“Tell me and I forget, teach me and I may remember, involve me and I learn”

–Benjamin Franklin

Wireless Communication (BTEC-601-18)

Presented by:
Dr. Manvinder Sharma
Associate Professor
 Syllabus
• Unit 1: Elements of Cellular Radio Systems Design: Basic cellular system, Performance
criteria, Components and Operation of cellular systems, Planning a cellular system, Analog &
Digital cellular systems, Concept of frequency reuse channels, Co-channel interference,
Reduction factor, desired C/I for a normal case in an omni directional antenna system, Cell
splitting.
• Unit 2: Digital Communication through fading multipath channels: Fading channels and their
characteristics-Channel modelling, Digital signalling over a frequency non selective slowly
fading channel. Concept of diversity branches and signal paths. Combining methods:
Selective diversity combining, Switched combining, Maximal ratio combining, Equal gain
combining.
• Unit 3: Multiple Access Techniques for Wireless Communications: Introduction, Frequency
Division Multiple Access (FDMA), Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), Spread Spectrum
Multiple Access, Space Division Multiple Access(SDMA), Packet Radio Protocols; Pure
ALOHA, Slotted ALOHA.
• Unit 4: Wireless Systems & Standards: AMPS and ETACS, United states digital cellular (IS-54
& IS 136),IEEE Standards, Global system for Mobile (GSM): Services, Features, System
Architecture and Channel Types, Frame Structure for GSM, Speech Processing in GSM,
GPRS/EDGE specifications and features. 3G systems: UMTS & CDMA 2000 standards and
specifications. CDMA Digital standard (IS 95): Frequency and Channel specifications,
Forward CDMA Channel, Reverse CDMA Channel, Wireless Cable Television.
• Unit 5: Evolution of Communication Generations :Introduction to Bluetooth, Zigbee, LTE-
Advance systems, 4G & 5G Mobile techniques and Emerging technologies
 Communication
-the imparting or exchanging of information by speaking, writing, or using some other
medium.

-Communication is sending and receiving information between two or more people. The
person sending the message is referred to as the sender, while the person receiving the
information is called the receiver.

-means of sending or receiving information, such as telephone lines or computers. Data

communication is the exchange of data between two devices via a transmission medium
 Old Communication

Smoke Signal for

Light Signal for Communication/Signaling
Communication/Signaling
First Communication

Electronic Communication Using MORSE Code

Message using Morse Code
 Types of Communication
SIMPLEX

HALF DUPLEX

FULL DUPLEX
 Types of Communication
SIMPLEX: A simplex communication channel only sends information in one
direction. For example, a radio station usually sends signals to the audience but
never receives signals from them, thus a radio station is a simplex channel.
 Types of Communication
HALF- DUPLEX: In half duplex mode, data can be transmitted in both directions on
a signal carrier except not at the same time. At a certain point, it is actually a
simplex channel whose transmission direction can be switched. Walkie-talkie is a
typical half duplex device. It has a “push-to-talk” button which can be used to turn
on the transmitter but turn off the receiver. Therefore, once you push the button,
you cannot hear the person you are talking to but your partner can hear you.
 Types of Communication
FULL DUPLEX: A full duplex communication channel is able to transmit data in both
directions on a signal carrier at the same time. It is constructed as a pair of simplex
links that allows bidirectional simultaneous transmission. Take telephone as an
example, people at both ends of a call can speak and be heard by each other at the
same time because there are two communication paths between them.
 Wireless Communication
Wireless Communication is a method of transmitting information from one point
to other, without using any connection like wires, cables or any physical medium.

Information is transmitted from transmitter to receiver that are placed over a

distance. With the help of Wireless Communication, the transmitter and receiver
can be placed anywhere between few meters (like a T.V. Remote Control) to few
thousand kilometres (Satellite Communication).
Electromagnetic Waves (usually Radio Waves) are used in wireless communication
to carry the signals.
 EM Waves
An Electromagnetic Wave consists of both electric and magnetic fields in the form
of time varying sinusoidal waves. Both these fields are oscillating perpendicular to
each other and the direction of propagation of the Electromagnetic Wave is again
perpendicular to both these fields.
Wireless Communication
 Why Wireless Communication?

• The primary and important benefit of wireless

communication is mobility.
• The setup and installation of infrastructure for
wired communication systems is an expensive
and time consuming job. The infrastructure
for wireless communication can be installed
easily and low cost.
Advantages of Wireless Communication
• Cost- The cost of installing wires, cables and other infrastructure is
eliminated in wireless communication and hence lowering the overall cost
of the system compared to wired communication system.
• Mobility- The main advantage of wireless communication system. It offers
the freedom to move around while still connected to network.
• Reliability- Since there are no cables and wires involved in wireless
communication, there is no chance of communication failure due to
damage of these cables which may be caused by environmental
conditions, cable splice and natural diminution of metallic conductors
• Ease of Installation- The setup and installation of wireless communication
network’s equipment and infrastructure is very easy as we need not worry
about the hassle of cables.
• Accessibility- The wireless technology helps easy accessibility as the
remote areas where ground lines can’t be properly laid, are being easily
connected to the network.
• Constant connectivity- A wireless mobile can ensure you a constant
connectivity though you move from place to place or while you travel,
whereas a wired land line can’
Disadvantages of Wireless Communication
• Interference- In a wireless communication system, the signals
can be transmitted by using open space like the medium. So,
there is a chance of interfacing the radio signals from one
network to other networks.
• Safety- Security is the main concern in the wireless
communication system because when the signals are
broadcasted within open space, then there is a chance of
interrupting the signals & copy sensitive data
• Health Concerns- Exposure to any kind of radiation
continuously can cause health issues. Although, the RF energy
range can cause injure are not exactly recognized, it is
informed to keep away from RF radiation to the most.
 Cellular System
• A cellular network or mobile network is a communication
network where the last link is wireless. The network is
distributed over land areas called "cells“
• Cell is the geographical region that is covered by a
transmission facility.
• these cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographic
area. This enables numerous portable transceivers (e.g.,
mobile phones, tablets and laptops equipped with mobile
broadband modems to communicate with each other and
with fixed transceivers and telephones anywhere in the
network, via base stations, even if some of the transceivers
are moving through more than one cell during
transmission.
 Cellular System
• A cellular mobile communications system uses a
large number of low-power wireless transmitters
to create cells
• the basic geographic service area of awireless
communications system.
• Variable power levels allow cells to be sized
according to the subscriber density and demand
within a particular region.
• As mobile users travel from cell to cell, their
conversations are "handed off" between cells in
order to maintain seamless service
 Conventional Cellular System
• In Conventional mobile telephone systems
available frequency spectrum is divided into
mobile radio telephone channels using FDM
without reuse facility, serving an area with
large size
• A dedicated channel is allocated for each user,
whether uses it or not.
 Limitations of Conventional Cellular
System
• Limited service capability- One frequency per channel
and the number of active users is limited to the
number of channels assigned to a particular frequency
zone. The user need to reinitiate the call when moving
into a new zone because the call will be dropped (i.e.
no auto handoff).

• Poor service performance- The blocking probability is

high during busy hours in conventional mobile
telephone systems
• Inefficient frequency spectrum utilization
 Cellular System
• The Cellular system is developed to overcome
the limitations in the conventional mobile
telephone systems. In this large area is divided
into cells with 2 to 50 km diameter, available
spectrum is divided into discrete channels
which are assigned in groups to geographic
cells covering an area and the frequencies are
reused.
Cell Shape
 Cell Shape
• The coverage area of cellular networks are
divided into cells, each cell having its own
antenna for transmitting the signals. Each cell
has its own frequencies. Data communication
in cellular networks is served by its base
station transmitter, receiver and its control
unit.
Cell Shape
 Cell Shape
• Square
– Width d cell has four neighbors at distance d and four at distance 2 d
– Better if all adjacent antennas equidistant
• Simplifies choosing and switching to new antenna
Cell Shape
 Cell Shape
– Distance between centers of cells radius R is 3 R
– Not always precise hexagons
• Topographical limitations
• Location of antennas
 Cell Shape
• Cellular networks use a networked array of transceiver base stations , each
located in a cell to cover the networking services in a certain area. Each
cell is assigned a small frequency band and is served by a base station.
• Neighboring cells are assigned different frequencies to avoid interference.
However, the transmitted power is low, and frequencies can be reused
over cells separated by large distances. The hexagonal pattern of a cell is
chosen so that the distance d between the centers of any two adjacent
cells becomes the same. Distance d is given by

where r is the cell radius. A typical practical value for the cell radius is 3 km to
5 km.
 Basic Cellular System
A basic cellular system consists of
Mobile units:
A mobile telephone unit contains a control unit, a transceiver, and an antenna
system.
Cell site:
The cell site provides interface between the MTSO and the mobile units. It has
a control unit, radio cabinets, antennas, a power plant, and data terminals.
MTSO:
Mobile Telephone Switching Office. The switching office is the central
coordinating element for all cell sites, contains the cellular processor and
cellular switch. It interfaces with telephone company zone offices, controls call
processing, and handles billing activities.
Connections:
The radio and high-speed data links connect the three subsystems. it can be
any one in the entire band assigned by the serving area. Each site having
multichannel capabilities that can connect simultaneously to many mobile
units.
 Basic Cellular System
A basic cellular system consists of
Mobile units:
A mobile telephone unit contains a control unit,
a transceiver, and an antenna system.
Cell site:
The cell site provides interface between the
MTSO and the mobile units. It has a control unit,
radio cabinets, antennas, a power plant, and
data terminals.
MTSO:
Mobile Telephone Switching Office. The
switching office is the central coordinating
element for all cell sites, contains the cellular
processor and cellular switch. It interfaces with
telephone company zone offices, controls call
processing, and handles billing activities.
Connections:
The radio and high-speed data links connect the
three subsystems.. Each site having multichannel
capabilities that can connect simultaneously to
many mobile units.
Basic Cellular System
 Performance Criteria
• Voice quality
• Service quality-
Three items are required for service quality.
Coverage. The system should serve an area as large as possible. Higher the
transmitted power, harder it becomes to control interference.
Required grade of service. To decrease the blocking probability requires a
good system plan and a sufficient number of radio channels.
Number of dropped calls. During Q calls in an hour, if a call is dropped and
Q - 1 calls are completed, then the call drop rate is 1/Q. This drop rate
must be kept low. A high drop rate could be caused by either coverage
problems or handoff problems related to inadequate channel availability.
• Special features:
System would like to provide as many special features as possible, such as
call forwarding, call waiting, voice stored (VSR) box, automatic roaming, or
navigation services
 Operation of Cellular Systems
• Mobile unit initialization. The receiver of the mobile unit scans set-up channels and
selects the strongest one and locks on for a certain time. Each site is assigned a
different set-up channel, locking onto the strongest set-up channel means selecting
the nearest cell site. After 60 s, the self-location procedure is repeated.
• Mobile originated call. The user places the called number into an originating register in
the mobile unit and pushes the “send” button. A request for service is sent on a
selected set-up channel obtained from a self-location scheme. The cell site receives it,
at the same time sends a request to the Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO) via
a high-speed data link. The MTSO selects an appropriate voice channel for the call, and
the cell site selects the best directive antenna to link the mobile unit. The MTSO also
connects the wire-line party through the telephone company zone office.
• Network originated call. A land-line party dials a mobile unit number. The telephone
company zone office recognizes that the number is mobile and forwards the call to the
MTSO. The MTSO sends a paging message to certain cell sites based on the mobile unit
number and the search algorithm. Each cell site transmits the page on its own set-up
channel. The mobile unit recognizes its own identification on a strong set-up channel,
locks onto it, and responds to the cell site. The mobile unit also follows the instruction
to tune to an assigned voice channel and initiate user alert.
 Operation of Cellular Systems
• Call termination. When the mobile user turns off the transmitter, a particular signal
(signaling tone) transmits to the cell site, and both sides free the voice channel. The
mobile unit resumes monitoring pages through the strongest set-up channel.
• Handoff procedure. During the call, two parties are on a voice channel. When the
mobile unit moves out of the coverage area of a particular cell site, the reception
becomes weak. The present cell site requests a handoff. The system switches the call
to a new frequency channel in a new cell site without either interrupting the call or
alerting the user. The call continues as long as the user is talking. The user does not
notice the handoff occurrences
 ANALOG CELLULAR SYSTEM
• 1 G / First Generation Cellular system.
• Evolved in early 80s.
• Called AMPS-ADVANCED MOBILE PHONE SYSTEM
• Released in 1983.
• Employed in North & South America, China, Australia etc

• General Specifications-
• Base Stn Tx Band869-894 MHz
• M U Tx Band 824-849 MHz
• Cell Size Radius 2-20 Km
• Data Transmission Rate 10Kbps
 ANALOG CELLULAR SYSTEM
Limitations of AMPS
• Low calling Capacity
• Poor Data Communication
• Limited Spectrum
 Digital CELLULAR SYSTEM
GSM –GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS.
YEAR INTRODUCED 1990
ACCESS METHOD TDMA
BASE STN TX CH 935-960 M Hz
M U TX CH890- 915 M Hz

Features-
More capacity.
Ensures rapid call set up
Notifies you of another call at the same time as on a call.
Can place a call on hold while one accesses another call.
Allows location/ cell-specific reception of text msgs.
Analog V/s Digital Cellular System
 Frequency Reuse
• The basic idea of frequency reuse is that if a channel of a certain frequency
covers an area, the same frequency can be reused to cover another area. The
transmission power of the antenna in a cell is limited to avoid energy from
escaping into neighboring cells. We define a reuse cluster of cells as N cells in
which no frequencies are identical. Two co-channel cells are then referred to
two cells in which a frequency in one cell is reused in the other one.
 FREQUENCY REUSE CONCEPT
Consider cellular system with T duplex channels available, let each
cell be allocated a group of k channels(k<s) and if the K channels
are divided among N cells.
Available radio channels can be expressed as
T = KN
The N cells which collectively use the complete set of available
frequencies is called a cluster.
If it is replicated M times within the system, total [Link] duplex
channels:
C, can be used as a measure of capacity and is given by
C = MKN
= MT
N = Cluster size and typically equal to 4,7,12.
 Cluster
A cluster is a group of cells. No channels are reused within a cluster
 Cellular Design Reuse Pattern
• Example: cell cluster size N = 7,
frequency reuse factor = 1/7,
assume T = 490 total channels, K
= T/N = 70 channels per cell
• Assume T = 490 total channels,
• N = 7, K = 70 channels/cell
• Clusters are replicated M=3 times
• System capacity = 3x490 = 1470
total channels
 Frequency Reuse
• Frequency reuse offers the following benefits −
• Allows communications within cell on a given frequency
• Limits escaping power to adjacent cells
• Allows re-use of frequencies in nearby cells
• Uses same frequency for multiple conversations
• 10 to 50 frequencies per cell

when N cells are using the same number of frequencies and T be the total
number of frequencies used in systems. Then each cell frequency is calculated by
using the formulae T/N.
In Advanced Mobile Phone Services (AMPS) when T = 395 and N = 7, then
frequencies per cell on an average will be 395/7 = 56. Here, cell frequency is 56.
 Different types of cell size
The different types of cells are given different names according to their size and
function:
• Macro cells: Macro cells are large cells that are usually used for remote or
sparsely populated areas. These may be 10 km or possibly more in diameter.
• Micro cells: Micro cells are those that are normally found in densely
populated areas which may have a diameter of around 1 km.
• Pico cells: Picocells are generally used for covering very small areas such as
particular areas of buildings, or possibly tunnels where coverage from a larger
cell in the cellular system is not possible. Obviously for the small cells, the
power levels used by the base stations are much lower and the antennas are
not position to cover wide areas. In this way the coverage is minimised and
the interference to adjacent cells is reduced.
• Selective cells: Sometimes cells termed selective cells may be used where
full 360 degree coverage is not required. They may be used to fill in a hole in
the coverage in the cellular system, or to address a problem such as the
entrance to a tunnel etc.
 Channel assignment strategies
Fixed channel assignment
Each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice channels. Any
call attempt within the cells can only be served by unused channels
in that particular cell. If all the channels in the cell are occupied,
the call is blocked and the subscriber does not receive service.

Fixed assignment with borrowing

Before a call is blocked, a BS might try to “borrow" a channel
from a neighbouring BS.

Dynamic channel assignment

The voice channels are not allocated to different cells permanently,
instead each time a call request is made, the serving base station
request a channel from the mobile switching center.
 Interference
• Interference is a major limiting factor in the
performance of cellular radio system
• Sources of Interference
• Another mobile in the same cell
• A call in progress in a neighboring cell
• Other base stations operating in the same frequency band
or
• Any non cellular system which inadvertently leaks energy
into the cellular frequency band

The two major types of system generated interferences are

Co-channel interference
Adjacent channel interference
Co-channel & Adjacent channel

Co-channel
interference
Adjacent-
channel
interference

Co-channel
cells

Adjacent-
channel
cells
 Co-channel & Adjacent channel

Co-channel interference or CCI exists when two or more devices are operating on the
same frequency channel.
more a sort of congestion.
It hinders the performance by increasing the wait time as the same channel is used by
different devices.
The CCI forces other devices to defer transmissions and wait in a queue until the first
device finishes using the transmission line and the channel is free.
the performance is hindered by the wait times, but the bandwidth is managed, and
every device will get a chance to talk to its associated AP.
 Co-channel reuse ratio

Assuming same cell size and that the base

stations transmit the same power
The Co-channel interference ratio becomes
independent of the Transmitted power and
becomes function of Radius of the cell (R) and
Distance between centers of the nearest co-
channel cells (D)
 CO-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE REDUCTION FACTOR

Reusing an identical frequency channel in different cells is limited by cochannel

interference between cells, and the cochannel interference can become a major
problem.
Assume that the size of all cells is roughly the same. The cell size is determined by the
coverage area of the signal strength in each cell. As long as the cell size is fixed,
cochannel interference is independent of the transmitted power of each cell. It means
that the received threshold level at the mobile unit is adjusted to the size of the cell.
Actually, cochannel interference is a function of a parameter q defined as
q = D/R
The parameter q is the cochannel interference reduction factor. When the ratio q
increases, cochannel interference decreases. Furthermore, the separation D is a
function of K, and C/I,
D=f(K,C/I)

Where K, is the number of cochannel interfering cells in the first tier and C/I is the
received carrier-to interference ratio at the desired mobile receiver.
CO-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE REDUCTION FACTOR
 CO-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE REDUCTION FACTOR
In a fully equipped hexagonal-shaped cellular system, there are always six cochannel
interfering cells in the fist tier, as shown in Fig ; that is, K = 6. The maximum number of K,
in the first tier can be shown as six. Cochannel interference can be experienced both at
the cell site and at mobile units in the center cell. If the interference is much greater, then
the carrier-to-interference ratio C/I at the mobile units caused by the six interfering sites
is (on the average) the same as the C/I received at the center cell site caused by
interfering mobile units in the six cells. According to both the reciprocity theorem and the
statistical summation of radio propagation, the two C/I values can be very close. Assume
that the local noise is much less than the interference level and can be neglected. C/I
then can be expressed as

Where Ƴ is a propagation path-loss slope determined by the actual terrain environment.

In a mobile radio medium,
Usually Ƴ is assumed to be 4.
 C/I FOR NORMAL CASE IN AN OMNI DIRECTIONAL ANTENNA
SYSTEM.
There are two cases to be considered:
(1) the signal and co-channel interference received by the mobile unit and
(2) the signal and co-channel interference received by the cell site.
Both cases are shown in Figure .
Nm and Nb are the local noises at the mobile unit and the cell site, respectively. Usually
Nm and Nb are small and can be neglected as compared with the interference level.
As long as the received carrier-to-interference ratios at both the mobile unit and the cell
site are the same, the system is called a balanced system. In a balanced system, we can
choose either one of the two cases to analyze the system requirement; the results from
one case are the same for the others.

Assume that all Dk are the same for simplicity, then D = Dk and q = qk

Thus

and
 C/I FOR NORMAL CASE IN AN OMNI DIRECTIONAL ANTENNA
SYSTEM.
The value of C/I is based on the required system performance and the specified value of is
based on the
terrain environment. With given values of C/I and Ƴ, the co-channel interference
reduction factor q can be determined. Normal cellular practice is to specify C/I to be 18
dB or higher based on subjective tests.
Since a C/I of 18 dB is measured by the acceptance of voice quality from present cellular
mobile receivers, this acceptance implies that both mobile radio multipath fading and co-
channel interference become ineffective at that level. The path-loss slope is equal to
about 4 in a mobile radio environment.
 Example
Minimum Distance between the centers of co channel is 18 KM, Radius of Cell is 3 KM.
Find out the repititive cell under reuse pattern
 Cell Splitting
Cell splitting is a means of increasing the capacity of a cellular system by subdividing or
splitting cells into two or more smaller cells. Each of the smaller cells will have their own
base station with a reduction in antenna height and transmitted power.

Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell in to smaller cells, each with its
own base station and corresponding reduction in antenna height and transmitter power.
Cell splitting increases the capacity of a system since it increases number of times that
channels are reused.
In cell splitting original cell is split in to smaller cells. New cell radius is half of the original
radius.
In this the cell boundaries need to be revised so that the local area which was earlier
considered as a single cell can now contain number of smaller cell ,these new cells are
called microcells

a. Permanent splitting- Each new split cell is planned ahead of time with consideration
of the number of channels, transmitted power, assigned frequencies, selection of the
cell-site and traffic load consideration.
b. Dynamic splitting- This scheme is based on utilizing the allocated spectrum efficiency
in real time. Cell splitting proceeds gradually over a cellular operating system to
prevent dropped calls.
 Cell Splitting
Cell Splitting : It is the process of subdividing the congested cell into smaller cells.
The smaller cells are known as Microcells.
Cell Splitting increases the capacity of the cellular system as it increases the number of
times the channels are reused
The increased number of cells would increase the number of clusters over the coverage
region,which in turn increase the number of channels,and thus capacity in the coverage
area
Cell Splitting allows the system to grow by replacing large cells with smaller cells without
changing the co-channel re-use ratio Q
Cell Splitting
 Cell Splitting- Limitations

• Handoffs are more frequent.

• Channel assignments become difficult.
 Sectoring

• To overcome some limitations like co-channel

interference, cell sectoring is done.
• Involves replacing an omni-directional antenna at the
base station by several directional antennas
1200 Sectoring
600 Sectoring
 Handoff Strategies
• When a mobile moves from one cell to the next during a call the MSC
automatically transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the next
cell. This operation is called HANDOFF
• Handoff is similar to an initial call request
• The handoff has the priority over a new call to avoid call cut off in the mid
conversation
• In reality, a fraction of total channels can be reserved for handoff requests
in each cell
• The handoff must be successful, as infrequent as possible and
unnoticeable to the user
• The minimum acceptable level is establised for the received signal to
maintain the call. The handoff threshold is slightly above that level. The
margin is Δ= Phandoff - Pmin
Improper Handoff
Proper Handoff
 Hard handoff and soft handoff
• Hard handoff: When the signal strength of a
neighboring cell exceeds that of the current cell,
plus a threshold, the mobile station is instructed to
switch to a new frequency band that is within the
allocation of the new cell.
 Hard handoff and soft handoff
• Soft handoff: a mobile station is temporarily
connected to more than one base station
simultaneously. A mobile unit may start out
assigned to a single cell. If the unit enters a region
in which the transmissions from two base stations
are comparable (within some threshold of each
other), the mobile unit enters the soft handoff state
in which it is connected to the two base stations.
The mobile unit remains in this state until one base
station clearly predominates, at which time it is
assigned exclusively to that cell.
UNIT II
 Multipath & Fading
• The wireless channel is susceptible to a variety of
transmission impediments such as path loss, interference
and blockage. These factors restrict the range, data rate, and
the reliability of the wireless transmission.
Types of Paths
• Direct-path
The transmitted signal, when reaches the receiver directly, can
be termed as a direct path and the components presents that
are present in the signal are called as direct path components.
• Multi-path
The transmitted signal when reaches the receiver, through
different directions undergoing different phenomenon, such a
path is termed as multi-path and the components of the
transmitted signal are called as multi-path components.
 Multipath & Fading
• Multipath is the propagation phenomenon that
results in radio signals' reaching the receiving
antenna by two or more paths.
• Fading refers to the distortion that a carrier-
modulated telecommunication signal experiences
over certain propagation media.
• In wireless systems, fading is due to multipath
propagation and is sometimes referred to as
multipath induced fading.
 Multipath
• In wireless telecommunications, multipath is the
propagation phenomenon that results in radio signals'
reaching the receiving antenna by two or more paths.
Causes of multipath include atmospheric ducting,
ionospheric reflection and refraction, and reflection from
terrestrial objects, such as mountains and buildings.
• The effects of multipath include constructive and
destructive interference, and phase shifting of the signal.
This causes Rayleigh fading, named after Lord Rayleigh. The
standard statistical model of this gives a distribution known
as the Rayleigh distribution.
• In digital radio communications (such as GSM) multipath
can cause errors and affect the quality of communications.
 Fading
• Fading is variation of the attenuation of a signal with
various variables. These variables include time,
geographical position, and radio frequency. Fading is often
modeled as a random process. A fading channel is a
communication channel that experiences fading. In wireless
systems, fading may either be due to multipath
propagation, referred to as multipath-induced fading,
weather (particularly rain), or shadowing from obstacles
affecting the wave
 Fading
• The presence of reflectors in the environment surrounding
a transmitter and receiver create multiple paths that a
transmitted signal can traverse. As a result, the receiver
sees the superposition of multiple copies of the
transmitted signal, each traversing a different path. Each
signal copy will experience differences in attenuation, delay
and phase shift while travelling from the source to the
receiver. This can result in either constructive or destructive
interference, amplifying or attenuating the signal power
seen at the receiver. Strong destructive interference is
frequently referred to as a deep fade and may result in
temporary failure of communication due to a severe drop
in the channel signal-to-noise ratio.
Fading
 Fading
• Slow fading arises when the coherence time of the
channel is large relative to the delay requirement of the
application. In this regime, the amplitude and phase
change imposed by the channel can be considered roughly
constant over the period of use. Slow fading can be caused
by events such as shadowing, where a large obstruction
such as a hill or large building obscures the main signal
path between the transmitter and the receiver.
• The coherence time is a measure of the minimum time
required for the magnitude change or phase change of the
channel to become uncorrelated from its previous value.
• The name Slow Fading itself implies that the signal fades
away slowly. The features of slow fading
 Fading
• Fast fading refers to the rapid fluctuations in the amplitude,
phase or multipath delays of the received signal, due to the
interference between multiple versions of the same
transmitted signal arriving at the receiver at slightly
different times.
• The time between the reception of the first version of the
signal and the last echoed signal is called delay spread. The
multipath propagation of the transmitted signal, which
causes fast fading, is because of the three propagation
mechanisms, namely −
• Reflection
• Diffraction
• Scattering
 Fading
• Fast fading occurs when the coherence time of the channel
is small relative to the delay requirement of the application.
In this case, the amplitude and phase change imposed by
the channel varies considerably over the period of use.
 Concept of Diversity
• A Diversity mechanism is used to decrease the effect of
fading is called Diversity.
• In Diversity mechanism, multiple copies of the same data is
transmitted to the receiver through multiple paths or
channels and the decision is made by the receiver without
knowing to the transmitter.
 Types of Diversity
• Space Diversity:
Replica of same signal is transmitted through different antenna. Space should be
between adjacent antenna so that channel gain will be independent of signal path.
Space diversity may give a path that avoid shadowing and also decrease the large
scale fading. Space diversity offer different path without an increase in transmitter
power or bandwidth.
• Time Diversity:
Time diversity is obtained by re-transmitting the same signal at separate interval of
time. The re-transmission interval should be less than the coherence time. Time
Diversity also does not require any increase in the transmission power.
• Frequency Diversity:
Frequency diversity is obtained by transmitting the same information on more than
one carrier frequency or transmitting the same signal over different carrier
frequency. In Frequency Diversity only one antenna is needed.
• Polarization Diversity:
Polarization Diversity require two transmitter and two receiving antennas with
different polarization. The transmission wave with two different polarization
constitute two different paths. This provide only two different diversity branches.
Polarization Diversity uses half power by dividing the power between two different
polarized antennas.
 Diversity combining
Diversity combining is the technique applied to combine the multiple received signals
of a diversity reception device in
Equal-gain combining: All the received signals are summed coherently.
Maximal-ratio combining is often used in large phased-array systems: The received
signals are weighted with respect to their SNR and then summed.
Switched combining: The receiver switches to another signal when the currently
selected signal drops below a predefined threshold. This is also often called "Scanning
Combining".
Selection combining: Of the N received signals, the strongest signal is selected. When
the N signals are independent and Rayleigh distributed, Therefore, any additional gain
diminishes rapidly with the increasing number of channels. This is a more efficient
technique than switched combining.
Sometimes more than one combining technique is used – for example, lucky imaging
uses selection combining to choose (typically) the best 10% images, followed by equal-
gain combining of the selected images. to a single improved signal.
 Multiple Access Techniques
• In wireless communication systems, it is often desirable to allow the subscriber to
send information simultaneously from the mobile station to the base station while
receiving information from the base station to the mobile station.
• A cellular system divides any given area into cells where a mobile unit in each cell
communicates with a base station. The main aim in the cellular system design is to
be able to increase the capacity of the channel, i.e., to handle as many calls as
possible in a given bandwidth with a sufficient level of quality of service.
• There are several different ways to allow access to the channel. These includes
mainly the following −
• Frequency division multiple-access (FDMA)
• Time division multiple-access (TDMA)
• Code division multiple-access (CDMA)
• Space division multiple access (SDMA)
 Narrowband V/s Wideband System
• Depending on how the available bandwidth is allocated to the users, these
techniques can be classified as narrowband and wideband systems.
• Narrowband Systems
Systems operating with channels substantially narrower than the coherence
bandwidth are called as Narrow band systems. Narrow band TDMA allows users to use
the same channel but allocates a unique time slot to each user on the channel, thus
separating a small number of users in time on a single channel.
• Wideband Systems
In wideband systems, the transmission bandwidth of a single channel is much larger
than the coherence bandwidth of the channel. Thus, multipath fading doesn’t greatly
affect the received signal within a wideband channel, and frequency selective fades
occur only in a small fraction of the signal bandwidth.

Coherence bandwidth is a statistical measurement of the range of frequencies over

which the channel can be considered "flat", or in other words the approximate
maximum bandwidth
 Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA)
• FDMA is the process of dividing one channel or bandwidth into multiple individual
bands, each for use by a single user
• Each individual band or channel is wide enough to accommodate the signal spectra
of the transmissions to be propagated. The data to be transmitted is modulated on
to each subcarrier, and all of them are linearly mixed together
• FDMA divides the shared medium bandwidth into individual channels. Subcarriers
modulated by the information to be transmitted occupy each subchannel.
Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA)
 Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA)
• FDMA is the basic technology for advanced mobile phone services. The features of
FDMA are as follows.
• FDMA allots a different sub-band of frequency to each different user to access the
network.
• If FDMA is not in use, the channel is left idle instead of allotting to the other users.
• FDMA is implemented in Narrowband systems and it is less complex than TDMA.
• Tight filtering is done here to reduce adjacent channel interference.
• The base station BS and mobile station MS, transmit and receive simultaneously
and continuously in FDMA.
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
• TDMA is a digital technique that divides a single channel or band into time slots.
Each time slot is used to transmit one byte or another digital segment of each
signal in sequential serial data format. This technique works well with slow voice
data signals, but it’s also useful for compressed video and other high-speed data
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
• In the cases where continuous transmission is not required, there TDMA is used
instead of FDMA. The features of TDMA include the following.
• TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users where each users makes
use of non-overlapping time slots.
• Data transmission in TDMA is not continuous, but occurs in bursts. Hence handsoff
process is simpler.
• TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception thus duplexers are
not required.
• TDMA has an advantage that is possible to allocate different numbers of time slots
per frame to different users.
• Bandwidth can be supplied on demand to different users by concatenating or
reassigning time slot based on priority.
 Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA)
• Code division multiple access technique is an example of multiple access where
several transmitters use a single channel to send information simultaneously. Its
features are as follows.
• In CDMA every user uses the full available spectrum instead of getting allotted by
separate frequency.
• CDMA is much recommended for voice and data communications.
• While multiple codes occupy the same channel in CDMA, the users having same
code can communicate with each other.
• CDMA offers more air-space capacity than TDMA.
• The hands-off between base stations is very well handled by CDMA.
 Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA)
In CDMA, all the stations can transmit data simultaneously. It allows each station to
transmit data over the entire frequency all the time. Multiple simultaneous transmissions
are separated by unique code sequence. Each user is assigned with a unique code
sequence.

In the above figure, there are 4 stations marked as 1, 2, 3 and 4. Data assigned with
respective stations as d1, d2, d3 and d4 and the code assigned with respective stations as
c1, c2, c3 and c4.
 Difference
FDMA TDMA CDMA

FDMA stands for Frequency TDMA stands for Time Division CDMA stands for Code Division
Division Multiple Access. Multiple Access. Multiple Access.

In this, sharing of bandwidth In this, there is sharing of both i.e.

In this, only the sharing of time of
among different stations takes bandwidth and time among
satellite transponder takes place.
place. different stations takes place.

There is no need of any codeword. There is no need of any codeword. Codeword is necessary.

In this, there is only need of guard

In this, guard time of the adjacent In this, both guard bands and guard
bands between the adjacent
slots are necessary. time are necessary.
channels are necessary.

Synchronization is not required. Synchronization is required. Synchronization is not required.

The rate of data is low. The rate of data is medium. The rate of data is high.

Mode of data transfer is Mode of data transfer is signal in Mode of data transfer is digital
continuous signal. burts. signal.
It is little flexible. It is moderate flexible. It is highly flexible.
 Space Division Multiple Access
(SDMA)
• Space division multiple access or spatial division multiple access is a technique
which is MIMO (multiple-input multiple-output) architecture and used mostly in
wireless and satellite communication. It has the following features.
• All users can communicate at the same time using the same channel.
• SDMA is completely free from interference.
• A single satellite can communicate with more satellites receivers of the same
frequency.
• The directional spot-beam antennas are used and hence the base station in SDMA,
can track a moving user.
• Controls the radiated energy for each user in space
 Space Division Multiple Access
(SDMA)
• SDMA uses physical separation methods that permit the sharing of wireless
channels. For instance, a single channel may be used simultaneously if the users
are spaced far enough from one another to avoid interference. Known as frequency
reuse, the method is widely used in cellular radio systems. Cell sites are spaced
from one another to minimize interference.
• In addition to spacing, directional antennas are used to avoid interference. Most
cell sites use three antennas to create 120° sectors that allow frequency sharing
Wireless Systems & Standards
 AMPS and ETACS System
• AMPS and ETACS are two initially used
cellular system and these system use
frequency modulation.

• Advanced mobile phone system (AMPS) was

a standard for analog cellular phone system
developed by Bell Labs and officially
introduced by AT&T in 1983.
 AMPS System
Features
• It is an analog system based on the initial electromagnetic spectrum
allocation for cellular service by the Federal Communications
Commission.
• It uses frequency division multiple access (FDMA) for multiple
simultaneous conversations.
• Frequency ranges within the 800 and 900 MHz are allocated for cellular
telephones in AMPS. Half of the signal is used for sending signals and
half is used for receiving signals.
• It has a high bandwidth requirement particularly when the number of
conversations is very high.
• It was the first system to use hexagonal cells. So, the pioneers of AMPS
had coined the term coined cellular.
• The cells in AMPS are 10km to 20 km across.
• Since, it was an analog technology, it suffered from noise and
eavesdropping.
AMPS System
 ETACS System
Features
• ETACS uses 890 MHz to 915 MHz for the reverse link and 935 MHz to 960 MHz for the
forward link.
• ETACS cellular radio systems generally have tall towers which support several receiving
antennas and have transmitting antennas which typically radiate a few hundred watts of
effective radiated power
• Each base station typically has one control channel transmitter, one control channel
receiver, and eight or more FM duplex voice channels.
• ETACS supports forty-two control channels for a single provider.
• Thus any cellular telephone in the system only needs to scan a limited number of control
channels to find the best serving base station
• For ETACS, area identification numbers (AID) are used instead of System Identification
number SID, and ETACS subscriber units are able to access any control or voice channel in
the standard
 US Digital Cellular System
IS-54 and IS-136 are second-generation (2G) mobile phone systems, known as Digital AMPS
(D-AMPS), and a further development of the North American 1G mobile system Advanced
Mobile Phone System (AMPS). It was once prevalent throughout the Americas, particularly
in the United States and Canada since the first commercial network was deployed in 1993
 0G (Zero Generation Mobile System)
• At the end of the 1940’s, the first radio
telephone service was introduced, and was
designed for users of public land-line based
telephone network.

• In the 1960’s, a system launched by Bell

Systems, called, Improved Mobile Telephone
Service (IMTS), brought quite a few
improvements such as direct dialing and
more bandwidth. The very first analog
systems were based upon IMTS and were
created in the late 60s and early 70s.
 1G Technology

• 1G had two major improvements:

– the invention of the microprocessor
– the digital transform of the control link between
the phone and the cell site.
• Analog signal
 2G Technology

• Better quality & capacity - More people could

use there phones at the same time

• Digital Signals – consist of 0’s & 1’s

 2G Technology
• Digital – consist of 0’s and 1’s
• Digital signal:
– [Link] level, [Link] level, [Link] edge
and [Link] edge
 AN INTRODUCTION TO GSM
• Second Generation Cellular Mobile Radio Systems-Digital Cellular
Telephony:
– Main Advantages of Digital Cellular Networks
• Higher Spectrum Efficiency
– Speech Encoding
– Better Access Technologies: TDMA and CDMA
• Higher System Capacity
– Aggressive Frequency Reuse
• Low Infra-Structure and Terminal Cost
– Application of VLSI/VVLSI Chips
– Many Traffic Channels per Carrier Channel [Transceivers are shared
among several users)
– Low S/I Ratio (SIR) Allowing Smarter Equipment
• Better Integration with Digital PSTN [ISDN]
• New Services such as Data Communications, Fax, and SMS
• Better Privacy due to Encryption
 GSM Services
• Voice, 3.1 kHz
• Short Message Service (SMS)
– 1985 GSM standard that allows messages of at most 160 chars. (incl.
spaces) to be sent between handsets and other stations
– Over 2.4 billion people use it; multi-billion $ industry
• General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
– GSM upgrade that provides IP-based packet data transmission up to
114 kbps
– GPRS provides “always on” Internet access and the Multimedia
Messaging Service (MMS) whereby users can send rich text, audio,
– video messages to each other
– Performance degrades as number of users increase
– GPRS is an example of 2.5G telephony – 2G service similar to 3G
 Mobile Station
• Mobile Equipment
• SIM(Subscriber
Identity Module)
Functions of Mobile Station
• Voice and data transmission & receipt
• Frequency and time synchronization
• Monitoring of power and signal quality of
the surrounding cells
• Provision of location updates even during
inactive state
 Mobile Station
• Can receive, store, send SMS up to 160
characters.
• MS identified by unique IMEI shown on
pressing *#06#.
• Power levels of 20W, 8W, 5W, 2W and .8W
 SIM
SIM has microprocessor and memory.
Fixed data stored for the subscription:
• IMSI,
• Authentication Key
• Security Algorithms
• PIN & PUK
 IMEI
• International Mobile Equipment Identity
• The IMEI is an unique code allocated to each
mobile equipment. It is checked in the EIR.
 IMSI
• International mobile subscriber Identity
• The IMSI is an unique identity which is used
internationally and used within the network
to identify the mobile subscribers.
• The IMSI is stored in the subscriber identity
module (SIM), the HLR, VLR database.
GSM ARCHITECTURE
 GSM Architecture

Home Location Register (HLR)

• The HLR is a database used for storage and management of
subscriptions. The HLR is considered the most important database,
as it stores permanent data about subscribers, including a
subscriber's service profile, location information, and activity status.
When an individual buys a subscription in the form of SIM, then all
the information about this subscription is registered in the HLR of
that operator.
Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC)
• The central component of the Network Subsystem is the MSC. The
MSC performs the switching of calls between the mobile and other
fixed or mobile network users, as well as the management of mobile
services such as registration, authentication, location updating,
handovers, and call routing to a roaming subscriber. It also performs
such functions as toll ticketing, network interfacing, common
channel signaling, and others. Every MSC is identified by a unique
ID.
 GSM Architecture

Visitor Location Register (VLR)

• The VLR is a database that contains temporary information about
subscribers that is needed by the MSC in order to service visiting
subscribers. The VLR is always integrated with the MSC. When a mobile
station roams into a new MSC area, the VLR connected to that MSC will
request data about the mobile station from the HLR. Later, if the mobile
station makes a call, the VLR will have the information needed for call
setup without having to interrogate the HLR each time.
Authentication Center (AUC)
• The Authentication Center is a protected database that stores a copy of the
secret key stored in each subscriber's SIM card, which is used for
authentication and ciphering of the radio channel. The AUC protects
network operators from different types of fraud found in today's cellular
world.
Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
• The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is a database that contains a list of all
valid mobile equipment on the network, where its International Mobile
Equipment Identity (IMEI) identifies each MS. An IMEI is marked as invalid
if it has been reported stolen or is not type approved.
 The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)

• The operations and maintenance center (OMC) is

connected to all equipment in the switching system and
to the BSC. The implementation of OMC is called the
operation and support system (OSS).
• Here are some of the OMC functions−
• Administration and commercial operation
(subscription, end terminals, charging, and statistics).
• Security Management.
• Network configuration, Operation, and Performance
Management.
• Maintenance Tasks.
The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)

• The OSS is the functional

entity from which the
network operator monitors
and controls the system. The
purpose of OSS is to offer
the customer cost-effective
support for centralized,
regional, and local
operational and
maintenance activities that
are required for a GSM
network. An important
function of OSS is to provide
a network overview and
support the maintenance
activities of different
operation and maintenance
organizations.
 GSM Architecture ( Public Network)

• PSTN or Public Switched Telephone Network is

simply or most commonly known as a ‘telephone
line’. This is the most commonly used method by
all users that only have the need to use one line
for one conversation at a time using only one
phone number. PSTN uses an old technology
whereby circuit-switched copper phone lines are
used to transmit analogue voice data.
• ISDN or Integrated Services Digital Network
provides digital transmission of voice and data
services. Although now it is primarily used for
Voice as it give you the options of having more
than one Channel (line)
 GSM Interfaces

• Radio Interface: Describes Data Interchange between

MS and BSS
• Abis Interface: Describes Data Communications
between BTS and BSC, allows Various Manufacturers
Equipment
• A Interface: Describes Data Interchange between BSS
and NSS
 2G Technologies
cdmaOne (IS-95) GSM, DCS-1900 IS-54/IS-136
PDC
Uplink Frequencies 824-849 (Cellular) 890-915 MHz (Eurpe) 800 MHz, 1500 Mhz
(MHz) 1850-1910 (US PCS) 1850-1910 (US PCS) (Japan)
1850-1910 (US PCS)
Downlink Frequencies 869-894 MHz (US 935-960 (Europa) 869-894 MHz (Cellular)
Cellular) 1930-1990 (US PCS) 1930-1990 (US PCS)
1930-1990 MHz (US 800 MHz, 1500 MHz
PCS) (Japan)
Deplexing FDD FDD FDD
Multiple Access CDMA TDMA TDMA
Modulation BPSK with Quadrature GMSK with BT=0.3 p/4 DQPSK
Spreading
Carrier Seperation 1.25 MHz 200 KHz 30 KHz (IS-136)
(25 KHz PDC)
Channel Data Rate 1.2288 Mchips/sec 270.833 Kbps 48.6 Kbps (IS-136)
42 Kbps (PDC)
Voice Channels per 64 8 3
carrier
Speech Coding CELP at 13Kbps RPE-LTP at 13 Kbps VSELP at 7.95 Kbps
EVRC at 8Kbps
 GSM and Health Problems
• GSM Terminals Cause Interference with
– Hearing Aid Devices and
– Pacemakers [Instruments used to regulate the heart functionality of
Heart Patients], and
– Some Research show that GSM phones cause Brain Tumors *
– Inherent in GSM TDMA setup to generate strongly pulsating
transmission signals [Continuously Tx is switched on and off that
generates LF signals 217, 434, 651 Hz]
– * Extensive Research required to prove the validity of GSM Cellular
Phones being the cause of Brain Tumors or Cancer.
 Introduction
• Definition:
• CDMA is a technology that
allows multiple users to share
the whole spectrum at all the
time unlike TDMA and FDMA.
• CDMA has wider bandwidth
compared to TDMA & FDMA.
• Requires digital transmission
 3G: UMTS
• UMTS - Universal Mobile Telecommunications System, is the 3G
successor to the GSM family of standards including GPRS and EDGE.
• 3G UMTS uses a totally different radio interface based around the
use of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum as CDMA or Code Division
Multiple Access.
• Although 3G UMTS uses a totally different radio access standard,
the core network is the same as that used for GPRS and EDGE to
carry separate circuit switched voice and packet data.
• UMTS uses a wideband version of CDMA occupying a 5 MHz wide
channel. Being wider than its competition CDMA2000 which only
used a 1.25MHz channel, the modulation scheme was known as
wideband CDMA, or WCDMA / W-CDMA. This name was often used
to refer to the whole system.
3G Architecture
• The UMTS network architecture can be divided
into three main elements:
• User Equipment (UE): The User Equipment or UE
is the name given to what was previous termed
the mobile, or cellphone. The new name was
chosen because the considerably greater
functionality that the UE could have. It could also
be anything between a mobile phone used for
talking to a data terminal attached to a computer
with no voice capability.
• Radio Network Subsystem (RNS): The RNS also
known as the UMTS Radio Access Network,
UTRAN, is the equivalent of the previous Base
Station Subsystem or BSS in GSM. It provides and
manages the air interface fort he overall network.
• Core Network: The core network provides all the
central processing and management for the
system. It is the equivalent of the GSM Network
Switching Subsystem or NSS.
 How CDMA works?
CDMA transmitter:
• The voice has to be digitalize (Pulse Code
Modulation (PCM) then compressed)
• Each user is given a unique PN code.
• The Codes must have low cross-correlation
• The transmitter multiplies the code by the
data to get the coded massage (bit)
 How CDMA works?
CDMA transmitter:

Ck

R bps RJ bps

bk (t) X Sk (t)
 How CDMA works?
CDMA Receiver:
• The received signal is multiplied again by the
same code that used in the transmitter.
• Integrate over bit duration and, then using a
hard decision to get the transmitted massage
(bit)
 How CDMA works?
CDMA Receiver:

Hard Decision
C1 Sum over
J chips

RJ bps ∑ R bps R bps

y(t)
Ck Sum over
J chips

RJ bps ∑ R bps R bps

Matched Filter
 CDMA Channels
Forward Channel
The Forward channel is the direction of the communication or mobile-to-cell
downlink path. It includes the following channels −
Pilot Channel − Pilot channel is a reference channel. It uses the mobile station
to acquire the time and as a phase reference for coherent demodulation. It is
continuously transmitted by each base station on each active CDMA frequency.
And, each mobile station tracks this signal continuously.
Sync Channel − Synchronization channel carries a single, repeating message,
which gives the information about the time and system configuration to the
mobile station. Likewise, the mobile station can have the exact system time by
the means of synchronizing to the short code.
Paging Channel − Paging Channel’s main objective is to send out pages, that is,
notifications of incoming calls, to the mobile stations. The base station uses
these pages to transmit system overhead information and mobile station
specific messages.
Forward Traffic Channel − Forward Traffic Channels are code channels. It is
used to assign calls, usually voice and signaling traffic to the individual users.
 CDMA Channels
CDMA channels can be broadly categorized as
Forward channel and Reverse channel.
 CDMA Channels
Reverse Channel
The Reverse channel is the mobile-to-cell direction of
communication or the uplink path. It consists of the
following channels −
Access Channel − Access channel is used by mobile
stations to establish a communication with the base
station or to answer Paging Channel messages. The access
channel is used for short signaling message exchanges
such as call-ups, responses to pages and registrations.
Reverse Traffic Channel − Reverse traffic channel is used
by the individual users in their actual calls to transmit
traffic from a single mobile station to one or more base
stations.
 CDMA ADVANTAGES
• INCREASED CELLULAR COMMUNICATION
SECURITY
• SIMULTANEOUS CONVERSATIONS
• INCREASED EFFICIENCY
• SMALLER SIZED PHONES
• LOW POWER REQUIREMENTS
• EXTENDED REACH
COMPARISON OF CDMA AND GSM

THE GSM HAS UPPER THE CDMA HAS UPPER

HAND IN FOLLOWING HAND IN FOLLOWING
FIELDS FIELDS
• DATA TRANSFER SPEED • SECURED
• NATIONAL & COMMUNICATION
INTERNATIONAL • RADIATION LEVEL
ROAMING • BANDWIDTH
• SIM • POWER CONSUMPTION
• COST FACTOR • AREA COVERAGE
• VOICE QUALITY