Page |1
CSEC GEOGRAPHY
NATURAL SYSTEMS
TOPIC FOUR PART 2- FLUVIAL ENVIRONMENTS
SYLLABUS OBJECTIVES
20. The hydrological cycle (evaporation, condensation, precipitation, transpiration, run-
off, infiltration, through-flow, percolation, groundwater flow) and its features (springs,
aquifers, and the water table).
21. Drainage system- fluvial processes- erosion, transportation, and deposition.
22. River landforms- river valleys, waterfalls, meanders, braided channels, ox-box lakes,
levees, flood plains, and deltas.
23. Drainage patterns- dendritic trellis, radial and relationship to rock type and geology.
RIVER PROFILE
1. THE LONG PROFILE OF A RIVER
Video- [Link]
LONG PROFILE OF A RIVER
Compiled by Alea M A Ali
Page |2
The long profile is a line which represents the river from its source (start) to its mouth
(where it meets the sea or another body of water). It shows how the river changes over it
course.
Video- [Link]
A river system comprises of three parts, the upper, middle, and lower course.
i. The upper course is where the river starts and is often located in a highland
area. The load here is often large as it has not been broken down by erosion as
yet.
Due to the high amounts of energy in the upper course, vertical erosion is dominant. The
bed of the river is eroded more in comparison to the banks. The river in the upper course
mainly transports large pieces of rock through traction. This results in increased corrasion
of the riverbed in response to the load being dragged along the river bed. After high
periods of rainfall there is an increase in erosion and transportation which when
decreased deposits the large boulders material.
ii. The energy decreases in the middle course allowing corrasion to remain as the
main process of erosion with the transportation of large particles through
saltation.
The load size is decreased here as more load is now transported in suspension. Rivers can
flood in the middle course and there is the deposition of gravel and sand-sized particles
in the flood plain.
iii. The lower course is flatter, and the load is fine sediment as erosion of rocks has
already occurred.
Due to an even reduced energy level in the lower course, erosion tends to occur laterally.
Erosion is drastically decreased with smaller particle sizes. Suspension and solution are
responsible for the transport of silts and clay in the lower course. When the river deposits
this material, it occurs at the mouth of the river where it meets the sea or another body of
water.
Compiled by Alea M A Ali
Page |3
VALLEY SHAPE IN THE DIFFERENT COURSES OF A RIVER
The upper course has a steep V-shaped valley with downward erosions.
The middle course is U-shaped with lateral erosion.
The lower course is an open U shape (wide) with lateral erosion and deposition.
2. THE CROSS PROFILE
The cross profile shows a cross section of a river’s channel and valley (a low area of land
between hills or mountains with a river flowing through) at a certain point along the river
course (IE images above).
Compiled by Alea M A Ali
Page |4
RIVER COURSES
LONG AND CROSS PROFILE OF A RIVER
Compiled by Alea M A Ali
Page |5
UPPER COURSE FEATURES
The river gradient in the upper course is steep with narrow channels. This results in high
amounts of vertical erosion resulting in steep valley sides, interlocking spurs, rapids,
gorges, and waterfalls.
1. V-SHAPED VALLEYS
Video- [Link]
DIAGRAM OF A V-SHAPED VALLEY
Rivers start in high elevated areas such as mountains which allows their flow to be fast
eroding the landscape vertically. Through hydraulic action, corrasion and corrosion the
river cuts a deep notch downwards.
As this notch continues to be eroded downward or laterally the side of the river becomes
exposed to freeze-thaw weathering (water enters cracks and freezes at night and
continuous freezing and thawing adds pressure on the rock until small pieces break off).
As these rocks fall into the river, it enhances the process of corrasion and thus leading to
further erosion.
This is then transported downstream. As this process continues, the channel becomes
wider and deeper forming a V-shaped valley between interlocking spurs.
Compiled by Alea M A Ali
Page |6
2. INTERLOCKING SPURS
Interlocking spurs are areas of land which jut outward into the river valley which rivers
and streams are forced to flow around. The result is an area of land characterized by hills
that interlock in a zip form. The river weaves in and out of these gaps between the spurs.
Rivers usually take the easiest route downstream, so when met with bands of more
resistant rock, they attempt to avoid these by flowing around them. Thus, rivers flow in
a winding course as opposed to a straight one.
The force of the river water is thus directed at the outer bends as it flows faster here,
leading to more erosion on this side. This causes the bends to be more apparent and
allowing the spurs to be prevalent.
DIAGRAM OF AN INTERLOCKING SPUR
Compiled by Alea M A Ali
Page |7
3. WATERFALLS
Video- [Link]
DIAGRAM OF A WATERFALL FORMATION
Waterfalls are common where water rushes down steep hillsides in upland areas.
Waterfalls are formed in areas with alternating bands of harder, more-resistant rock and
softer, less-resistant rocks.
The softer rock which is less resistant is more quickly eroded. The river then undercuts
the harder rock leaving an overhang which is a section of the land which is unsupported
form below.
Compiled by Alea M A Ali
Page |8
This forms a plunge pool below the waterfall. A plunge pool is a pool of water located at
the bottom of the waterfall. It is an erosional landform created by hydraulic action and
abrasion of the plunging water.
These processes continue to erode the plunge pool and further undercuts the harder more
resistant rock. Overtime, the hard rock will no longer be able to support the overhang
and it will eventually collapse.
The waterfall then retreats leaving behind a steep sided gorge or a gorge-like valley.
4. GORGES
Video- [Link]
Gorges are formed when waterfalls retreat up a valley. When the overhang collapses,
erosion in the form of hydraulic action and abrasion continues to occur. This causes the
waterfall to retreat upstream forming a steep and narrow gorge.
DIAGRAM OF A WATERFALL AND GORGE FORMATION
5. RAPIDS
Compiled by Alea M A Ali
Page |9
DIAGRAM OF A RAPID FORMATION
Rapids are fast flowing, turbulent sections of the river where the bed has a relatively steep
gradient.
Rapids are formed where there is a vertical bedding comprised of alternate bands of hard
and soft rock across a river channel. The softer rocks will be more easily eroded compared
to the harder rock. This is termed differential erosion which is the process of softer rock
wearing away faster than hard rock. This creates an uneven riverbed causing the river
flow to become turbulent with white water sections.
In many instances when the river flows along this uneven bedding, the water may swirl
in response. Materials such as pebbles being carried along swirl in this water wearing
away the riverbed to form depressions. Overtime, these depressions are continuously
worn away to form potholes.
Compiled by Alea M A Ali
P a g e | 10
FORMATION OF POTHOLES
MIDDLE COURSE FEATURES
The gradient in the middle course is gentler allowing for lateral erosion to occur which
acts to widen the river channel. This causes the channel to also deepen, and a larger river
channel means less friction allowing the water to flow faster.
1. MEANDERS AND OX BOW LAKES
Meander- erosion- middle course Oxbow lake- deposition- lower course
As the river is being eroded laterally, at both its right and left side, it creates bends
resembling horseshoe-like loops known as meanders. Here, water twist and turns around
these rocks and other material causing the river to flow from side to side and winding
the course of the river.
Here, the river water flows faster on the outer bends resulting in erosion. The force of the
water erodes and undercuts the outer bend where the water flow has its more energy due
to decreased frictions. Erosions takes the form of corrasion, corrosion and hydraulic
action.
Whereas the water flows slower on the inner bend causing material which was eroded
on the outer bend to be deposited due to more friction present. This process continues to
migrate downstream until the bends of the river become in close proximity to each other.
In high energy events such as floods, the river attempts to take the quickest path, cutting
through the neck which separated the two bends. Here, there is higher discharge and ore
energy resulting in the two bends meeting and joining each other to create a straight river
Compiled by Alea M A Ali
P a g e | 11
channel as a shorter route. Deposition will then result causing the original meander to be
cut off and sealing off the ends. This results in a horse-shoe shaped oxbow lake.
Diagram of a meander and ox box lake
2. RIVER CLIFFS AND SLIP OFF SLOPES
In the meandering river channel, when lateral erosion occurs on the outer bend of the
river undercutting the bank, it creates a river cliff.
A river cliff is a steep bank created on the outside of a river bend by the erosive effect of
fast-flowing water which undercuts the bank.
The water movement is slower on the inner bend causing the eroded material to be
deposited forming a gentle slope. Overtime, the sediment builds up to form a slip-off
slope or river beach.
A slip-off slope is a gentle slope found on the inside of a river bend as a result of slow-
flowing water which deposits the sediment.
Compiled by Alea M A Ali
P a g e | 12
DIAGRAM OF A RIVER CLIFF AND SLIP OFF SLOPE AT A MEANDER
CROSS SECTION OF A RIVER CLIFF AND SLIP OFF SLOPE
LOWER COURSE FEATURES
The lower course is characterized by a high volume of water and a large discharge. The
river channel is much deeper, wider and the landscape surrounding it is flat. As the
Compiled by Alea M A Ali
P a g e | 13
flowing river reaches the end of its journey, the energy level is decreased, and deposition
occurs.
1. FLOODPLAINS
During a flood, the material being carried by the river is deposited as the river loses its
speed and energy to transport material.
When deposition occurs, the river will form a floodplain. A floodplain is the area
surrounding a river which is prone to flooding. It is very fertile due to the rich deposits
by the floodwaters.
These floodplain areas tend to have small lakes called oxbow lakes.
FORMATION OF A FLOODPLAIN
Compiled by Alea M A Ali
P a g e | 14
2. LEVEES
Levees are formed when there is an increase in the volume of water flowing downstream
causing flooding to occur. As a river floods, the biggest and most course material will be
dumped close to the riverbanks. This raises the river above the floodplain to create levees.
These can protect the plain from further flooding.
Formation Of A Levee
3. BRAIDED RIVER CHANNEL
A braided river is a river which has multiple channels flowing downstream. These
channels may return to the river or drain into another body of water.
During dry periods when the water flow is slow and there is a buildup of sediment, the
river splits into several channels and later rejoin the main river. The changes the direction
of the river and create new channels.
During flooding events when the river takes a quicker route to the channel, coarser
material is deposited first leaving behind bars of sediment in the middle of the channel.
The river then becomes blocked by this sediment buildup causing the water to overflow
and form new channels. As the river continues it paths to the mouth, this process is
repeated several times to create a braided channel shape.
Compiled by Alea M A Ali
P a g e | 15
FORMATION OF A BRAIDED RIVER CHANNEL
4. DELTAS
A delta is formed when the river deposits its material faster than the sea can remove it.
They are located at the mouth of the river as it enters the sea or lake.
The river is transporting the bedload and suspended load, this material is deposited as
the speed reduces. Rivers naturally flow into the seat and when fast flowing, this will be
transported out at sea. However, when this flow is reduced, this load is deposited at the
mouth of the river. This sediment can rise above the surface of the sea to form a delta.
Thus, a delta is an accumulation of alluvium (deposit of clay, silt, and sand) at the mouth
of a river which is formed by successive depositions of sediment which has accumulated.
The heavier, coarsier material tends to be dropped off at the mouth with finer material
being transported to the sea. As this material continues to build up, it causes the river to
split up into several channels called distributaries.
Not all rivers have deltas. Deltas are only formed when the river is transporting a large
load, when the sea is relatively calm and waves are not carrying the sediments, when the
sea is not too deep, when the river flows slowly and when the vertical difference between
high and low tide and is not too great. Thus, the rate of deposition must be higher than
the removal of sediment by currents.
Compiled by Alea M A Ali
P a g e | 16
TYPES OF DELTAS
An arcuate delta has a fan shape and the land around the river mouth arches out into the
sea with the river being split up many times when flowing to the sea. This causes a fan-
shaped effect. Examples are the Niger and Nile River Deltas in Africa.
A cuspate delta is when the land around the mouth of the river juts out like an arrow
into the sea. Here, it reaches the straight coastline with vigorous wave movements which
causes the materials to be spread evenly on the side of the river mouth. Examples include
River Ebro in Spain.
The bird’s foot delta is where the river splits on the way to the sea. Each part of the river
juts out into the sea like a bird’s foot. Examples include the Mississippi River in the USA
which has few long distributaries.
Compiled by Alea M A Ali
P a g e | 17
SOURCES
[Link]
[Link]
profiles/#:~:text=The%20long%20profile%20shows%20how,various%20points%20in%20
its%20course.
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
Long%[Link]
[Link]
iver%20features%20include,bottomed%20valleys%2C%20floodplains%20and%20deltas.
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
sion%20on%20the,(or%20sometimes%20river%20beach).
[Link]
Compiled by Alea M A Ali