UNIT 3

METALLOGENY IN RELATION TO
TECTONICS

Structure______________________________________________
3.1 Introduction Ore Deposition at Destructive Boundaries

Expected Learning Outcomes Continental Rifting and Ore Deposition

3.2 Metallogenic Epochs and Provinces Ore Deposition at Mantle Plume and Hot Spots

Metallogenic Epochs 3.5 Summary

Metallogenic Provinces 3.6 Activity
3.3 Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Ore 3.7 Terminal Questions
Deposits
3.8 References
Iron
3.9 Further/Suggested Readings
Manganese
3.10 Answers
Coal

Petroleum and Natural Gas

Base Metals

Precious Metals

3.4 Mineralisation and Plate Tectonics

Ore Deposits and Global Tectonics

Ore Deposition at Constructive Boundaries

3.1 INTRODUCTION
You have read in the previous units of this course that the mineral deposits are not uniformly
distributed in space and time. It is noticed that during the past geological history and in certain
periods of geological time, ore deposition was quite significant. Some parts of the world are
Block 1 Introduction to Ore Geology
………………………………………………………...…………..……………………………………………….
prominently recognised for their wide occurrence of one or more ore mineral
deposits. The depositional processes of ores are directly or indirectly linked to
plate tectonics. Geological processes operating due to energy released at plate
boundaries control the process of mineral deposition. The ore mineralisation
occurs in different surficial features of the Earth like continents, oceans,
mountains, sedimentary basins etc. Moreover, the plate tectonic processes are
responsible for the formation of various ores along with the associated Earth
processes.

In the previous units, we have discussed the basics of ore geology and the
classification of ore deposits. In this unit, we will discuss metallogenic epochs
and provinces, temporal and spatial distribution of ore deposits of certain
minerals like iron, manganese, coal, petroleum and natural gas, base metals,
and precious metals. Besides, we will also discuss the relationship between
tectonic process and ore deposition such as ore deposition at constructive plate
boundaries, destructive plate boundaries, continental rifting and mantle hot
spots.

Expected Learning Outcomes__________________

After reading this unit, you should be able to:

❖ describe the metallogenic epochs and provinces;

❖ spatial and temporal distribution of iron, manganese, coal, petroleum and
natural gas, base metals and precious metal;
❖ describe ore deposition in relation to plate tectonics;
❖ discuss ore deposition at constructive and destructive plate boundaries;
❖ enumerate the process of continental rifting and ore deposition; and
❖ explain the concept of the mantle plume, hot spots and related
mineralisation.

3.2 METALLOGENIC EPOCHS AND PROVINCES

We know that the mineral deposits have formed over the billion years of earth
history. They are heterogeneously distributed throughout various geological
ages (temporal) and locations (space). Geologically, the age of the Earth is
divided into six Eras such as Hadean, Archaean, Proterozoic, Palaeozoic,
Mesozoic and Cenozoic, which are further subdivided into different period.
Some parts of the Earth show enrichment of certain mineral deposits whereas
other parts are devoid of any kind of mineralisation. Interestingly, in a particular
period of geological time, the deposition of single or multiple metallic and non-
metallic minerals was most predominant while in other there was less
mineralisation. The periods in which the mineralisation is abundant are known
as Metallogenic Epochs. The mineral enriched regions on the Earth's surface
are known as Metallogenic Provinces. In this section we will discuss the
metallogenic epochs and provinces in detail.

74
Unit 3 Metallogeny in Relation to Tectonics
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3.2.1 Metallogenic Epochs
In the above paragraph you have read about Metallogenic Epochs. It refers to
the period in the Earth's geological history during which the deposition of a
metal or a certain group of metals was most prominent. These are the time
periods in geological history during which conditions were particularly
favourable for the formation of specific classes of mineral deposits. Some
metallogenic epochs coincide with the orogenies. For example, the Aravali-
Delhi fold belt in north western India is part of the Precambrian metallogenic
epoch.
We will discuss the various metallogenic epochs as given below:
1) Precambrian epoch
2) Late Palaeozoic epoch
3) Late Mesozoic to Early Tertiary epoch
1) Precambrian Epoch
Precambrian epoch is an important epoch because of its large time span i.e.,
from 2.5 to 1.8 billion years ago. During this time, the large and varied numbers
of metallic and non-metallic mineral deposits were formed. Major mineral
deposits of the world are reported to be formed during this time interval. The
significant deposits present are the Banded Iron ore Formation (BIF),
sedimentary manganese deposits, sediment-hosted stratiform Pb-Zn deposits,
Cr–Ni-Pt-Cu deposits, Ti-Fe deposits and evaporite deposits. Globally, the most
important sedimentary manganese deposits of this age are found in Brazil,
Central India and Russia.
In India, some important mineral deposits of this epoch include iron ore
deposits of Singhbhum belt (Jharkhand), gold deposits of Kolar and Hutti
(Karnataka) and Pb-Zn deposits of Zawar (Rajasthan).
2) Late Palaeozoic Epoch

During the Late Palaeozoic epoch, there were drastic changes in the Earth's
configuration (i.e., positions of land and water) due to mountain building,
tectonic activities and the formation of large sedimentary basins. These
changes greatly increased in number and conducive ore-forming environments.
At the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary, phosphorite deposits were formed
along the belt which extends from Kazakhstan through central Asia into
southern China, Vietnam and Australia. Some other mineral deposits of this
epoch are Cyprus-type copper-pyrite deposits, sandstone uranium deposits,
porphyry copper and molybdenum deposits reported from different regions of
the world.
The Permo-Carboniferous epoch is also known as the coal forming epoch. In
this epoch, the world famous Gondwana Coal deposits of Southern continents
are formed.
In India, Gondwana coal deposits such as coalfields of Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih,
Ramgarh, Rajmahal, Umaria, Korba and Singrauli are formed in this epoch.
75
Block 1 Introduction to Ore Geology
………………………………………………………...…………..……………………………………………….
This epoch is also characterised by the presence of fireclays, ironstones, and
ochres, which occur in Gondwana rocks of Peninsular India.
3) Late Mesozoic to Early Tertiary Epoch
Late Mesozoic to Early Tertiary epoch is known for the formation of petroleum
and natural gas deposits throughout the world. Besides the oil and natural gas,
some significant metallic and non-metallic deposits such as Cu, Pb, Zn, fluorite
magnesite, etc. were formed in this epoch. The Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks
are globally known for yielding residual deposits such as bauxite and clay
deposits.
The basaltic eruption of the Deccan traps in Peninsular India during Upper
Cretaceous to Lower Palaeocene time led to the formation of significant semi-
precious stones like amethyst, agate, rock crystal, and minor copper
mineralisation. The acidic, basic and ultrabasic igneous activities that occurred
during this epoch in extra-peninsular India also host significant copper, lead-
zinc, nickel, asbestos, fluorite and magnesite deposits.
We have read about metallogenic epochs. Now let us study about the
metallogenic provinces.
3.2.2 Metallogenic Provinces
Globally, it had been found that mineral deposits are not distributed uniformly
through the Earth's crust. There are specific groups of mineral deposits that are
concentrated in certain areas or regions. Thus, such regions that are
characterised by maximum concentration of particular ore deposit known as a
"Metallogenic Province”.
There are many metallogenic provinces in the Earth’s crust, which are unevenly
distributed in different parts of the world. Some of these metallogenic provinces
of the world are discussed below.
1. Gold Province of Archaean Greenstone Belts: The greenstone belts host
the two most important gold provinces of the world. These are Yilgarn
Craton in Western Australia, and the Southern Superior Province of Eastern
Canada.
2. Sichuan–Yunnan–Guizhou Pb–Zn Metallogenic province: This province
located in China hosts important reserves of Pb–Zn. These deposits are
present in the carbonate rocks of the Permian age.
3. Polymetallic Mineral Province of Erzgebirge: This province lies on the
border between the Czech Republic and Germany. It hosts many
hydrothermal deposits like silver and uranium along with polymetallic
mineralisation associated with younger granites and other intrusive bodies.
4. The Southwestern North America Porphyry Copper Province: This
province comprises parts of the USA and adjoining Mexican states. It hosts
world-class large copper metal reserves that belong to the Laramide
orogeny.
As far as India is concerned, there are many mineral/ metallogenic provinces
(Fig. 3.1). We will discuss a few examples of metallogenic provinces of India as
given below:
76
Unit 3 Metallogeny in Relation to Tectonics
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1. Iron ore province of South Singhbhum-Keonjhor-Sundargarh-
Mayurbhanj: This province comprises the Bonai-Keonjhar-Singhbhum belt
that stretches from south-western part of Singhbhum district of Jharkhand
into the Keonjhor and Sundergarh districts of Odisha, in which iron ores are
associated with banded-hematite-quartzite and jasper.
2. Lead-zinc Province of Hesatu-Belbathan: This province host lead-zinc
deposits which extend in the districts of Hazaribagh and Godda of Bihar.
Here mineralisation is associated with Precambrian tremolite-actinolite
schists and granitic gneisses.
3. Manganese province of Balaghat-Bhandara-Nagpur: This province
contributes major Mn production in India. It extends in the Balaghat district
of Madhya Padesh and Bhandara and Nagpur districts of Maharastra
where, mineralisation is present in Gondite type deposits associated with
metamorphosed Dharwarian rocks.

Fig. 3.1: Map showing mineral provinces with associated rock units of India.
(Source: Redrawn from [Link]
PDAC_2013.pdf)
77
Block 1 Introduction to Ore Geology
………………………………………………………...…………..……………………………………………….

3.3 SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL DISTRIBUTION OF

ORE DEPOSITS
As discussed in the previous sections, the deposition of ores was pronounced,
but not in regular intervals of time and space. The time of formation of ore
deposits was episodical with a distinctive change in the periods of their
deposition. Similarly, the distribution of mineral deposits was discontinuous in
relation to space over a time span. We have read metallogenic epochs and
provinces in the previous sub-sections. We will discuss the distribution of some
important metallic ore deposits with reference to time and space.
3.3.1 Iron
Iron ores have a wide range of spatial as well as temporal distribution. The
principal iron ore formations are deposited during the Late Archaean to the
Paleoproterozoic, whereas the subordinate deposits are formed in Neo-
proterozoic age. The Late Archaean-Proterozoic BIF’s deposits are the major
contributor of the world iron reserves and are of two types:
a) The Algoma type: They are generally widespread in Archaean greenstone
belts and are found in close association with mafic volcanic rocks. These
BIF’s constitute the bulk of iron ore resources of the world.
b) The Superior-type: They are named after Lake Superior region of North
America. These BIF’s are younger than the Algoma type and are primarily
formed during the Paleo-Proterozoic era.
Let us discuss the distribution of significant iron deposits in the world as well as
in India with respect to space and time.
i) Global Distribution
As far as the iron reserves of different countries are concerned, Australia is
having the largest iron ores reserves. Most of these iron ore reserves are
present in the Hamersley Basin Iron Province. Brazil holds second place in
terms of having the largest iron ore reserves where these ores are associated
with metamorphic jaspilites of Palaeo-proterozoic rocks. The other country with
major iron ore reserves is China where the reserves are hosted in Archaean to
Cenozoic rocks. The western Tianshan metallogenic belt is one of the most
significant polymetallic iron metallogenic belts in China.
ii) Indian Distribution
In India, major iron ore deposits are located in three belts and are hosted in the
rocks of Archaean age. These deposits are mostly present in:
a) Singhbhum-Mayurbhanj belt: The important reserves of this belt are
located in Noamundi- Thakurani (South Singhbhum district, Jharkhand),
Joda-Barsua, Kalta, Kiriburu-Meghataburu-Gua-Bolani and Chiria (in
Keonjhar, Bonai and Cuttackdistrict, Odisha) and Gurumahisani-Sulaipeta-
Badampahar (Mayurbhanj district, Odisha) (Fig. 3.2).
b) Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt: The important reserves of this belt are
located in Dalli-Rajhara, Rowghat and Bailadila regions of Chhattisgarh.

78
Unit 3 Metallogeny in Relation to Tectonics
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
c) Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmaglur-Tumkar belt: The third important belt is
from Bababudan Hills, Chikmagalur district, Karnataka and Sandur belt
comprising Donimalai, Ramanadurg, and Kumar swami ranges in the
Bellary-Hospet region of Karnataka and adjoining region of Andhra Pradesh.
In addition to these Goa also is having small deposits of iron.

Fig.3.2: Map showing the distribution of iron ore reserves in India; Area inside the
polygons showing important iron ore belts. (Source: Redrawn from
[Link]

3.3.2 Manganese
Manganese ores have wide spatial and temporal distribution. They are not only
deposited on the continents but are also found on the sea beds. These deposits
are hosted in the rocks of Paleo-Proterozoic, Neo-Proterozoic and Cenozoic
age. Let us discuss the important manganese reserves distribution at the global
level and in India with reference to space and time.
i) Global Distribution
South Africa hosts the largest Mn ore reserves followed by Ukraine and Brazil
(Fig.3.3). In South Africa, Kalahari is the main region that hosts 70% of the
world's recognised Mn-ore reserves, which are of Paleo-Proterozoic age
(Fig.3.4). In Ukraine, manganese reserves are spread over the Nikopol

79
Block 1 Introduction to Ore Geology
………………………………………………………...…………..……………………………………………….
manganese basin which is located in the Dnipropetrovsk region. In Brazil, the
MatoGrosso and Amapá State host the manganese deposits. Besides these,
the Carajás Mineral Province in the southern Amazonian Craton and Morro do
Urucum also contain significant manganese deposits. These mineral deposits
in Brazil are of Neo-Proterozoic age.

Fig. 3.3: Pie chart showing distribution of manganese reserves of the world.
(Modified after, [Link]
[Link].)

Fig. 3.4: Photograph showing the open pit manganese mine in South Africa.
(Source: [Link]

ii) Indian Distribution

In India, manganese deposits are mainly present in Archaean rocks associated
with Gondites and Kodurites. The Gondite associated Mn ore deposits are
present in Balaghat, Gangpur and Chhindwara of the Sausar Formation in
Madhya Pradesh. The kodurites host the manganese deposits associated with
the Khondalite belt of Srikakulam and Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh. The
other manganese deposits are found in the Dharwarian rocks of the Shimoga-
Chitradurga schist belt of Karnataka.
3.3.3 Coal
Globally the Permo-Carboniferous period is considered to be the major period
for the formation of coal. The Cretaceous, Palaeogene, and Neogene periods
are also known for the minor occurrences of coal. The majority of the coal is
80
Unit 3 Metallogeny in Relation to Tectonics
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
produced from the Gondwana rocks of Upper Carboniferous to Lower
Cretaceous age and the contribution of Tertiary coal is meagre in the world.
i) Global Distribution
United States of America, Russia, and China are the top three countries in
terms of global coal reserves (Fig.3.5). In USA, coal reserves are located in
various sedimentary basins covering almost all states of the country. In Russia,
major reserves are located in Kuznetsk and Kansk-Achinsk coal basins of
South-central Russia.
In China, Shaanxi Province and Inner Mangolian Region are considered to
have major coal reserves. The coal occurring in these regions are of Late
Carboniferous to Early Permian age.

Fig. 3.5: World map showing the distribution of global coal resources by dark
shaded areas. (Source: [Link]
environmental-studies/energy-resources-coal/content-section-4.5)

ii) Indian Distribution

In India, about 98% of the total reserves are hosted by the Gondwana rocks.
The Permian Lower Gondwana rocks have the highest coal reserves, which are
confined within the Jharia, Bokaro and Giridih coalfields of Jharkhand;
Singrauli, Suhagpur and Umaria coalfields in Madhya Pradesh and Raniganj
coalfield of West Bengal.
The contribution of Tertiary coal is very less when compared to the total coal
reserves of India. These reserves are present in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,
Meghalaya, and Jammu and Kashmir. The world famous lignite deposits of
Miocene age are present in the Neyveli district of Tamil Nadu.
3.3.4 Petroleum and Natural Gas
There is a close association of large oil fields and oil-producing basins in the
world. These basins are entirely composed of clastic or non-clastic sedimentary
rocks deposited during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras. It has also been
recognised that few oil and natural gas basins yielded most of the oil and
natural gas in the world. Whereas the other basins are either unexplored or
underexplored.

81
Block 1 Introduction to Ore Geology
………………………………………………………...…………..……………………………………………….
i) Global Distribution
Venezuela hosts the largest oil and natural gas reserves of the world. The other
countries where most of the reserves are concentrated are Saudi Arabia,
Canada, and Iran (Fig. 3.6). In Venezuela, the main oil and natural gas
producing regions are Eastern basins, Western Maracaibo basin, Gulf basins of
the east, and Ciriaco basin. These oil and natural gas deposits were formed
during the Cenozoic time.
In Saudi Arabia, the onshore and offshore oil and natural gas basins are of
Tertiary age and are present in the North-eastern part of the country, including
the Saudi offshore of the Persian Gulf. The Ghawar oil field located in the
Eastern province of Saudi Arabia is one of the largest oilfields in the world.
In Canada, the premier oil and natural gas reserves are located in the Western
Canada sedimentary basin of Middle Devonian to Upper Cretaceous age.
These basins are extended to North-eastern British Colombia and South
Western Manitoba regions. The onshore oil and natural gas fields of Iran are
located in Khuzestan province of Southwest Iran, which are of Eocene to Early
Miocene age.

Fig. 3.6: Map showing proven oil reserves in different countries of the world.
Various colours of legend show the oil reserves in millions of barrels.
(Source:[Link]
#/media/File:Map-of-countries-by-proven-oil-reserves-(in-millions-of-barrels)---
[Link])

ii) Indian Distribution

The oil and natural gas fields of India are located in Onshore and Offshore
basins. The Onshore oil and natural gas fields are located in the Brahmaputra
valley of Northeast India, Gujarat Coast in Western India, and Kaveri Onshore
basin in Tamil Nadu. The oil and natural gas of these regions occur in the rocks
of Tertiary age.
The Mumbai Offshore basin is situated on the Western continental margin of
India. The oil and natural gas of this Offshore basin occur in carbonate rocks of
the Middle Miocene to Pliocene.

82
Unit 3 Metallogeny in Relation to Tectonics
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3.3.5 Base Metals
The base metal group comprises copper, lead and zinc metals. The deposits of
these base metals are mainly sediment-hosted located in the Late Archaean to
early Proterozoic terrains. We will discuss the occurrences of significant base
metal deposits in the world and India in relation to space and time.
i) Global Distribution
Chile is having the largest copper deposits in the world which are mainly
located in the northern region of the country. These copper deposits are
associated with the Late Eocene-Oligocene intrusive phases. Peru holds the
second position and these reserves are of Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic
age and occur in Antamina, Toque Pala, Cerro Verde, Cuajone and Tin Taya
regions. Australia ranks third in copper reserves, which are mainly hosted by
Precambrian and Palaeozoic rocks.
Australia is hosting the largest lead-zinc reserves in the world followed by China
and Peru. In Australia, the Northern Australian Proterozoic sedimentary basin is
endowed with large reserves of lead-zinc. In China, the Central north Craton
and the Northeastern part hosts the major lead-zinc deposits of Archaean age.
In the coastal area of Peru, the Cretaceous rocks host significant lead-zinc
deposits. North-western Peru and west flank of the Western Cordillera host the
lead-zinc-copper deposits of Upper Cretaceous-Palaeocene age.

ii) Indian Distribution

The major copper reserves are present in four copper belts, which are Late
Archean - Early Proterozoic in age. These are Khetri copper belt, Singhbhum
copper belt, Malanjkhand copper belt, and Agnigundala Copper-Lead belt
(Fig.3.7).
1) The Khetri Copper Belt: The belt is hosted in the Proterozoic Delhi-Aravalli
fold belt in Rajasthan, with rich copper mineralisation. The important copper
deposits are mainly found in Neem Ka Thana of Sikar district Rajasthan, and
in other regions of Jhunjhunu and Bhilwara districts.
2) Malanjkhand Copper Belt: The zone encompasses large copper
mineralisation in granitic rocks with a varying composition of diorite to
granite. The significant deposits are found in Malanjkhand, Shitalpani, Gidori
Dhorli, Jatta and Garhi Dongri of Balaghat district in Madhya Pradesh.
3) Singhbhum copper belt: In this belt most significant copper mineralisation
is noticed in the central and south-central parts of Singhbhum Shear zone
belt. Main deposits are found in Musabani, Rakha Ram Chandar Pahar,
Pathargora, Turamdih and some other places singhbhum copper belt,
Jharkhand.
4) Agnigundala Copper-Lead belt: The ore mineralisation is noticed in
northeastern part of Cuddapah Group. The copper and lead deposits of this
belt are reported from Agnigudala area in Guntur District of Andhra Pradesh.
In India, the Aravalli basin of Rajasthan hosts major lead-zinc deposits in
Rampura-Agucha, Rajpura-Dariba and Zawar areas of Proterozoic age. The

83
Block 1 Introduction to Ore Geology
………………………………………………………...…………..……………………………………………….
lead-zinc deposits are also present in Sargipalli, Sundargarh, and Mayurbhanj
in Odisha.

Fig. 3.7: Map showing the distribution ofsignificant copper belts of India.

3.3.6 Precious Metals

The three primary precious metals are gold, silver and platinum. These metals
have genetic relationship with various igneous intrusions associated with
Archaean granite-greenstone belts. We will discuss the main occurrences of
these precious metals in the world and in India with reference to space and
time.
i) Global Distribution
The countries with major gold reserves in the world are Australia, Russia and
South Africa (Fig.3.8). In Australia, the major gold reserves are present in the
Western Australian region. The remaining reserves occur in the other states
and Northern territory of the country. The gold deposits of this country are
hosted in the rocks of the Early Proterozoic age. The gold occurrences in
Russia are mainly located on the Eastern and Western flanks of the Ural
Mountains. The other occurrences in the country are Maiskoye, Atalkinskoe and
Olimpiada ore deposits. All these deposits are of Late Archaean to Early
Proterozoic age. The Witwatersrand basin in South Africa contributes the major
gold reserves of the country. This basin extended across the Free State,

84
Unit 3 Metallogeny in Relation to Tectonics
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Northwest and Gauteng provinces of South Africa. In these regions, the gold
occurs in the rocks of Late Archaean age.

Fig. 3.8: Pie chart showing global distribution of gold reserves. (Modified after
[Link]
worldwide-by-select-country/)

Globally, the important silver deposits are located in the countries of Peru,
Poland and Australia. In Peru, the silver deposits occur in the Western central
region. In this region, Yauyos Province is enriched with major silver reserves. In
Poland, silver is mined as byproduct in the Legnica-Glogow copper belt. In the
Queensland region of South Australia, silver is present as a byproduct in the
Wheal Gawler and Mount Isa Ag-Pb deposits.
South Africa is having the largest platinum reserves followed by Russia and
USA. The Merensky Reef and the Upper and Plat Reef are the main areas
where platinum reserves are located in South Africa. The main occurrence of
platinum in Russia is in the Taymyr Peninsula of Siberia, where it is associated
with Cu and Ni (Fig. 3.9). In USA, the Nye and Big Timber areas host the major
deposits of platinum in the country.

Fig. 3.9: Photograph showing the platinum-iron-alloy nuggets in Russia. (Source:

[Link]
85
Block 1 Introduction to Ore Geology
………………………………………………………...…………..……………………………………………….
ii) Indian Distribution

Fig. 3.10: Map showing the distribution of Gold deposits in India.

In India, gold occurrences are associated with Archean granite-greenstone that

includes the Kolar, Hutti, Kunderkochab and Chigargunta gold deposits. The
Proterozoic age gold deposits occurs in the Dugocha and Bhukia area of
Rajasthan. In the Southern granulite terrain, the gold occurrences are
associated with laterites and placers and are found in the Wynad-Nilgiri belt and
Kottathara, and Puttumala area (Fig. 3.10).

86
Unit 3 Metallogeny in Relation to Tectonics
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Silver is found in association with lead and zinc deposits in Zawarmala in

Udaipur, Rajasthan. Silver is also found with lead deposits in Hesatu-Belbathan
belt in Jarkhand. These deposits occur in the rocks of Archaean age.

In India, platinum is hosted with the intrusives of Late Archaean and Early
Proterozoic rocks. The Boula Nuasahi in Odisha, Ghatsila in Jharkhand and
Hanumalpura in Karnataka host the important reserves of platinum.

Learners, you have read about the temporal and spatial distribution of ore
deposits. Now, spend few minutes to perform an exercise to check your
progress.

SAQ 1
a) Significant sedimentary manganese deposits of __________epoch are
reported from Brazil, central India, and Russia.

b) Sichuan–Yunnan–Guizhou metallogenic province in China is famous for

________ mineralisation.
c) The Late Archaean-Proterozoic BIF’s deposits are of ___________ and
__________ type.
d) The oil and natural gas deposits of __________offshore basin occur in
rocks of the Middle Miocene to Pliocene.
e) The gold deposits are located in __________and ________ areas of
Rajasthan.

3.4 MINERALISATION AND PLATE TECTONICS

In Unit 16 of BGYCT-131 course, you have read about the ‘plate tectonics
theory’. Plate tectonics is the fundamental concept in Earth sciences and is also
known as global tectonics. It comprises different major and minor oceanic and
continental plates (Fig. 3.11). These plates are made up of plate boundaries
and are classified based on their mutual interface such as i) constructive type,
ii) destructive type, and iii) conservative type.

Plate tectonics provides a basis for understanding about the distribution and
origin of various economic minerals in different parts of the globe. In the context
of plate tectonics, the various mineral deposits are formed along the different
plate boundaries and the various processes are responsible for controlling the
formation of these deposits. In an overview, the global perception of plate
movements helps us to know the processes involved in ore deposition. We will
discuss the mineral deposition in the context of global tectonics.

87
Block 1 Introduction to Ore Geology
………………………………………………………...…………..……………………………………………….

Fig. 3.11: Map showing the tectonic plate boundaries. (Source:

[Link]
[Link])
3.4.1 Ore Deposits and Global Tectonics
Plate tectonic processes have played a significant role on the occurrence of
mineral/ore deposits. The break-up, collision and dispersal of continental
fragments on a larger scale with time have implications for every aspect of
global metallogeny. As far as the configuration of metallogeny is concerned,
tectonic activity has largely affected the formation and distribution of ore
deposits at the global level.
When we study the distribution of the ore deposits from a global tectonic point
of view, it is found that majority of the ore deposits are located in/on continental
crust. Thus, it is important to know the evolution of the continental crust that
influences the global metallogeny. While studying the continental evolution, it
has been observed that there were episodes of intense magmatic activity
associated with global tectonism that had promoted the formation of magmatic
and hydrothermal ore deposits. In this context, it reflects that the formation of
ore deposits is largely controlled by tectonic activity. For example, the majority
of the world's gold deposits of Late Archaean and Mesozoic age are related to
events of major orogenesis and crust formation that took place in these two-
time intervals.
You have read about ore deposits and global tectonics. Now let us discuss
about ore deposition at constructive plate boundaries.
3.4.2 Ore Deposition at Constructive Boundaries
As we have read that the constructive/divergent plate boundaries are those
plate boundaries where two tectonic plates split and move away from each
other. Thus, creating a zone where magma can rise to form the basaltic rocks.
The hydrothermal fluids associated with magmatism circulate at divergent

88
Unit 3 Metallogeny in Relation to Tectonics
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
boundaries and supply the ore elements that get deposited in the form of
different layers. The divergent plate boundaries are of two types:
• continental-continental divergent plate; and
• ocean-ocean divergent plate.
Let us discuss these two types of plate boundaries in relation to ore deposition
with examples.
1. Continental-Continental Divergent Plates:
These are the tectonic plates where two continental plates move away from
each other. The Red Sea represents the best example of continental-
continental divergence, where the divergence took place between the African
plate and Eurasian plates. At these boundaries, recent mineralisation had been
studied. It was found that the mineralisation is a continuous process at
constructive margins. The sample analysis of the deposited sediments had
shown high anomalous values of metals like Cu, Ag, Zn, Pb, and Au. The
brines associated with these sediments are also rich in these metals indicating
the probable source of mineralisation.
2. Ocean-Ocean Divergent Plate:
These are two oceanic plates that move away from each other. Mid oceanic
ridges characterise the divergence of two oceanic plates. They are the regions
of incessant magmatic activity with basaltic emanations, volcanic explosions,
combined with hydrothermal fluids circulation. These processes support a rich
source of mineral deposition.
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) forms a good example of the deposition of
various types of deposits in relation to the oceanic-oceanic divergent plate (Fig.
3.12).

Fig. 3.12: Illustrates the various ore deposits associated with island-arc and
adjacent regions. (Source: Evans, 2009)

89
Block 1 Introduction to Ore Geology
………………………………………………………...…………..……………………………………………….
Interestingly, there are three prospective environments of ore deposition at
these plate boundaries (Fig. 3.13). They are:
a) The deposition of sediments rich in metallic ores like Mn, Cu, Zn, Ag, and
Au in the oceans formed by chemical precipitation.
b) Deposition of hydrothermal deposits in the oceanic basalts in the form of
sulfides.
c) The magmatic segregated metallic deposits associated with the gabbroic
rocks.

Fig. 3.13: Schematics showing potential environments of deposition at ocean

ocean spreading plate boundaries. (Source: Alexander, 2009)

3.4.3 Ore Deposition at Destructive Plate Boundary

Destructive plate boundaries are also called the convergent plate boundaries.
This phenomenon occurs when two tectonic plates collide and one plate moves
under another and is forced to sink into the mantle where it gets melted. The
regions where such process occurs are known as subduction zones. Along
these zones, the volcanic activity takes place and gives rise to the formation of
metallogenic provinces parallel to the subduction plate edge. For example,
subduction of the Pacific plate under the South American plate reflects the
formation of porphyry Cu-Mo and other metallic deposits in the Andean belt of
western South America.
The convergent plate boundaries are two types. They are:
• continent-oceanic plate collision
• continent-continent collision
Let us discuss in detail about these two types of plate collisions in relation to
ore deposition.
1. Continental-Oceanic Plate Collision
The collision of the continental plate and the oceanic plate results in the
subduction of an oceanic plate under the continental plate. In this type of
subduction, the oceanic plate plunges into the mantle, where it gets heated up,
melts, and generates magma of acidic and intermediate composition resulting
in rocks such as granites and granodiorites. These rocks associated with
90
Unit 3 Metallogeny in Relation to Tectonics
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
hydrothermal fluids are responsible for the origin of many hydrothermal and
contact metasomatic metallic ore deposits. The subduction-related minerals
found in Andes belt of South America are iron, copper, silver, gold, and
porphyry type Cu-Mo deposits. The minerals like Pb, Zn and Ag also occur as
vein forms in the host rocks. Along the subduction zone, porphyry copper
deposits are formed as a result of volcanism. However, the shallow subduction
zone is the domain of large porphyry Cu-Mo and epithermal deposits.
Another example is the Kuroko type deposits in Japan are an Island-arc-Inter
arc basin typesetting. The significant mineral deposits found in this setting
include metal deposits like copper, lead, zinc, and molybdenum.
2. Continental-Continental Plates Collision
Continental-continental plate collision results in the formation of mountains. The
best example is the formation of the Himalayan mountains. The Mesozoic
subduction-related porphyry Cu-Au deposits and Cenozoic collision-related Cu-
Mo deposits are the results of this type of collision. The granitic rocks in this
tectonic setting host Sn-W-F and Pb-Zn-Ag mineralisation. Whereas the Fe-Ti
mineralisation is associated at the deeper crustal level with basic-ultrabasic
rock. The obducted slabs are known as ophiolites also host some deposits of
Cr and Cu.
3.4.4 Continental Rifting and Ore Deposition
The rift is a linear zone where the lithosphere is being pulled apart and
deformation takes place. The extensional deformation of lithospheric plates is
mainly caused when hot material from a mantle reaches to the base of the
continental plate and causing the overlying lithosphere to break and rift.
Major rifts occur along the central axis of most mid-ocean ridges, where the
new oceanic crustal lithosphere is created along a divergent boundary between
two tectonic plates. The East African Rift System is the best example. Alkaline
and basaltic magmas generated during rifting are associated with several kinds
of mineralisation. Son-Narmada Rift System of Central India is another example
of an intercontinental rift system. Yet, no mineralisation is reported like any
other rift system of the world. However, there is a possibility of the discovery of
mineral deposits at Ambadongar, which is a famous Carbonatite Complex.
3.4.5 Ore Deposition at Mantle Plume and Hot Spots
The mantle plume is a mechanism by which hot material from the lower mantle
comes to earth’s surface. The surface expression of mantle plume is known as
hot spot. Mantle plumes are the stationary features in the Earth's crust and act
as a source for the transmission of heat.
When plates move over the mantle plume, it initiates the melting of crust and
generates the acidic and intermediate magma and associated mineralisation.
The mineral deposits associated with mantle plume activities are also found
associated with mafic and ultramafic magma that hosts the platinum group of
elements (PGE) and Ni-Cu sulfides deposits. Besides these, the orogenic
granites related to mantle plume activity, also results in the formation of
significant ore deposits. For example, Bushveld Granite Complex hosts
significant Sn, W, Mo, Cu, and F mineralisation. The association of diamond
91
Block 1 Introduction to Ore Geology
………………………………………………………...…………..……………………………………………….
with Kimberlite and occurrence of lead deposits in carbonatite in the Amazon rift
zone in South America and Benue in Trough of West Africa are good examples
of this type of ore deposits.
Learners, before you proceed to the next section. Now, spend few minutes to
perform an exercise to check your progress.

SAQ 2
a) Name any two metals deposited at the continental-continental divergent
plate boundaries.
b) List some important deposits formed as a result of continental-oceanic
plate collision.
c) Give anyone example of continental rifting and ore deposition.
d) Write any two mineral deposits associated with mantle plume activities.

3.5 SUMMARY
Let us sum up what we have studied in this unit.
• Geologically, the age of the Earth is divided into six Eras such as Hadean,
Archaean, Proterozoic, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic and further
subdivided into different periods. ‘Metallogenic Provinces’ are the mineral
enriched areas and ‘Metallogenic Epochs' are the time periods of
mineralisation on the Earth's surface.
• The Various metallogenic epochs are a) Precambrian epoch, b) Late
Palaeozoic epoch, and c) Late Mesozoic to Early Tertiary epoch. In a
metallogenic province, large concentrations of particular group minerals were
deposited. Metallogenic provinces are unevenly distributed in different parts
of the world.
• Iron ore has a wide range of spatial and temporal distribution. Globally, BIFs
are the largest concentrations of iron ores and are of and are of two types: i)
The Algoma type, and ii) The Superior type. Manganese ores are not only
deposited on the continents but are also found on the sea beds and are
hosted in the rocks of Palaeo-Proterozoic, Neo-proterozoic, and Cenozoic
age.
• Globally, majority of the coal is produced from the Gondwana rocks of Upper
Carboniferous to Lower Cretaceous age and the contribution of Tertiary coal
is meagre. In the whole world, oil-producing basins are wholly composed of
either clastic or non-clastic sedimentary rocks and formed during the
Mesozoic and Cenozoic times.

• The occurrences of base metals like copper, lead, and zinc are mostly
located in the Late Archaean to Early Proterozoic terrains. Precious metals
are rare in occurrence and the three primary metals are gold, silver and
platinum. These metals have genetic association with various igneous
intrusions associated with Archaean granite-greenstone belts.
92
Unit 3 Metallogeny in Relation to Tectonics
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
• The global metallogeny is influenced by the breaking, uniting, and dispersal
of continental fragments on a larger scale. Plate tectonics like crustal
evolution plays an important role in knowing the distribution and origin of
mineral deposits. Different mineralisation occurs at constructive and
destructive plate boundaries, continental rifting and hotspot zones.

3.6 ACTIVITY
Refer to the Fig. 3.6, then mark and label the countries with the largest oil
reserves in the below given world map (Fig. 3.14).

Fig. 3.14: An outline map of the World.

3.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Discuss briefly some of the important metallogenic provinces of the world.
2. Describe spatial and temporal distribution of iron and manganese deposits.
3. Discuss ore deposition at constructive and destructive plate boundaries.
4. Write about the mantle plume, hot sports and ore deposition.

3.8 REFERENCES
• Alexander, P.O. (2009) A Handbook of Minerals, Crystals Rocks and Ores.
New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi. 655p.
• Evans, A.M. (1992) Ore Geology and Industrial minerals An Introduction. 3rd
Edition. Wiley Blackwell Publishers, Oxford.389p.
• Jensen, M and Bateman, A.M. (1976) Economic Mineral Deposits. 3rd
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York. 604p.
• Robb, L. (2005) Introduction to Ore-Forming Processes. Blackwell
Publishing, Oxford. 373p.
• [Link]
dia/File:Map-of-countries-by-proven-oil-reserves-(in-millions-of-barrels)---
[Link]
• [Link]
[Link]
93
Block 1 Introduction to Ore Geology
………………………………………………………...…………..……………………………………………….
• [Link]
studies/energy-resources-coal/content-section-4.5
(All the websites are accessed between 25/6/2021 and 17/9/2021)
3.9 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS
• Alexander, P.O. (2009) A Handbook of Minerals, Crystals Rocks and Ores.
New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi. 655p.
• Jensen, M and Bateman, A.M. (1976) Economic Mineral Deposits. 3rd
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York.604p.

3.10 ANSWERS
SAQ 1
a) Precambrian
b) Pb-Zn
c) Algoma, Superior
d) Mumbai
e) Dugocha, Bhukia
SAQ 2
a) Cu, Ag
b) The important deposits formed as a result of continental-oceanic plate
collisionare iron, copper, silver, gold and porphyry type Cu-Mo deposits.
c) The East African rift system is the best example of continental rifting and ore
deposition.
d) The platinum group of elements (PGE) and Ni-Cu sulphide minerals are the
deposits associated with mantle plume activities.
Terminal Questions
1. Please refer to subsection 3.2.2.
2. Please refer to subsection3.2.3.
3. Please refer to subsection 3.3.2. and 3.3.3.
4. Please refer to subsection 3.3.5.

94