Atoms and nuclei

Definition of atom

The basic building block of a substance or a element is called atom

Definition of nuclei

The atomic nucleus is the small, dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an
atom, discovered in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford based on the 1909 Geiger–Marsden gold foil experiment.

Models of atoms

John Dalton model of atom

1: The Solid Sphere model was brought in by John Dalton in 1803. This model was made by tiny invisible
partials which are atoms and all atoms are alike. John Dalton also he included the law of multiple
proportions and also the law definite composition on his model. His model was not perfect but his
model lasted the main model for 90 years.

J.J. Thompson model of atom

Also called as the plum pudding model. in 1897 a man named J.J. Thompson used cathode ray with small
particles, smaller than an atom and it consisted of negatively charged particles John Daltons theory was
no longer workable. They needed a new theory with subatomic particles. He proposed that the atom
was a mass of positive charge with negative electrons placed into it like raisins in a pudding, and dubbed
it the Plum Pudding model

Niels Bohr model of atom

The model which can explain the system of atom with only one electron that is why niels bohr model of
explains the structure of hydrogen and other 1 electron atoms

There were, however, some problems with Rutherford's model: for example it could not explain the very
interesting observation that atoms only emit light at certain wavelengths or frequencies. Niels Bohr
solved this problem by proposing that the electrons could only orbit the nucleus in certain special orbits
at different energy levels around the nucleus.

James Chadwick (ESAAS)

Rutherford predicted (in 1920) that another kind of particle must be present in the nucleus along with
the proton. He predicted this because if there were only positively charged protons in the nucleus, then
it should break into bits because of the repulsive forces between the like-charged protons! To make sure
that the atom stays electrically neutral, this particle would have to be neutral itself. In 1932 James
Chadwick discovered the neutron and measured its mass.

Calculation of atomic mass

t is possible to determine the mass of a single atom in kilograms. But to do this, you would need special
instruments and the values you would get would be very clumsy and difficult to work with. The mass of
a carbon atom, for example, is about 1,99×10−26 kg, while the mass of an atom of hydrogen is about
1,67×10−27 kg. Looking at these very small numbers makes it difficult to compare how much bigger the
mass of one atom is when compared to another.

To make the situation simpler, scientists use a different unit of mass when they are describing the mass
of an atom. This unit is called the atomic mass unit (amu). We can abbreviate (shorten) this unit to just
u. Scientists use the carbon standard to determine amu. The carbon standard gives carbon an atomic
mass of 12,0 u. Compared to carbon the mass of a hydrogen atom will be 1 u. Atomic mass units are
therefore not giving us the actual mass of an atom, but rather its mass relative to the mass of one
(carefully chosen) atom in the periodic table. In other words it is only a number in comparison to
another number. The atomic masses of some elements are shown

Nuclei

Nucleus definition

The atomic nucleus is the small, dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an
atom, discovered in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford based on the 1909 Geiger–Marsden gold foil experiment.
... Protons and neutrons are bound together to form a nucleus by the nuclear force.

The positively charged central core of an atom, consisting of protons and neutrons and containing nearly
all its mass.

The nucleus is the center of an atom. It is made up of nucleons called (protons and neutrons) and is
surrounded by the electron cloud. The size (diameter) of the nucleus is between 1.6 fm (10−15 m)

Michael Faraday used nucleus to describe the “central point of an atom

The entire mass and the +ve (positive charge) of the atom is concentrated into very small volume and it
is called as nucleus

Example – if the room is the atom the pin head of the needle is nucleus

Nucleus structure

Nucleus is made of neutrons and protons which is also called as nucleons

is a subatomic particle consisting of +e charge (positive charge)

Neutron has no charge but the neutron is slightly heavier then proton

Atomic number and mass number

Representation = z is atomic number that is total number of protons

a = is atomic mass number total number of neutrons + protons is called atomic number

Isotone

if the neutron no is same for the element such kind of element or nucleus is called as isotone. isotone is
nothing but difference between A and Z

Isobar

If atomic number of given elements are identical to each other there are called as isobars of each other

A same z not same = isobar (easy way)

the formula of isoton calculation is N=A-Z

Isomer

if a and Z of element are same it is known as isomer but the radioactive properties are different in both.
Radioactive properties means emitting the alpha beta gamma particles from the atom. in isomer
everthing is same but emission rate is different such elements are called isomers of each other

isotope is reverse formula of isobar where a is not equal but z is same

the unit of atomic mass is amu

1 amu = 1.66x10-27 kg its calculating instrument is called mass spectrometer which calculates mass of
nucleus

amu calculation

Radius of nucleus calculation

End of the chapter

What is quantum physics?

Quantum physics is the branch of physics which explains the nature and behavior of the matter and
energy and on atomic and subatomic level. The strange world of minute particles is called as quantum
world. every atom is made of three types of particles,

They are electron, neutron and proton.

The sub atomic particles neutron and proton are made of quarks particle. Inside proton there are two
up-quark and one down-quark whereas in neutron there are one up quark and two down quark. the up
quark and the down quark are attached together by gluon. the strong force is generated by the gluon.
The electron is made of neutrinos. the size of quarks are measured in attometre whereas the size of
neutrino is measured in yoctometre.

Standard model of physical particle

 according to the scientist there are 6 types of quarks = up quark, down quark, charm quark, strange
quark, top quark bottom quark only up quark and down quark are stable and are particles from which
the normal matter is made.

Charm quark

The charm quark, charmed quark or c quark is the third most massive of all quarks, a type of
elementary particle. Charm quarks are found in hadrons,

Strange quark

strange quark is the third lightest of all quarks it is also found in hadrons

Top quark

The top quark, also known as the t quark or truth quark, is the most massive of all observed
primary particles.

Bottom quark

The bottom quark or b quark, also known as the beauty quark, is a third-generation quark with a
charge of − e

Types of leptons

in particle physics, a lepton is an elementary particle of half-integer spin that does not undergo
strong interactions. Two main classes of leptons exist: charged leptons, and neutral leptons.
electron and electron neutrino are stable leptons from which normal matter is made of.

Charged leptons

also known as electron like leptons Charged leptons (electron, muon, tau) ... Experiments have
shown that the intrinsic strength of the underlying reaction is the same in both kinds of decay,
thus revealing that the weak force acts equally upon leptons (electrons, muons, neutrinos) and
quarks (which form neutrons and protons).

Neutral leptons

are nothing but neutrinos

muon

is a type of electron which is an unstable subatomic particle of the same class as an electron (a
lepton), but with a mass around 200 times greater. Muons make up much of the cosmic
radiation reaching the earth's surface.

Muon neutron

The muon neutrino is a lepton, an elementary subatomic particle which has the symbol ν μ and
no net electric charge. Together with the muon it forms the second generation of leptons, hence
the name muon neutrino
Tau

an unstable subatomic particle of the lepton class, with a charge of −1 and a mass roughly
3,500 times that of the electron.

Tau neutrino

a neutrino of the type associated with the tau particle.

Boson particles

the fundamentals forces like strong force, electromagnetic force and weak force are generated
by boson particles and at last comes the god particle it is the particle which is present in the
every empty space of the universe. which is also called as higgs boson from which higgs field is
created. rather than quantum physics there are many other fields like

supersymmentary

In particle physics, super symmetry is a principle that proposes a relationship between two basic
classes of elementary particles: bosons, which have an integer-valued spin, and fermions,
which have a half-integer spin

Dark matter

Dark matter is a hypothetical form of matter that is thought to account for approximately 85% of
the matter in the universe, and about a quarter of its total energy density.

Antimatter symmetry

physicists believe that the laws of nature obey a fundamental symmetry called “CPT” (this
stands for charge conjugation, parity, and time reversal), which postulates that if all the matter in
the universe were replaced with antimatter, left and right inverted as if looking into a mirror, and
the flow of time reversed,

Magnetic monopoles

A magnetic monopole is a hypothetical elementary particle in particle physics that is an isolated

magnet with only one magnetic pole. A magnetic monopole would have a net "magnetic
charge".

Extra generations

In particle physics, a generation or family is a division of the elementary

particles. Between generations, particles differ by their flavour quantum
number and mass, but their interactions are identical. ...
Each generation is divided into two types of leptons and two types of
quarks.
 Extra dimension

In physics, extra dimensions are proposed additional space or time dimensions beyond the
typical of observed space-time, such as the first attempts based on the Kaluza–Klein theory.

Black holes

A black hole is a region of space-time exhibiting such strong gravitational effects that nothing—
not even particles and electromagnetic radiation such as light—can escape from inside it

Dark energy

In physical cosmology and astronomy, dark energy is an unknown form of energy which is
hypothesized to permeate all of space, tending to accelerate the expansion of the universe

Strings

In physics, a string is a physical phenomenon that appears in string theory and related
subjects. Unlike elementary particles, which are zero-dimensional or point-like by
definition, strings are one-dimensional extended objects.

Quantum mechanical model of atom

The quantum mechanical model of the atom

Introduction to the quantum mechanical model of the atom: Thinking about electrons as
probabilistic matter waves using the de Broglie wavelength, the Schrödinger equation, and the
Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Electron spin and the Stern-Gerlach experiment.

 Louis de Broglie proposed that all particles could be treated as matter waves with a
wavelength \lambdaλlambda, given by the following equation:
\lambda=\dfrac{h}{mv}λ=mvhlambda, equals, start fraction, h, divided by, m, v, end
fraction

 Erwin Schrödinger proposed the quantum mechanical model of the atom, which
treats electrons as matter waves.

 Schrödinger's equation, \hat{H}\psi=E\psiH^ψ=Eψ, can be solved to yield a series of

wave function \psiψ, each of which is associated with an electron binding
energy, EEE.

 The square of the wave function, \psi^2ψ2, represents the probability of finding an
electron in a given region within the atom.

 An atomic orbital is defined as the region within an atom that encloses where the
electron is likely to be 90% of the time.

 The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that we can't know both the energy and
position of an electron. Therefore, as we learn more about the electron's position,
we know less about its energy, and vice versa.
 Electrons have an intrinsic property called spin, and an electron can have one of
two possible spin values: spin-up or spin-down.

 Any two electrons occupying the same orbital must have opposite spins.

Introduction to the quantum mechanical model

"We must be clear that when it comes to atoms, language can only be used as in poetry." —Niels Bohr

Matter begins to behave very strangely at the subatomic level. Some of this behavior is so
counterintuitive that we can only talk about it with symbols and metaphors—like in poetry. For
example, what does it mean to say an electron behaves like a particle and a wave? Or that an
electron does not exist in any one particular location, but that it is spread out throughout the entire
atom?

If these questions strike you as odd, they should! As it turns out, we are in good company. The
physicist Niels Bohr also said, "Anyone who is not shocked by quantum theory has not understood
it." So if you feel confused when learning about quantum mechanics, know that the scientists who
originally developed it were just as befuddled.

We will start by briefly reviewing Bohr's model of hydrogen, the first non-classical model of the
atom.

Review of Bohr's model of hydrogen

As we have seen in a previous article on the Bohr model, the emission spectra of different elements
contain discrete lines. The following image shows the visible region of the emission spectra for
hydrogen.

Emission spectrum for hydrogen showing purplish blue lines at 410 and 434 nm, a light blue line at 486
nm, and a red line at 656 nm. All lines are against a black background.

Hydrogen emits four wavelengths of light in the visible region. Image credit:Emission spectrum from
Wikimedia Commons, CC0 1.0

The quantized emission spectra indic ated to Bohr that perhaps electrons could only exist within the
atom at certain atomic radii and energies. Recall that quantized refers to the fact that energy can only
be absorbed and emitted in a range of allowable values rather than with any possible value. The
following diagram of the Bohr model shows the electron existing in a finite number of allowed orbits or
shells around the nucleus.

Diagram showing the the first three levels—n=1, 2, and 3—for Bohr's model of hydrogen. An electron is
relaxing from n-3 to n=2, as indicated by an arrow starting at n=3 and going to n=2. The loss of a photon
is shown for the electronic transition with an energy of hf.
A diagram of the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom. Electrons move in circular orbits that are at fixed
distances from the nucleus. Light is emitted when excited electrons, n>1n>1n, is greater than, 1, relax
back to a lower energy level. Image credit: from Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0

From this model, Bohr derived an equation that correctly predicted the various energy levels in the
hydrogen atom, which corresponded directly to the emission lines in the hydrogen spectrum. Bohr's
model was also successful at predicting the energy levels in other one-electron systems, such as \
text{He}^+He+H, e, start superscript, plus, end superscript. However, it failed to explain the electronic
structure in atoms that contained more than one electron.

While some physicists initially tried to adapt Bohr's model to make it useful for more complicated
systems, they eventually concluded that a completely different model was needed.

quantum numbers

The Bohr model was a one-dimensional model that used one quantum number to
describe the distribution of electrons in the atom. The only information that was
important was the size of the orbit, which was described by the nquantum number.
Schr�dinger's model allowed the electron to occupy three-dimensional space. It
therefore required three coordinates, or three quantum numbers, to describe the
orbitals in which electrons can be found.

The three coordinates that come from Schrodinger’s wave equations are the principal
(n), angular (l), and magnetic (m) quantum numbers. These quantum numbers
describe the size, shape, and orientation in space of the orbitals on an atom.

The principal quantum number (n) describes the size of the orbital. Orbitals for
which n = 2 are larger than those for which n = 1, for example. Because they have
opposite electrical charges, electrons are attracted to the nucleus of the atom. Energy
must therefore be absorbed to excite an electron from an orbital in which the electron
is close to the nucleus (n = 1) into an orbital in which it is further from the nucleus
(n = 2). The principal quantum number therefore indirectly describes the energy of an
orbital.

The angular quantum number (l) describes the shape of the orbital. Orbitals have
shapes that are best described as spherical (l = 0), polar (l = 1), or cloverleaf (l = 2).
They can even take on more complex shapes as the value of the angular quantum
number becomes larger.

There is only one way in which a sphere (l = 0) can be oriented in space. Orbitals that
have polar (l = 1) or cloverleaf (l = 2) shapes, however, can point in different
directions. We therefore need a third quantum number, known as the magnetic
quantum number (m), to describe the orientation in space of a particular orbital. (It is
called the magnetic quantum number because the effect of different orientations of
orbitals was first observed in the presence of a magnetic field.)
theory of relativity

the theory of relativity is based of two principles special theory of relativity and general theory of
relativity

special theory of relativity is divided into

relativity of time

according to this theory when a object travels at the speed of light (3 lakh km per hour) the time
becomes slow. for example if a man travels in a spaceship at the speed of light for 1 year and when he
comes back to his planet he will be thousands of year ahead.

relativity of space

it states that a person who is travelling at the speed of light the distance between the objects for him
becomes very shorter. he seems like universe is evolving around him rather then he is travelling in the
universe

relativity of mass

it states that if a small object strikes each together at the speed of light creates a very huge energy
(e=mc2). the invention of atomic bomb is made on this principle.

General theory of relativity

The “General Theory of Relativity’ is related to gravity. It describes gravitational

force as continuous non-spatial whole of space and time. The general theory of
relativity is considered as more advanced and is widely applicable special theory of
relativity.
theory of special relativity cops up only with circumstances moving at the constant speed through the
universe Einstein theorized that objects warped time space around it causing it to become curved as a
result objects experiences gravitational attraction to each other. this warping of space-time explain how
objects how objects behave as they move through space is the general theory of relativity. whereas
classical theory of relativity states earth is constantly moving, sun is constantly moving and the galaxy is
constantly in motion therefore nothing is ever at absolute motion or absolute rest, things just move and
are relative to each other. which was coined by Dr Isaac Newton. but theory of general relativity
opposes this theory. as classical theory of relativity opposes the warping of space by gravitation.
laws of physics

Newtons laws of motion

Newton's First Law of Motion:

I. Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain in that state of motion unless an
external force is applied to it.

This we recognize as essentially Galileo's concept of inertia, and this is often termed simply the "Law of
Inertia".

Newton's Second Law of Motion:

II. The relationship between an object's mass m, its acceleration a, and the applied force F is F = ma.
Acceleration and force are vectors (as indicated by their symbols being displayed in slant bold font); in
this law the direction of the force vector is the same as the direction of the acceleration vector.

Newton's Third Law of Motion:

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

law of conservation of energy

in physics, the law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system remains
constant, it is said to be conserved over time. This law means that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed; rather, it can only be transformed or transferred from one form to another.

law of conservation mass

The law of conservation of mass or principle of mass conservation states that for any system
closed to all transfers of matter and energy, the mass of the system must remain constant over
time, as system's mass cannot change, so quantity cannot be added nor removed. Hence, the
quantity of mass is conserved over time

law of conservation of momentum

One of the most powerful laws in physics is the law of momentum conservation. ... For a
collision occurring between object 1 and object 2 in an isolated system, the total momentum of
the two objects before the collision is equal to the total momentum of the two objects after the
collision.

law of angular momentum

HE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM STATES THAT: "When the net

external torque acting on a system about a given axis is. zero , the total angular momentum of
the system about that axis remains constant." Mathematically, If then = constant.

law of conservation of linear momentum

Conservation of linear momentum expresses the fact that a body or system of bodies in motion
retains its total momentum, the product of mass and vector velocity, unless an external force is
applied to it

charge conservation

in physics, charge conservation is the principle that the total electric charge in an isolated
system never changes. The net quantity of electric charge, the amount of positive charge minus
the amount of negative charge in the universe, is always conserved.

law of conservation of kinetic energy

In physics, the law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated
system remains constant, it is said to be conserved over time. ... For instance,
chemical energy is converted to kinetic energy when a stick of dynamite explodes.

laws of thermodynamics

conduction

Thermal conduction is the transfer of heat (internal energy) by microscopic collisions of

particles and movement of electrons within a body.

convection

Convection is the heat transfer due to bulk movement of molecules within fluids such as gases
and liquids, including molten rock. Convection takes place through advection, diffusion or both.

radiation

In physics, radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles
through space or through a material medium.

principle of buoyancy

Archimedes' principle, physical law of buoyancy, discovered by the ancient Greek mathematician and
inventor Archimedes, stating that anybody completely or partially submerged in a fluid (gas or liquid) at
rest is acted upon by an upward, or buoyant, force the magnitude of which is equal to the weight of the
fluid ...

e of buoyancy

mechanics

introduction

mechanics. The branch of physics that deals with the motion of material objects. The
term mechanics generally refers to the motion of large objects, whereas the study of motion at
the level of the atom or smaller is the domain of quantum mechanics.
mechanics is the oldest branch of physics which deals with motion. motion has excited people
for centuries.

branches

there are three branches of mechanics there are

kinematics

kinematics is nothing but it about displacement, acceleration, velocity and time. kinematics is
when the object is in motion

dynamics

part of mechanics where we study the effect of forces on the motion. generally we thing that to
move something we must require force but not true because in uniform velocity there is no
force, force changes velocity

statics

the part of mechanics where we deal about forces acting on the object when the object is in rest.

semiconductors

Semiconductor Basics. Semiconductors materials such as silicon (Si), germanium (Ge) and gallium
arsenide (GaAs), have electrical properties somewhere in the middle, between those of a “conductor”
and an “insulator”. They are not good conductors nor good insulators (hence their name “semi”-
conductors). A semiconductor material has an electrical conductivity value falling between that of a
conductor, like copper, gold, etc. and an insulator, such as glass. Their resistance decreases as their
temperature increases, which is behavior opposite to that of a metal.

the valence and conduction bands of insulators, metals, and semiconductors. ... The energy difference
between the highest occupied energy state of the valence band and the lowest unoccupied state of
the conduction band is called the band gap and is indicative of the electrical conductivity of a material.
the energy gap in the insulator is the highest whereas in semiconductor there is very less but in
conductor there is no energy gap because in conductor the valence band and conduction band overlap
each other in insulator there is gap of five volt electrons and in this case if the electrons in valence band
wants to go in conduction band it needs energy of more than 5 electrons volts. whereas in
semiconductors there is very short gap the some of the electrons are free that is why semiconductor
conducts electricity only in room temperature but doesn't work as conductor. in the gap between
valence band and conduction band their lies no electrons. the energy of a normal insulator is 5 electron
volts in silicon there are 1.1 electron volts in germanium 0.64 electrons volts.

mysteries to research on

Dark matter and Dark energy

The Origin of Life and Consciousness
Fermi’s Paradox
Gravitational Singularities
Multiverse Theory
Riemann Hypothesis
Baryon asymmetry
big bounce and big crunch

Multiverse
Tesseract (not so important)
gravitational wave

Time Dilation: Why Does Gravity Slow Down The Flow Of Time?
specific gravity. of fluid

Wave turbulence theory for gravitational waves in general relativity: The Space-Time
Kolmogorov spectrum

Periodic table keys

1) The mix of protons and neutrons and called nucleon

2) no of protons = atomic number

3) protons and neutrons make atomic number

representation = z is atomic number

a = is atomic mass number

Isotone

If the neutron no is same for the element such kind of element or nucleus is called as isotone. isotone is
nothing but difference between A and Z

isobar

if atomic number of given elements are identical to each other there are called as isobars of each other

a same z not same = isobar (easy way)

the formula of isoton calculation is N=A-Z

isomer
if a and Z of element are same it is known as isomer but the radioactive properties are different in both.
radioactive properties means emitting the alpha beta gamma particles from the atom. in isomer
everthing is same but emission rate is different such elements are called isomers of each other

isotope is reverse formula of isobar where a is not equal but z is same

the unit of atomic mass is amu

1 amu = 1.66x10-27 kg its calculating instrument is called mass spectrometer which calculates mass of
nucleus

Amu calculation

Radius of nucleus calculation

Electrostatics

Electrostatics is a branch of physics that studies electric charges at rest. Since classical physics, it has
been known that some materials such as amber attract lightweight particles after rubbing. The Greek
word for amber or electron, was the source of the word 'electricity'

Electrostatics is the study which specially deals with electrical charge of coulombs law

Coulomb's law, or Coulomb's inverse-square law, is an experimental law of physics that quantifies the
amount of force between two stationary, electrically charged particles. The electric force between
charged bodies at rest is conventionally called electrostatic force or Coulomb force.

Coulomb's law states that:

'The magnitude of the electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is directly
proportional to the product of the magnitudes of charges and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them.'

The force is along the straight line joining them. If the two charges have the same sign, the electrostatic
force between them is repulsive; if they have different signs, the force between them is attractive.

If {\displaystyle r} r is the distance (in meters) between two charges, then the force (in newtons)
between two point charges {\displaystyle q} q and {\displaystyle Q} Q (in coulombs) is:

Electromagnetism

The word "electromagnetism" in physics is used to describe one of the fundamental forces of nature.
This force is between subatomic particles such as protons and electrons. It helps to hold matter
together. Electromagnetism is also used to describe how a magnetic field is created by the flowing of
electric current.

force, a type of physical interaction that occurs between electrically charged particles. The
electromagnetic force is carried by electromagnetic fields composed of electric fields and magnetic
fields, is responsible for electromagnetic radiation such as light, and is one of the four fundamental
interactions (commonly called forces) in nature. The other three fundamental interactions are the
strong interaction, the weak interaction, and gravitation.[1] At high energy the weak force and
electromagnetic force are unified as a single electroweak force.

The transformer is based on two principles: first, that an electric current can produce a magnetic field
(electromagnetism), and, second that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage
across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction).

Lightning is an electrostatic discharge that travels between two charged regions.

Electromagnetic phenomena are defined in terms of the electromagnetic force, sometimes called the
Lorentz force, which includes both electricity and magnetism as different manifestations of the same
phenomenon. The electromagnetic force plays a major role in determining the internal properties of
most objects encountered in daily life. The electromagnetic attraction between atomic nuclei and their
orbital electrons holds atoms together. Electromagnetic forces are responsible for the chemical bonds
between atoms which create molecules, and intermolecular forces. The electromagnetic force governs
all chemical processes, which arise from interactions between the electrons of neighboring atoms.

There are numerous mathematical descriptions of the electromagnetic field. In classical

electrodynamics, electric fields are described as electric potential and electric current. In Faraday's law,
magnetic fields are associated with electromagnetic induction and magnetism, and Maxwell's equations
describe how electric and magnetic fields are generated and altered by each other and by charges and
currents.

The theoretical implications of electromagnetism, particularly the establishment of the speed of light
based on properties of the "medium" of propagation (permeability and permittivity), led to the
development of special relativity by Albert Einstein in 1905.

Electric current

Electric current. An electric current is a flow of electric charge. Electric charge flows when there is
voltage present across a conductor. In electric circuits this charge is often carried by moving electrons in
a wire. It can also be carried by ions in an electrolyte, or by both ions and electrons such as in a plasma

An electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge past a point[1]:2[2]:622 or region.[2]:614 An
electric current is said to exist when there is a net flow of electric charge through a region.[3]:832 In
electric circuits this charge is often carried by electrons moving through a wire. It can also be carried by
ions in an electrolyte, or by both ions and electrons such as in an ionized gas (plasma).[4]
The SI unit of electric current is the ampere, which is the flow of electric charge across a surface at the
rate of one coulomb per second. The ampere (symbol: A) is an SI base unit [5]:15 Electric current is
measured using a device called an ammeter.[2]:788

Electric currents cause Joule heating, which creates light in incandescent light bulbs. They also create
magnetic fields, which are used in motors, inductors and generators.

The moving charged particles in an electric current are called charge carriers. In metals, one or more
electrons from each atom are loosely bound to the atom, and can move freely about within the metal.
These conduction electrons are the charge carriers in metal conductors.

Electromagnetic induction

The transformer is based on two principles: first, that an electric current can produce a magnetic field
(electromagnetism), and, second that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage
across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction). Electromagnetic or magnetic induction is the
production of an electromotive force across an electrical conductor in a changing magnetic field.
Michael Faraday is generally credited with the discovery of induction in 1831, and James Clerk Maxwell
mathematically described it as Faraday's law of induction. Faraday's law and relativity

Faraday's law describes two different phenomena: the motional EMF generated by a magnetic force on
a moving wire (see Lorentz force), and the transformer EMF this is generated by an electric force due to
a changing magnetic field (due to the differential form of the Maxwell–Faraday equation). James Clerk
Maxwell drew attention to the separate physical phenomena in 1861.[21][22] This is believed to be a
unique example in physics of where such a fundamental law is invoked to explain two such different
phenomena.[23]

Einstein noticed that the two situations both corresponded to a relative movement between a
conductor and a magnet, and the outcome was unaffected by which one was moving. This was one of
the principal paths that led him to develop special relativity.

Faraday’s Law of Induction

From the above description we can say that a relationship exists between an electrical voltage and a
changing magnetic field to which Michael Faraday’s famous law of electromagnetic induction states:
“that a voltage is induced in a circuit whenever relative motion exists between a conductor and a
magnetic field and that the magnitude of this voltage is proportional to the rate of change of the flux”.

In other words, Electromagnetic Induction is the process of using magnetic fields to produce voltage,
and in a closed circuit, a current.
So how much voltage (emf) can be induced into the coil using just magnetism. Well this is determined by
the following 3 different factors.

1). Increasing the number of turns of wire in the coil – By increasing the amount of individual conductors
cutting through the magnetic field, the amount of induced emf produced will be the sum of all the
individual loops of the coil, so if there are 20 turns in the coil there will be 20 times more induced emf
than in one piece of wire.

2). Increasing the speed of the relative motion between the coil and the magnet – If the same coil of
wire passed through the same magnetic field but its speed or velocity is increased, the wire will cut the
lines of flux at a faster rate so more induced emf would be produced.

3). Increasing the strength of the magnetic field – If the same coil of wire is moved at the same speed
through a stronger magnetic field, there will be more emf produced because there are more lines of
force to cut.

If we were able to move the magnet in the diagram above in and out of the coil at a constant speed and
distance without stopping we would generate a continuously induced voltage that would alternate
between one positive polarity and a negative polarity producing an alternating or AC output voltage and
this is the basic principle of how an electrical generator works similar to those used in dynamos and car
alternators.

In small generators such as a bicycle dynamo, a small permanent magnet is rotated by the action of the
bicycle wheel inside a fixed coil. Alternatively, an electromagnet powered by a fixed DC voltage can be
made to rotate inside a fixed coil, such as in large power generators producing in both cases an
alternating current.

Introduction to kinetic theory and gas laws

Maxwell and Boltzmann were the scientist who discovered kinetic theory of gases this theory was
discovered in 1873, this theory developed the atomic theory given by john Dalton by explaining that the
atoms and molecules are not at rest but are continuously at motion and that motion energy is called as
kinetic energy

So the most motion out of the three states takes place in the gas molecules hence in this kinetic theory
we especially study more about gases

This theory also explained the properties and behavior of numerous gases

According to this the theory the reason for the certain properties and behavior is due to the continuous
motion of its atoms and molecules

There is an assumption that the intermolecular forces are absent in ideal gases

However ideal gas is an imaginary concept which means kinetic theory of gas doesn’t applies to every
gas but applies to the one with certain conditions which follow the theory.