ELECTRIC HEATING

Electric heating is the process in which electrical energy is converted

into heat energy. all heating requirements in domestic purpose such as
cooking, room heater, water heater, and in industrial purpose such as
Welding, melting, etc.
ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC HEATING
The various advantages of electric heating over other the types
of heating are:
(i) Economical : Electric heating equipment is cheaper; they do not
require much skilled persons; therefore, maintenance cost is less.
(ii) Cleanliness: Since dust and ash are completely eliminated in the
electric heating, it keeps surroundings cleanly.
(iii) Pollution free: As there are no flue gases in the electric heating,
atmosphere around is pollution free; no need of providing space
for their exit.
(iv) Ease of control: In this heating, temperature can be controlled and
regulated accurately either manually or automatically.
(v) Uniform heating: With electric heating, the substance can be
heated uniformly, throughout whether it may be conducting or non-
conducting material.
(vi) High efficiency: In non-electric heating, only 40–60% of heat is
utilized but in electric heating 75–100% of heat can be successfully
utilized. So, overall efficiency of electric heating is very high.
(vii) Automatic protection: Protection against over current and over
heating can be provided by using fast control devices.
(viii) Heating of non-conducting materials: The heat developed in the
non-conducting materials such as wood and porcelain is possible
only through the electric heating.
(ix) Better working conditions: No irritating noise is produced with
electric heating and also radiating losses are low.
(x) Less floor area: Due to the compactness of electric furnace, floor
area required is less.
(xi) High temperature: High temperature can be obtained by the
electric heating except the ability of the material to withstand the
heat.
(xii) Safety: The electric heating is quite safe.
MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
The transmission of the heat energy from one body to another because of the
temperature gradient takes place by any of the following methods:
1. Conduction : In this mode, the heat transfers from one part of substance to
another part without the movement in the molecules of substance. Eg:
Refractory heating, the heating of insulating materials, etc.

Where, t- thickness, k- e coefficient of the thermal conductivity

A- cross-sectional area, T1, T2 - temperature of its two faces( in °C )
2. Convection: the heat transfer takes place from one part to another part of
substance or fluid due to the actual motion of the molecules. The rate of
conduction of heat depends mainly on the difference in the fluid density at
different temperatures. Eg: Immersion water heater.

‘a’ and ‘b’ are the constants,

T1and T2 are the temperatures of heating element and fluid in °C, respectively.
3. Radiation: In this mode, the heat transfers from source to the
substance to be heated without heating the medium in between. It is
dependent on surface. Eg: Solar heaters.

Where T1 is the temperature of the source in kelvin, T2 is the

temperature of the substance to be heated in kelvin, and k is the radiant
efficiency.
ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD
HEATINGELEMENT
The materials used for heating element should have the following
properties:
• High-specific resistance: Material should have high-specific
resistance so that small length of wire may be required to provide
given amount of heat.
• High-melting point: It should have high-melting point so that it can
withstand for high temperature, a small increase in temperature will
not destroy the element.
• Low temperature coefficient of resistance: The radiant heat is
proportional to fourth powers of the temperatures; it is very efficient
heating at high temperature. For accurate temperature control, the
variation of resistance with the operating temperature should be
very low. This can be obtained only if the material has low
temperature coefficient of resistance
• Free from oxidation: The element material should not be oxidized
when it is subjected to high temperatures; otherwise the formation
of oxidized layers will shorten its life.
• High-mechanical strength: The material should have high-
mechanical strength and should withstand for mechanical
vibrations.
• Non-corrosive: The element should not corrode when exposed to
atmosphere or any other chemical fumes.
• Economical: The cost of material should not be so high.
MATERIAL FOR HEATING ELEMENTS
The selection of a material for heating element is depending upon the service
conditions such as maximum operating temperature and the amount of charge
to be heated, but no single element will not satisfy all the requirements of the
heating elements. The materials normally used as heating elements are either
alloys of nickel–chromium, nickel chromium–iron, nickel– chromium
aluminum, or nickel–copper. Nickel–chromium–iron alloy is cheaper when
compared to simple nickel–chromium alloy. The use of iron in the alloy
reduces the cost of final product but, reduces the life of the alloy, as it gets
oxidized soon.
CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRIC HEATING
 METHODS OF ELECTRIC HEATING

Heat can be generated by passing the current through a resistance or induced currents. The
initiation of an arc between two electrodes also develops heat. The bombardment by some heat
energy particles such as α, γ, β, and x-rays or accelerating ion can produce heat on a surface.

Electric heating can be broadly classified as follows.

(i) Direct resistance heating

In this method, the electric current is made to pass through the charge (or) substance to be
heated. This principle of heating is employed in electrode boiler.

(ii) Indirect resistance heating

In this method, the electric current is made to pass through a wire or high-resistance heating
element, the heat so developed is transferred to charge from the heating element by convection or
radiation. This method of heating is employed in immersion water heaters.

Fig. Classification of electrical heating

Infrared (or) radiant heating

In this method of heating, the heat energy is transferred from source (incandescent lamp) and
focused upon the body to be heated up in the form of electromagnetic radiations. Normally, this
method is used for drying clothes in the textile industry and to dry the wet paints on an object.
 Direct arc heating

In this method, by striking the arc between the charge and the electrode or electrodes, the heat so
developed is directly conducted and taken by the charge. The furnace operating on this principle
is known as direct arc furnaces. The main application of this type of heating is production of
steel.

Indirect arc heating

In this method, arc is established between the two electrodes, the heat so developed is transferred
to the charge (or) substance by radiation. The furnaces operating on this principle are known as
indirect arc furnaces. This method is generally used in the melting of non-ferrous metals.

Direct induction heating

In this method of heating, the currents are induced by electromagnetic action in the charge to be
heated. These induced currents are used to melt the charge in induction furnace.

Indirect induction heating

In this method, eddy currents are induced in the heating element by electromagnetic action.
Thus, the developed heat in the heating element is transferred to the body (or) charge to be
heated by radiation (or) convection. This principle of heating is employed in induction furnaces
used for the heat treatment of metals.

Dielectric heating

In this method of electric heating, the heat developed in a non-metallic material due to inter-
atomic friction, known as dielectric loss. This principle of heating usually employed for
preheating of plastic performs, baking foundry cores, etc.

RESISTANCE HEATING

When the electric current is made to pass through a high-resistive body (or) substance, a power
loss takes place in it, which results in the form of heat energy, i.e., resistance heating is passed
upon the I2R effect. This method of heating has wide applications such as drying, baking of
potteries, commercial and domestic cooking, and the heat treatment of metals such as annealing
and hardening. In oven where wire resistances are employed for heating, temperature up to about
1,000°C can be obtained.

The resistance heating is further classified as:

1. direct resistance heating,

2. indirect resistance heating, and
 3. infrared (or) radiant heating.

Direct resistance heating

In this method, electrodes are immersed in a material or charge to be heated. The charge may be
in the form of powder, pieces, or liquid. The electrodes are connected to AC or DC supply as
shown in Fig. 4.1(a). In case of DC or 1-φ AC, two electrodes are immersed and three electrodes
are immersed in the charge and connected to supply in case of availability of 3-φsupply. When
metal pieces are to be heated, the powder of lightly resistive is sprinkled over the surface of the
charge (or) pieces to avoid direct short circuit. The current flows through the charge and heat is
produced in the charge itself. So, this method has high efficiency. As the current in this case is
not variable, so that automatic temperature control is not possible. This method of heating is
employed in salt bath furnace and electrode boiler for heating water.

Fig. (a) Direct resistance heating

(i) Salt bath furnace

This type of furnace consists of a bath and containing some salt such as molten sodium chloride
and two electrodes immersed in it.

Such salt have a fusing point of about 1,000–1,500°C depending upon the type of salt used.
When the current is passed between the electrodes immersed in the salt, heat is developed and
the temperature of the salt bath may be increased. Such an arrangement is known as a salt bath
furnace.

In this bath, the material or job to be heated is dipped. The electrodes should be carefully
immersed in the bath in such a way that the current flows through the salt and not through the job
being heated. As DC will cause electrolysis so, low-voltage AC up to 20 V and current up to
3,000 A is adopted depending upon the type of furnaces.
 The resistance of the salt decreases with increase in the temperature of the salt, therefore, in
order to maintain the constant power input, the voltage can be controlled by providing a tap
changing transformer. The control of power input is also affected by varying the depth of
immersion and the distance between the electrodes.

(ii) Electrode boiler

It is used to heat the water by immersing three electrodes in a tank as shown in Fig. 4.2. This is
based on the principle that when the electric current passed through the water produces heat due
to the resistance offered by it. For DC supply, it results in a lot of evolution of H 2 at negative
electrode and O2 at positive electrode. Whereas AC supply hardly results in any evolution of gas,
but heats the water. Electrode boiler tank is earthed solidly and connected to the ground. A
circuit breaker is usually incorporated to make and break all poles simultaneously and an over
current protective device is provided in each conductor feeding an electrode.

Fig. 4.2 Electrode boiler

Indirect resistance heating

In the indirect resistance heating method, high current is passed through the heating element. In
case of industrial heating, some times the heating element is placed in a cylinder which is
surrounded by the charge placed in a jacket is known as heating chamber is shown inFig. 4.3.
The heat is proportional to power loss produced in the heating element is delivered to the charge
by one or more of the modes of the transfer of heat viz. conduction, convection, and radiation.
This arrangement provides uniform temperature and automatic temperature control. Generally,
this method of heating is used in immersion water heaters, room heaters, and the resistance ovens
used in domestic and commercial cooling and salt bath furnace.
Fig. 4.3 Indirect resistance heating

Resistance ovens

According to the operating temperatures, the resistance furnaces may be classified into various
types. Low-temperature heating chamber with the provision for ventilation is called as oven. For
drying varnish coating, the hardening of synthetic materials, and commercialand domestic
heating, etc., the resistance ovens are employed. The operating temperature of medium
temperature furnaces is between 300°C and 1,050°C. These are employed for the melting of non-
ferrous metals, stove (annealing), etc. Furnaces operating at temperature between 1,050°C and
1,350°C are known as high-temperature furnaces. These furnaces are employed for hardening
applications. A simple resistance oven is shown in Fig. 4.4.

Fig. 4.4 Resistance oven

Resistance oven consists of a heating chamber in which heating elements are placed as shown
in the Fig. 4.4. The inner surface of the heating chamber is made to suit the character of the
 The power consumed by the three units is:
P = 4,000 W.
3. For the star connection,

0. The power consumed by the two resistors in series is

p = 444.44 W.
The power consumed by the three units is:
P = 1,333.33 W.
1. The power consumed by the two resistors in parallel is:

The power consumed by the three units in series is:

P = 3 × 1,777.77
= 5,333.32 W.
4. The power is proportional to the square of the voltage. Hence, the voltage is 25%. So that, the power

loss will be th of the values obtained as above.

ARC HEATING

If the high voltage is applied across an air gap, the air in the gap gets ionized under the influence
of electrostatic forces and becomes conducting medium, current flows in the form of a
continuous spark, known as arc. A very high voltage is required to establish an arc but very
small voltage is sufficient to maintain it, across the air gap. The high voltage required for striking
an arc can be obtained by using a step-up transformer fed from a variable AC supply.

Another method of striking the arc by using low voltage is by short circuiting the two
electrodes momentarily and with drawing them back. Electrodes made up of carbon or graphite
and are used in the arc furnaces when the temperature obtained is in the range of 3,000–3,500°C.

Electrodes used in the arc furnaces

Normally used electrodes in the arc furnaces are carbon electrodes, graphite electrodes, and self-
baking electrodes. Usually the carbon and graphite electrodes are used and they can be selected
based on their electrical conductivity insolubility, chemical inertness, mechanical strength,
resistance to thermal shock, etc. The size of these electrodes may be 18–27 cm in diameter. The
carbon electrodes are used with small furnaces for manufacturing of ferro-alloys, aluminum
phosphorous, etc. The self-baking electrodes are employed in the electrochemical furnaces and in
the electrolytic production of aluminum.

The salient features of carbon and graphite electrodes are:

1. Resistivity: The graphite electrodes have low-specific resistance than the carbon electrodes, so the
graphite required half in size for the same current resulting in easy replacement.
2. Oxidation: Graphite begins to oxides at 600°C where as carbon at 400°C.
3. Electrode consumption: For steel-melting furnaces, the consumption of the carbon electrodes is about
4.5 kg of electrodes per tonne of steel and 2.3–to 6.8 kg electrodes per tonne of steel for the graphite
electrodes.
4. Cost: The graphite electrodes cost about twice as much per kg as the carbon electrodes. The choice of
electrodes depends chiefly on the question of the total cost. In general, if the processes requiring large
quantities of electrode, carbon is used but for other processes, the choice depends on local conditions.

Types of arc furnaces

There are two types of arc furnaces and they are:

1. direct arc furnace and

2. indirect arc furnace.

(i) Direct arc furnace

When supply is given to the electrodes, two arcs are established and current passes through the
charge, as shown in Fig. 4.5. As the arc is in direct contact with the charge and heat is also
produced by current flowing through the charge itself, it is known as direct arc furnace.
Fig. Direct arc furnace

If the available supply is DC or 1-φ, AC, two electrodes are sufficient, if the supply is 3-φ,
AC, three electrodes are placed at three vertices of an equilateral triangle. The most important
feature of the direct arc furnace is that the current flows through the charge, the stirring action is
inherent due to the electromagnetic force setup by the current, such furnace is used for
manufacturing alloy steel and gives purer product.

It is very simple and easy to control the composition of the final product during refining
process operating the power factor of arc furnace is 0.8 lagging. For 1-ton furnace, the power
required is about 200 kW and the energy consumed is 1.0 MWh/ton.

(ii) Indirect arc furnace

In indirect arc furnace, the arc strikes between two electrodes by bringing momentarily in contact
and then with drawing them heat so developed, due to the striking of arc across air gap is
transferred to charge is purely by radiation. A simple indirect arc furnace is shown inFig. 4.6.

Fig. 4.6 Indirect arc furnace

These furnaces are usually l-φ and hence their size is limited by the amount of one-phase load
which can be taken from one point. There is no inherent stirring action provided in this furnace,
as current does not flow through the charge and the furnace must be rocked mechanically. The
electrodes are projected through this chamber at each end along the horizontal axis. This furnace
 HIGH-FREQUENCY HEATING

The main difference between the power-frequency and the high-frequency heating is that in the
conventional methods, the heat is transferred either by conduction convection or by radiation, but
in the high-frequency heating methods, the electromagnetic energy converted into the heat
energy in side the material.

The high-frequency heating can be applied to two types of materials. The heating of the
conducting materials, such as ferro-magnetic and non-ferro-magnetic, is known as induction
heating. The process of heating of the insulating materials is known as dielectric heating. The
heat transfer by the conventional method is very low of the order of 0.5–20 W/sq. cm. And, the
heat transfer rate by the high-frequency heating either by induction or by dielectric heating is as
much as 10,000 W/sq. cm. Thus, the high-frequency heating is most importance for tremendous
speed of production.

INDUCTION HEATING

The induction heating process makes use of the currents induced by the electromagnetic action in
the material to be heated. To develop sufficient amount of heat, the resistance of the material

must be low , which is possible only with the metals, and the voltage must
be higher, which can be obtained by employing higher flux and higher frequency. Therefore, the
magnetic materials can be heated than non-magnetic materials due to their high permeability.

In order to analyze the factors affecting induction heating, let us consider a circular disc to be
heated carrying a current of ‘I’ amps at a frequency ‘f’ Hz. As shown in Fig. 4.9.

Fig. 4.9 Induction heating

Heat developed in the disc is depending upon the following factors.

 o Primary coil current.
o The number of the turns of the coil.
o Supply frequency.
o The magnetic coupling between the coil and the disc.
o The high electrical resistivity of the disc.

If the charge to be heated is non-magnetic, then the heat developed is due to eddy current loss,
whereas if it is magnetic material, there will be hysteresis loss in addition to eddy current loss.
Both hysteresis and eddy current loss are depended upon frequency, but at high-frequency
hysteresis, loss is very small as compared to eddy currents.

The depth of penetration of induced currents into the disc is given by:

where ρ is the specific resistance in Ω-cm, f is the frequency in Hz, and μ is the permeability of
the charge.

There are basically two types of induction furnaces and they are:

1. Core type or low-frequency induction furnace.

2. Coreless type or high-frequency induction furnace.

Core type furnace

The operating principle of the core type furnace is the electromagnetic induction. This furnace is
operating just like a transformer. It is further classified as:

1. Direct core type.

2. Vertical core type.
3. Indirect core type.
 (i) Direct core type induction furnace

The core type furnace is essentially a transformer in which the charge to be heated forms single-
turn secondary circuit and is magnetically coupled to the primary by an iron core as shown
in Fig. 4.10.

Fig. 4.10 Direct core type furnace

The furnace consists of a circular hearth in the form of a trough, which contains the charge to
be melted in the form of an annular ring. This type of furnace has the following characteristics:

o This metal ring is quite large in diameter and is magnetically interlinked with primary winding, which is
energized from an AC source. The magnetic coupling between primary and secondary is very weak; it
results in high leakage reactance and low pf. To overcome the increase in leakage reactance, the furnace
should be operated at low frequency of the order of 10 Hz.
o When there is no molten metal in the hearth, the secondary becomes open circuited thereby cutting of
secondary current. Hence, to start the furnace, the molten metal has to be taken in the hearth to keep the
secondary as short circuit.
o Furnace is operating at normal frequency, which causes turbulence and severe stirring action in the
molten metal to avoid this difficulty, it is also necessary to operate the furnace at low frequency.
o In order to obtain low-frequency supply, separate motor-generator set (or) frequency changer is to be
provided, which involves the extra cost.
o The crucible used for the charge is of odd shape and inconvenient from the metallurgical viewpoint.
o If current density exceeds about 500 A/cm2, it will produce high-electromagnetic forces in the molten
metal and hence adjacent molecules repel each other, as they are in the same direction. The repulsion
may cause the interruption of secondary circuit (formation of bubbles and voids); this effect is known
as pinch effect.
The pinch effect is also dependent on frequency; at low frequency, this effect is negligible, and
so it is necessary to operate the furnace at low frequency.

(ii) Vertical core type induction furnace

It is an improvement over the direct core type furnace, to overcome some of the disadvantages
mentioned above. This type of furnace consists of a vertical core instead of horizontal core as
shown in Fig. 4.11. It is also known as Ajax–Wyatt induction furnace.

Fig. 4.11 Vertical core type furnace (Ajax–Wyatt induction furnace)

Vertical core avoids the pinch effect due to the weight of the charge in the main body of the
crucible. The leakage reactance is comparatively low and the power factor is high as the
magnetic coupling is high compared to direct core type.

There is a tendency of molten metal to accumulate at the bottom that keeps the secondary
completed for a vertical core type furnace as it consists of narrow V-shaped channel.

The inside layer of furnace is lined depending upon the type charge used. Clay lining is used
for yellow brass and an alloy of magnesia and alumina is used for red brass.

The top surface of the furnace is covered with insulating material, which can be removed for
admitting the charge. Necessary hydraulic arrangements are usually made for tilting the furnace
to take out the molten metal. Even though it is having complicated construction, it is operating at
power factor of the order of 0.8–0.83. This furnace is normally used for the melting and refining
of brass and non-ferrous metals.
Advantages

o Accurate temperature control and reduced metal losses.

o Absence of crucibles.
o Consistent performance and simple control.
o It is operating at high power factor.
o Pinch effect can be avoided.

(iii) Indirect core type furnace

This type of furnace is used for providing heat treatment to metal. A simple induction furnace
with the absence of core is shown in Fig. 4.12.

Fig. 4.12 Indirect core type furnace

The secondary winding itself forms the walls of the container or furnace and an iron core links
both primary and secondary windings.

The heat produced in the secondary winding is transmitted to the charge by radiation. An oven
of this type is in direct competition with ordinary resistance oven.

It consists of a magnetic circuit AB is made up of a special alloy and is kept inside the
chamber of the furnace. This magnetic circuit loses its magnetic properties at certain temperature
and regains them again when it is cooled to the same temperature.

When the oven reaches to critical temperature, the reluctance of the magnetic circuit increases
many times and the inductive effect decreases thereby cutting off the supply heat. Thus, the
temperature of the furnace can be effectively controlled. The magnetic circuit ‘AB’ is detachable
type that can be replaced by the other magnetic circuits having critical temperatures ranging
between 400°C and 1,000°C. The furnace operates at a pf of around 0.8.

The main advantage of such furnace is wide variation of temperature control is possible.

Coreless type induction furnace

It is a simple furnace with the absence core is shown in Fig. 4.13. In this furnace, heat developed
in the charge due to eddy currents flowing through it.

Fig. 4.13 Coreless induction furnace

The furnace consists of a refractory or ceramic crucible cylindrical in shape enclosed within a
coil that forms primary of the transformer. The furnace also contains a conducting or non-
conducting container that acts as secondary.

If the container is made up of conducting material, charge can be conducting or non-

conducting; whereas, if the container is made up of non-conducting material, charge taken
should have conducting properties.

When primary coils are excited by an alternating source, the flux set up by these coils induce
the eddy currents in the charge. The direction of the resultant eddy current is in a direction
opposite to the current in the primary coil. These currents heat the charge to melting point and
they also set up electromagnetic forces that produce a stirring action to the charge.
 DIELECTRIC HEATING

When a capacitor is subjected to sinusoidal voltage , the current drawn by it exactly 90

degrees. The angle between the current and voltage is slightly less showing there is a
small in phase component of current which produces power loss in the dielectric of the
capacitor. At ordinary frequency of 50Hz at high frequencies the loss becomes large
enough to heat the dielectric. It is utilized in heating the dielectric. The insulating
material to be heated is placed between two conducting plates in order to form a
parallel plate capacitor. Power generated in dielectric is converted to heat.

Applications: Textile industry, food processing, synthetic, etc.

ELECTROLYSIS

The process in which electrical energy can produce chemical change is called
electrolysis. It is the process of decomposing ionic compounds into their elements by
passing direct electric current through the compound in a fluid form. Electrolysis takes
place in an electrolytic cell which contains 2 electrodes and an electrolyte. The
electrode which is connected to +ve terminal is known as anode and the electrode
which is connected to –ve terminal is cathode. These electrodes are immersed in an
electrolyte.

When a compound formed by electrovalent bond is dissolved in water which has high
dielectric constant, it results in the weakening of the electrostatic force of attraction
between the ions.
Consider the case of copper sulphate (CUSO4) dissolved in water. It dissociates
positively charged copper ions (𝐶𝑢2+) negatively charged sulphate ions (𝑆𝑂42−) in the
solution. If two electrodes are placed and one of them is made positive and the other
negative, the positively charged ions travel towards cathode and the negatively
charged ions travel towards anode. Positively charged copper ions reaching cathode
will take two electrons from it and become copper atom. Negatively charged sulphate
ions reaching anode will give up two electrons. Copper is deposited at cathode and
sulphate ions at anode react with water to form oxygen.

Oxygen is liberated as gas at anode. If the cathode is made of Cu, the sulphuric acid
attacks it forming copper sulphate and liberating hydrogen.
During the process there is no accumulation of charge at any point in the circuit and
the mass of copper deposited at the cathode is equal to that removed from the anode.
This whole process is called electrolysis.

FARADAY’S LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS

FARADAY’S FIRST LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS: The mass of a substance liberated

from an electrolyte in a given time is proportional to the quantity of electricity passing
through the electrolyte.
W𝛼Q
W 𝛼 It
W = Zit
Z- Electro-chemical constant

FARADAY’S SECOND LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS: The masses of ions of different

substances liberated by same quantity of electrolyte are proportional to their chemical
equivalent weights.
(Study different types of lamps)