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Basic Science
Monday, 23 May 2022 1:09 PM

Index
NUTRIENTS
THE CELL
DISEASES
Hormones and Genetics
Biotechnology
Stem Cells
WAVES
Human eye
Electric current
CHEMISTRY
COSMIC PHYSICS

Sources to be followed-
• NCERT of Science (new): 6th to 8th
• NCERT of Science: 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th (selected topics)

NUTRIENTS
• Nutrients are substance in our food which are essential for growth and maintenance of life and health.

• Macronutrients - Nutrients needed in a larger amount

○ E.g. - Proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.
• Micronutrients - Needed in a smaller
○ For example - vitamins, minerals, etc.

1. CARBOHYDRATES
○ Naturally occurring compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen can be broken down to release energy.
○ Also called Saccharides.

○ Types of Carbohydrate
• Monosaccharides - they are the simplest form of carbohydrates which cannot be broken down into further
simpler forms.
• For example - Glucose (main energy source), Fructose (called Fruit sugar), Galactose (a component in
milk)
• Oligosaccharides - 2-10 monosaccharides unit joined through a Glycosidic bond to form an oligosaccharide.
• Example -
• Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose)
• Maltose (Glucose + Glucose) - found in Malt syrups
• Lactose (Glucose + Galactose) - Milk Sugar
• Polysaccharides - More than 10 Monosaccharide units joined together through a glycosidic bond to form
Polysaccharide.
• E.g. Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen
• Plants and Animals store glucose in a different form -
• Glucose is stored in Plants in the form of Starch.
• Glucose is stored in Animals in the form of Glycogen
• Cellulose is found only in the Plants it makes the cell wall of Plant.
• They are most abundant organic compound on earth

2. PROTEINS
○ Proteins are nitrogenous compounds that are composed of one or more long-chain amino acids joined together by
an amide bond or Peptide linkage.

○ Protein is also called Polypeptide

○ Globular proteins - Amino acids Chains are coiled around in a spherical shape to form a functional protein.
• They perform different functions in the body.
• E.g.
• blood plasma proteins
• Hormones (insulin)
• Enzymes: Biocatalyst which helps in different reactions in the body e.g. Lactase.
• Lactase breaks down Lactose into Glucose and Galactose.

○ Fibrous proteins -
• In fibrous protein, Polypeptide chains run in a linear pattern and they are forming different structures in the
body
• For examples-

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• Collagen- found in Skin
• Alpha keratin - found in hair, nails, claws, horns
• Myosin - found in Muscles

3. LIPIDS
○ They are naturally occurring Organic Compounds which are fatty acids of C, H, O which are insoluble in water and
soluble in organic solvents.
○ The major form in which Fats are stored in the body is Triglycerides; consist of 3 fatty acids and 1 unit of glycerol join
together by an ester bond.

○ Types of Fatty Acids

1. Saturated -
• Means saturated with hydrogen (i.e. no more hydrogen can be added)
• No double bonds are found
• They are solid at Room temperature
• For example - Ghee, cream, cheese, butter, coconut oil
2. Unsaturated -
• Double bonds; liquid at room temp
• Mono Unsaturated Fatty Acids - a single double bond e.g. Olive Oil, Sesame oil, Avocado
• Poly Unsaturated Fatty Acids - more than one double bond e.g. Chia seeds, Flex Seeds, Walnut,
Fish/seafood

3. Trans fat -
• trace amount available naturally
• Trans Fats are a type of unsaturated fatty acids which are partially hydrogenated to change into solid
forms.
• E.g. - Vanaspati ghee, processed snacks, fried food, and bakery products
• Trans fats are not good for the Heart. It blocks blood vessels.

○ Good fat vs bad fat

• Good Fat
• MUFA (single double bond) - olive oil, Avocado; etc
• PUFA (more than one double bond)- walnuts; fish oil; etc

4. VITAMINS
○ group of organic compounds which are essential for normal growth and nutrition and are required in small quantities in the
diet because they can’t be synthesized by body.
○ Water Soluble: vitamin B and C
○ Fat Soluble vitamins: A, D, E, and K

○ WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
• Vitamin B1: Thiamine
• Sources: Milk, peanuts, cereals, yeast
• Vitamin B1 is needed for Carbohydrate metabolism.
• Its deficiency can lead to conditions like indigestion, heart enlargement and even failure
• Disease: Beri Beri - retarded growth of the person
• Vitamin B2: Riboflavin
• Sources: Yeast, Milk, green vegetables
• It is needed for cellular respiration
• Cheilosis: development of the cracks at the corner of the mouth
• Vitamin B12: Cyanocobalamin
• It helps in the formation of Haemoglobin in the body and its deficiency causes Pernicious Anaemia
• Sources: the bacteria in the intestine produce some amount of Vit B12. Other sources would be meat,
fish.
• Vitamin C: Ascorbic Acid
• It is needed for maintaining the immunity of the body.

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• Scurvy disease : Bleeding gums; Pain in the muscle and joints

○ FAT-SOLUBLE
• Vitamin A: Retinol
• Sources: Carrots, fish, buttermilk
• It helps to maintain the health of the skin and eyes
• Disease: Night Blindness
• Vitamin D: Calcipherol
• Source: Sunlight
• It helps in the absorption of calcium into bone
• Disease: Rickets in children
• Vitamin E: Tocopherol
• Sources: Vegetable oil
• Disease: Reduced fertility in Males
• Vitamin K: Phylloquinone
• Sources: green leafy vegetables
• Needed for clotting of blood
• Disease: increased clotting time

5. MINERALS
○ Inorganic substance needed by the human body for good health.
1. MACRO Minerals
• Magnesium : from Nuts and seeds; deficiency affects the function of muscles
• Calcium : from Milk and Milk Products; deficiency causes week teeth and bones
• Sulphur : from Meat, Fish, Onion, Garlic, found in some proteins; deficiency causes Protein deficiency
• Potassium : from fruits and vegetables; deficiency causes muscle weakness
• Phosphorus : from pulses, milk; deficiency causes weaker teeth and bones
• Sodium : from normal table salt, maintains the movement of muscles; deficiency causes a fluid imbalance in
the body.
• Chlorine: from Table salt; deficiency causes fluid imbalance and weakness.

2. MICRO minerals
• Copper: from Pulses, nuts, and seeds, helps in the functioning of certain enzymes; deficiency causes muscle
weakness
• Zinc: from Beans, meat, fish; helps in maintaining the immunity in the body; deficiency causes
different symptoms, diarrhea, hair loss.
• Iodine: from iodized Table salt; component of Thyroid Hormone; deficiency causes Goitre
• Iron: from Pumpkins, Apricots, red meat; component of Haemoglobin; deficiency causes Iron-deficiency
Anaemia
• Fluorine: from groundwater, sea food; deficiency causes tooth decay

THE CELL
• The cell is the structural and functional unit of all life forms

Types of Organisms based on number of cells

1. Unicellular Organisms: Organisms that contain only a single cell which means that all life processes are performed by
the single cell. e.g. Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium, and Bacteria
2. Multicellular: Organisms that consist of more than one cell.

• The different cells are specialized for different functions all of which coordinate to make life possible for an organism. e.g.
Insects, Plant, and the Human body

Types of Organisms based on their organization

1. Prokaryotic Organisms: they are unicellular organisms that lack a membrane-bound nucleus and cell organelle.
○ The Genetic material which is DNA is circular and present in the Nucleoid region.
○ E.g. Bacteria, Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae)
2. Eukaryotic organisms: they can be unicellular or multicellular which have a membrane-bound nucleus and cell
organelle.
○ Genetic material i.e. DNA is linear and is organized in the form of Chromosomes which are found in the Nucleus.
e.g. Plants, Animals, and Fungus.

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Size of cell is generally small Size of cell is generally large.
Nucleus absent. Nucleus present.
It contains single chromosome It contains more than one chromosome
Membrane bound cell organelles are absent. Cell organelles are present.
Cell division takes place by fission or budding. Cell division takes place by mitosis and meiosis.

STRUCTURE OF EUKARYOTIC CELL

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• Cell Membrane
○ It is the biological membrane that separates the interior of all the cells from the outside environment.
○ It is made up of Phospholipids.
• Cell Wall:
○ It is a structural layer surrounding the cell membrane in certain types of cells.
○ It provides support and protection.
○ In Plants, the cell wall is made up of Cellulose
○ Bacteria have a compound in the cell wall called Peptidoglycan and the cell wall of fungi is made up of Chitin.
• Cytoplasm
○ It consists of all the components of a cell enclosed within the cell membrane other than the Nucleus.
• Cell Nucleus
○ It is the controlling centre of the activities of the cell.
○ It is generally spherical in shape and located in the centre of the cell.
○ The genetic material is present in the Nucleus in the form of Chromosomes.
• Protoplasm
○ It is the living part of the cell which includes the Nucleus and Cytoplasm.
• Ribosomes
○ Ribosomes are the site for protein synthesis in the cell. It can be found freely in the cytoplasm or attached to
the Endoplasmic Reticulum.
• ER:
○ It is a large network of membrane-bound tubes and sheets which transport material between various parts of the
cell.
○ Rough ER: they are the sites of Protein Synthesis
○ Smooth ER: it does not contain Ribosomes and helps in the "manufacture of Fats".

• Golgi Body
○ They are membrane-bound structures arranged parallel to each other.
○ It plays a central role in processing, packaging, and transporting proteins and other molecules within and outside the
cell
• Mitochondria:
○ Have their own DNA. they perform cellular respiration which leads to the production of energy in the form of ATP.
○ ATP
• Acts as neurotransmitter,
• Only energy which can be used for direct metabolic processes, other form of energy needs to be converted
into ATP before they can be used.
○ It is thus the powerhouse of the cell.
• Lysosomes:
○ They contain powerful digestive enzymes and digest any foreign material as well as worn-out cell organelle.
○ They can digest the whole damaged cell by releasing their enzymes into the cytoplasm thus they are called "suicide
bags of the cell".
• Peroxisome
○ Lipid Destruction; contains oxidative enzymes
• Vacuoles:
○ Vacuoles are the storage structure of the cell.
○ They can be present in the form of a "single large structure in the plant cell" or multiple smaller structures in the
animal cell.
• Plastids
○ They are pigment-containing cell organelle found only in plants. They also have their own DNA.
○ They are of 3 types
i. Chloroplast: contains chlorophyll and is found in the green parts of the Plant.
ii. Chromoplast: contains coloured pigments for different coloured parts
iii. Leucoplast: which is white to colourless because of the presence of fats, oils, and proteins in them.

• The difference between Plant and Animal Cell explained

• Plant Cell - Cell wall; large single vacuole; peripheral nucleus; the presence of plastids; storage of glucose as Starch etc
• Animal Cell - Cell membrane; multiples small vacuole; Nucleus in the centre; no plastids; storage of glucose as Glycogen
etc

Kingdom Classification

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• Monera- Prokaryotic; unicellular; bacteria; cyanobacteria etc

• Protista- Eukaryotic; unicellular; amoeba; paramecium etc
• Fungi- Eukaryote; multicellular; Ex- mushrooms; yeast; etc
• Plants and Animals- multicellular; eukaryotes

Animalia Kingdom Classification

• Porifera- simplest organism; non-mobile animals; multicellular organism; pores; sponges; etc
• Coelenterata - aquatic animals; attached to the bottom of rocks; jellyfish; etc
• Platyhelminthes - flattened body; hermaphrodite; Flatworms; tapeworm; Taenia Solium, etc.
• Aschelminthes/Nematodes/ roundworms: They are circular in cross-section and the sexes are separate.
○ E.g. Hookworm, guinea worm, Ascaris, Filarial worm
• Annelida- segmented worms. E.g. earthworm and leeches

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• Arthropoda - have a Maximum number of species; hard exoskeleton
○ 3 groups:- Insects; Arachnids; Crustacean
i. Insects: butterfly, bees, wasps, grasshoppers
ii. Arachnids: Spider, Scorpion, Ticks, Mites
iii. Crustacean: Prawns, crabs, lobster
• Mollusca- All aquatic organisms e.g. Snail, Octopus
• Echinodermata - A calcified endoskeleton. E.g. Sea Cucumber, Starfish
• Chordata-
○ Fish: e.g. Shark
○ Amphibians: Frog, Salamander
○ Reptiles: Snake, turtles, etc
○ Birds: Great Indian Bustards, Siberian crane
○ Mammals: Whales, dolphins, Pangolins, Dugong.

• VIRUSES
• an infective agent that typically consists of a nucleic acid molecule in a protein coat, is too small to be seen by light
microscopy, and is able to multiply only within the living cells of a host.
• They have their own genetic material and protein but lack the enzyme needed for energy production.
• They can infect plants, animals, and even microorganisms like bacteria.

DISEASES
• A particular abnormal condition that negatively affects the structure/function of an organism
• Acute diseases --> shorter duration; E.g.: Diarrhoea;
• Chronic diseases --> longer duration; E.g.: Asthma;
• Most chronic disease is not caused by a pathogen(No micro-organisms involved);

1. Congenital (at birth): Any abnormal in the structure or function of a person which is present right from the time of birth.
○ E.g. congenital heart effect, cleft lip
2. Acquired disease (acquired at the later stage)
○ Any disease which is not present at the time of birth but develops at a later stage of the life of an organism.
a. Communicable or infectious: caused by pathogens
• The disease-causing organism is called Pathogen
• E.g. Malaria, Covid 19
b. Non-communicable or non-infectious
• These are diseases that are not caused by pathogens but by lifestyle or environmental factors.
• E.g. Heart diseases, respiratory diseases.
Vector
• They are the carriers of diseases.
• Vectors are organisms that do not cause the disease itself but spreads the infection by taking pathogens from one
organism to another.
• Mechanical vector & Biological vector;
a. Mechanical vectors carry the pathogens on the surface of their bodies & transmit the disease through physical
contact.
b. Biological vectors carry the pathogens inside their body & transmit the disease by their bite;
• Some examples of vectors:
○ Malaria --> being bitten by an infective female Anopheles mosquito;
○ Dengue, Chikungunya, Zika -->female Aedes aegypti mosquito;
○ Zika spreads through--->Vector, Body fluids, Mother to child(Perinatal transmission)
Natality
• Pre-natal-->before the birth of child---pregnancy period;
• Peri-natal-->During birth
• Post-natal-->After birth

Different types of Communicable disease:

• Bacterial diseases, viral diseases, etc.

1. Bacterial diseases:
○ Tuberculosis(TB), Leprosy, Cholera, Typhoid, Tetanus, etc
Tuberculosis(TB):
• Is a bacterial disease;
• Pathogen - Mycobacterium Tuberculosis;
• It is an airborne disease -->coughing, sneezing, droplet infection, etc.
• Pulmonary TB --> when it affects Lungs
• Symptoms of Pulmonary TB: Persistent cough for more than 2 weeks, weight loss, Bloodstained
sputum, afternoon fever, night sweats;
• Extrapulmonary TB --> It can be affecting areas other than the lungs like the brain, bone, intestine.

Management of Bacterial disease:

• All bacterial diseases are treated by Antibiotics;
• They are anti-bacterial drugs (i.e.., medicines);
• Drug regimen refers to the dosage, frequency, duration of drugs;

Anti-Microbial Resistance:
• The ability of microorganisms like bacteria, or viruses to stop an anti-microbial medicine from working against
it.
• It can occur naturally or through the misuse of drug therapies (incomplete course, self-medication without
consultation, etc);
• Standard treatments become ineffective, the infection persists & it may spread to others.

Phage Therapy
• Bacteriophages - viruses that kill only specific disease causing Bacteria.
• They have no residual issue unlike antibiotics.

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2. Protozoan diseases:
○ Protista-->Eukaryotes, unicellular;
○ Amoebiasis
○ Malaria --> Plasmodium; It is a vector-borne disease;
○ Giardiasis-->Giardia;

Malaria:
• Pathogen ---> plasmodium --> Vivax, Falciparum.
• Vector --> female Anopheles mosquito;
• Infection process
• The person is bitten by the vector (female Anopheles mosquito);
• Pathogen (plasmodium) is carried;
• Vector bites another person(uninfected);
• Plasmodium enters the blood;
• Blood takes it to the liver;
• In the Liver plasmodium starts growing;
• This plasmodium goes to RBCs(Red Blood Cells);
• Here the plasmodium is multiplying;
• RBCs burst --> released in blood;
• High-grade intermittent fever;

3. Fungal diseases: (Moisture helps fungal growth)

○ Candidiasis --> Candida Alba --> in the mouth.
○ Ringworm --> It is not a worm, but fungus;
○ Athlete’s foot --> got its name from the sweat in the socks of athletes.

Helminthic diseases:
• (Roundworms & flatworms)
• Ascariasis --> caused by Ascaris (Roundworm)
• Taeniasis --> caused by Jaenia Solium(Flatworm)
• Lymphatic filariasis --> caused by Filarial worm(Roundworm)

○ De-worming suggested for such conditions;

• National de-worming day(10th February) --> Children in schools given medicines;

4. Viral diseases:
○ Hepatitis--> Hepatic+itis;
• Hepatic means relating to the liver.
• RNA Virus
• ‘itis’ is the term for inflammation (Redness swelling, pain, high temperature, loss of function);
• The pathogen is the Hepatitis virus;

• 5 types of Hepatitis:
• Hepatitis A --> spreads through contaminated food & water.
• Hepatitis B --> spreads through Blood and body fluids;
• Hepatitis C --> spreads through Blood;
• Hepatitis D --> happens to people who have Hepatitis B;
• Hepatitis E --> spreads through contaminated food & water.

• Hepatitis C has no vaccine, but all others have vaccines;

• 2020 Nobel prize in medicine for the discovery of Hepatitis C virus;
• Jaundice --> Happens in hepatitis --> Excess of Bilirubin (yellow colour of skin, eyes) & it secretes in different
parts of the body;
○ AIDS - Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
• HIV virus-Human Immunodeficiency Virus
• RNA Virus
• Attacks T-cells - lesser immunity than a normal person (Natural immunity weakened)
• Reduced Immune system - opportunistic infections - to develop different diseases

Modes of transmission & diseases:

○ Air-->TB
○ Water-->Typhoid;
○ Food-->Amoebiasis;
○ Soil-->Tetanus, hookworm;
○ Blood & Body fluids-->AIDS;
○ Direct contact-->Chicken pox;
○ Zoonotic (to humans from animals) --> spread from Animals or birds --> Bird flu, Rabies;
○ Vector-->Zika, Dengue;
○ Fomite --> non-living; Common cold;
• (Fomite-objects exposed to infectious agents like bacteria, virus, etc)

Chapters for reference:

• Class 8th NCERT on microorganisms;
• Class 9th NCERT-chapter 13

NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASE

• Cardiovascular diseases: Hypertension

• Chronic respiratory diseases: Asthma
• Deficiency diseases: Vitamins and Minerals
• Mental disorders : Anxiety and Depression

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• Environmental diseases: Minimata Disease due to Mercury

• Cancer
○ Cancer is the uncontrolled cell division that leads to abnormal tissue growth
○ 2 types
• Benign - they are localized to a particular part of the body and do not spread to other parts
• Malignant cancer - invade and destroy surrounding healthy tissues

Immunity
• Immunity is the balanced state of organisms having adequate biological defences to fight infection and having adequate
tolerance to avoid allergy.

• Two types of immunity

○ Active (Natural and Artificial Immunity-vaccination) - results from the production of antibodies by the immune
system in response to the Antigen
○ Passive Immunity : antibodies are administered from outside to protect against specific antigens. (Natural-Mother
milk and Artificial immunity-Anti snake venom) - antibodies that are administered from outside

• Two types of Defenses

○ Innate
• It is the nonspecific response of the body which is available immediately forming the first line of defence of an
individual.
• Examples:
• Physical barriers - Skin and Mucus membranes.
• Chemical Barriers - Tears, saliva, HCL in the Stomach.
• Cellular Defence - Neutrophylls and Monocytes(White Blood Cells).

○ Acquired Immunity/Adaptive Immunity

• It is a specific immune response that is activated on exposure to a pathogen. It is slower than the innate
immunity
• Antibody-mediated immune response
• Cell-mediated immune response

• Antigen & Antibody

○ Antigen - Any agent which triggers an immune response
○ Antibody - Proteins produced as a response to the Antigen
○ Phagocytosis- Process by which a cell uses its Plasma Membrane to engulf a large particle and then digest it.
○ Lymphocytes - a type of WBCs
• Two types:
• B Cell: formed in the bone marrow and are responsible for the production of Antibody;
• Antibody-mediated immune response.
• T Cell: formed in the bone marrow and goes into Thymus for maturation; Cell-mediated Immune
response.
• They help in coordinating immune response by releasing cytokines.
• Different types
• Cytotoxic T cells (Tc cells): These cells directly kill infected cells or cancerous cells by
creating holes in their membranes.
• Helper T cells (Th cells): They orchestrate the immune response by activating other immune
cells, including B cells,cytotoxic T cells, and macrophages (cells that engulf and destroy
pathogens).
• Regulatory T cells (Tregs): They help regulate the immune response to prevent autoimmune
diseases (where the immune system attacks healthy body tissues).

VACCINATION -
• A process by which a person is made immune/resistant to infectious diseases by stimulating the body’s own immune
system
• When the body encounters an antigen for the first time a low-intensity slow response is given by the B- Cells in the way of
producing Antibodies and remain sensitized by the creation of immunological memory.
• On a subsequent attack/secondary attack, this immune memory is activated and high intensity and fast immune response.
This is the rationale for vaccine.

• Types of Vaccine - LIV-CDS

○ Live attenuated: The pathogen is weakened so that it doesn’t cause disease but retains its capacity to grow.
• E.g. Oral Polio Vaccine, Rotavirus, BCG, MMR.
○ Inactivated/killed :- The pathogen here is killed but its proteins present are still able to produce an immune
response.
• E.g. injectable Polio vaccine, influenza vaccine
• Covaxin by Bharat Biotech
○ Viral vector vaccine:
• uses a harmless virus (often a common cold virus) modified to carry a gene from the pathogen.
• Example: Covishield by Serum Institute of India
○ Subunit vaccine - uses specific part of the pathogen like protein or polysaccharide -
• E.g. Tetanus, whooping cough

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○ Conjugate vaccine - when more than one subunits are used in the vaccine -
• E.g. Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine
○ DNA/RNA Vaccine - Hepatitis B, Pfizer, Moderna Vaccine
• iNCOVACC by Indian Immunologicals

Digestive system
• Digestion means the breakdown of food into simpler smaller forms/components through digestive enzymes.
• Enzymes are bio-catalysts.
• The mouth is the first place where food enters.
○ Salivary glands are there in the mouth.
○ These glands secret saliva.
○ Saliva contains amylase.
• It is an enzyme that helps in breaking up carbohydrates.
• After this food enters Oesophagus or food pipe.
○ It is a passage through which food goes to the stomach from the mouth.
• In the Stomach, there are the gastric glands that produce gastric juice containing HCL and Protease.
○ It will break down the proteins.
○ Sphincters are there to close parts of the digestive system when needed.
• These are the muscles that act as lids.
• The small intestine is the longest part of the digestive system.
○ Still, it is called Small due to its lesser diameter as compared to the large intestine.
○ The small intestine releases intestinal juice.
• It has its own set of enzymes like peptidase, sucrase, maltase, and lactase.
○ Here the digestion of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates takes place.
○ The liver produces bile juice.
• The bile does not has enzymes but helps in the digestion of fats.
• Gall bladder stores bile before it is secreted into the small intestine.
• It makes the acidic food coming from stomach alkaline so that pancreatic enzymes can act on it.
○ The pancreas will produce pancreatic juice.
• It has proteases and lipases.
• Protease digest protein and lipase digest fats.
○ The process of digestion completes in the Small intestine.
○ Absorption of nutrients takes place in the small intestine.
• Villi present on the walls of the small intestine help in absorption.
• Blood takes nutrients to other parts of the body.
• In the large intestine, water is absorbed and waste is removed.
• Through Anus, waste materials are expelled.

Respiratory System
• Energy production takes place through respiration.
• There are 2 parts of the process of respiration:
○ Cellular respiration
○ Gaseous exchange
• Aerobic respiration.
○ Glucose in the presence of oxygen is burnt down and broken down to give out carbon dioxide, water, and energy.
• Anaerobic respiration is respiration without oxygen.
○ It happens in rare situations in the human body.
○ Example-
• In muscle cells (when a person is exercising) where glucose breaks down into lactic acid and energy,
• Lactic acid results in muscle cramps.
• Anaerobic respiration is a property of organisms like yeast and bacteria.
• This process is called fermentation.
• Here the glucose breaks down into ethanol and energy.
• Process of Gaseous exchange:
○ Air enters our body through the nasal cavity.
○ From the nasal cavity, it goes to the pharynx.
○ The larynx is thereafter pharynx.
• This larynx is the voice box having vocal cords.
• It helps in speech.
○ The trachea is there after this.
• It is also called a windpipe.
• The trachea divides into 2 parts called Bronchi (Singular: Bronchus).
• The Bronchi and further divides into Bronchioles.
• Bronchioles end into alveoli.
○ These alveoli are the air sacs that have a rich blood supply.
○ RBCs have haemoglobin.
• It attaches to the oxygen and takes oxygen along with it to each and every part of the body.
• Blood containing carbon dioxide is brought back to the alveoli and is exhaled out through the lungs.

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Excretory system
• Kidneys help in waste removal.
• It also helps in regulating the amount of water in the body.
• Kidneys perform filtration.
• Kidney has a number of small units called Nephrons.
• There are 2 parts of nephrons:
○ Bowman's capsules, and
○ Glomerulus.
• These filter the blood.
• During filtration, useful materials like minerals are sent back to the body.
• The waste material is removed in the form of urine.
• Urine gets stored in the urinary bladder.
• The excretion of urine takes place through the urethra.
• Composition of Urine:
○ Urea 2.5%,
○ Other waste 2.5 %, and
○ water 95%.
• Kidney stones are made up of Calcium oxalate.
○ Kidney stones are common in people who drink less water.

Nervous system
• The nervous system can be divided into:
○ The central nervous system(CNS) and
• CNS is made up of the Brain and Spinal cord.
○ The peripheral nervous system (PNS).
• PNS is made up of nerves.
• Nerves bring and take the signal.
• The signals are processed in the brain and spine.
• Nerves are of 2 types:
• Sensory nerves:
• Those nerves that take signals to CNS.
• Motor nerves:
• Those which bring signals from the CNS.

Circulatory system
• It is made up of:
○ Heart
○ Blood
○ Blood vessels
• Heart and Blood vessels:
○ A heart divided into 4 chambers:
• Right and Left Atrium
• Right and Left ventricles
• Four Chambers of the heart are supported by blood vessels:
• Arteries and
• Veins.

○ Artery:
• Takes blood away from the heart,
• Red in colour,
• deep-seated
• thick-walled, and
• carry oxygenated blood except for the pulmonary artery.

○ Veins:
• Brings blood towards the heart,
• Bluish-Green in colour
• Superficial,
• thin-walled
• carry deoxygenated blood except for the pulmonary vein.
• Double circulation in the heart mechanism

• It is called double circulation because blood goes through the heart twice.

BLOOD

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• It is made up of two components:

○ Plasma (55%) and
○ Cells (45%)

• Plasma:
○ It is a straw-coloured liquid.
• It provides a liquid medium.
• It contains proteins like Globulins, Albumins, and Fibrinogen;
• Globulins: They defend the body (immunity).
• Albumins: They maintain the pressure of blood.
• Fibrinogen: It helps in the clotting of blood.
• Cells:
○ All the blood cells come from bone marrow. They begin their life as stem cells and then develop into RBC, WBC,
Platelets.

○ Platelets/Thrombocytes:
• These are needed for clotting of blood.

○ Red Blood Cells/Erythrocytes:

• These contain Haemoglobin that helps in the transport of oxygen.
• Haemoglobin contains iron.
• RBCs are enucleated.
• Packed cell volume(PCV) is measurement of the proportion of the volume of blood that is made up of Red blood cells.
• Generally PCV test range from 35%-48%.
• Low PCV - anemia, AIDS, HCV(hepatitis C virus)
• High PCV - liver disease.

○ White Blood cells/Leucocytes:

• These are of 2 types:
• Agranulocytes
• Agranulocytes do not contain granules in their cytoplasm.
• Two types of Agranulocytes are there:
• Lymphocyte and
• Lymphocytes are further divided into B-cells and T-cells.
• Monocytes.
• Monocytes are responsible for innate immunity.
• Granulocytes
• Granulocytes contain granules.
• Neutrophils: These are involved in innate immunity.
• Eosinophil: They are involved in allergic reactions.
• Basophil: They are involved in inflammation.

• Explanation
Imagine your body is a castle under siege.
• Lucocytes (White Blood Cells): These are the entire army defending the castle, with different types of
soldiers for various tasks.
• Neutrophils and Monocytes: These are like the front-line soldiers who directly attack and engulf
enemies (germs) trying to breach the castle walls.
• Eosinophils and Basophils: These are like specialized soldiers who deal with specific threats like
allergic reactions.
• Lymphocytes: These are the elite forces that recognize specific enemies and develop targeted
strategies (antibodies or direct attacks) to defeat them effectively.
• B cells: These are like archers who can launch specialized weapons (antibodies) to take down specific
enemies.
• T cells: These are like the commanders who strategize, activate other soldiers, and coordinate the
overall defensive response.

Blood groups
○ Antigens are present on the surface of RBCs.
○ These antigens decide the type of blood.
○ Corresponding to these, antibodies are found in plasma.

Blood group Antigen Antibody

Blood group A Antigen-A Antibody-B
Blood group B Antigen-B Antibody-A

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Blood group AB Antigen-AB Antibody-None
Blood group O No antigen Antibody-A and B

○ Rh-factor
• Rh stands for Rhesus.

Positive Blood group Rh-Antigen is present Antibody is absent

Negative Blood group Rh-Antigen is absent Anti-Rh is present

Blood Transfusion concepts

○ It means giving the blood of 1 person to another.
○ The donor has antigen and recipient has antibody.
○ The antigen is something that stimulates the immune system.
○ When it comes to our body, our body will produce antibodies to fight it off.
○ An antigen on our RBCs is not an antigen for our body but it will be an antigen for someone else's body.
○ This antigen activity will come into play when blood is donated from one person to another.
○ At that time the antigen of the donor will activate the immune system of the recipient.
○ Antibodies can not be produced against one's own antigen.
○ That is why someone with blood group A can not produce antibody A.
○ He will always produce antibodies B.

Hormones and Genetics

GLANDS IN THE HUMAN BODY
1. Exocrine Gland : A duct takes secretions from one organ to other.
○ Example - The liver
2. Endocrine Gland: ductless glands that secrets their products and hormones directly into blood.
○ The secretions of endocrine glands are called hormones.
○ The endocrine system is meant for internal communication and regulation of the human body.

1. Hypothalamus : stimulates secretions from the Pituitary gland, inhibiting hormone.

2. Pituitary gland:
• Anterior Pituitary: Growth Hormone, Prolactin.
• Thyroid Stimulating Hormone, ACTH, LH, FSH.
• Posterior Pituitary: Oxytocin, Vasopressin/Antidiuretic hormone.

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3. Thyroid Hormone
• Metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
• Hypo – When hormones are in deficiency.
• Hyper-thyroid issues – when the gene is in excess.

4. Parathyroid Hormone
• Metabolism of Calcium and Phosphate in the body.

5. Adrenal Gland:
• Medulla: Adrenaline and Nor-Adrenaline-these are emergency hormones during fear, anxiety, etc.
• Cortex: Cortisol-carbohydrate metabolism; Aldosterone-balance of water and electrolytes to maintain blood
pressure etc.
6. Pancreas
• It has 2 hormones – insulin and glucagon.
• Insulin – reduces blood sugar level
• Glucagon – increased blood sugar levels.
• Disease – Diabetes mellitus – Insulin decreases and sugar increases.
• Diabetes incipits – no relation to this.

DNA AND RNA

• Nucleic Acid -> Nucleotide -> Gene -> DNA -> Chromosome (somatic cells - 23*2, reproductive cells - 23) -> Genome [NGD-CG]

• Nucleic acid
○ Nucleic acids form the genetic material of all life forms.
○ They are responsible for the transmission of characters from the parents to the children.
○ It is made up of – pentose sugar, phosphate group, nitrogenous base
○ The nitrogenous base is further divided into two parts. – Purines and pyrimidines.
• Purines - adenine(A) and guanine(G)
• Pyrimidines – thymine(T), uracil(U), and cytosine(C).
•

• DNA has a sugar called deoxyribose sugar.

○ Double-stranded. Double helix structure.
○ DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid.
○ In the structure of DNA, Nucleotides pair up into strands that are twisted together into a spiral structure called the
double helix DNA.
○ Complementary base pairing takes place A joins to T (double bond) and G joins to C (triple bond)
• A=T
• G≡C
○ Segments of DNA tell individual cells how to produce specific proteins.
○ The presence or absence of specific proteins gives an organism its specific trait or characteristic.
○ Transcription of a particular segment of DNA to messenger RNA takes place in the cell nucleus.
• The process by which DNA nucleotides are copied into RNA.
○ Translation of messenger RNA to the specific protein takes place in the cytoplasm on the ribosomes.
• Process of synthesizing a protein from mRNA template is known as translation.

• RNA
○ Sugar present is ribose sugar.
○ Single-stranded.
○ RNA stands for ribonucleic acid.
○ Uracil is present instead of thymine in RNA as nitrogenous base.
○ Presence of URACIL makes RNA more resistant to UV rays.

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• RNA vaccine
○ They work by introducing an mRNA sequence that is coded for a disease-specific antigen.

Reproduction
• All normal cells are somatic cells except the Sperm and Ovum cells/Gametes/Sex cells.
• Both male and female sex cells fuse to form zygotes.
• The zygote starts dividing and the embryo is formed-grown into a foetus and the baby is born.
• There are 46 Chromosomes in any somatic human cell.
• Gametes/Sex cells for reproduction have 23 chromosomes.

• Haploid : Single set of unpaired chromosomes. It is represented as N.

○ Gametes and sex cells like sperm and egg contain a haploid set of chromosomes. Also called germ cells.
• Diploid - Two sets of chromosomes one coming from each parent. It is represented as 2N.

• Somatic cells – all cells other than sex cells or gametes. They are diploid in nature.
• All the characteristics in the human body are expressed in pairs.
• Homologous chromosomes : a set of maternal and paternal chromosomes that pair up inside the cell-similar in length etc.

• Mendel's genetic experiment and Blood grouping

○ All the characters in an organism are manifested in two factors.
○ These factors or Genes are the unit’s inheritance.
○ Dominant trait, the one which overrides the impact of the other trait. For example –
• The green colour of the pod in the case of the pea plant. (Explained with example).
○ A recessive trait is one that doesn’t express itself in the presence of the dominant trait and finds expression only in
homozygous form.

○ Homozygous – when both the genes are the same. (GG, gg).
○ Heterozygous: Both genes are different. (Gg)
○ Phenotype - observable characteristic in an organism.
○ The Genetic makeup of an organism is the Genotype.
○ Sex determination: XY is male and XX is female etc.

• Chapters to read -
○ Class 8 chapters 9 and 10.
○ Class 10th chapters 8 and 9

GENETIC ABNORMALITIES

• Chromosome abnormalities
○ Down Syndrome:
• One extra chromosome (also called Trisomy 21) resulting in a small round head, mental retardation, and
partially open mouth.
○ Klinefelter's Syndrome(XXY):
• There is an extra sex hormone
• The individual is male with the development of feminine characteristics
○ Turner's Syndrome(XO)

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• These are sterile females.

• Gene Abnormalities:
○ Autosomal Recessive Disease
• e.g. Sickle Cell Anaemia:
• The shape of RBCs changes.
• It becomes sickle-shaped.
• Due to that shape, the haemoglobin is not able to stay inside RBCs.
• India plan's to eliminate sickle cell Anaemia by 2047
○ Sex-linked Recessive Diseases
• e.g. Colour Blindness and Haemophilia.
• Haemophilia is a disease of clotting of blood.
• People affected by it keep on bleeding even from a minor cut.

Specialization
• “Speciation is the process of formation of new species from existing populations.”
• Allopatric Speciation
○ caused by geographical isolation
• Sympatric Speciation
○ from the surviving ancestral species in which both the species continue to live in the same geographical region. They develop
reproductive isolation due to preference or timing of mating.
• Parapatric Speciation
○ two subpopulations are not isolated rather instead 'beside' each other. Individual within population only mate with individual
in their immediate area. There is no extrinsic barrier to gene flow
• Peripatric Speciation
○ New species form from an geographically isolated peripheral population where only few individuals survive

Biotechnology
• [Link]

• Colour Classification of Branches of Biotechnology:

○ Gold biotechnology or Bioinformatics: Computational Biology address biological problems using computational techniques.
○ Red Biotechnology: Biopharma à relates to medicine and veterinary products.
○ White Biotechnology: Industrial Biotech à to design more energy efficient, low resource consuming products.
○ Yellow Biotechnology: Biotech in Food Industry.
○ Grey Biotechnology: Environmental applications to maintain Biodiversity.
○ Green Biotechnology: Emphasizes on Agriculture interests.
○ Blue Biotechnology: based on use of marine resources.
○ Violet Biotechnology: deals with law, ethical and philosophical issues of biotechnology.
○ Dark Biotechnology: associated with bioterrorism and biological weapons.

• Recombinant DNA technology:

○ A DNA fragment is taken and it is then added to the vector.
○ In genetics, Vector is a DNA fragment that acts as a carrier to required DNA.
○ Most of the DNA Vaccines are of this type.
○ Process:
• Isolation of the desired gene
• The enzymes which cut DNA are called Nucleases.
• Vector is needed for carrying the desired gene.
• e.g. Plasmid DNA from bacteria acts as a vector.
• A ligase enzyme is needed to join the DNA.
• Desired gene + Vector DNA = Recombinant DNA
○ Process
• Restriction enzymes: These molecular scissors cut DNA at specific sequences, allowing scientists to isolate
the desired gene.
• Plasmids: Circular DNA molecules from bacteria are often used as vectors to carry the gene of interest into
the host organism.
• Ligase enzymes: These act like molecular glue, sealing the gene of interest into the plasmid vector.
• Transformation: Techniques like microinjection or electroporation are used to introduce the modified plasmid
containing the gene of interest into the host organism's cells.

• Methods of GM
○ Agrobacterium-mediated Transformation

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○ Direct DNA Transfer
• using techniques like particle bombardment or electroporation
○ Site-specific Modification
• CRISPR/Cas9 allow for precise editing of the plant's DNA

• Methods of Genetic Engineering

○ Recombinant DNA Technology:
○ Gene Editing Techniques:
• CRISPR-Cas9
○ Gene Targeting:
○ Mutagenesis

• Gene Therapy:
○ It is done when there is a non-functional gene in a person.
○ In case of a genetic disease diagnosed in a child or an embryo, a normal corrective gene can be added.
○ It is done so that normal corrective genes can take over the function to compensate for the non-functioning genes.

○ Gene Editing:
• Gene editing is a process in which genes can be added, subtracted, or replaced by the use of genetic
engineering.
• E.g.
• CRISPR - Clustered Regularly Interspaced short Palindromic repeats
• It is a gene-editing tool.
• It is also called molecular scissors.
• There are 2 parts to it:
• Guidance molecule: It is called Single guided RNA (SgRNA).
• CAS 9 Enzyme: It will cut the DNA from the particular site.

• Casgevy and Lyfge­nia - gene therapy to treat sickle cell anaemia

• Lyfgenia uses a disabled lentivirus as a vector
• Casgevy uses CRISPR-Cas9
○ Artificial Cloning
• Gene/DNA Cloning - transfer of DNA fragment from one organism to self replicating genetic element such as bacterial
plasmid.

• Reproductive cloning - transfer of nucleus material isolated from somatic cell into enucleated oocyte (egg cell). Then this
oocyte form embryo with same genome as the nuclear donor. This process is called Somatic cell Nuclear Transfer
(SSNT).

• Therapeutic cloning - similar to the reproductive cloning till the production of embryo. The produced embryo is then
grown in the laboratory.

○ Animal cloning
• Somatic cells from the animal to be cloned.
• Donors who give egg cells are from that same species.
• Enucleation - i.e. removal of the nucleus from the donor's egg.
• The nucleus of the somatic cell is kept.
• Thereafter somatic cell nuclear transfer technique is adopted to produce an embryo.
• After the stimulation of the embryo, it is transplanted into the uterus of another or the same female.

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• In mammals, identical twins(monozygotic twins) are natural clones.
• When fertilized egg spilt and create two or more embryos that carries almost identical genetic material.
• Recently, china has successfully cloned first arctic wolf for the first time.

○ Three Parent Baby/Mitochondrial Replacement Therapy

• Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is inherited only from the mother
• Mother's egg with defective mtDNA.
• Donor egg with normal mtDNA.
• Enucleation of mother's nucleus.
• Thereafter, the mother's nucleus is combined with egg-containing normal mtDNA.
• It is also called Pro-nuclear transfer.
• Final result : Egg with mother's nucleus and normal mitochondria.
○ Genome mapping
• Genome refers to an organism’s complete set genetic instruction. It is stored in DNA, which includes all its genes and
mapping these genes simply means finding out the location of these genes in a chromosome.
• In humans, the genome consists of about 3 billion base pairs of DNA organized into 23 pairs of chromosomes.
• Genes are specific sections of DNA that code for individual proteins or other functional molecules. The human genome
contains around 20,000 genes, each with a specific role in the body.
• 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell, there are roughly 20,500 genes located on them.
• Genome maps are one dimensional, much like the DNA molecules that makes up the genome.

• Stem Cells [UOMPT]

○ They are unspecialized cells that can divide and grow into different types of cells.

○ Stem cells are of different types:

• Embryonic stem cells: They exist in the early stages of life and can differentiate into any type of cell.
• Adult stem cells: They are specific to different tissues and only form cells of that tissue.
• e.g. Brain, spinal cord, skin, blood, bone marrow.
• Induced pluripotent stem cells: They are those cells that can be induced to divide and become undifferentiated.

○ Totipotency : Property of a cell to form all types of cells including embryonic and extraembryonic tissue and are able to divide
and differentiate into cells of the whole organism.
• Example - Zygote
○ Pluripotency : It is the property of the cell to form any cell in the body, other than those needed to support the embryo.
(extraembryonic structures)
• Example - induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs)
○ Multipotency - narrower spectrum of differentiation than PSCs but they can specialize in discrete cells of specific cell lineages
• Example - hematopoietic stem cell (blood cells)
○ Oligopotent stem cells can differentiate into several cell types
• myeloid stem cell is an example that can divide into white blood cells but not red blood cells.
○ Unipotency - narrowest differentiation capabilities
• These cells are only able to form one cell type, e.g. dermatocytes

○ Applications:
• To treat orthopaedic injuries,
• Hair growth,
• Treatment of cancer,
• To treat degenerative neuron diseases.

• Genetically modified crops/organisms:

○ Genetic Modification (GM) of crops is the process of altering the genetic makeup of a plant to give it desired traits.
○ This can be done through a variety of techniques, including:
• Isolation of Desired Gene
• Gene manipulation
• Gene insertion
• Gene deletion
• Gene editing
• Tissue culture
• Field testing

○ Introducing an alien gene in the seeds to get the desired effects

○ The regulatory system for GM Crops:

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○ Bt-cotton is the only GM Crop of India.

○ GM Mustard (DMH-11) is recently approved for field tests. (Check CA)
○ Benefits:
• High yield,
• Increased shelf life,
• Insect and pest resistance
• Herbicide tolerance
• Fortified crops (adding vitamins and other supplement so as to increase the nutritional value)
○ Concerns
• Health
• Environment - emergence of herbicide resistance weed.
• Economic (terminator seeds): monopolies of MNCs.

• Ethical questions in biotechnology :

○ Interference in the natural orders
○ Designer babies, improved races
○ Equity, rich can prosper more with this technology
○ Biopiracy

WAVES
• A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy and momentum from one point to another in a medium
• Wave is a disturbance in any medium and represented by Sine or Cos curve.
• Wavelength is the distance between two identical points in a waveform. In other words, it is the distance after which the
wave repeats itself.
• Frequency is the number of occurrences of an event per unit of time.
• Wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional to each other.

LIGHT
• Wave nature of light:
○ In Young's Double Slit Experiment, the light was deduced as a wave.
○ The wave nature of light helps us in understanding phenomenon like refraction, light as an energy carrier, etc.
• Light as a particle:
○ Einstein in his Photoelectric effect experiment proved light as a particle.

○ In this experiment, he found that light of a specific frequency was able to eject electrons out of the metal surface.
○ Einstein further elaborated that light is nothing but a packet of photons.
○ Any one of the photons must have collided with any one of the electrons to eject it out of the metal.
○ For this particular experiment, Einstein was awarded the Nobel prize.
○ This experiment helps us in understanding phenomenon like reflection or traveling of light in a straight line.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
• Gamma and X rays are known as Ionizing radiations.
• Radio waves:
○ Applications = Radio and television communication, Bluetooth, WIFI, Submarine communication.
• Microwaves:
○ Applications= Mobile phone communication, Microwave oven, Radar.
• Infrared:
○ Applications = TV remote, they are a carrier of heat from Sun, fire source, etc.
○ Heat signature from mammals also travels in the form of infrared waves.
• Ultraviolet:
○ Applications = It can kill microorganisms like bacteria, Viruses, etc
○ Ultraviolet also synthesizes Vitamin D in our skin.
• X rays:
○ Applications = To check for any bone deformation, In Airport or Metro security scanners.
• Gamma Rays:
○ Applications = For cancer therapy, To sterilize medical equipment, For food Sterilization.

REFLECTION
• It is a phenomenon in which incident light or heat waves return to the same medium after falling on a surface
• It means that the medium remains the same
REFRACTION
• When the light changes the medium, it changes its path.
• During refraction, there is no change in the frequency of the wave but the wavelength and the speed changes.

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DISPERSION
• When white light passing through a prism it splits into 7 individual colours (VIBGYOR).
• This happens because different colours have different speeds through any medium.

SCATTERING OF LIGHT
• Rayleigh scattering:
○ It involves the interaction of electromagnetic waves with particles whose size is smaller when compared to the
wavelength of electromagnetic waves.
○ It is elastic scattering, where the incident and scattered photon share the same frequency.
○ The sky appears blue because of Rayleigh scattering.

• Raman Scattering:
○ It is scattering from atom or molecule this happens because of excited electrons.
○ It is inelastic scattering, it helps in understanding the structure of Atoms, etc.
○ [Link]

TOTAL INTERNAL REFRACTION

• The light should come from a denser to a rarer medium.
• The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.
• The critical angle is the angle of incidence at which refracted ray coincides with the medium interface.

OPTICAL FIBER
• Core, clad, and insolation.
• The density of the core is more than the density of a clad.
• A signal is transported via core.
• It works upon the total internal reflection.

MIRAGE
• It happens in hot places.
• It is an optical illusion where the object appears to be inverted.
• Refraction and total internal reflection are responsible for this phenomenon.

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Looming
• It is an optical illusion happening in a colder climate.
• The object is erect and appears to be suspended in the air.
• Refraction and total internal refraction are the responsible phenomena.

RAINBOW
• Primary rainbow:
○ The outer circle is red; the Inner circle is violet.
• Secondary rainbow:
○ Sometimes in nature, we may find a secondary rainbow where the outer circle is violet and the inner circle is red.
○ It is rarer than the primary rainbow and more blur comparatively.
○ It happens if more than two total internal reflections are involved.

TWINKLING OF STARS.
• Multiple air pockets are present between earth and stars multiple reflections take place through all these air pockets.
• Hence, the line of sight is adjusting every second because of which our eye is unable to locate the exact position of the
star.
• Hence we find a star to be twinkling at distant start twinkles more than a nearby star.

Why is the sky blue?

• Human eye:
○ Cons (responsible for daylight vision and colour recognition) and Rods (responsible for dim light vision).
○ The human eye recognizes three-color i.e. Red, Blue, and Green, whereas, other colours are framed by human
eyes.

Circumstances Particle suspended in the Scattered spectrum Colour of the sky

atmosphere
Normal Dust Violet, Indigo, Blue. Blue, as human eyes are more sensitive
to the blue colour.
Light storm Water droplets Violet, Indigo. Violet, Indigo.
Heavy storm Salt particles Violet Violet

Optical illusion.
○ At dusk and dawn, the sun appears to be slightly bigger than normal.
○ We are able to see Sun 2 minutes before sunrise and 2 minutes after sunset because of refraction
○ Also, on the horizon, Sun appears to be slightly bigger than normal.

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Mirror.
○ Plane mirror:
• A plane mirror can be easily defined as the mirrors that are flat on the surface and are without any inward or
outward curve.
• The front side is a shiny surface, whereas, the backside is the painted one.
• The image formed is virtual.
• The real image is inverted.
• Lateral inversion.

○ Spherical Mirror:
• There are two types of the spherical mirror- Convex and Concave.

• The concave mirror is also known as a converging mirror because it converges a parallel beam of light at a
point called the focus.
• Focus is also the point where an image is formed.
• The convex mirror is known as a diverging mirror as it diverges parallel beams of light.
• A concave mirror is used when we want to focus a parallel beam of light or any small object to appear big, for
example, a mirror used for shaving, a mirror used by dentists, headlights of vehicles, torch.
• A convex mirror is used when we want to make any large object to appear small, for example, a surveillance
mirror, telescope, sunglasses, rear-view mirrors in vehicles.

Lens

○ Concave lens:
• They have similar properties as convex mirrors.
• They are also known as the diverging lens.
○ Convex lens:
• They are also known as converging lens.
• They have similar properties as concave mirrors.

Defects of vision.
• Myopia: (Mujhe yeh problem Hai)
• This happens due to the elongation of the eyeball.
• Image is formed in front of the retina because of which the person is unable to see the distant objects
clearly.
• Correction is a diverging or concave lens.

• Hypermetropia/ Farsightedness:
• It is just the opposite of myopia.
• Correction is a convex lens.
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• Some people may suffer from myopia as well as hypermetropia.
• Correction is a bifocal lens.

• Astigmatism:
• It is the inability of the human eye to focus on horizontal and vertical lines clearly, because of which
multiple images are formed.
• Correction is a cylindrical lens.

• Cataract: (मोतिया बिंद)

• This is the defect of old age people.
• It is clouding of the lens, where, initially, the person is unable to distinguish blue colour but when the
clouding becomes opaque, a person may suffer from blindness.
• The only treatment is surgery.

Electric current
• Electric current is the flow of charge.
• Ohm's law, V= I * R.
○ Voltage is a measurement of the capacity of the power source.
○ Current is the flow of charge.
○ Resistance is the hindrance in the flow of current.
○ Resistance is inversely proportional to the area of the cross-section.
○ Resistance is proportional to length.
○ Resistance also depends upon the property of the material.
○ Conductor - Offers less resistance but with time resistance increases.
○ Insulator - Provide infinite resistance, electricity can never pass.
○ Semiconductor - Offer more resistance than a conductor but with time offer less resistance than a conductor,
hence, extensively used in the electronics industry.
○ Superconductor - Offer almost zero resistance i.e. energy loss is almost zero, but they are not functional at room
temperature. They reflect zero resistance at sub-zero temperature.
• Silver at nanoscale shows superconductivity.
• Electromagnets, Hyperloop, Fusion reactors.

Series and Parallel.

○ Series:
• In the entire circuit, the same current flows.
• If one device becomes non-operational, no current flows through the circuit.
○ Parallel:
• In the entire circuit, different current flows.
• Failure of one appliance does not affect the entire circuit, and other appliances remain operational.
Fuse.
• It is a device to save costly appliances in case of excess current flow or fluctuated voltage.
• It is connected in series.
• The melting point of the wire used in the fuse should be very low.
• The resistance of the fuse should be very less.

Heating effect of current.

○ When current is passed through a conductor, there is the heating of the appliance due to resistance.
○ Here, the electrical energy is getting converted into heat energy.
○ An alloy of Nickel and Chromium is used to intensify the heating.
○ This property of the current is harnessed in devices like Iron, Geyser, Heater, etc.

Chemical effect of current.

○ Solution = Solute + Solvent.
○ The solution is of two types - Electrolytic (water) and non-electrolytic (distilled water).
○ When current passes through an electrolytic solution, it breaks into ions i.e. such solution allows passage or
conduction of current.
○ The non-electrolytic solution does not conduct electricity.

Electroplating:
○ Ion is a charged particle - positive (cation) or negative (anion).
○ Cations will move towards the negative electrode (Cathode).
○ Anions will move towards the positive electrode (Anode).
○ Electroplating is plating one metal with another.
○ An anode is a metal to be deposited.
○ The cathode is the metal on which anode metal is deposited.

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○ Applications of electroplating:
• Imitation jewellery (Gold plating on silver), Gold- Anode, Silver- Cathode.
• Saving important appliances/ metals -
• Zinc plating on iron = galvanization; Zinc- Anode, Iron- Cathode
• Chromium plating on Iron (Chrome plating); Chromium- Anode, Iron- Cathode.

Dynamo/Generator
○ This is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Motor
○ It is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.

Inverter
○ Alternating current and Direct Current:
• AC is a fluctuating or changing current, whereas, DC is a constant current.
• AC is used in transmission lines (from power stations to houses).
• Household appliances like Air Conditioner, Fridge, etc. use AC.
• The battery will always give DC.
• Laptop, Plasma TV, Mobile, E-vehicles use DC.
○ An inverter is a device that converts DC into AC.

Magnetic effect of current.

○ When the current flows through the wire, a magnetic field is developed around it.
○ If any iron rod or conductor is brought near the magnetic field, magnetism is developed in that iron rod.
○ When the electric current is stopped, the magnetic property of the iron is also gone.
○ This property of the current is used to develop electromagnets, which have many applications, for example, in
electric devices like electric bells, telephone receivers, they are used to develop particle accelerators like large
hadron colliders, Cyclotron, Betatron.

○ Electromagnetic induction.
• It is the production of voltage or electric current in a changing magnetic field.
• Applications:
• Wireless charging.
• Eddy current -
• Eddy currents are loops of induced current in a conductor in changing magnetic field in a.
• These currents are often seen as heat loss but have applications in induction cookware, melting of
metals, train braking mechanisms, etc.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

• It is a medical imaging technique that uses a strong magnetic field and radio waves to create detailed images of the
inside of the body.
• MRI is based on the principles of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR).
• NMR is a phenomenon in which the nuclei of certain atoms, such as hydrogen, align themselves in the presence of a
strong magnetic field.
• When these nuclei are exposed to radio waves of a specific frequency, they absorb energy and flip their magnetic
moments.
• This absorption of energy is measured and used to generate signals that form the basis of MRI images.
• Advantages
• Soft Tissue Imaging

• E.g. Brain, Muscles

• No ionizing radiation
• Safe for children and pregnant women
• Multiplanar imaging
• 3D reconstruction of internal structures.
• High Resolution
• allowing for detailed visualization of small anatomical structures.

LATENT HEAT
• Latent heat is the amount of heat absorbed or released by a substance during a phase change (change in the state)
without change in the temperature.

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• Applications
○ Steam can burn more severely than boiling water because steam is having an additional 540 calories in it (latent
heat).
○ Food gets cooked even after putting off the flame - the steam that sits at the bottom of the lid condensates and
releases 540 calories in the process that cooks the food further.
○ Anything becomes cool if kept in the vicinity of ice.

ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR OF WATER

• The density of the solid is greater than the density of the liquid.
• The density of ice is less than the density of water.
• Water is having a maximum density at 4 degrees Celsius.

COHESIVE AND ADHESIVE FORCES.

• Cohesive Force
○ It is an intermolecular attractive force between two adjacent portions of two similar sets of molecules, for example,
the force acting among water molecules.
• Adhesive Force
○ It is an attractive force between two dissimilar sets of molecules, for example, - Makeup on the face.

SURFACE TENSION.
• It is the property of the surface of the liquid to resists an external force caused due to cohesive force.
• Here, the surface of the water behaves as an elastic.

• Applications:
○ The water strider is able to walk due to surface tension.
○ Mosquito eggs float on the surface of the water due to surface tension. Kerosene oil is added to reduce the surface
tension of water.
○ Urine test for jaundice.
○ Water molecules gain a spherical shape to avoid surface tension.
○ Capillarity is one of the manifestations of surface tension.

ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE.
• Any object completely or partially emerged in a fluid is acted upon by an upward or buoyant force whose magnitude is
equal to the amount of water displaced by the object.
• Examples-
○ The iron ship floats in water whereas an iron nail sinks.
○ A bucket filled with water seems to be lighter when emersed in water.
○ Helium air balloon.
○ Submarine, etc

CHEMISTRY
MATTER
○ It has some mass and occupies some space and something that responds to gravity.
○ A different state of matter:
• Solid - molecules are tightly packed
• Liquid - molecules are loosely packed
• Gas - molecules are not packed
• Plasma-
• It is an ionized/charged gas.
• If gas is put into strong electromagnetic field gas is converted into Plasma.
• Plasma is found in stars, for example, Sun.
• Plasma is also found in the interstellar medium.
• Plasma also happens in fluorescent lamps.
• It is also found in the ionosphere.
• Like gas, plasma does not have a definite shape or volume unless enclosed in a container.
• Unlike gas, plasma can form structures like beams and filaments.
ATOM
○ Any matter is made up of Atoms, so atoms are nothing but a fundamental unit of matter.
○ The central part is known as the nucleus
○ In the nucleus, we have Neutron and Proton.
• Nucleons are neutrons plus protons.
• Neutrons - Neutral or Zero charge.
• Protons - positively charged.
○ So, an atom is made up of Electrons and Nucleons.

○ Electrons are made up of Leptons and Nucleons are made up of Quarks.

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• Quarks:
• They are of 6 types but for us only 2 types are important.

• 1) Up quark-
• It has a +2/3 charge.
• 2) Down quark-
• It has -1/3 charge.
• A minimum number of up and down quarks required to make proton= 2 up quark and 1 down quark.
• A minimum number of up and down quarks required to make Neutron= 1 up quark and 2 down quark.
• Atomic number = Number of protons.
• Atomic mass = Sum of the nucleons = Number of protons + Number of neutrons = Atomic number + Number of
neutrons.
• Number of neutrons = Atomic mass - Atomic number.

ISOTOPES
○ Isotopes are elements having the same atomic number but a different mass number or atomic mass. In other words,
Isotopes have a same number of protons but a different number of neutrons.
○ Sometimes, the mismatch of this kind may lead to radioactivity.
○ Isotopes of Hydrogen = Hydrogen, Deuterium, Tritium.

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
○ Study at the level of the nucleus.
○ It is further subdivided into - nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.
○ Fusion means addition.

○ Nuclear fusion
• Addition of two smaller nuclei to form a bigger nucleus.
• This is often seen in stars.

○ Nuclear fission
• Fission means decay or disintegration.
• The disintegration of the big nucleus into smaller nuclei.
• Radioactivity is one of the manifestations of nuclear fission.

RADIOACTIVITY
○ It is a natural emission of high-energy radiation or nuclei from unstable elements or isotopes due to the
disintegration of their atomic nuclei.
○ These are of 3 types alpha, beta, and Gamma

○ Alpha decay:
• Alpha is a term used for the Helium nucleus.
• The Helium nucleus comes out of the parent nucleus.
• It happens in bigger nuclei, for example, Uranium.

○ Beta-decay:
• occurs when, in a nucleus with too many protons or too many neutrons, one of the protons or neutrons is transformed
into the other

○ Gamma decay:
• Gamma is a term used for high-energy radiation i.e. Gamma-ray.
• Gamma-ray comes out of the parent nucleus.
• It happens naturally due to an excited state, for example, the Barium nucleus.

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• It can also happen after alpha-decay.
• Radioactivity is measured by three counters = Geiger Muller counter; Scintillation counter; Semiconductor
device.

NEUTRINO
○ A neutral subatomic particle with a mass close to zero and half-integral spin, rarely reacting with normal matter. Three kinds of
neutrinos are known, associated with the electron, muon, and tau particle.
○ Formed during both fission and fusion.
○ Also formed naturally = Comic radiations when falling on nitrogen gives Pions, which further decays to Muons, which
ultimately decays to the neutrino.
○ Neutrinos are like the CCTV camera of the universe.
• Generally, they are chargeless.
• Mass is almost zero.
• They have lots of information and are found everywhere.
• They are difficult to catch.
• To catch we need to slow them down, likely by passing through a large freshwater body (Lake Baikal)

HALF-LIFE
○ Radioisotopes decay at a constant rate.
○ The time required for half of the original isotope to reduce to its half is called the half-life.
○ Every living organism has both C-12 (stable), and C-14 (radioactive) carbons in them.
○ Carbon 14 being unstable, goes for beta decay.
○ This decay is compensated by the nutrition of the organism, because of which, Carbon-12 to Carbon-14 ratio in the
body reflects the environmental level. But when an organism dies this ratio is no longer the same.
○ This is the difference is exploited by the researchers to know the age of any fossil.

CORROSION
○ Also known as rusting.
○ It is actually the decay of metal.
○ It is the formation of the oxide layer on the outer surface of the metal.
○ For corrosion to happen, the requirement is = Moisture and air.
○ To avoid corrosion, galvanization is done.

ALLOTROPES.
○ Some chemical elements are known to exist in two or more different forms because the atoms are bonded together
in different manners.
○ Allotropes of Carbon = Graphite, Diamond, Fullerene.

PERIODIC TABLE
○ The periodic table is an arrangement of the elements in a particular fashion like according to their atomic number.
○ Elements are categorized into Metals, Non-metals, and Metalloids.
○ Most of the elements found in nature are metals (75%).
○ Metalloids are the least found.

○ Some non-metals that can conduct electricity:

• Natural form = Iodine, Selenium.
• Allotropic form = Graphite, Black Phosphorous.

HALOGEN FAMILY
○ Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine.
○ They are generally used as disinfectants (to kill germs).
○ They are Ozone-depleting substances (ODS), Chlorine being hyperactive of them all.

○ Chlorine v/s Ozone (better disinfectant):

Chlorine Ozone
It is not used in light as efficiency declines in light. It can be used anytime.
It gives a certain odour. No such odour.
Skin will turn dark (tan). No impact on skin.

INERT GASES
○ Helium:
• It is lighter than air, so, it is used in air balloons, tyres of aircraft, etc.
• It is non-flammable.

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○ Neon:
• In advertisement board.
○ Argon:
• Fluorescent lamps.
○ Krypton:
• Surgical LASER, to generate light.
○ Xenon:
• Lighthouse, car headlights, anaesthetic agent.
○ Radon:
• It is radioactive in nature.
• Generally, found in soil.

Rare Earth Elements:

○ These are a set of 17 elements- Scandium, Yttrium, Lanthanides (15).

○ Mnemonic
• Last(La)Century(Ce) Presented(Pr)New democratic(Nd)Prime ministers(Pm)on Social Media (Sm)
• European(Eu) Government Decided (Gd)To ban (Tb)Dirty (Dy) Hotels(Ho) Entirely(Er) To make (Tm) Yellow
buildings(Yb)Luxurious(Lu)
○ These all elements are metals and hence, also called rare earth metals.
○ They are not rare as the name suggests, rather their abundance may be more than 200 times the total average
presence of copper, gold, etc. in the earth's crust.
○ They are called rare because it is difficult to extract them in their purest form and also their concentration in ores is in
traces.
○ They are generally traded in the form of oxides and hence, called rare earth oxides.

○ Applications
• Consumer electronics like touch screen, developing navigation and communication technology, Night vision
equipment, aircraft and submarines, Surgical LASERs, Rechargeable batteries, Weapons based on the
principle of fire and forget, etc.
• China is the largest producer of rare earth elements.
• India along with Japan have signed an agreement with regard to the extraction of these elements.

Ph Scale.
○ It is a scale to measure acidity or basicity.
○ 0-7 = Acidic; 7 = Neutral; 7-14 = Basic.
○ Acids:
• They are the substances that donate hydrogen ions (H+) or protons.
• They convert blue litmus to red.
• They are sour in taste generally.
• Two types - Organic acid and Inorganic acid.
• Organic acids are the acids having Carbon in them.
• In general, organic acids are found naturally.
• In general, organic acids are weaker than inorganic acids.
• Some common organic acids are= Formic acid, Acetic acid, Citric/Ascorbic acid, Tartaric acid, Malic
acid, Tannic acid, Lactic acid, Oxalic acid.
• Formic acid is found in ants or bees.
• Acetic acid is also known as Vinegar - manufactured in the lab.
• Citric acid is in lemon.
• Tartaric acid in Tamarind.
• The malic acid in Apple.
• Oxalic acid in Guava, Chocolate.
• The tannic acid in tea.
• The lactic acid in Milk
• Inorganic acids are manufactured in labs and have industrial uses.
• Manufactured inorganic acids - Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Nitric acid (HNO3).

○ Bases:
• They are substances that accept hydrogen ions or protons.
• It converts red litmus to blue.
• It is bitter in taste.
• To reduce the acidity of the soil, lime is used.
• Acidity in the body is neutralized by antacids (Anti-acids) i.e. Milk of Magnesia (Magnesium hydroxide).
• Baking agents are also bases like baking soda (Sodium bicarbonate)
• Potable water should be basic

○ Salt
• Acid and base neutralize each other to give water and salt.
• HCl + NaOH gives NaCl and H2O.
• Neuron message transmission in the body takes place in the presence of a salt of Sodium and Potassium.
• In sweat, the salt of Sodium, Magnesium, is excreted.

○ Viscosity
• The resistance of a fluid to flow.
• Honey is more viscous than water.
• If temperature increases, the viscosity of liquid decreases (cohesive bond breaks), whereas, the viscosity of
gas increases (gas molecules come closer).
• If temperature decreases, the viscosity of blood increases, thereby the heart has to pump more blood,
pressure on the heart increases, which might lead to heart failure.
• Fever increases the temperature of the body, if the temperature of the blood increases, the viscosity of the
blood decreases, thereby the heart has lesser pressure leading to normal conditions.

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Endothermic and exothermic reactions.

○ Endothermic:
• These reactions absorb the heat.
• Since, such reactions absorb heat, after the reaction, the nearby surrounding becomes cooler.

○ Osmosis and reverse osmosis.

• A semi-permeable membrane allows passage of only solvent (water) and not the solute (salt).
• Osmosis is the movement of a solvent through a semi-permeable membrane from a region or solution of a
lower concentration to a higher concentration.
• Reverse Osmosis = It is the movement of water from a comparatively higher concentrated solution to a
comparatively lower concentrated solution via SPM under an external force.

○ Desalinization plant
• Screening - To resist bigger impurities like coconut, marine creatures, etc. to enter the setup.
• Filtering - To clear or filter smaller impurities like hairs, worms, silt, etc.
• Desalinisation - Through reverse osmosis.
• Chlorination - Clean water is then reacted with chlorine to make it potable in nature.

Hydrocarbons
○ Alcohol:
• Types - Methanol, Ethanol, Propanol, etc.
• Only ethanol is a beverage (consumable), whereas, others are toxic in nature.
• Alcohol is used as solvents in industries.
• Alcohol is used as a spirit in industries.
• It is also used in the cosmetics, pharma, and paint industries.
• It is also used as Gasohol (Gasoline + Alcohol).
• Gasohol is also known as Blended fuel.
• Its advantages are - Environment friendly, Import of crude oil will decrease, CAD will reduce.

○ Chemical explosives:
• Research and Development Explosive (RDX).
• Tri Nitro Glycerine (TNG).
• Tri Nitro Toluene (TNT).
• Dynamite.

• Extraction of Fuel from crude oil:

○ Gasoline/Petrol - Fuel for cars.
○ Naphtha - Making chemicals.
○ Kerosene - Aircraft fuel.
○ Diesel oil - Fuel for cars, buses.
○ Fuel oil - Fuel for ships, power stations.
○ Residue - Bitumen for roads and roofs.

• Knocking of engine:
○ Unwanted sound in the engine reflecting its poor condition.
○ Octane number is the measurement of the quality of petrol/gasoline.
• The higher the Octane number implies the better quality of petrol.
• Better Octane number avoids premature ignition of Petrol (ensures slow-burning), whereas, Better Cetane
number avoids delayed ignition of Diesel.
• Petrol's Octane number can be increased by adding Lead in it.
○ Cetane number is the measurement of the quality of diesel.
• A Higher Cetane number implies a better quality of diesel.

• Aviation turbine Fuel:

○ Kerosene (High quality; pale yellow in colour) + more than 2000 chemicals (to avoid corrosion, giving them anti-
freezing properties)

• Natural Gas:
○ Two types - Compressed Natural Gas and Liquified Natural Gas.
○ LNG has better fuel efficiency than CNG because the fuel density of LNG is higher than of CNG, but still, LNG is not
used in India as storage of LNG requires cryogenic infrastructure to store them.

• LPG and CNG:

○ Liquified petroleum Gas is mainly Butane, Isobutane, some concentration of Propane along with Ethane is also
found.
○ CNG is 99% Methane.
○ LPG is an odourless gas and Ethyl mercaptan is added to give odour to sense the leakage.
○ CNG is also odourless gas and sulphur is added to give it odour.
○ LPG is heavier than air and in case of leakages, it settles at lower places like parking, godowns, etc.
○ CNG is lighter than air and in case of leakages it flushes out in the atmosphere.

• Soaps and detergents:

○ They reduce the surface tension of water so that the cleansing properties of water are enhanced.
○ Soap molecules align themselves in such a fashion that dirt is trapped in them. This structure is called as Micelles.
○ In the process of rinsing, micelles come out with dirt, and hence, clothes get cleaned.
○ Soaps are not effective in hard water because they interact with metallic salts present in water and hence, lose their
cleansing property. On the other hand, detergents do not interact with metallic salts in hard water and hence, they
are effective.

Important terms

• Phosphorescence:
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○ Some compounds like Calcium Sulphide, etc, absorb some of the visible spectrums in presence of sunlight.
○ When the sunlight is gone, they emit the absorbed spectrum.
○ Application = Divider stones at highways, Guideposts.
○ Phosphorescence is longer then florescence.

• Florescence
○ When any substance absorbs light, the electron gets excited and change their orbit.
○ In their return journey, they emit radiations of various wavelengths.
○ This is a comparatively faster process than Phosphorescence.
○ Applications - Argon lamps, Glowsticks.

• Luminescence
○ Any source (non-living) that gives the light, for example - Lightbulb, Mobile, ocean, etc.

• Bioluminescence
○ Any living source that emits light, for example- firefly, Jellyfishes.

• Efflorescence:
○ Some salts like washing soda have excess moisture in them.
○ When such salts are kept in the air, moisture evaporates and salt crystals are left behind.

COSMIC PHYSICS

Gravitation
• Any two objects in the universe having some mass attract each other by the force of gravitation.

Escape velocity
○ The gravitational field of the earth - the gravitational pull of the earth acts within this range.
• It is the minimum velocity required by an object to overcome the gravitational pull of the earth.
• Escape velocity for the earth is 11.2 km/sec.
Stars
• Starts are lump or collection of dust and gas have their own light.
Planet
Three criteria:
• It should revolve around the sun.
• It should have enough gravity to gain a spherical shape.
• A planet should also have enough gravity that is able to clear its own surroundings - Pluto fails this criterion.
Asteroids
• Rocky objects, revolve around the sun, found between Mars and Jupiter.
• Some asteroids are found beyond Jupiter also, known by the name Trojan.

• Some of the asteroids are also found beyond Mars, known as Near-Earth Objects (NEOs).
• NASA is studying an asteroid named Bennu:
• Bennu is of moderate size.
• 1/600 chances are there that it might collide with the earth.

• Hayabusa-2 of Japan: Name of the asteroid- Ryugu.

• JAPAN'S Hayabusa mission has brought some rocks from Ryugu.
Satellite
• celestial bodies that revolve around the planet.
Comet
• It has a nucleus and a tail.
• It also revolves around the sun.
• There are many gases, dust, and ice in the nucleus.
• They are flammable gases like ammonia, methane.
• Comets are evolved from the Kuiper belt (short-period comets) and the Oort cloud(long-period comets)

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• When they reach near the Sun, the tail develops, as these gases catch fire.

Meteoroids
• Meteoroids:
• Chunk or part of either asteroids or comets(mostly).
• Most of them vanish in the outer atmosphere of the earth.
• Meteors:
• They are meteoroids entering the earth's inner atmosphere.
• Also called Shooting starts - They show different colours due to the presence of different minerals in them.
• Geminids
Annual meteor shower
Unlike most meteor showers they originate from asteroid.
They are visible throughout night sky
Meteorites:
• meteors that survives through earth atmosphere and reach the earth's surface.
• They collide with ground
• They are responsible for the extinction of dinosaurs.

• Mars

○ Mars takes 1.88 years to revolve around sun

○ Rotation on it's axis - 24.6 hrs
○ Diameter of mars is less then earth
○ Number of satellites - 2
• Phobos and Deimos

• Venus
○ Atmospheric composition of Venus as well has predominance of carbon di oxide (96%)
○ Revolution - 224 days
○ Rotation - 243 days

The life cycle of a star

Small Star:
• Nebula of a star = womb of a star (Dust + Hydrogen gas).
• The dimension of womb = 1 to 10 light-years.
• Every phase of a star is for billions of years.
• Dust particles have a mass and they try to attract each other by a force of gravitation.
• The stellar energy counters the effect of gravitational force, which leads to the formation of Protostar.
• In Protostar, nuclear reactions/fusion is just started.
• Nuclear fusion will intensify which gives the Main Sequence Star (Youth).

• Sun is a Main Sequence Star.

• Nearly more than 90% of the fuel (H2) is over.
• Star burns remaining Hydrogen more quickly, which leads to the expansion of the star, which is called as Red
Giant (Mature).
• Hydrogen is then almost over, but then Helium becomes the fuel.

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• Helium then reacts with H, He, Be, C.
• Helium, after billions of years, is also almost over.
• Star collapses at the Carbon Oxygen core.
• It gives Planetary Nebula Collection of dust + gas, and White Dwarf (Luminous high dense mass)/
Fossil star.
• After billions of years, Planetary Nebula acts as a nebula for a new star.

Big Star:
• The dimension of a womb= Greater than 10 light-years.
• The stellar energy counters the effect of gravitational force, which leads to the formation of Protostar.
• In Protostar, nuclear reactions/fusion is just started.
• Nuclear fusion will intensify which gives the Main Sequence Star (Youth).
• Nearly more than 90% of the fuel (H2) is over.
• Star burns remaining Hydrogen more quickly, which leads to the expansion of the star, which is called as Red
Super Giant (Mature).
• Hydrogen is then almost over, but then Helium becomes the fuel.
• Helium then reacts with H, He, Be, C, Oxygen, Silicon, Fe (Iron).
• Helium, after billions of years, is also almost over.
• Star collapses at the Iron core which gives Supernova an explosion.

• Medium size star gives a Neutron star, whereas, Big size star gives a Blackhole.

CHANDRASHEKHAR LIMIT
• If the mass of the core is less than 1.44 than that of the mass of the Sun, it will die as White Dwarf.
• If the mass of the core is less than 3*Mass of Sun or greater than 1.44 of the mass of Sun, it will die as Neutron
Star.
• If the mass of the core is greater than 3*Mass of the Sun, Blackhole will be the final stage.

WHITE DWARF
• It is formed when a small star collapses at the Carbon, Oxygen core.
• This collapse is so intense that every electron in each atom reaches the first orbit due to which volume decreases
and hence, density increases.
• This state in quantum mechanics is called 'Degenerate Gas'.
• White dwarfs are glowing dense objects in the universe without any fusion mechanism.

NEUTRON STAR
• These are formed due to the death of medium stars.
• When a star collapses at the iron core, all electrons in every atom enter the nucleus, where they feed upon the
protons to give neutrons.
• Due to this only neutrons are left in the stars and that's why they are known as neutron stars.
• They are incredibly fast spinning cause the emission of beams of electromagnetic radiations.
• These are also called Pulsar because they accelerate any particle entering their magnetic field.
• All pulsars are neutron stars, but conversely all neutron stars are not necessarily pulsars.

SUPERNOVA EXPLOSION
• These are extreme events in the cosmic realm where a huge amount of energy is emitted and also elements
heavier than iron like uranium, Gold, Silver, etc are formed during the Supernova explosion.

BLACKHOLE
○ • It is a very big object in the universe from which even light can not come out.
○ • This is because of the infinite pull of the black hole.
○ • The gravitation is so much because the entire mass of the black hole is concentrated at a one-dimensional point
called Singularity.
○ • Any object falling in a black hole loses its dimensions and attain one dimension or singularity, this process is called
Spaghettification.
○ • These are dead remains of a big star that warp or curves space-time infinitely.
○ Schwarzschild Radius - event horizon radius. Escape velocity = speed of light

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○ Types of Black holes
• Tiny black holes
• Formed when universe began
• Size of atom
• Stellar black holes
• Mass > 20*Mass of sun
• Formed when red supergiant -> supernova explosion (mass > 3* mass of sun)
• Supermassive black holes
• Mass > 1million*mass of sun
• Formed with galaxy, lies at the centre of galaxy

GALAXY
• It is a collection of dust, gas, billions of stars and their solar systems, all bound together by gravity via a black hole.

KUIPER BELT
• This looks like a great ring of debris which are remanent of our solar system.
• Kuiper belt found beyond Neptune.
• They resemble with Asteroid belt
• Pluto is falling in the Kuiper belt
• These Rocky objects are much bigger than the asteroid belt
• As the distant edges of Kuiper belt icy objects are found known as Oort cloud.
• The size of the Oort cloud may be bigger than the mountains on earth.
• Oort cloud also marks the outermost layer of our solar system.

HELIOSPHERE & HYDROGEN WALL

• Solar winds emanating from the Sun forms the shape of a bubble that extends beyond the major planets. This
bubble is the Heliosphere
• It is unable to penetrate an area of hydrogen concentrated area known as Hydrogen wall.
• This Hydrogen walls also marks the end of our Solar system

INTERSTELLAR
• It is the unclaimed area of the universe
• It is the part of space (unclaimed) that exists between the stars. (Vacant space)
• It is a hard vacuum i.e. the presence of dust, gases, plasma (Ionised gases), cosmic radiations.

GOLDILOCKS ZONE
• Search for the Earth-like planets in outer space.

FORCE CARRIERS

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Strong:
• The strongest force.
• Force carrier = Gluon.
• Range - It works within the nucleus.
• It is responsible for binding the nucleus.
• Application = Quarks - Protons and Neutrons.

Weak:
• It works within the nucleus.
• Force carrier = W and Z.
• Application= Beta decay and Neutron decay.

Electromagnetic:
• It has an infinite range.
• Force carrier = Photon.
• Application= Electronics light.

Gravitation:
• The weakest force.
• It has an infinite range.
• Force carrier= Graviton (It is imaginary).
• Application= Solar system, Galaxy.

Anti Matter
• Anti Matter is just the Opposite of Matter. It shares all the properties with the matter but has either opposite charge or
subatomic characteristics.
• Both matter and antimatter formed during Big Bang, but today antimatter are rare in our galaxy. But they can be found in
other stars and galaxies.
• When matter and antimatter come in contact with each other they annihilate flashing a lot of energy.
• For example - Positron, antiquark, antineutrino, antihydrogen, etc.

Dark Matter:
• Matter which does not interact with an electromagnetic wave (light)
• It is very difficult to locate them

• Evidence of Dark matter-

• High galactic orbital velocity than expected
• Gravitational lensing more than expected
• Dark matter = 95%, Visible Matter = 5%
• 27% is Dark matter and 68% is Dark energy
• Visible matter- neutrinos(0.3), stars and galaxies(0.5), heavy elements and others(0.2),Free H2 and He(4)

• The states of Matter-

• 4 states of matter- Solid, Liquid, Gas, and Plasma (super hot and super excited state)
• If we move from S-L-G-P = heat/energy increases

○ Bose-Einstein Condensate

• 5th state of matter- Bose-Einstein condensate (super cool and super unexcited state)
• When we move from Plasma-Gas-Liquid-solid = energy declines (super cool and super unexcited state). This
is the 5th state of matter.
• In Bose-Einstein condensate state = Every particle loses their identity and behave like a single wave.

• A Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC) is a state of matter in which a large number of identical bosons are cooled to
temperatures very close to absolute zero (−273.15°C or −459.67°F) and coalesce into a single quantum mechanical
entity, behaving as if they were one giant atom. In this state, the bosons lose their individual identities and become
indistinguishable from one another.

• Significance of BECs in Modern Physics:

• Superfluidity : a property where they can flow without any resistance.
• Applications may be in frictionless bearings and ultra-efficient energy transport.
• Quantum Mechanics : helps in understanding of quantum phenomena, such as wave-particle duality and quantum
entanglement.
• Dark Matter : understanding the nature of dark matter and its role in the universe.

DARK ENERGY
• Dark energy is a mysterious force that is thought to be responsible for the accelerating expansion of the universe.
○ After the big bang, with the passage of time, matter was created.
○ These matters attract each other by the force of Gravitation because of which universe must have collapsed by
now.
○ It means there must be some hidden energy to counter the attractive forces of gravitation.
○ This hidden energy is dark energy.
• Evidence
○ Supernovae explosion - rate of expansion of the universe is increasing

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○ Cosmic microwave background (CMB)

LHC (Large Hadron Collider)

• The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world's largest and most powerful particle accelerator located at CERN,
Switzerland.
• It was created to allow scientists to study the fundamental building blocks of matter and the forces that govern them.
• The LHC is a 27-kilometer-long ring of superconducting magnets that accelerate protons to nearly the speed of light.

• Higgs boson - a fundamental particle in the Standard Model of particle physics that is thought to give other particles their mass.

HIGGS BOSON THEORY

• The Universe was a tiny dense mass 13.7 billion years ago.
• During that period, the temperature and density were infinite.
• An explosion happens which led to cosmic inflation i.e. expansion of the universe in the creation of space and time.
• This led to an invisible but interactive Higgs field appeared.
• Quarks (q) and Leptons (l) interacted with the Higgs field (h).
• Quark interacted more than Leptons with Higgs field and thus gain more mass than Leptons.
• Then quarks interacted among themselves to give protons and neutrons.
• The Leptons in a similar sense gave electrons.
• The electron absorbed light because of which universe become opaque. This phase is called the "Dark Ages".
• Proton and electrons came together to form hydrogen.
• Electrons emit extra energy while revolving around protons in the form of gamma radiation. This causes a transparent
universe.
• At this time, Nuclear fusion started and gives rise to Stars, Galaxies.
• Various elements also formed during that time like C, P, N & O, etc. which are precursors of DNA and forms life.

• Importance of Higgs Bosons:

○ Completing the Standard Model : The Higgs boson is the last missing piece of the Standard Model of particle
physics, which is our current understanding of the fundamental forces and particles that make up the universe.
○ Exploring Beyond the Standard Mode :

THEORY OF RELATIVITY (Einstein)

• E=MC^2
• Light always travels in a straight line.
• The speed of light is maximum and No object in the universe can match the speed of light.
• The entire universe is sitting on an imaginary space-time fabric.
• Any object in the universe having mass and acceleration will warp or curbs space-time fabric.
• In the process of warping, they create ripples or disturbances in the universe.
• These ripples are called the Gravitational Waves (GW).
• These GW are too weak to be detected but major events like a merger of two black holes etc. can create comparatively
stronger GWs that can be detected.
• Einstein = 1st person to give the concept on this theory of relativity.

EINSTEIN-ROSEN BRIDGE (WORMHOLES)

○ Blackholes warp space & time infinitely.
○ In this process of warping, it can bring two points in the universe closer to each other.
○ In other words, it can act as a bridge that reduces the physical distance between two points.
○ Wormholes can make inter-galaxy travel possible.
○ But at this point in time, traveling through wormholes is not possible as they are very small.

GRAVITATIONAL LENSING
○ Massive matters like galaxies, black holes, etc. create stronger gravitational fields which cause light rays to pass
close to that matter.
○ In this process, light is slightly bent or refocused somewhere else.
○ This phenomenon also acts as a cosmic telescope.

EXPANSION OF UNIVERSE
○ Cosmic background radiations are found in microwave range instead of gamma range. (Electromagnetic Spectrum)
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○ Galaxies appeared to be red-shifted. (Doppler Shift) (VIBGYOR)

Atomic Clocks
• Atomic clocks are highly accurate timekeeping devices that are based on the principle that the natural oscillations of atoms, such as
cesium or rubidium, have an extremely precise frequency. This frequency is used to define the second, the base unit of time in the
International System of Units (SI).
○ Rubidium atomic clock in IRNSS

• What is a second?
○ In the International System of Units (SI), a second is the base unit of time. It is defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770
periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-
133 atom.

• How Atomic Clocks Work:

○ Atomic clocks work on the principle of measuring the vibrations or oscillations of atoms, which are inherently stable and
consistent.
○ Atom Reservoir : Atomic clocks contain a reservoir of atoms . These atoms are typically in a gaseous form.
○ Microwave Resonance: The clock sends microwave radiation through the atom reservoir to match a specific energy transition
in the atoms.
○ Feedback Loop: to adjust the frequency of the microwave radiation until it precisely matches the atom's resonant frequency.
○ Counting Oscillations:

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