Acceleration Performance
➢ Maximum performance in longitudinal acceleration of a
motor vehicle is determine by one of two limits—
➢ Engine power or traction limits on the drive wheels.
➢ Which limit prevails may depend on vehicle speed.
➢ At low speeds tire traction may be the limiting factor
➢ At high speeds engine power may account for the limits.
Power-Limited Acceleration
• The analysis of power-limited acceleration
involves examination of the engine
characteristics and their interaction through
the powertrain.
• Engines: The source of propulsive power is the
engine. Engines may be characterized by their
torque and power curves as a function of
speed.
• Gasoline and Diesel engines differ in their
characteristics.
Power & Torque
• The ratio of engine power to vehicle
weight is the first-order determinant of
acceleration performance.
• At low to moderate speeds, an upper
limit on acceleration can be obtained by
neglecting all resistance forces acting on
the vehicle.
• From Newton’s Second Law:
Effect of velocity on acceleration
capabilities of cars and trucks
Primary elements in the power train.
Powertrain
• Exact estimation of acceleration performance
requires modeling the mechanical systems by which
engine power is transmitted to the ground.
• Starting with the engine, it must be remembered
that engine torque is measured at steady speed on
a dynamometer;
• Thus, the actual torque delivered to the drivetrain is
reduced by the amount required to accelerate the
inertia of the rotating components (as well as
accessory loads not considered here).
• The torque delivered
through the clutch as
input to the transmission
Torque at the can be determined by
clutch application of Newton’s
Second Law.
• The torque delivered at the output of
the transmission is amplified by the gear
ratio of the transmission but is
decreased by inertial losses in the gears
and shafts.
Output Torque • If the transmission inertia is
on the drive characterized by its value on the input
side, the output torque can be
shaft approximated by this expression.
➢The torque delivered to the axles
to accelerate the rotating wheels
and provide tractive force at the
ground is amplified by the final
drive ratio with some reduction
from the inertia of the driveline
components between the
transmission and final drive. The
expression for this is:
Tractive Force at the Ground
• The rotational accelerations of the engine,
transmission, and driveline are related to that of
the wheels by the gear ratios;
• The tractive force available at the ground.
Accounting Mechanical Losses /
Efficiency
Tractive Force
• This Equation gives an expression
for the tractive force that can be
obtained from the engine. It has
two components
First Part of Tractive Force
❖The first term in tractive force is the
engine torque multiplied by the overall gear
ratio and the efficiency of the drive system,
then divided by tire radius. This term
represents the steady-state tractive force
available at the ground to overcome the
road load forces of aerodynamics and
rolling resistance, to accelerate, or to climb
a grade.
Second Part of Tractive Force
❖ The second term represents the “loss”
of tractive force due to the inertia of the
engine and drivetrain components. The
term in brackets indicates that the
equivalent inertia of each component is
“amplified” by the square of the
numerical gear ratio between the
component and the wheels
Acceleration Performance
where:
M = Mass of the vehicle = W/g
ax = Longitudinal acceleration (ft/sec2)
Fx = Tractive force at the ground
Rx = Rolling resistance forces
DA = Aerodynamic drag force
Rhx = Hitch (towing) forces
Simplified equation for Tractive Force
• Fx includes the engine torque and rotational
inertia terms. As a convenience, the rotational
inertias are often lumped in with the mass of
the vehicle to obtain a simplified equation of the
form:
• where Mr is the equivalent mass of the rotating
components.
Mass factor
• The combination of the two masses is an “effective
mass,” and the ratio of (M +Mr)/M is the “mass
factor.”
• The mass factor will depend on the operating gear,
with typical values as given below :
Observations
➢In the complete form of equation for FX, there are no
convenient explicit solutions for acceleration
performance.
➢Except for the grade term, all other forces vary with
speed, and must be evaluated at each speed.
➢The equation as shown above can be used to calculate
acceleration performance by hand for a few speeds.
➢When repeated calculations are required (for example, to
calculate acceleration from zero to a high speed), the use
of computing tools is the preferred method.
➢The tractive force generated by the engine/powertrain
(the first term on the right side of Equation) is the effort
available to overcome road load forces and accelerate the
vehicle..
Tractive effort-speed characteristics
for a manual transmission.
• Tractive Force is shown for a four-speed
manual transmission in the Figure.
• The “Constant Engine Power” line is equal
to the maximum power of the engine,
which is the upper limit of tractive effort
available, less any losses in the driveline.
• It is only approached when the engine
reaches the speed at which it develops
maximum power
• The tractive force line for each gear is the
image of the engine torque curve
multiplied by the ratios for that gear.
• The curves illustrate visually the need to provide a
number of gear ratios for operation of the vehicle.
• Low gears are necessary for getting the vehicle moving
from rest and driving at low speeds, providing high
tractive effort but have a limited speed range.
• In contrast, higher gears expand the speed range but
reduce the available tractive effort.
• For maximum acceleration performance the optimum
shift point between gears is the point where the lines
cross.
• The area between the lines for the different gears and
the constant power curve is indicative of the
deficiencies of the transmission in providing maximum
acceleration performance.
Automatic Transmissions
➢Automatic transmissions provide somewhat
different performance, more closely matching the
ideal because of the torque converter on the
input.
➢Torque converters are fluid couplings that utilize
hydrodynamic principles to amplify the torque
input to the transmission at the expense of
speed.
Torque Converter
Characteristics of a typical
Torque Converter
➢(Ref Figure) The torque ratio and efficiency
characteristics of a typical torque converter as a
function of speed ratio (output/input speed).
➢At zero output speed (speed ratio of zero) the
output torque will be several times that of the
input.
➢ The torque input to the transmission will be
twice the torque coming out of the engine
when the transmission is stalled, providing for
good “off-the line” acceleration performance.
➢As speed builds up and the transmission input
approaches engine speed, the torque ratio
drops to unity.
➢The Stator deflects the return flow in the direction of, and
adds torque to, the impeller.
➢As a result, the turbine torque will be larger than the
engine torque that is input to the impeller.
➢In general, the torque converter is characterized by the
torque capacity (K).
➢When engine braking is taken into account K approaches
infinity as the speed ratio (output speed / input speed)
approaches one.
➢There fore it is common to use 1/K, or the Inverse Capacity
Factor.
➢Compared to a manual transmission, the torque
amplification characteristics of a torque converter provide
for a more favourable tractive effort-speed performance
envelope
Tractive effort-speed characteristics
for an automatic transmission.
➢The initial part of the tractive force curve is
dominated by the torque amplification from the
torque converter.
➢ From there, the force curves blend into the
engine torque curve.
➢The intersections of the tractive force curves
wit the road load curves (straight lines)
represent the maximum steady state speed in
each transmission gear.
➢Because of the slip possible with the fluid
coupling, the torque curves in each gear can
extend down to zero speed without stalling the
engine.
➢At low speed in first gear the effect of the
torque converter is especially evident as the
tractive effort rises down toward the zero-
speed condition.
➢In general, the torque converter is
characterized by the torque capacity (K).
➢When engine braking is taken into account K
approaches infinity as the speed ratio
(output speed / input speed) approaches 1.
➢Therefore, it is common to use 1/K, or the
Inverse Capacity Factor.
Selection of gear ratios based on
geometric progression.
Gear ratios
on a
typical
passenger
car.
Specific fuel consumption map of a V-8 engine (300 in.3).
Traction-Limited Acceleration
➢Presuming there is adequate power from the engine,
the acceleration may be limited by the coefficient of
friction between the tire and road. In that case Fx is
limited by:
➢where: μ = Peak coefficient of friction
W = Weight on drive wheels
➢The weight on a drive wheel then depends on the
static plus the dynamic load due to acceleration, and
on any transverse shift of load due to drive torque.
Transverse
Weight
Shift due
to Drive
Torque
Transverse Weight Shift
➢ Transverse weight shift occurs on all solid drive axles,
whether on the front or rear of the vehicle. The basic
reactions on a rear axle are shown in Figure.
➢The driveshaft into the differential imposes a torque Td
on the axle. As will be seen, the chassis may roll
compressing and extending springs on opposite sides of
the vehicle such that a torque due to suspension roll
stiffness, Ts, is produced.
➢Any difference between these two must be absorbed
as a difference in weight on the two wheels.
➢ If the axle is of the non-locking type, then the torque
delivered to both wheels will be limited by the traction
limit on the most lightly loaded wheel.
Transverse Weight Shift due to Drive Torque
➢Writing Newton’s Second Law for rotation of the axle
about its CenterPoint allows the reactions to be related.
When the axle is in equilibrium:
Or
And
Ts Is Torque due to Suspension Roll Stiffness
Diagram of
drive torque
reactions on
the chassis.
Influence of Roll Torque on suspension
• where:
• Tsf = Roll torque on the front suspension
• Tsr = Roll torque on the rear suspension
• Kϕf = Front suspension roll stiffness
• Kϕr = Rear suspension roll stiffness
• Kϕ = Total roll stiffness
Traction Limits
➢ Solving for Fx gives the final expression for the
maximum tractive force that can be developed by a
solid rear axle with a non-locking differential:
➢ For Locked differential
Front axle Load transfer
➢in the case of a front axle, the fore/aft load transfer
is opposite from the rear axle case.
➢Since the load transfer is reflected in the second
term of the denominator, the opposite direction
yields a sign change. Also, the term “W b/L” arose
in the earlier
➢Nonlocked Differential Locked Differential
PARTS OF A DIFFERENTIAL
Differential Rules
•LOT MORE ON
DIFFERENTIALS
•ONE/TWO
Presentations.
Problem for Practise
Consider a truck with the following specifications:
Mass: 2300 kg Wheelbase: 2.5 m
Centre of mass location: 1.0 m behind the front axle
Centre of mass height: 0.7 m above the ground
Drive axle ratio : 3.5:1
Tire rolling radius: 0.35 m
a) If the redline (maximum permissible engine speed) is 4500rpm, and the maximum vehicle
speed in first gear is 40km/h, what must the first gear ratio be?
b) If the truck is rear wheel drive, what is the maximum acceleration it can achieve on a flat
surface with coefficient of friction of 𝜇 = 0.8, before wheel spin occurs? Assume the truck is
moving slowly enough to ignore wind and rolling resistance. How much torque must the
engine produce in order to spin the wheels in first gear on this surface?
c) If the engine can produce a maximum of 380 Nm of torque, what is the maximum grade it
can climb? Is it limited by the engine torque, or the tire grip? Assume 𝜇 = 0.8.
d) If the truck is travelling at 85 km/h, and the engine is running at 3000rpm, while in fourth
gear, what must the fourth gear ratio be? Assume that tire slip is 2%.
e) If the working speed range of the engine is the same in all gears, estimate the ratios of
second and third gear.