J277 Computer Science

Paper 1
Knowledge Organisers
 1.1 Systems Architecture Von Neumann Architecture Components
1.1.1 What is the purpose of a CPU?
The instructions and data of a running program are loaded into main memory (RAM). Control unit (CU)
When they are not running the instructions and data are stored long term in -Overall control of the CPU (controls the fetch, decodes the instruction and controls the execution of the instruction)
secondary storage. -Controls the flow of data inside CPU (between registers and main memory
The CPU fetches the instructions, decodes them and then executes them to run the -Controls the flow of data outside the CPU (eg input/output devices)
program. Computers can run multiple applications/programs at the same time.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
-Performs the calculations
- Addition and subtraction (multiplication / division are repeated add and subtracts)
-Performs logic operations
- AND, OR, NOT and binary shifts

Cache
• Very fast (to read from and write to) memory in the CPU.
• Slower than registers but faster than RAM
• Stores frequently used data and instructions so CPU can access it quickly. CPU checks cache first – then checks RAM
• Low capacity (not large) and more expensive than RAM
• Different levels of cache L1, L2, L3 (L1 quickest but lowest capacity)

Registers
Very fast access temporary memory
- Temporarily hold tiny bits of data needed by the CPU
- Super quick to read/write to (quicker than any other form of memory)

Program counter - Keeps track of the memory address for the next instruction. Increments at each new cycle.
Fetch Accumulator – Holds results of calculation (data) made by the ALU temporarily
• Copy memory address from the program counter to the MAR Memory Address Register (MAR) – holds any memory address about to be used by the CPU. The address might point to data
• Copy the instruction stored in the MAR address to the MDR. or an instruction.
• Increment the program counter to point to the address of the Memory Data Register (MDR) – holds the actual data or instruction. This may have been fetched from memory or waiting to
next instruction, ready for the next cycle. be written to memory

Execute Decode
• The instruction is performed.
• Instruction in the MDR is decoded by the
• Could be:
CU.
- Load data from memory
• The CU may prepare for the next step (eg
- write data to memory
load value into the MAR)
- do a calculation or logic operation (using the ALU)
- change the address in the PC
- halt the program
The Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle
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1.1 Systems Architecture 1.1.2 Factors that affect the CPU performance
Lots of things can affect the performance (speed of processing) of a computer system but
the biggest factors are due to hardware:
The purpose of a computer is to take data from an input, process it and then output the result. Clock Speed
They complete tasks more efficiently than humans.
• The clock synchronises all of the processes in a computer system (using a pulse)
A computer system is made up of hardware and software. They take inputs, perform • The clock speed is the number of instructions a single processor can carry out per
processes on the data and output results. second (Hz) (one instruction carried out = one fetch / decode / execute cycle)
There are many types of computer system – calculators, Smartphones, supercomputers in • The higher the clock speed, the greater the number of instructions processed per
banks. second.
• Average computer approx. 3GHz (3 billion processes per second)
They can be: Number of Cores
● general purpose (perform many tasks like a PC, tablet, smartphone) • Number of independent processors within the CPU.
● embedded systems (single, dedicated task eg traffic lights, washing machine, • More cores means more instructions able to be processed simultaneously / at the
microwave). same time. Improved multitasking (working on multiple software simultaneously)
• Quad Core = 4 cores. Can process four instructions at the same time (in theory).
• However – some software not written for multicore (parallel) processing
• Some instructions require sequential processing (in order).
1.1.3 Embedded systems (Computers inside larger machines)
An embedded system is a computer system built into larger device/mechanical system in order to control it. Cache Size
They are dedicated systems - they are designed to only carry out a specific task. • Faster memory, to read from and write to (to access), than RAM
• Used for frequently/regularly used data and instructions
• Washing Machines • Closer to the CPU than RAM
• Car engine management Software is programmed into the device for a • Larger cache capacity gives CPU faster access to more data for processing
• Contactless Card Payments specific purpose.
• Hospital equipment Other factors that can affect performance
• Sat Navs Either no options to program it RAM
or very limited options through buttons or simple • Too little RAM = means that you will need to use virtual memory which is slower
• Industrial robots are control interface (eg temperature and length of washing • More RAM = more applications can be open at one time (multitasking) or more
systems cycle, timer for a microwave). memory-intensive apps can be used – without need for virtual memory and page
swapping
When the program is built into Read Only memory • It is easy and quite cheap to add more RAM
so that it cannot be changed, it is known as
firmware. GPU (Graphics Processing Unit / Graphics card)
Advantages • Specialised processor for handling graphics
Disadvantages • Relieves the CPU of some of the processing
Dedicated to a single task: • if an embedded system fails inside a larger device – the
• easier to design, develop and test • All computers have basic GPUs but improved graphics performance needs a dedicated
larger device will stop working (even if it is in good GPU
• cheaper to produce condition)
• more efficient (cost and energy) • Graphics intensive applications (Gaming / design software) need GPU for improved
• specialist developers are needed to design, develop and performance
than general purpose machines fix embedded systems
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1.2.1 Primary Storage (Memory) The difference between RAM and ROM Virtual memory
RAM is read and write memory. • When the RAM is full, the computer uses the
The need for primary storage ROM you can only look at / read what is in each secondary storage device as temporary RAM this
memory location is known as virtual memory
Primary storage has faster access speeds (read from and
• If data is transferred from RAM to virtual memory, it
write to) than secondary storage. RAM is volatile is swapped back to the RAM when it is needed.
ROM is non-volatile Moving pages between virtual memory and RAM
Primary memory usually consists of RAM and ROM
takes time, so the less frequently it is done, the
better.
The purpose of ROM in a computer system • Significant performance drop if system relies too
RAM and ROM use solid heavily on virtual memory.
state technology Increasing RAM will significantly improve the
ROM (Read Only Memory)
performance of a computer, because virtual
• Non-volatile – does not lose content when the power memory will not be needed as often.
is turned off (permanent)
• Stores the programs needed to boot the
Instructions and data of currently
The purpose of RAM in a computer computer system (BIOS). running programs are transferred to
system The BIOS will: temporary virtual memory
• initialise (start up and check) hardware
RAM (Random Access Memory) components (eg input and output and
also known as Main Memory other peripheral devices)
• tell the CPU how to communicate to other parts of
• Volatile - loses its content when the power is the system
turned off (temporary). • load the Operating System (OS) instructions and
• Holds the instructions and data of the programs data to RAM.
that are currently in use. The OS is a software program that needs to run for CPU only Area of secondary storage
reads and device used as virtual (pretend)
The CPU fetches, decodes and executes the the user to be able to interact with the computer – it is writes to RAM RAM
instructions that are held in RAM. stored long term in secondary storage and held in (& cache), not
secondary
• Fast access speed (ie fast to read from and write to) RAM when in use. RAM is full with instructions
• Can be read and written to and data of currently running
programs (eg user may be
Instructions are fetched from RAM by the CPU ie listening to a music app
read from RAM and the result of a process may whilst creating spreadsheet
need to be written to RAM. and surfing the web

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1.2.2 Secondary Storage Storage Devices
Magnetic media Optical Media Solid State Media
What is the purpose of secondary • Hard Disk Drive ( HDD ) – 1-2 TB • CD – 700 MB •Solid State Drive ( SSD )
storage? • Magnetic Tapes (up to 5 TB) – but • DVD – 4.7 - 9.4GB •USB memory stick
sequential reading eg v slow • Blu Ray – 25-128 GB •SD card
Long term storage of data/files Optical Media Commonly used for movies ,
Non-volatile storage of data/files Still commonly used in Desktop PCs Good for small / portable computers
Secondary storage device using lasers to videos, software and games
(stored while the computer is switched off) Used as Network Storage Eg Smartphones, laptops, cameras
read (and write) data.
Used for Backups and Archives
Advantages:
Common Storage • Cheap Characteristics of secondary storage to consider:
Technologies / Types • Portable - small and light • Capacity – how much data can the device hold
• Widely available / common • Speed - How quickly can the data be transferred and read
• Magnetic Media
• Optical • Portability – Can the device be transported easily (size, shape, weight)
Disadvantages:
• Solid State • Durability – How robust is device (damaged easily if knocked or extreme conditions)
• Slow to read / write to
• Robustness – Does it need to be able to be used over and over again without failing
• Unreliable – stored data degrades
• Cost – Is it expensive per GB of data
over time
• Not durable – can be damaged Technology Capacity Speed Portability Durability Reliability Cost
• Limited capacity - Do not store as Key:
Optical 3 3 2 2 3 2
much data as other technologies 1 = Best
(although Blu Ray can be large) Magnetic 1 2 3 3 2 1
3 = Worst
Solid State 2 1 1 1 1 3
Magnetic Media
Secondary storage device using Data Capacities
magnetised plates / tape to store data. Solid State Media 1 bit = Binary digit
Technology based on electronics with 1 nibble = 4 bits
Advantages: no moving parts, for example transistors
• Large capacity 1 byte = 8 bits (a single character eg. F, %, b, @)
as used in memory chips
• Fast access speeds 1 kilobyte (KB) = 1,000 bytes (documents or small images )
• Reliable Advantages: 1 megabyte (MB) = 1,000,000 bytes or 1,000 KB (music, larger images, short movie)
• Cost effective / inexpensive • Very fast read / write access to data 1 gigabyte (GB) = 1,000,000,000 bytes or 1,000,000 KB or 1,000 MB (HD movies)
• Common (even though they are the • Portable – Small size (physically) and 1 terabyte (TB) = 1,000 GB Example questions:
oldest technology) light 1 petabyte (PB) = 1,000 TB 1. Which is bigger a) 2GB or b) 1,000,000 bytes
• Durable – does not break easily (no
Disadvantages: moving parts)
Answer: 2GB (equivalent of 2 billion bytes)
• Moving parts = break easily (not
durable) Disadvantages: 2. How many photos (each at 2MB) Answer:
• Can be wiped with strong magnet • Very expensive per GB than Magnetic. can be held on 16GB SD card 1GB = 1,000 MB 8,000 photos
• Physically large and quite heavy (not (show your working) [2 marks] 16GB = 16,000 MB
portable) 2MB / 16,000MB = 8,000
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 Why Use Binary Hex is Base-16
1.2.3 Units & • Data needs to be converted into a binary format to be processed by a computer Hex conversion table
1.2.4 Data storage - Numbers •
•
Computers only understand binary – 1s and 0s
Processors are made up of transistors (switches that can be on or off) Denary Binary Hex
• 1 is True or 0 is False 0 0000 0
The units of data storage: 1 0001 1
Binary to Denary Conversion 2 0010 2
bit Single binary digit The smallest unit of data that can be 3 0011
• Write out the Binary units (128,64,32,16,8,4,2,1) over the binary number. 3
1 or 0 represented (an on or off) x2 x2 x2
0100
• Add the units together which there is a 1 underneath Binary 4 4
is 5 0101 5
Nibble 4 bits Converting from and to Hex Denary to Binary Conversion Base-2
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

• Write out the Binary units (128,64,32,16,8,4,2,1) 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 6 0110 6

Byte 8 bits A single character (A & 4 ?) 7 0111 7
• Start with the Most Significant Bit (128)... Does 128 fit into your denary
Kilobyte (KB) 1,000 Bytes An A4 page of text approx 1-2 KB number? If so, 128 is 1. Take 128 from your denary number, does 64 fit into it. If 8 1000 8
not, 0 and then see if 32 fits. Keep going until you have got to the LSB 9 1001 9
Megabyte (MB) 1,000 KB A single song / image / short video • Work out how to make the denary number from those binary units. 10 1010 A
11 1011 B
Gigabyte (GB) 1,000 MB High Definition (HD) movie Binary is Why do computer scientists use HEX instead of Binary 1100
12 C
Base-2 • Simpler to remember large numbers in Hex as it is shorter than binary 1101
Terabyte (TB) 1,000 GB Secondary (long term) storage 13 D
Denary is • Less chance of human error (inputting data) 14 1110 E
Petabyte (PB) 1,000 TB Secondary (long term) storage Base-10 • Easier to convert – only have to deal with a nibble 15 1111 F
Hex is Computers do not use Hex – they still need everything in binary!
Base-16
If the result of the addition has Binary to Hex Conversion
Binary Addition • Split the binary number into nibbles (4 bits each). If binary is not big enough add 0s
a 1 in the 9th bit then Result Binary Shifts If the shift goes to the left
cannot be held in 1 byte (8 then the binary number will be to the MSB eg 1111101000 becomes
0+0=0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
bits). It means the result, in multiplied by 2 to the power 0011 1110 1000 Denary to Hex Conversion eg
0+1=1
denary is greater than 255. of the shift . • Look up the binary number in the conversion table
1+0=1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 • Convert to Binary first
If there is an overflow some OR
1 + 1 = 0 Carry 1 Shifted left by 3 OR
This is an OVERFLOW ERROR. data / accuracy may be lost.. • Convert each nibble into denary using the binary units
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 Carry 1 places. - Divide denary by 16
The computer will store this • Look up the denary number in the conversion table.
Multiplied by 23 = 8 - Convert quotient (whole
extra bit elsewhere If the shift goes to the right Hex to Binary Conversion number) to Hex (use DIV16)
Some data / accuracy may be 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 then the binary number will be • Take each character (number or letter) - Convert remainder to Hex
lost divided by 2 to the power of • Look up in the conversion table for the nibble (binary) (use MOD16)
An overflow flag will show the 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 the shift. • Put the nibbles together in order
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
error
+ 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 Shifted right by 2 Hex to Denary Conversion - Eg 177 in Hex is:
x16 The first hex character is
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 places. - 177 DIV 16 = 11
If there is an underflow some multiplied by 16.
1 1 1 Always show the carry bits Divided by 22 = 4 16 1 The second hex character is - 11 is B in Hex
data / accuracy may be lost. Hex is
Overflow error in a binary addition answer - 177 MOD 16 = 1
But for the GCSE they won’t Base-16 A F multiplied by 1.
Add them together - 1 is 1 in Hex
have under or overflows in the
10 15 AF is (10*16) + (15*1) = 175 - B1 (177 in Hex)
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 Images 1.2.4 Data storage - Characters, images, sound
• Stored as Bitmap. Bitmap images made up of lots of dots called pixels Sound
• The colour of each pixel is represented by a specific binary code / sequence. • Sound recorded by microphone as analogue wave
• The number of colours the image has depends on the number of bits the code has. • Analogue wave shows continually changing data.
• 2 bits can make up 4 colours (black and white only 1-bit: 0 black 1 white)
• 4 bits can make up 16 colours • Sound is stored in computers as binary data.
• Analogue waves need to be converted into digital data
• A greater range of shades and colours made by increasing the number of bits in each pixel.
(bits) – this process is called sampling.
• This is called the colour depth (measured in bits per pixel - bpp).
• Number of colours can be worked out: 2bpp
• Eg 4bpp = 24 = 16 colours, 24 bpp = 224 = 16,777,216 colours • The height/amplitude of the wave is measured at
• Most devices use 24 bit colour depth - 8 bits each for Red, Green and Blue (RGB) regular intervals and the number is converted into
• 28 = 256 different shades of Red, of Green and of Blue binary.
• Image Resolution = The density of pixels in an image. Measured in dots per inch (dpi). More pixels in • Sampling intervals – gaps between each of the sampling points
each inch of the image means a higher resolution (eg every 5 milliseconds)
• Higher Resolution = More Pixels = More bits in total = Larger File Size = Better quality • Sample rate – how many samples per second. Measured in
• Lower Resolution = Less Pixels = Less bits in total = Smaller File Size = Lower quality hertz (Hz). Common sample rate is 44,100 samples
• Metadata = data stored within image file to help computer recreate the image from the binary data per second (44.1 kHz)
• Width of the image • Bit depth – number of bits available for each sample (eg. 16 bit
• Height of the image sound - each sample sound is made up of 16 bits)
• Colour depth • Duration – how many seconds of audio the file contains)
• Resolution Metadata • Increase sample rate = more samples = better quality
Metadata is
• File format 12 pixels wide and more similar to analogue = more total bits = larger
"data about data" 12 pixels high file size
1 bpp

1.2.5 Compression Characters

Less storage space
• Character set - All the characters which are represented by the computer system in binary code
Streaming / downloading = quicker = less bandwidth
Web pages load quicker
• Alphanumeric characters (eg 3 $ ? And f) and commands (eg space, delete, enter)
Email may have size restrictions MP3 - Audio • When a key is pressed on keyboard – binary signal sent to processor (input), it translates it to the binary code (process) and outputs the letter to the
AAC - Audio screen (output).
Lossy JPG - Image
• Permanently removes data from the file • Number of bits needed depends on the character set being used.
• Lower quality – but normally unnoticeable ASCII
• Cannot be used on text or software files • Each character originally given a 7-bit binary code – can represent a total of 128 different characters (all the characters and commands needed for the
• Greatly reduces file size FLAC – Audio English alphabet)
Lossless TIFF – image • An extra bit is added to the start of the binary code (Most Significant Bit is 0) to fit nicely into 1 byte, therefore 256 different characters can be
• Data temporarily removed PNG – image
Unicode represented.
• Can be decompressed - restores the data to original state • Covers every possible character and language (including scripture and emojis).
• This can be used for text or software files • Uses from 8, up to 32 bits and therefore represents millions of different characters
• Only a slight reduction in files size • Covers all languages with different alphabets eg Greek, Mandarin, Arabic Rachel Brown ©
 1.3 Computer networks, The hardware needed for a LAN is: Transmission media

connections and protocols •NIC (Network Interface Controlled /Card) Wired (Ethernet): Wireless (WiFi):
- Every node on a network needs a NIC (or network Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) • Data is transmitted over
What is a network? adaptor) to allow it to communicate within a • Data transmitted as electrical signals radio waves
A network is a connection of computer devices (or "nodes") so that they can network • Most common • Wave frequency of:
communicate and share files and peripherals. •Switch • Cheap 2.4GHz
Desktop computers, printers, scanners, laptops, tablets, Smart TVs, - connects the devices on a LAN • Thin, flexible • lower bandwidth
Smartphones etc can all connect to a network. - Intelligent – sends the data to the correct device • Easy to install • further range
on the LAN using the MAC address • gets through walls and
Types of networks Coaxial cable
•Wireless Access Point (WAP) ceilings
• Data transmitted as electrical signals
Local Area Network (LAN) - converts digital data into a wireless signal (radio
• Older standard but can still be used
A LAN consists of computer and peripheral devices connected in a single or wave) and vice versa. 5GHz
• Bulky and inflexible
local area such as a school or an office building. •Transmission media insulatio • higher bandwidth
• less easy to install
The owner of the LAN usually owns all the infrastructure (cables and - Wired (ethernet): Unshielded Twisted Pair, Coaxial n • does not travel as far
hardware to connect all of the computers). Cable, Fibre Optic Fibre Optic • cannot get through walls
- Wireless (WiFi): Radio Waves (2.4 - 5GHz range. • Data transmitted as light pulses Copper
over wire easily
Wide Area Network (WAN)
The frequencies also have different channels). glass fibres (high bandwidth = fast)
Connection of two or more LANs (a router is the hardware needed for each
•Router • Signal does not degrade over long Wireless (Bluetooth):
LAN to connect to the WAN).
Needed to connect LANs together (to connect the LAN to distance Connects devices together over a
WAN typically covers a large geographical area such as a country or even
the internet). • Expensive short range (10-100m). eg
worldwide.
● Assign the device an IP address smartphone to speakers.
A business / home would rent infrastructure owned by other organisations
● Forward packets to devices on the internet It can be affected by obstacles.
(telephone lines, fibre optic
● Receive packets from the internet (using the IP Low security.
under-sea cables, satellites etc).
Address) Low data transmission rate
The internet is the largest WAN.
Ethernet (wired) WiFi (Wireless)
Factors that affect the performance of networks
• Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be sent on the transmission Speed (Bandwidth) Fast data transfer speed Slow data transfer speed
media per second.
− High bandwidth means the network can perform better / faster
• Number of users on the network Reliability Delivers a consistent speed (not much Suffers from signal interference (walls / other devices /
− Bandwidth is shared on the same network. interference) being "out of range")
− More devices could lower connection speed / increase network traffic
and congestion if there is insufficient bandwidth Security Good - Data does not need to be encrypted Poor - data must be encrypted
• Transmission media
− Wired (ethernet) connections have a higher bandwidth than wireless
Deployment Difficult cable installation and infrastructure Easy to install.
− Fibre optic has a higher bandwidth than copper cables and can travel
required. Cable for each device required. Devices can connect easily and conveniently
further
− Wireless (WiFi) could have interference:
▪ Distance from the WAP (out of range), Walls or other obstructions Mobility / portability Not mobile at all - you cannot move the Very mobile - you can move around with the device and
device. walk between rooms Rachel Brown ©
Roles of computers in Client-Server and Peer-to-peer networks 1.3 Computer networks, connections and protocols
Remember that this is separate from the topology (layout)... A client server or
peer-to-peer network can be both set up in a star topology or a mesh topology. Computer Hosting
Any node on a network that provides a service to another node is known as a host.
Client Server Computer (eg. a file-server on a LAN is a host, a mail server on a WAN is a host.)
Server Web-servers are hosts – websites are available 24/7, the server is dedicated to this one task,
• A better spec machine than clients (this is not a computer that the user greater security against hackers, stores all of the HTML pages (web pages) and other files for
would work on). Server a business.
• A dedicated machine that is almost always left switched on and therefore A DNS server is a host.
accessible all the time. Using a node to provide service to other nodes (eg those requesting web pages) is known as
• Centrally stores files /software (there are different servers with different hosting.
functions – file server, email server, web server, media server) but all act in
Printer Computer ● more businesses are using this model for storing other files such as word
similar way
note - this diagram shows a partial documents, spreadsheets, presentations, media etc
• “Serves” the client by processing the requests
mesh topology, but the client-server ● some hosts offer the use of software (customer does not have to buy software
• Centrally manages the clients
network could also be in a star licenses or update the software)
• user access levels
topology ● some hosts offer remote processing power (no need for customer to have a
• passwords and usernames Exam style question: really high spec computer)
• Installs software to all (including anti-malware) State the role of a personal computer and a server in
• Backups from all clients completed centrally a client-server network. [2 marks]
Client (PC on the network) Cloud computing
Server: - Centrally stores files / software Storing and using services (storage or software) online rather than storing files or software
• Can be quite low-spec and therefore cheaper to buy - Manages clients
• It is the computer that the user works on locally on a hard drive or USB memory stick (also known as remote).
- Process requests Cloud computing is becoming more popular with technology improvements.
• Send requests to the server (eg requesting a file)
• Shows results from the server (eg file is opened) Examples include Google Drive (and the suite of software apps eg Google Docs, Sheets) and
PC: - Sends requests to server Dropbox.
- Shows results from server Advantages:
Peer-to-peer • Access files and software any device, any place at any time.
• All computers in the network have equal status (there are none that are Computer • Large storage capacity
“higher-spec” or do special jobs) Computer • Cost – don’t need to buy the hardware (server on the LAN) or software (eg MS office)
• Basically there is no server in this network • Compatibility – always using the same software so it doesn’t matter the machine the user is
• All files and software are held on individual computers – computers connect on.
to each other to copy files required. • Back ups – data is backed up by the provider. More secure than a USB memory stick or local
Computer
• Lots of duplicates of the same file – not sure which is the most up to date. Printer Hard Drive.
• A computer being accessed by a peer computer could slow down. • Online collaboration (working with other people remotely - eg Google Classroom)
• When a user turns off their machine, other network users lose access to any Disadvantages:
files on that machine. • Internet connection – must have a connection to be able to access the services
• No centralised management – therefore all machines need to be backed up Computer • Security – hackers have easier access than if it is held locally
one at a time, all need anti-malware software installing etc note - this diagram shows a partial • Software functionality – web apps not as many functions as locally stored apps
mesh topology, but the peer-to-peer • Cost – could increase with the more storage required (annual payments)
network could also be in a star
topology Rachel Brown ©
 1.3 Computer networks, connections and protocols
MAC Address Domain Name System (DNS)
Mesh Topology • Media Access Control (MAC) • Websites are web pages (HTML files)
Network Topologies
The layout of all of the nodes in a network (a node • Decentralised – every node (server, client, • A unique physical address to allow the identification of a stored on a web server (the host) that
is any hardware connected eg computer, printer, printer etc is connected to every other device on a network (LAN) you can connect to via the internet.
server, router etc one). • The MAC address is assigned to the NIC (Network Interface • A web server is a “node” on the WAN
• No hub / switch is needed. Card) and cannot be changed. and needs an IP address for other
• Data is sent along the fastest route. • Used by the switch to send to the correct destination device
Star Topology nodes to communicate (request web
• 12-digit hexadecimal number (48-bits).
• All nodes connect to a central device (switch or Mesh topology can either be client-server • Letters easier to remember than numbers - takes up less pages) with it.
hub). (like this) or peer-to-peer (like below) space when printed or on screen • An IP address is a string of numbers
• Data is always sent to the switch or hub; the ie difficult for humans to remember
switch / hub then sends it on (see hardware for 10011000 10000001 01010101 11001101 11110010 00101111 therefore we have domain names eg
LAN).
[Link] – easier for humans to
Star topology can be peer-to-peer (like this) or
remember than [Link]
client-server (like 98-81-55-CD-F2-2F The Domain Name System (DNS) is used
below)
IP Address at this stage:
Full mesh topology – all nodes are connected • You type a Domain Name into your
• A unique address used when sending packets of
Switch to each other. browser (eg [Link])
Partial mesh topology –multiple nodes are data over the internet
• The router uses the IP address to direct the • Your computer contacts a DNS Server
connected but not every node is connected to
every other node. packets between LANs to ask for the IP Address.
• IPV4: 4 denary numbers, separated by a dot (32 • The DNS Server has a database of all
bits) of the domain names and their
Star Mesh associated IP Addresses
00100101.100011001.00111110.10001000 • One DNS server may contact
Pros Cons Pros Cons
another if it does not have that
Good security (data does If central switch fails – If one node / cable fails Expensive – need a lot more domain name in its database
only to intended) the network fails there will be an hardware
alternative route
[Link] • The DNS Server sends the IP Address
• But 32-bits is enough for just over 4 billion unique back to your computer.
Reliable – if a node fails Requires a high Handles high volumes of Difficult to manage (needs
no others are affected performance switch - data traffic expert knowledge) addresses. • Your computer contacts the web
more nodes mean more • Many devices now connect to internet (car server at that IP address – requesting
data to the switch management, smartwatch, smartTV, virtual pa - eg the web page.
alexa, SatNav) DNS Server
Scalable – simple to add
• IPV6: 8 hexadecimal digits, separated by colons (128 com
nodes ike. 235
w w.n 27.
bits) giving many, many more unique addresses (there 1) w 53.
Few data collisions – ) 1 56.
Switch/hub will always be enough for all devices) 2
3) [Link]
each node has own cable
to the switch A client-server 4) Web page returned
A peer-to-peer mesh [Link]
star topology topology Web Server
Rachel Brown ©
 1.3 Computer networks, connections and protocols
The concept of Layers Network Protocols Protocols used by applications eg web
• Networking is a very large complex problem. The rules to allow computer devices to exchange data over a browsers and email clients
• Layers reduce the complexity by decomposing the problem and making them smaller, more manageable network (eg How data is sent and received, how to handle
problems. different hardware or file formats) HTTP: HyperText Transfer Protocol
• A layer is a group of protocols that all serve a similar function. ▪ HTTP is used by the web browser (client)
For example HTTP and IMAP are protocols for the software application to know how to present the data (eg TCP/IP for sending requests to a web server and
webpage or email) Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol returning web page content from the server
• Layers are not physical things inside a computer or network. A way of making the different network A set of protocols that controls the transfer of data over the back to the client.
protocols easier to think about and work with. internet. It is the most important protocol for the internet.
• Each layer prepares the data for the layer above and/or below it but have nothing to do with the other The TCP/IP process works in the following way: HTTPS: Secure HTTP
layers otherwise.
Web server 1) TCP ▪ HTTPS ensures that communications
Laptop/computer • Breaks down file into packets between a server (host) and a client are
• Adds header data to all of the packets secure and information during the
• Source IP address communication is encrypted
• Destination IP address
HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, Turns data into final website, or • Packet order number (sequence number) FTP: File Transfer Protocol
Application layer SMTP, POP3, IMAP Application layer email (used by the app) • Checksum
▪ FTP provides the rules that must be
• Send packets to the network layer
followed when files are being transmitted
Splits file into packets, checks the
Transport layer TCP Transport layer 2) IP between computers
packets have been sent or received
correctly • Makes the connections between networks
• Directs the packets between routers (each router reads
SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
Ensures packets are routed via the ▪ SMTP is used for sending email messages
Internet layer IP Internet layer the packet header)
internet to the destination from client to server and then from server
• Handles the traffic – packets can go via different routes
Ensures correct transmission of data to server until the email reaches its
Data link layer Ethernet Data link layer over physical network – eg electric 3) TCP destination
signals or light pulses or radio • Receives the packets from the network layer
waves. • Checks each packet is intact POP: Post Office Protocol
Method of data transfer (transmission media) • Uses packet sequence number to put the packets in order • POP is used by a client to retrieve emails
Advantages of layering
• Uses the checksum to ensure all packets have been from a mail server. All the emails are
• Layers are ‘self contained’, the protocols in it can be developed or changed without the other layers being received downloaded when there is a connection
affected • Sends a receipt confirmation to the sending device between client and server.
• It allows different developers to concentrate on one aspect of the network without having to worry about the • or will send a time out message if certain packets have
others not been received. IMAP: Internet Message Access Protocol
P Device B • IMAP is used to retrieve email messages,
• Having set rules for each layer forces companies to make compatible and universal hardware and software, so P
TCP checks all of
different brands will work with each other and always work in basically the same way. the packets have
but unlike POP, the email messages do not
P
P been delivered and have to be downloaded. They can be read
Standards examples: USB, MP3, ASCII/Unicode. This makes systems more compatible P P puts them back and stored on the mail server. This is better
• Within computing the term standard means the rule or agreed way of doing things for a specific area P
together in order
for users with many different devices as
of computing. P IP is used to route the data they can be read from each rather than
• Standards make it easier for people to build programs and software that work on different systems in Device A across the connection of being downloaded to just one.
different countries. Standards affect many areas of computing: eg. software files, formats, hardware. TCP breaks the file into packets routers (internet)
and gives them header data
Rachel Brown ©
1.4.1 Network Security - Threats to computer systems and networks
Why attack networks? Brute force attack
- Cause disruption of the network (competition, malicious, disgruntled ex-employee / Gain information by trying to crack passwords through trial and error
customer, activist against the company, IT team focus attention on that so that other Use automated software to produce hundreds of likely password
parts of the network become vulnerable) combinations (eg real word with number)
- Data interception and theft - Steal / use / delete / modify sensitive personal data – Best defence – lock accounts after certain number of failed attempts
usually to commit a crime such as steal money or identity theft (stealing customer Use strong passwords
details). Denial of Service attack (DoS)
A hacker is someone who gains unauthorised access to a computer system. Flooding the network with useless traffic (such as login requests)
Malware - malicious software SQL Injection Done using “botnets” – computers that have been taken over by
Structured Query Language is used to malicious software and send the requests.
How does malware access the system Slows down or crashes the network / website under attack
manipulate / delete / copy data in databases.
Viruses Hackers can use SQL in login fields on websites Best defence – anti-malware protection to stop machines
Computer program hidden in another program. Can only be (such as social networks, banks and online commerce) becoming botnets.. Otherwise there is not much that can be done.
activated when the other program is executed. to bypass security
Thousands of new viruses are created (written) daily. example SQL statement Social engineering
Worms SELECT name, address, account number You can have the most secure network possible, but the users of the network
Does not need another program to carry it. Replicates itself FROM Users may be how a person could gain unauthorised access. This is where people are
WHERE Password = 12345 OR 1=1 the 'weak point' of the system.
and takes up computer resources (storage and memory).
Best defence – input validation Social engineering is a form of attack that tricks people into giving important
Also slows down a network. (not allowing Boolean information or access details without meaning to.
Trojans operators, type check,
Installed by the user thinking that they are downloading length check etc) Phishing - fake emails or texts that trick people into entering usernames and passwords.
legitimate software (the user thinks that the software is Often looks like an email from a bank or well-known retailer, telling the user that an
urgent change is needed or the account will close down. Users often click on a fake link
doing something useful – like an antivirus software).
and think they are entering data into their real account.
Blagging - hacker uses a fake scenario and blags the information out of the system user - for example
Typical actions of malware pretending to be IT support, bank, police.
Delete / modify / corrupt data – malicious activity to slow an organisation down Shouldering - the user enters their PIN or password into a device or system whilst someone is watching
Scareware – Scares the user into doing something (such as giving personal info or - a bank machine could have a camera fitted to it recording the user's keystrokes.
downloading unwanted software. Data interception and theft
Ransomware – encrypts the files on a network and demands a ransom to decrypt them.
Many forms of attack have the purpose to steal data. Data is valuable - systems store credit card
Spyware – Secretly monitors the user – sees what websites are accessed,
information of users, online bank account details will give access to the user's money, enough data
keylogger (track what keys are pressed)
about individual will allow a hacker to blag into a system (Identity theft). Hackers can use packet
sniffing software, spyware, SQL injection, Brute force or social engineering techniques to intercept and
Rootkits – Alters security permissions – gives the hacker full admin level access
steal data.
 1.4.2 Network Security – identifying and preventing vulnerabilities
Prevention method Computer based protection
Penetration Testing Anti-malware software
A simulated attack on the system to find security weaknesses. • Software designed to detect and remove malware
• Testers take on the role of hackers and try to gain unauthorised access • Must be updated due to new malware being written daily
• The security awareness of the users is also tested (eg sending them • Eg anti-virus, anti- spyware, anti phishing software
phishing emails, trying to blag info from them). Encryption
• Scrambling data into a form that cannot be understood by unauthorised recipients.
• Authorised recipient decrypts it with a key to convert it back to its original
Passwords and usernames • Common method is “public” and “private” key:
Only authorised users can access the system. The security of a system is
• User encrypts the message using recipient's public key – available to all
only as strong as the password used to access it.
• Only the recipients private key is able to decrypt it
• At least 8 characters
• WPA2 is the encryption standard for Wi-Fi
• Include numbers and letters
• Include upper and lower case
• Include a symbol (such as & $) My bank details %c *&(^ 3”$£ix* My bank details
• Changed regularly and not reused Firewalls are 123456 $cl &zvs%& are 123456
• Never written down or shared with others • Software that protects a network connected to the internet
User access levels • Examines all data entering and leaving the network and blocks potential threats
Firewall
People are the weakest point in the system – therefore to minimise risks, Firewall
restrict the access levels for some (eg junior employees):
Internet
• No access to confidential files and folders Internet
Computer
• Read-only access to other files (not able to edit or delete) Computer
/ network
/ network
Data entering the network Data leaving the network
Physical Security
Easy to forget that physical security will also protect the systems Applying the knowledge (what is the prevention Hacker Person as weak point - insider attack (member of
• Firewall staff trying to get data)
• Locking doors to protect servers and computer systems method for the vulnerability):
• CCTV • strong password • physical security
Virus / trojan / worm / malware
• Fences • penetration testing • user access levels
• Running anti-virus/anti-malware software
• Security guards Brute force attack Denial of service attack
• don’t download from unknown sources (staff training)
• Locking hard drives in a safe • Firewall • Anti malware software (to stop botnets)
• do not click on unknown links (staff training)
• Backups kept offsite to • strong passwords
Spyware / malware / keylogger
restore the system if needed Social engineering (Person being the weak point of the system for example
• Running anti-spyware/anti-malware software/firewall
deception - blagging / phishing
Data interception
• Strong passwords
• Encryption
• Training staff - check validity of sources
Phishing
• User access levels (in case staff do accidentally fall for it)
• Training staff - do not click on unknown links
SQL Injection
• user access levels (in case staff do accidentally fall for it)
• Validation of data entry
• firewall
• Encryption (if they do manage to access the system)
1.5.1 Systems Software - Operating Systems Before operating systems the user needed
to work directly with the hardware
Purpose of Systems Software Peripheral Manager • flicking switches to write the program
To help run and maintain the computer system. Peripheral Devices are essential to • Punched cards to input / save data
It is NOT application software input, output and store data Only one program could run at a time.
The Operating System runs the computer system by: • Manages all peripheral devices
• Communicates through device drivers Memory Manager/Multitasker
Allowing the user to interact with the hardware / software
• software translates the data sent to and from In charge of the RAM (main memory)
Allowing the application software to interact with the hardware
the peripheral devices • Loads the data and instructions to
Through separate programs that make up the OS
• Loads device drivers at boot up or when needed RAM (from secondary storage)
Software that the system uses to allow interaction between: • Manages the space used in RAM
The operating system is
User and hardware Application software and hardware File Manager • Ensures no data or instructions are
loaded into RAM (currently overwritten
• User interface • Peripheral manager Helps users to organise data:
running program) from long • Creates hierarchical folder structures (folders and sub • Gives the CPU the address location of the
• Memory Manager / multitasker
term secondary storage at folders) instructions for the program (for the CPU to run
• File Manager
• User Manager boot up. • allows the user to create, the Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle)
move, rename, delete, • Allocates space in secondary storage as Virtual
User interfaces Graphical User Interface (GUI) edit data (files) Memory if RAM is full
Most common, everyday users – uses WIMP • This allows user to open more apps if
How the user interacts with the hardware
(Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointers) • Controls the file extensions which tell the computer needed
Command Line interface • Friendly and intuitive / easy to use which software to open • OS memory manager is responsible for
• Black screen with white text • Do not need to learn any commands • .docx (Microsoft Word) swapping data between Virtual Memory
• Type in specific commands at prompt But... • .FLA (Adobe Flash) and RAM as and when programs are being
• Can be faster than other interfaces if user • Take up large amount of memory (RAM and • .HTML (web browser) used.
knows the commands secondary storage) • Removes the instructions and data from RAM
• Less memory needed (no images) • Uses more processing power than other UIs
User Manager when the program is closed
• Does not use much processing power • Slow for experienced users (using mouse
But... • Single user OS - only allow one user to can use the computer
can be irritating)
• Can be confusing at a time.
• Multi-user OS - allow several users to use the Also in charge of multitasking
• Commands must be precise or don’t work Natural Language user interface
computer at the same time (eg ATMs / cash • Allows the computer to have many applications
• Can’t just guess the commands – specific Interact with system through speech
machines – thousands of people access the open at the same time
to different OS (advanced users only) eg virtual assistant Siri / echo
mainframe (supercomputer) at the same time). • even though only one process is processed
• Easy to use
• Responsible for controlling user access levels at a time
• Hands free / eyes free
• Users can be granted access to specific data or • Although programs appear to run at the same
• Suitable for people with physical disabilities
resources on the computer time, the OS (memory manager) shares processor
• Safer than using GUI when operating machinery
• Users may have certain permissions to read only, or time between all of the processes.
But...
read and write of certain files. • All processes that are waiting are
• Reliability still an issue - can be frustrating
• Anti-theft measures to prevent unauthorised users using scheduled and prioritised to ensure they
Command Line • Complex to program (expensive to make)
interface locked devices – username / password, PIN protected, are executed in the most efficient way
• Might need training to the user's voice
Graphical User pattern or fingerprint / eye scanner..
Interface
Rachel Brown
1.5.2 Systems Software – Utility Software
Two types of compression (1.2.4 data rep)
Purpose of Systems Software Data compression software Lossless compression
To help run and maintain the computer system. • Files are getting bigger (eg. HD movies, high resolution • Temporarily removes data
It is NOT application software images) • Find patterns / redundancy where the same data
• When transmitted over the internet (or a local network) is stored many times
Utility Software programs maintain the computer system they need to be compressed, to make the file size • File can be uncompressed / Computer can
Small programs that perform specialised tasks smaller so that there is less data to transmit expand the file back to original
• No loss in data or quality
They support the OS and are designed to help:
• Eg Compressed text files, GIF
• analyse • Streaming and downloading /uploading files to and from
• configure the internet is quicker - less bandwidth Lossy compression
• Permanently removes “unnecessary”data
• optimise • Transfer speed is quicker / internet congestion reduced
• Sound differences (frequency, tone) that the
• maintain • Web pages load more quickly in browsers human ear cannot detect
a computer system • Email services have restrictions on size of attachment • Colours in an image that the human eye
you can send would not notice if removed.
Encryption Software • Smaller files take up less storage space on a device (for • This data is deleted completely
• Data is scrambled into a form that an example your local storage on your smartphone or the • The file cannot be restored to its original
unauthorised user cannot understand. storage on the web server for example) • There will be slight loss of quality.
• It is used to protect data (if it is intercepted by • Eg MP3, JPG
a hacker - unauthorised user)
Defragmentation Software
• The data will be decrypted back to its original form
• Files are stored on the hard disk drive (HDD) wherever the file manager of the OS can find space.
• Encryption and decryption are carried out using a cipher or
• Initially files are stored contiguously (all instructions and data stored next to each other on the HDD).
a key.
• In time, new files might need to be split into smaller blocks to fill up the gaps
eg caesar cipher: • They become “fragmented”
characters are "shifted" • This means that it will take more time to read or write data to the disk as the read/write heads have to move
along the alphabet and more (the noise of them moving could be a sign of a fragmented disk)
the shift key is given to
decrypt
• The disk defragmenter reorganises the files - puts the fragments back together.
• Moves the free space together to prevent future fragmentation

Other security utilities • When files are stored in one sector of the disk – the computer will run faster as the read/write heads on the disk will
• Antivirus software not be moving as much to find the file.
• Firewall
• Spyware protection
Note - this is only when long term storage device is a Hard Disk Drive and not a Solid State Drive (SSD) - the SSD has no
moving parts and therefore does not take time to move between the data.
Rachel Brown
1.6 Ethical, legal, cultural and environmental impacts of digital technology
Stakeholders
Ethical issues (guidelines) individuals or groups of people who are in some way
For example:
Guidelines that computer users should think about the stakeholders affected by robots replacing
affected by the technology humans in car manufacturing.
Not restricted to country • ie. employer, employees, consumers, ISP, Phone the stakeholders affected by illegal streaming of
What is deemed morally right or wrong provider movies / music
Something may be unethical but not unlawful
eg. Artificial Intelligence used to recognise faces and behaviour using CCTV in
public areas - is it ethical to monitor people who may be recognised as having a Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988
criminal record? • Automatically protects intellectual property (people’s original work) from
eg. Self-driving vehicles need to make safety decisions and judgements. Should being
these, possible life and death decisions, be made by machines? used without permission of the copyright holder.
• the work cannot be shared, copied or modified without permission.
• Once the copyright for a piece of work has expired (approx. 70 years), the
Literature
Legal (Laws/Acts) work
Softwar
Rules that computer users must abide by goes into the public domain. Music/
e
• no longer any restrictions on the use of the work for any purpose. lyrics
May vary from country to country
• eg work is now available for anyone to use, share, copy without the
It is a crime if laws are not followed worry of the consequences of breaching copyright. Original
Images
work Art

Data Protection Act 2018 Drama Films

Protects the rights of the data subject (person data is being held about) Sound
• 8 principles:
Data must only be used in a fair and lawful way
Data must only be used for the specified purpose Proprietary
Open source and proprietary software Produced for commercial gain /profit
Data should be adequate, relevant and not excessive.
Open Source - Developed by a large company (eg Microsoft or Apple)
Data must be accurate and kept up-to-date
- Source code is openly available for anyone to modify - tested well
Data should not be kept longer than necessary - Customer support is available
The rights of the data subject must be observed - Users can adapt it to be more specific for their needs
- Upgrades available from a community of developers - Regular updates and bug fixes
Data should be kept safe and secure - Expensive
- No cost – free software
Data should not be transferred abroad without adequate protection. - May not look as professional - Not developed for individual / specific needs (eg
(not user friendly) generic spreadsheet software)
Computer Misuse Act 1990 - A business using it may have to pay - Source code cannot be modified to make software
•To prevent unauthorised access to computer material developers to work on it (therefore not free) more specific
•To prevent unauthorised modification to computer material - Not tested as well as proprietary - Support may be an ongoing cost
•To prevent access with intent to commit an offence / crime
Development in technology has created many issues: Environmental Issues
Cultural Issues Social well being Energy Consumption
E-commerce - New technology being released – people feel Positive – smarter tech helps to protect the
- Selling goods online under pressure to constantly upgrade. environment
Entertainment - Smartphones make work intrude into life – - light sensors (only on when
- Digital TV employees always contactable, work email etc. needed)
- Streaming TV / movies / music - Less face to face social interaction. - cars with better fuel
Computer Games - Cyberbullying and trolling on social media sites consumption / electric cars
- Huge industry - - satellite navigation – plan more efficient routes
- Games earn more than movies now Health issues
- paperless communication
- Eye strain – glare on machines / screen too
Education - devices that consume less electricity
bright (anti glare covers / close blinds /
- Research and teaching use technology Negative – Energy is consumed
turn brightness down)
- Virtual Learning Environments by tech
- Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) – damage the
(Google Classroom / MyMaths) - Billions of electronic devices
body (hands, fingers, wrists) due to
Working practices used daily - all require energy
repeated use of mouse and keyboard over
- People able to work from home - data centres (Google Server
long periods of time. (Ergonomic mouse,
- Less commuting = money saving Farms) always switched on
ergonomic keyboard, wrist supports)
- More productive
- Back problems from sitting in the wrong
- Less office space required = money saving E-waste
position / posture (ergonomic (adjustable)
Medicine Waste created by tech devices being dumped
Privacy Issues chair, foot rest)
- Body scanners/ Heart monitors - Extraction of natural resources used in electronic
Monitoring devices - depletes the resources
- DNA analysis - Devices such as smartphones have GPS software so the
- Artificial Intelligence (AI) and causes pollution
phone could be tracked. - toxic substances get into land
Digital Divide - Passports are scanned when entering and leaving
The difference between those with access to and water (lead, mercury)
countries. - Many tech components cannot be
technology and those without. Those without are at - Phone Service providers record calls and texts so that
a disadvantage. recycled - increasing waste
these could be used if needed (eg. criminal offences) Recycling and reuse
Local - ISP can monitor browsing history
- Older generations - it is illegal to dump computer
- The use of credit and debit cards can be monitored – devices in landfill
- Poor / Homeless Rural areas where, when, how much.
- Rural areas may not get signal - Certified recycling companies can
- Social media sites – store data about where people are, collect devices and recycle certain parts from the
Global behaviours, regular activities (people post this info).
- richer countries have better access than poorer devices to be used in new / refurbed devices.
Surveillance - charities take working computer devices to help
countries. Increased inequality - CCTV networks on streets
- Politics – some countries do not allow freedom of people who do not have access by re-using the
- Cars tracked: Auto Number Plate recognition device.
speech and block certain sites and search engines