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PhysicsUniverse: Characteristics and Organization

Universe: Characteristics and Organization
Grade 9
Aug 20, 2022

Key Concepts
• Universe
• Telescope
• Structure of sun
• Nuclear fusion
• Sunspot cycle
• Prominences
• Flares

Introduction

What is Universe?
The universe is nothing but everything we can feel, touch, sense, measure,
and detect. The universe includes planets, stars, galaxies, living things, dust,
clouds, time, and even light. Before the origin of the universe, space, matter,
and time did not exist. The universe is considered an endless space, and all
living things, including human beings, belong to space.
The scientific study of the universe is called astronomy. The scientist who
studies the universe is known as an astronomer.
Astronomers have made exciting discoveries such as stars, galaxies, planets,
nebulas, etc., by observing the universe. By studying these objects (galaxies,
nebula, planets etc.), astronomers were able to learn about the origin of
Earth and the steps involved in the formation of the solar system and other
objects present in the universe.
We know that the universe contains billions of galaxies, and each contains
millions of stars. The space between stars and galaxies is mostly empty;
even places far away from stars and planets consist of scattered dust
particles or a few hydrogen atoms per cubic centimeter. Space is covered
with radiation such as light radiation, heat radiation, magnetic fields, and
high energy particles such as cosmic rays.

Characteristics of the Universe

Cosmology is the study of the origin, characteristics, processes, and
evolution of the universe. Astronomers studied and found out that the
universe started almost 13.7 billion years ago in one massive explosion
called the big bang, and since that time the universe is expanding. The
universe is too large and the objects present in it are far away from each
other, so a telescope is used to study far away objects. Nowadays, with
scientific development, astronomers also use computers and mathematical
models to study the universe.

Organization of the Universe

The solar system is the closest part of the universe to Earth. The solar
system consists of the Sun, Earth, other planets, dwarf planets, asteroids,
and comets. It (the solar system) is a part of the galaxy. Galaxy consists of
stars, dust particles, and gas forced together by gravity. Milky way
of galaxy is the galaxy in which the solar system is present. There are
billions of galaxies present beyond the milky way galaxy.
Measurement of distance in the Universe
We know that the universe is very big, and the units of measurement on
Earth are very small to show the distance between the various objects
present in space. So to measure distance, astronomers usually use
astronomical units. The astronomical unit (represented by AU) is defined as
the average distance between Earth and the Sun, which is approximately
150 million Km. The speed of light is also used to measure distance. Light
travels with the speed of 300,000km/s. Light travels 9.46×1012 km in one
[Link] distance is called as light year. Apart from the Sun, the closest star
to Earth is 4.22 light years away.

Observing Space :
We could see the world around us and make observations because of light.
At night, we can see stars and other objects in space because these objects
emit light. This visible light is nothing but a small amount of energy that
comes from objects. Astronomers are able to learn more about the universe
by studying other forms of energy. We know that planets do not emit light,
but they reflect light coming from stars.

Electromagnetic spectrum:
Visible light is a form of energy and is a part of the electromagnetic
spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum is defined as all the wavelengths of
electromagnetic radiation. Examples of electromagnetic radiation are light,
radio, waves, and x-rays.

Visible Electromagnetic Radiation :

We can see only radiation of wavelength present in the visible light range of
the spectrum. Electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths shorter than the
violet light or longer than the red-light cannot be seen by the human eye.

Invisible Electromagnetic Radiation:

In 1800, scientist William Herschel discovered infrared light, which means
below the red. Infrared radiation has a longer wavelength than visible light.
The ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation means beyond the violet. Gamma
rays have the shortest wavelengths.

The Sun – A Main Sequence Star

Though the Sun is an average star and it is the largest object in the solar
system. The Sun is around 1.4 million kilometers in diameter, that is about
109 times bigger than Earth and even 10 times bigger than Jupiter. Like all
stars, the Sun is made up of hydrogen and helium. Nearly 70% of the Sun’s
mass is hydrogen and around 28% is helium. The remaining 2% of the Sun’s
mass is oxygen and carbon. The Sun comprises of around 99% of all the
mass in the solar system.

Structure of the Sun :

The Sun can be categorized into different layers—the core, the radiation
zone, and the convective zone. The visible surface of the Sun that we see is
called the photosphere. The photosphere layer emits light into space. The
temperature of the photosphere is around 5,800 K. Outside of the
photosphere, the Sun has an atmosphere that is separated into two layers.
The inner layer of the atmosphere is called the chromosphere, and the
outer layer is called the corona
The Core:
The core stretches from the center of the Sun to about 140,000 km from the
center. Nuclear fusion takes place in the Sun’s core. It produces the energy
that reaches Earth. The fusion reactions convert hydrogen nuclei into helium
nuclei. The temperature in the core region is around 15 million K. The
temperature is so high that atoms have been exposed of their electrons. Due
to this, the core is a gas made of charged particles. The state of matter
made of charged particles is a plasma.
The core is the power generator in the Sun present in its center. The radius
of the core is close to one fourth of that of the star. Inside the core,
pressures and temperatures are high enough to make fusion. Fusion is a
nuclear reactions where some nuclei merge to make others. Proton-proton
cycle is the most important reaction that occurs within the core of the Sun.
In the proton-proton chain reaction, hydrogen nuclei are converted to helium
nuclei through a number of intermediates. This reaction generates high-
energy photons (gamma rays) that move through the “radiative layer” that
is surrounding the core. This layer takes up 60% of the Sun’s radius.

In the core region, the helium nuclei make up 62% of the mass and the
remaining is still hydrogen. The radiative and convective layers have around
72% hydrogen, 26% helium, and 2% heavier elements by mass. The energy
generated by fusion reaction is then transferred to the solar surface and
produced as light or emitted as high-energy particles.
By the time the energy reaches the surface of the Sun, temperature have
come down to 6000‫ﹾ‬K. This is a temperature that relates to the sunlight that
we see. On average, the energy released from the hot surface, is close to
230 million watts per square meter.
Nuclear fusion is the source of all the energy emitted by the Sun, does two
things: 1. It converts hydrogen atom into helium (or in other words, creates
helium nuclei from protons) and it transforms mass to energy.
The mass-to-energy conversion is explained by Einstein’s equation:
E = mc2
OR
Energy = mass × the square of the velocity of light.
As the velocity of light is a very big number, this equation tells that lots of
energy can be obtained from using up a small amount of mass.
The energy produced by the prcoess of nuclear fusion within the core of the
Sun (or any other star) exerts an outward pressure. If not contained, such
pressure can make an explosion. The internal pressure that keeps a star
from exploding is the gravitational attraction of the gas mantle that
surrounds the core (It is the majority of the volume of the Sun, and is very
hot but does not burn away by itself).
The outward pressure generated from the nuclear fusion reactions prevents
the stars from collapsing. The inward pressure from gravitation prevents the
stars from bursting. If the nuclear fusion reactions in the core turn out to be
very weak, a star can collapse. Such collapse can provide new situations in a
core that develop in new types of nuclear fusion reactions, as a result
expansion follows. If the nuclear fusion reactions in the core turn out to be
more strong, then a star can explode.

The Radiation Zone:

Radiation zone is present above the core. It extends from around 140,000
km to about 500,000 km from the center. In this zone, temperatures are
even so high that matter is in the plasma state. In the radiation zone, the
energy generated by nuclear fusion is transferred from the core by
electromagnetic radiation. The temperature of the radiation zone decreases
with distance from the core from about 7 million K to about 2 million K at the
peak of the radiation zone.

The Convection Zone:

The convection zone is the Sun’s outer layer. In this zone, energy is
transported from the top of the radiation zone to the surface by thermal
convection. Columns of hot material create convection cells as they rise to
the surface, cool, and then sink to the bottom of the convection zone.
Photosphere:
At the top of the convection zone is the Sun’s photopsphere. The
photosphere has a grainy appearance. The individual grains of photosphere
are called granules and are normally around 1,000 km across. Granules are
the tops of the convection cells. The bright regions are hot material that is
rising and the dark regions are cooler material that is sinking.
Sunspots :
Some regions of the Sun look darker than others. These darker regions of the
Sun’s photosphere are called sunspots. These are cooler than surrounding
areas. Temperatures in the dark center region of sunspots can be 2,000‫ﹾ‬K
cooler than the surrounding granules. Sunspots are carried by the roatation
of Sun. The movement of sunspots indicates that the Sun rotates faster at its
equator than at its poles. Sunspots are produced by areas of strong magnetic
fields that decrease the transport of energy to the surface by convection.
Sunspots are not the permanent characteristics of the Sun. They appear and
vanish over periods of days, weeks, or months. The number of sunspots
changes in a relatively consistent pattern called the sunspot cycle, or
solar activity cycle. Cycles of sunspot maximum occur around every 11
years, with periods of sunspot minimum appearing in between. At a sunspot
minimum, sunspots occur at high latitudes. As the cycle continues, sunspot
appear closer to the Sun’s equator. By the next minimum, they again come
together at high latitudes.

Prominences and Flares:

Strong magnetic fields linked with sunspots can cause huge bending columns
of gas called prominences to erupt. Convection in the convection zone
causes magnetized gases to flow upward in the direction of the photosphere.
Sometimes the strength of magnetic field is great enough that magnetic field
lines shoot out from the surface near a pair of sunspots and produce a
prominence of solar material to loop from one spot to the other spot. Some
prominences explode material from the Sun into space at speeds that ranges
from 600 km/s to more than 1,000 km/s. Sometimes gases near a sunspot
suddenly brighten, and gases shoot outward at high speed called solar
flares. Temperatures in these flares can go up to 100 million K. Particles
produced in a solar flare retain so much energy that the Sun’s magnetic field
cannot keep them as it can hold prominences, and they explode into space.
Summary
• The universe is nothing but everything we can feel, touch, sense, measure,
and detect
• The universe includes planets, stars, galaxies, living things, dust clouds,
time, and even light.
• The scientific study of the universe is called astronomy.
• The scientist who studies the universe is known as an astronomer.
• Cosmology is the study of the origin, characteristics, processes, and
evolution of the universe. Galaxy is consists of stars, dust particles, and gas
forced together by gravity.
• Milky way of galaxy is the galaxy in which the solar system is present.
• The electromagnetic spectrum is defined as all the wavelengths of
electromagnetic radiation. The examples of electromagnetic radiation are
light, radio, waves, and x-rays.
• A telescope is a device that collects electromagnetic radiations coming
from the sky and focuses it for good quality observation.
• The Sun can be categorised into different layers—the core, the radiation
zone, and the convective zone.
• The inner layer of the atmosphere is called the chromosphere, and the
outer layer is called the corona.
• Proton-proton cycle is the most important reaction occur within the core of
the Sun.
• The darker regions of the Sun’s photosphere are called sunspots.
• Strong magnetic fields linked with sunspots can cause huge bending
columns of gas called prominences.
• A sudden increase in the Sun’s brightness is called a solar flare.
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