of a person
well or excellently. This tells us that she is capable of
excellent way of doing things achieving two kinds of virtue:
is called virtue or arete by moral and intellect.
the Greeks. ●​ if we are going to follow
●​ being virtuous cannot be Aristotle's thought, moral
accomplished by a single act. virtue can be attained by
One does not become an means of habit. A morally
excellent person overnight. virtuous man for him is
Being an excellent individual someone who habitually
works on doing well in her determines the good and
day-to-day existence. does the right actions. The
●​ intellectual excellence can be saying "Practice makes
attained through teaching. perfect." is applicable to
Through time, one learns Aristotle's thought.
from the vast experiences in
life where she gains
knowledge on these things.
WHAT EXACTLY MAKES A RATIONAL FACULTY
HUMAN BEING EXCELLENT?
●​ it exercises excellence in
●​ Aristotle says that excellence human. One can rightly or
is an activity of the human wrongly apply the use of
soul, therefore, one needs to reason.
understand the very ●​ it is divided into two aspects:
structure of a person's soul moral, which concerns the
which must be directed by act of doing, and intellectual,
her rational activity in an which concerns the act of
excellent way. knowing. These two aspects
●​ for Aristotle, human soul is are basically where the
divided into two parts: the function of reason is
irrational element and the exercised.
rational faculty.
VIRTUE AS EXCELLENCE:
DIFFERENT UNDERSTANDING
OF THE DYNAMIC OF
VIRTUE AS EXCELLENCE: KNOWLEDGE AND ACTION
HUMAN SOUL

IRRATIONAL ELEMENT
ARISTOTLE
●​ this part of man is not in the
realm where virtue is •​ having intellectual excellence
exercised because, it cannot does not necessarily mean that one
be dictated by reason. already has the capacity of doing
●​ it consists of the vegetative the good. Knowing the good that is
and the appetitive aspects. need to be done is different from
The vegetative aspect doing the good that one needs to
functions as giving nutrition accomplish.
and providing the activity of
physical growth in a person.
Appetitive aspect works as a
SOCRATES
desiring faculty of man. The
act of desiring in itself is an • moral goodness is already within
impulse that naturally runs the realm of intellectual excellence.
counter to reason and most Knowing the good implies the
of the time refuses to go ability to perform morally virtuous
along with reason. acts.
MORAL VIRTUE AND MESOTES terms of protecting and
assisting the young on their
●​ according to Aristotle, personal and development.
knowledge is not inherent to Since there is an issue
a person. Knowing the right wherein too much violence
thing to do when one is being seen in the television
confronted by a choice is not may negatively affect to the
easy. One needs to develop development of the children
this knowledge by exercising watching. The government
the faculty of practical reason could have dismissed the
in her daily life. issue or could have banned
●​ Aristotle also maintained that television in portraying
the middle, intermediate or violence shows, but imposing
mesotes for the Greeks is ban could harm the citizen's
being aimed at by a morally freedom of expression and
virtuous person. Determining artistic independence. The
the middle or mesotes government, then acted on
becomes the proper tool by the side of the middle
which one can arrive at the measure by means of
proper way of doing things. implementing rules and
It simply means an guidelines for viewing safety
appropriate action is neither , dedicating 15 percent of TV
excessive nor deficient. In airtime for child-friendly
other words, virtue is the shows and enforcing a
middle or the intermediary television violence rating
point in between extremes. code that took into account
●​ the task of being moral the sensibilities of children.
involves seriously looking
into and understanding a
situation and assessing
properly every particular MORAL VIRTUE
detail relevant to the
●​ FIRSTLY, moral virtue is the
determination of the mesotes
condition arrived at by a
or middle. Mesotes
person who has a character
determines whether the act
identified out of her habitual
applied is not excessive or
exercise of particular actions.
deficient.
●​ an example of this is the
action of the government in
●​ SECONDLY, in moral virtue,
the action done that normally
manifests feelings and
passions is chosen because it
is the middle. This means
that in choosing the
middle/mesotes, one is
looking at the situation and
not at oneself in identifying
the proper way that feelings
and passions should be
dispensed.
●​ THIRDLY, the rational
faculty that serves as a guide
for the proper identification
of the middle is practical
wisdom. The virtuous person
learns from her experiences
and therefore develops the
capacity to know the proper
way of carrying out her
feelings, passions and
actions.