Chapter Seven: Decision Making and Creativity

Rational Choice Decision Making

***Decision Making – conscious process of making choices among alternatives with the
intention of moving toward some desired state of affairs.
Rational choice decisions
• Use logic, all information to
choose highest value choice
• Historically considered ideal
state of decision making (pure rational choice)
Two key elements of rational choice
• Calculating the best alternative
• Systematic decision-making process

(FINALS) For the past 2500+ years, scholars have mainly followed the rational
choice model of decision making.

Rational Choice Calculation

Example
Rational Choice Decision Process
-starts on step one to six.
(FINALS) Step 1: Identifying the Problem or opportunity – gap or deviation between the current
situation and the desired situation. Gap could be a symptom of a problem. Gap bet expectation
and better situation.

2. Choose the best decision process – META Decision- deciding how to decide. Are we make
this decision by ourselves or with others.

Are we going to go with a program decision or a non-program decision?

***NON-PROGRAMMED DECISIONS – require all the steps in the rational decision model
because the problems are new, complex, and ill-defined.

***PROGRAMMED DECISIONS – seen before, jump a bunch of steps and go right to the
solution. repeat a past decision, rely on programmed decision routine to solve the problem,

***If a decision maker encounters the same problem several times, he/she can increasingly rely
on programmed decision routines to solve the problem.

3. Discover or develop possible choices – look for some ready made solution, or develop a new
solution.

4. Select/Choose the choice with the highest value – subjective expected utility

***(FINAL) Subjective expected utility refers to how much the selected alternative benefits or
satisfies the decision maker. (self-serving when making a decision)

[Link] the selected choice

6. Evaluate the selected choice – EVALUATION is the last step.

***The Rational Choice Decision Process also called the Rational Choice Paradigm assumes
that this process is followed starting at step 1 and going through the steps in order.

Problem Identification Challenges

Problems and opportunities are constructed from
ambiguous and conflicting information.
Five problem identification challenges:
• Stakeholder framing – frame their situation to their advantage.
• Decisive leadership – making decisions right away without carefully thinking

• Solution-focused problems

***THE DECISION MAKING PROCESS IS LESS effective when problems are

defined in terms of their solutions.
• Perceptual defence - Blocking out bad news as a defence mechanism.
• Mental models

Identifying Problems Effectively

1. Be aware of problem identification biases.
2. Resist temptation of looking decisive.
3. Create a norm of “divine discontent.”
4. Discuss the situation with others.
Dean Drobot/Shutterstock

Choosing Alternatives: Rational Choice

Assumptions vs. OB Evidence

Sequential Appraisal, Implicit

Favourite Biases
Rational choice: appraise alternatives concurrently using
unbiased valences and probabilities.
Reality: people sequentially appraise a few
alternatives, only a few features against an
implicit favourite(alternative that your decision maker non-
consciously preferred and used it other than the other alternative).

Why sequential appraisal with an implicit favourite?

• Alternatives(information) not all available at same time
• Natural human preference for comparing two choices
• People are cognitive misers (minimize mental effort-LAZY) confirmation
bias
• Human need for cognitive consistency and coherence – people will take
their implicit favourite and align it with the logical choice.

Biased Decision Heuristics

Rational choice: calculate alternative with highest expected
satisfaction.
HEURISTIC - enabling someone to discover or learn
something for themselves, it could be proceeding to a solution
that are trial and error.
Reality: Built-in decision heuristics bias calculation of
probabilities and valences.

Three noted heuristic biases:

• Anchoring and adjustment heuristic – request for proposal, sent
RFP to suppliers, got one back with a higher price, it anchors the
prices around that price for the other RFPs.
• Availability heuristic – estimating the probability of something we
can recall
• Representativeness heuristic – estimate the probability based on
something we know.
Problems with Maximization
Rational choice: Decision makers choose alternative
with highest valence (maximization).

Three human tendencies:

• Satisfice – choose a “good enough”(satisfactory) alternative, instead of the
one with the best one.
• Oversimplify the decision process – easy wins
• Avoid making any decision

Emotions and Making Choices

Emotions affect the appraisal of alternatives in three ways:
1. Emotions form preferences before conscious evaluation.
2. Moods and emotions affect the decision process.
3. Emotions serve as information in decisions. – visualize using a
product and use emotions to judge it.

Intuitive Decision Making

INTUITION- Ability to know when a problem or opportunity
exists and to select the best course of action without
conscious reasoning.
Intuition is an emotional experience:
• Gut feelings are emotional signals
• Not all emotional signals are intuition (emotional signals are
intuition if based on accurate mental models)
• Intuition depends on relevant/accurate mental models
Intuition includes rapid nonconscious analysis:
• Uses action scripts

Making Choices More Effectively

1. Be more contemplative than decisive.
2. Use intuition only with logical analysis.
3. Revisit decisions later when emotions/moods have
changed.
4. Use scenario planning. Systematic process in thinking
alternative futures in how org react in an environment.

Decision Evaluation Problems

Postdecisional justification – distorting information to favour
the decision. (confirmation bias)
Escalation of commitment – repeating or further investing in
an apparently bad decision. Or allocate resources into a
failing course of action.

Causes of escalation of commitment:

• Self-justification effect – that choice will be successful; conscious and
deliberate
• Self-enhancement effect – motivation around your self concept thinking
you are above average (non-conscious bias)
• Prospect theory effect – aversion to loss, negative emotion to loss,
positive emotion to gain
• Sunk costs effect – value of resources already invested in a decision.

Evaluating Decisions More Effectively

1. Separate decision maker from decision evaluator.
2. Create a stop-loss.
3. Seek factual and social feedback.
4. Change the decision-maker’s mindset.

Creative Process Model

Creative Work Environments
1. Learning orientation
2. Enriched jobs– autonomy,
task significance
3. Communication with co-
workers
4. Job security
5. Supportive leaders and
appealing vision
6. Other factors (sometimes)

Creative Activities
Redefine the problem
• Revisit, involve others
Associative play
• Playful activities, creative
challenges, morphological
analysis
Cross-pollination
• Exchange ideas across the firm
Design thinking
• Human-centred, solution-focused creative process, creative thinking to
generate solutions.

Design Thinking
Human-centred, solution-focused process – relies on creative
thinking, logical analysis, empathy, intuition.

Four design thinking rules:

• Human rule – involve others
• Ambiguity rule – avoid problem identification too soon
• Re-design rule – review past solutions, future possibilities
• Tangible rule – build prototypes, embrace learning orientation
Employee Involvement
Employees participate in and influence decisions about their
jobs, work units, or organization.
Several levels of involvement
• Low: staff asked individually for specific information; problem is not
described
• Medium low: problem is described, staff asked for information
related to the problem
• Medium high: problem is described, staff collectively develop
recommendations
• High: Staff identify problem, discover alternatives, choose the best
alternative, and implement their choice

Employee Involvement Model

Contingencies of Employee
Involvement
Decision structure
Source of decision knowledge
Decision commitment
Risk of conflict among employees
Risk of conflict between employees and organization
---------------------------------
Chapter Eight: Team Dynamics
What are Teams?
-Groups of two or more people
-Exist to fulfil a purpose or achieve a goal
-Interdependence and need for collaboration
-Mutual accountability
-Perceive themselves to be a team

***All teams exist to fulfill a purpose or achieve a goal.

***Some team members may be more influential than the others.
(ex. Subject matter experts, more persuasive or charismatic)
***Team members are held together by their interdependence and a
common objective (purpose/goal).
(FINAL) Employees in a department are considered a team only
when they directly interact and coordinate at work activities with
each other.
Team – group of two or more people that exist to fulfil a purpose and there is a
need for collaboration, mutual accountability, and perceive themselves to be a team

Types of Teams
Permanence – How long the team exists
LOW permanence
Degree of permanence – task force, pilot project temporary
Skill diversity – Degree that members have different skills and
knowledge
Authority dispersion – Degree that decision-making responsibility
is distributed throughout the team
Med authority dispersion
****Task forces are temporary groups that typically investigate a particular problem
and disband when a decision has been made.

Informal Groups
Groups that exist primarily for the benefit of their members.
Reasons why informal groups exist:
• Innate drive to bond
• Social identity – ****explains why people join informal groups.
• Goal accomplishment
• Emotional support

Informal groups influence the organization and its employees.

*** All teams are groups, but not all groups satisfy our definition of teams.

Benefits and Limitations of Teams

Benefits.
1. Better decisions, products
2. Better information sharing and coordination
3. Higher motivation due to team membership
Limitations.
• Individuals are better than teams for some tasks
• Process losses – losing time through the process, losing time
maintaining the team instead of making progress, spend time
negotiating, dealing conflicts and disagreements, adding new member.
• Social loafing – riding the coattails of the other team member.

Social Loafing Causes and Remedies

Social loafing is higher Minimizing social
when: loafing
• Individual performance • Form smaller teams
hidden, indistinguishable • Measure individual
• Work is not intrinsically performance
motivating • Specialize tasks
• Due to individual • Increase job enrichment
characteristics • Highlight team obligations
• Employees lack motivation • Select motivated, team-
to help team goals oriented employees

Team Effectiveness Model

Organization and Team
Environment
Communication systems
Organizational leadership
Organizational structure
Physical space
Reward systems
Gorodenkoff/Shutterstock

Best Task Characteristics for

Teams
1. Complex tasks divisible into specialized roles.
2. Well-structured tasks.
• Low task variability
• High task analyzability
• Well-defined roles
3. Higher task interdependence.
Gorodenkoff/Shutterstock

Levels of Task
Interdependence

Team Size
Smaller teams are better because:
• Less process loss – better coordination, better negotiation
• Feel more engaged in teamwork – feel more responsible and accountable.
• Faster team development -
But team must be large enough to accomplish task.
Effective Team Member Behaviours

Process based team work

TASK – mars model support team dynamic

COOPERATING – being able to work together

CONFLICT RESOLVING – dealing with dysfunctional disagreement, conflict resolution.

Team Composition: Diversity

Team members have diverse knowledge,
skills, perspectives, values, mental models.
Advantages:
• View problems/alternatives from different
perspectives
• Broader knowledge base
• Better representation of constituents
Disadvantages:
• Slower team development
• Susceptible to “faultlines”

Team Processes
Cognitive and emotional dynamics of the
team that continually change with the team’s
ongoing evolution and development.
Includes team development, norms, roles,
cohesion, trust, mental models.
Team development – heart of team processes
– the other processes are embedded in team
development.

TEAM STATES – are char of your team that doesn’t really

stick for a long time. State and stage all the same.
TEAM PROCESSES – explains how you move from the one
to the next

Stages of Team Development

Team Norms
Informal rules, shared expectations to regulate member behaviour.
Only deals with behavior, does not apply to private thoughts or feeling.
Why teams develop norms
• Belief that norms improve team performance/wellbeing
• Improves predictability and conflict-avoidance with team
members
• Routinize behaviour with minimal cognitive effort
Managing team norms
• Select team members with compatible values, past behavior
• State desired norms when forming teams
• Remove dysfunctional norms by noting and cautioning
• Ongoing coaching of norms to team members
• Introduce team-based rewards that counter dysfunctional norms
• Disband teams with dysfunctional norms

Team Roles
Set of behaviors people are expected to repeatedly perform
because they hold formal or informal positions in a team and
organization.
Roles and norms establish/reinforce behavior, but roles apply
to one/few; norms apply to all members.
Roles are acquired formally(shared, claimed by people who
wants to do it) or informally. Something you have to do.
Types of roles:
• Taskwork roles – assist the team’s performance, motivating,
providing critique
• Teamwork roles – support team,

ROLE CATEGORIES: ORGANIZER, DOER, CHALLENGER,

INNOVATOR, TEAM BUILDER, CONNECTOR
Team Cohesion
The degree of attraction
people feel toward the team
and their motivation to
remain members.
Factors that strengthen team
cohesion:
• Higher member similarity
• Smaller team size
• Frequent member interaction
• Somewhat difficult team entry
• Higher team success
• More external competition or
challenges
Team Cohesion and
Performance
High cohesion teams usually perform better
because:
• Value team membership, so motivated to achieve
team goals
• Share information more frequently
• Higher co-worker satisfaction
• Better social support (minimizes stress)
• Resolve conflict more swiftly and effectively
Cohesion increases performance when:
• Task interdependence is high
• Team norms are consistent with organizational
objectives

Trust in Teams
Positive expectations toward another
person/group in situations involving risk.
Three levels of trust:
• Calculus-based (lowest) logical calculation, to make the
members work
• Knowledge-based – confidence in the person’s confidence,
predictability of the members attitudes.
• Identification-based (highest) – mutual understanding,
emotional bonds, strongest of the 3 types of trust. If you
committed a transgression, you will be forgiven soon because
trust is based on membership.
Swift trust –an initially high or moderate trust in others
when joining a team. Takes a lot to fix once messed up.
Team Mental Models
Shared mental models — team members hold
similar images and expectations about the
team.

Complementary mental models — each

member’s mental model is unique but
compatible with others.

Benefits of team mental models.

• Improve coordination
• Belief/confidence the team is a functioning social entity
• Directory of the team’s diverse knowledge repository

Team Building
Formal activities to improve the team development processes.
Types of team building:
• Goal setting
• Problem-solving
• Role clarification
• Interpersonal relations
Team building can be effective under specific conditions.

Self-Directed Teams
Teams organized around work processes,
complete an entire piece of work with
interdependent tasks, and have autonomy
over tasks.
Success factors:
• Responsible for entire work process
• High interdependence within the team
• Low interdependence with other teams
• Autonomy to organize and coordinate work
• Setting/resources help team communicate and
coordinate

1. Need to complete work on interdependent task

2. Have a lot of autonomy.

Remote Teams
Team remoteness varies with:
• Geographic dispersion
• Percentage of members who work apart
• Percentage of time that members work apart

Remote team success factors:

• Members apply effective teamwork behaviors (5 Cs)
• Freedom to use a toolkit of communication channels
• Moderate or higher task structure
• Opportunities to meet face-to-face
Team Decision-making Constraints
[Link] constraints – production blocking(diff to think when
someone is talking, makes you forget your idea, hard to listen
when you’re focusing on your own)
2. Evaluation apprehension (afraid to share your idea for fear of
judgement)
3. Peer pressure to conform (I don’t agree but the majority agrees
so I just zip it, suppressing dissenting opinion, team treats you like
crap if they don’t like your idea, conform because you do not want
disagreement)
4. Overconfidence (inflated team efficacy) – too high goal, super
motivated to achieve a goal. Might be less vigilant, do not have
enough constructive debate.

General Guidelines for Team Decisions

1. Checks/balances avoid individual dominance.
2. Maintain optimal team size.
3. Encourage team confidence, be wary of overconfidence.
4. Team norms encourage critical thinking.
5. Support psychological safety.
6. Use team structures that encourage creativity.

Creative Team Structures:

Brainstorming
Four brainstorming rules:
1. Don’t criticize.
2. Speak freely.
3. Provide many ideas (to
find the most creative
ideas).
4. Build on others’ ideas.
Good brainstorming
requires:
• Experienced facilitator.
• Confident employees.
• Learning orientation and
psychological safety culture.
audiLab/Shutterstock

Other Creative Team

Structures
Brainwriting:
• Brainstorming without conversation
• Less production blocking than brainstorming
Electronic brainstorming:
• Brainwriting through digital networks
• Reduces production blocking, evaluation
apprehension, conformity
Nominal group technique:
• Brainwriting with verbal stage

Chapter Nine: Communicating in

Teams and Organizations

: Definition and
May

Importance
COMMUNICATION Definition: Process by which information is
transmitted and understood between two or more people.
Importance(FUNCTIONS):
• Coordinating work activities
• Better decision making
***• Changing others’ behaviour
• Employee well-being
***Different Functions of Communication – Changing other’s behaviour ,
fulfill certain needs or drives, it plays a central role in organizational
learning, knowledge management (better decision making)

***EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION – when the receiver actively deciphers

the sender’s message.

Communication Process Model

-presented in the textbook relies on the
metaphor that information goes
through a congruent between the
sender and receiver.
Steps in communication process model: SENDER-form message->encode
message->transmit message to RECEIVER-> receive encoded message->decode
message->form feedback->encode feedback->transmit feedback to SENDER-
>receive encoded feedback->decode feedback

Where does decoding the message happen? AFTER THE RECEIVER RECEIVES IT.

Distraction was not explicitly identified in the communication model, it is part of noise.

AFTER THE RECEIVER receives the message - - DECODE THE MESSAGE

NOISE - Problem in encoding and decoding a message

1. The sender develops an idea to be sent.

2. The sender encodes the message.
3. The sender selects the channel of communication that will be used.
4. The message travels over the channel of communication.
5. The message is received by the receiver.
6. The receiver decodes the message.
7. The receiver provides feedback, if applicable.
Improving Communication Coding/Decoding
1. Sender and receiver have similar codebooks.
2. Sender has experience encoding the message.
3. Sender and receiver are motivated and able to use the selected
channel.
4. Sender and receiver have shared mental models of the
communication context.

Verbal Communication Channels

Verbal communication: uses words, includes
spoken and written channels.
Spoken communication
• Better for transmitting emotions, persuading others
• Usually with nonverbal (gestures)and paralanguage (body
language, intonation, silence)
• Usually enables immediate feedback
Written communication
• Tends to be better for exchanging technical content
• Gives receivers higher comprehension of content
• Historically slower, but faster with digital technology

Nonverbal Communication
Channels
Any communication that doesn’t use words.
Differs from verbal communication because it is:
• Less rule bound
• Most nonverbal is automatic and nonconscious
Emotional contagion
• Nonconsciously sharing others’ emotions by mimicking
their facial expressions and other nonverbal behaviour.
• Three functions of emotional contagion:
• Provides continuous feedback to speaker
• Improves empathy
• Fulfils drive to bond

Digital Written Communication

Benefits of Digital Written

Communication
Preferred for coordinating, sending well-
defined information
• Written, edited, transmitted quickly
• Transmitted to many people simultaneously
• Requires less coordination (mostly asynchronous)
• Digital filing cabinets (easy storage and search)
Effects of digital written communication
• Less face-to-face interaction and traditional phone
calls
• More upward communication
• May reduce status differences, but not completely

Problems with Digital Written

Communication
• Faulty communication
of emotions
• Less politeness and
respectfulness
• Inefficient for
ambiguous, complex,
novel situations
• Contributes to
information overload

Social Media in the

Workplace
Digital communication channels that enable
people to collaborate in the creation and
exchange of user-generated content.
• Audiences (users) involved in creating/amending
content
• “Social” channels enable reciprocally interactive content
• Users provide feedback, edit content, link other sources
Enterprise communication platforms rely mainly
on social media.
Social media offer many benefits in organizations.
Digital Nonverbal
Communication
Digital text messages increasingly include
emoticons, emojis, GIFs.
Emojis improve digital written communication.
• Transmit emotional meaning better than text message
• Strengthen or clarify meaning of the written message
• Improve interpersonal relations
Emojis also have risks in workplace
communication.

NOTE: The above emojis are a sample among the top 100 used over the past two years. There is no
intended message here.

Choosing Channels: Synchronicity

Channel requires/allows sender and receiver to
transmit at the same time (synchronous) or at
different times (asynchronous).
Depends on:
• Time urgency
(immediacy)
• Complexity of the topic
• Cost of synchronous
communication
• Whether receiver should
have time to reflect
wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock

Choosing Channels: Social

Presence
Channel creates psychological closeness to
others, awareness of their humanness, and
appreciation of the interpersonal relationship.
Higher social presence
with:
• Synchronous
communication
• Casual/personal message
content
Social presence preferred
when purpose is to:
• Understand/empathize
• Influence
wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock

FACE TO FACE – higest social awareness

MASS EMAIL – lowest social awareness
Social presence is better or higher in asynchronous communication.

Choosing Channels: Social

Acceptance
Others support use of that communication channel for that
purpose.

Depends on:
• Organization/team norms for using the channel
• Individual preferences for using the channel
• Symbolic meaning of the channel
wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock

Choosing Channels: Media

Richness
The channel’s data-carrying capacity – volume
and variety of information that can be transmitted
during a specific time.
High richness when
channel:
• Conveys multiple cues
• Allows timely feedback
• Allows customized
message
• Permits complex symbols
Hierarchy of Media Richness

Exceptions to Media Richness

Theory
Media richness theory
doesn’t apply as well to
digital channels
because:
1. Able to multi-
communicate through
lean channels
2. More varied proficiency
levels
3. Social presence effects
wichayada suwanachun/Shutterstock
Communication Channels and
Persuasion
Use of facts, logical arguments, emotional
appeals to change another person’s
beliefs/attitudes, usually to change behaviour.
Spoken communication is more persuasive
because:
• Accompanied by nonverbal communication
• Has high quality immediate feedback
• Has high social presence
Written communication may be more
persuasive when technical detail is required.

Communication Barriers
Imperfect perceptual process
Language problems
Jargon
Filtering
Information Overload

Information Overload
Job’s information load exceeds person’s
information processing capacity
• Result: Information gets overlooked or
misinterpreted
Two sets of solutions:
• Increase information processing capacity
• Reduce information load
Cross-Cultural
Communication
Language differences
Voice intonation differences
Different meaning of silence and
conversational overlaps
Nonverbal differences

Male-Female Communication Differences

Getting Your Message Across

Empathize with the receiver
Repeat the message
Use timing effectively
Be descriptive
***People who use assertive speech are judged to be more
competent and more cooperative by their negotiation
counterparts.
Active Listening Process and
Strategies

Communication in
Hierarchies
Workspace design:
• Open-space offices
• Team spaces
Digital communication:
• Real-time news from employees on enterprise
platforms are replacing company news
Direct communication with management:
• Town hall meetings
• Roundtable forums
• Management by wandering around (MBWA)
Organizational Grapevine
Unstructured/informal network founded on social
relationships, not organizational charts or job
descriptions.
• Digital technology has changed grapevine dynamics
Grapevine benefits:
• Fills in missing information
• Strengthens corporate culture
• Relieves anxiety
• Associated with drive to bond
Grapevine limitations:
• Distorted/exaggerated information
• Employees dissatisfied when company slower than the
grapevine

Chapter Ten: Power and Influence

in the Workplace
The Meaning of Power
The capacity of a person, team, or organization to
influence others
• Potential to change attitudes and behaviour (not actual attempt to change)

***Power is only potential and not behaviour.

***some people can have power and not know it.

• Target’s perception that powerholder controls a valued resource

***power exist only when the dependent party is aware that the power holder
controls valued resources.
• Requires a minimum level of trust by both parties
• Power involves unequal dependence,, ***power requires interdependence
in the relationship.

*** people sometimes gain power by convincing other that they have
something of value for them.

***POWER is the capacity to influence rather than the actual practice of

influencing others.

Power and Dependence

Countervailing power – is the weaker party’s power to

maintain stronger party’s continued participation.
(ex. Grocery stores have buyers, buyers have power over
the store)
Countervailing power is the power the dependant
party has over the dominant party.
Model of Power in Organizations

***(FINAL
S) know the 5 sources of power.
Organizational power is the capacity to influence others in organizational
settings
5 Sources of Power
1. Legitimate
2. Reward
3. Coercive
4. Expert
5. Referent

Legitimate Power
Agreement that people in specific roles can
request behaviours from others.
Zone of indifference:
• Domain of behaviours that power holder can ask of
others
• Several factors influence size of the zone of indifference
Norm of reciprocity: Obligation to reciprocate favours.
Information control as a form of legitimate power:
• The right to control information that others value
• Generates power through gatekeeping and framing – selective
distribution
***(FINAL) A manager’s legitimate power over subordinates exists when the
organization grants formal authority and employees agree to let the
manager use this authority.

***your boss’ power to make you work overtime partly depends on your
agreement to this power, all employees have some degree of legitimate
power.
The size of the zone of indifference and consequently the magnitude of
legitimate power increases with the level of trust in the power holder.
POWER
***+legitimate power depends on more than just job description,

Expert Power
Capacity to influence others by possessing
knowledge or skills that they value.
Coping with uncertainty:
• Organizations operate better in predictable
environments
• People gain power by using their expertise to:
• Prevent environmental changes
• Forecast environmental changes
• Absorb environmental changes
Gorodenkoff/Shutterstock

Other Sources of Power

Reward power
• Control rewards valued by others, remove negative
sanctions
Coercive power
• Ability to apply punishment
Referent power
• Capacity to influence others through identification with and
respect for the power holder -- associated with charisma
Problem: Deference to power
• Following with minimal evaluation the guidance of people
who are charismatic or claim to have legitimate or expert
power

Power Contingency:
Nonsubstitutability
Power increases with
nonsubstitutability.
Increasing
nonsubstitutability:
• Control access to the
resource
• Differentiate the resource
Developing a personal
brand
• Nonsubstituability through
unique and valuable
abilities
MONOPOLY OF POWER
FEW or SUBSTITU

Other Contingencies of
Power
Centrality:
• Interdependence with power
holder
• How many and how quickly
others are affected by you
Visibility:
• Others aware you control
a valued resource
• Higher with social interaction,
symbols of power
Discretion:
• Freedom to exercise judgment
• Rules limit discretion

Consequences of Power
Effect of power on powerholder depends on type of
power.
Type A: Feeling empowered
• Perceived power over themselves and freedom from
others’ influence
• Higher motivation, satisfaction, performance
• Less mindful thinking, more stereotyping, less empathy,
less accurate perceptions of others
Type B: Power over others
• Characteristic of legitimate, reward, and coercive power
• Produces sense of duty/responsibility toward others
• More mindful, less stereotyping, more empathy of how
their actions affect others

Power Through Social

Networks
Social networks:
• Connecting through forms of
interdependence
• People join networks to fulfil drive to
bond, social norms, acquire resources
Social capital:
• Knowledge, opportunities, and other
resources shared in a social network
• Resource sharing aided by mutual
support,
trust, reciprocity, coordination
Networks offer three power resources:
• Information (expert power)
• Visibility
• Referent power

Social Network Ties

Strong ties:
• Close-knit relationships
• Offer resources more
quickly/plentifully,
but less unique
Weak ties:
• Acquaintances
• Offer unique resources, but more
slowly
Many ties:
• Resources increase with number
of ties
• Information technology helps, but
still a limit

Social Network Centrality

Person’s importance in a network.
Three centrality factors:
• Betweenness:
connected between others
• Degree centrality:
number of connections
• Closeness: stronger
connections

Influencing Others
INFLUENCE - Any behaviour that attempts to alter another
person’s attitudes or behaviour.
Applies one or more power bases, varied by power contingencies.

Essential activity in work coordination and leadership.

Many types of influence
• Hard (selling authority, assertive etc.) vs. soft tactics
Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock

Types of Influence 1

Silent authority
• Behaviour influenced by power holder’s request or mere presence
• Legitimate power (subtle) without explicitly saying so.
Assertiveness
• Vocal authority: Reminding, checking, bullying
• Based on legitimate and coercive power
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Types of Influence 2

Information control
• Manipulating others’ access to information to hange others’
attitudes/behaviour

Coalition formation
• Pooling members’ resources and power to influence others

Upward appeal
• Relying symbolically or in reality on higher authority support
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Types of Influence 3

Persuasion
• Using facts, logical arguments, emotional appeals
• Effects of persuader, message, channel, audience

Impression management
• Shaping perceptions/attitudes that others have of us
• Includes self-presentation, personal brand, ingratiation

Exchange
• Exchange of resources for desired behaviour
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Consequences of Influence
Contingencies of Influence
“Soft” tactics produce more commitment.
“Hard” tactics produce more compliance, resistance.

Appropriate influence tactic depends on:

1. Influencer’s strongest sources of power
2. Organizational position of influencer and person being influenced
3. Personal, organizational, cultural values

Organizational Politics
Using influence tactics for personal gain at perceived expense of
others and organization.
ORGANIZATIONAL POWER is the capacity to influence others in
organizational settings.

Has negative consequences, not beneficial.

Minimizing organizational politics:

1. Provide sufficient resources
2. Clarify resource allocation rules
3. Manage change effectively
4. Discourage political behavior (DARK TRIAD FINALS)
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