PHYSICS OF THE UNIVERSE

(PH1920)

Quantum Mechanics

Lecture 7: Atoms (Part 2)

Dr Richard Howl
[Link]@[Link]
PHYSICS OF THE UNIVERSE
(PH1920)

Quantum Mechanics

Lecture 7: Atoms (Part 2)

Dr Richard Howl
[Link]@[Link]
Principal idea behind Bohr’s model: quantized angular momentum:
Following Planck (and Nicholson), Bohr proposed that the electron’s angular momentum L in the
atom is quantized, similar to how Planck quantized the energy of black body oscillators.

Assuming circular orbits,

angular momentum can be written as:

𝐿 = 𝑟𝑚𝑣

Bohr’s quantization condition:

(like En = n h f for black body oscillators) 𝐿 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝Ԧ

n is called the principle

𝐿𝑛 = 𝑛 with 𝑛 = 1,2, … quantum number of the orbit
reduced Planck constant

𝑚 𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛 The radii (and velocity) of the orbits are discretized.

 Application to Rutherford model
Quantized radius
Consider the electrostatic force (Coulomb force) between the
electron and the nucleus:

+𝑍e 1 |𝑞1 𝑞2 | 1 𝑍𝑒 𝑒
|𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑒 | = =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛2
𝑟

𝐹Ԧ𝑒𝑙𝑒 −𝑒
𝑍 = number of protons in the nucleus (Z=1 for hydrogen)

𝜖0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F /m is the vacuum permittivity

Example: Hydrogen

+e
𝑟
𝑛2 𝜖0 ℎ 2
𝐹Ԧ𝑒𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑎0 , with 𝑎0 = 2
−𝑒 𝑍 𝑒 𝜋𝑚

For the hydrogen atom: Z=1

𝐿 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝Ԧ
𝑟1 = 𝑎0
𝑟2 = 4𝑎0
𝑟3 = 9𝑎0
…
𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛2 𝑎0
Quantized energies
+𝑍e
𝑣
𝑟
The total energy of electron is: 𝐸𝑛 = 𝐾𝑛 + 𝑈𝑛
𝐹Ԧ𝑒𝑙𝑒 −𝑒
Quantized energies
+𝑍e
𝑣
𝑟
The total energy of electron is: 𝐸𝑛 = 𝐾𝑛 + 𝑈𝑛
𝐹Ԧ𝑒𝑙𝑒 −𝑒
1
𝐾𝑛 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑛 2 (We are not using special relativity in the model)
2

𝑈𝑛 = 𝑞𝑉𝑛 = −𝑒𝑉𝑛 , where 𝑉𝑛 is the electrical potential due to a point charge (+𝑍𝑒) given by:
Quantized energies
+𝑍e
𝑣
𝑟
The total energy of electron is: 𝐸𝑛 = 𝐾𝑛 + 𝑈𝑛
𝐹Ԧ𝑒𝑙𝑒 −𝑒
1
𝐾𝑛 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑛 2 (We are not using special relativity in the model)
2

𝑈𝑛 = 𝑞𝑉𝑛 = −𝑒𝑉𝑛 , where 𝑉𝑛 is the electrical potential due to a point charge (+𝑍𝑒) given by:

2
1 𝑍𝑒 1 𝑍𝑒 2 1 1 𝑍𝑒
𝑉𝑛 = 𝑈𝑛 = − 𝐸𝑛 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑛 2 −
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛 2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛
1 𝑍𝑒 2
|𝐹𝑛 | =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛2
Quantized energies
+𝑍e
𝑣
𝑟
The total energy of electron is: 𝐸𝑛 = 𝐾𝑛 + 𝑈𝑛
𝐹Ԧ𝑒𝑙𝑒 −𝑒
1
𝐾𝑛 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑛 2 (We are not using special relativity in the model)
2

𝑈𝑛 = 𝑞𝑉𝑛 = −𝑒𝑉𝑛 , where 𝑉𝑛 is the electrical potential due to a point charge (+𝑍𝑒) given by:

2
1 𝑍𝑒 1 𝑍𝑒 2 1 1 𝑍𝑒
𝑉𝑛 = 𝑈𝑛 = − 𝐸𝑛 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑛 2 −
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛 2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛
1 𝑍𝑒 2
|𝐹𝑛 | =
Using our expressions for 𝑣𝑛 and 𝑟𝑛 : 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛2

𝑛ℎ 𝜖0 𝑛 2 ℎ 2 𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1
𝑣𝑛 = , 𝑟𝑛 = 2 𝐸𝑛 = − 2 2 , with 𝑛 = 1,2,3 …
2𝜋𝑚𝑟𝑛 𝑍𝑒 𝜋 𝑚 8𝜖0 ℎ 𝑛2
 Quantized energies

𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1
𝐸𝑛 = − 2 2 , with 𝑛 = 1,2,3 …
8𝜖0 ℎ 𝑛2 𝐿 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝Ԧ

𝜖0 𝑛 2 ℎ 2
𝑍2 𝑟𝑛 = 2
𝐸𝑛 = (−13.6 eV) 2 , with 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … 𝑍𝑒 𝜋 𝑚
𝑛

For hydrogen (Z=1), the lowest energy level is: 𝐸1 = −13.6 eV (n = 1) ground state

13.6
the upper energy levels are: 𝐸𝑛>1 = − 2 eV (n > 1) excited states
𝑛
 Quantized energies

Note that the atomic energies are all negative by convention:

• electron bound to an atom: 𝐸 < 0
• electron free: 𝐸 ≥ 0
 Quantized energies

Note that the atomic energies are all negative by convention:

• electron bound to an atom: 𝐸 < 0
• electron free: 𝐸 ≥ 0
(since 𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈 𝑈 >𝐾 if 𝐸 < 0 )

The electron is attracted to the nucleus, so 𝑈 < 0 always

(we are defining 𝑈 = 0 when ).
 Quantized energies

Note that the atomic energies are all negative by convention:

• electron bound to an atom: 𝐸 < 0
• electron free: 𝐸 ≥ 0
(since 𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈 𝑈 >𝐾 if 𝐸 < 0 )

The electron is attracted to the nucleus, so 𝑈 < 0 always.

 Quantized energies

Note that the atomic energies are all negative by convention:

• electron bound to an atom: 𝐸 < 0
• electron free: 𝐸 ≥ 0

An energy input is required to remove an electron from an atom.

The minimum energy required to remove an electron from an

atom initially in the ground state is called the binding energy or
ionization energy: 𝐸𝑏
(note that for the photoelectric effect, the binding energy is the energy
keeping an electron bound to the metal – it is a collective effect)
 Quantized energies

Note that the atomic energies are all negative by convention:

• electron bound to an atom: 𝐸 < 0
• electron free: 𝐸 ≥ 0

An energy input is required to remove an electron from an atom.

The minimum energy required to remove an electron from an

atom initially in the ground state is called the binding energy or
ionization energy: 𝐸𝑏
(note that for the photoelectric effect, the binding energy is the energy
keeping an electron bound to the metal – it is a collective effect)

For hydrogen, the binding energy is: 𝐸𝑏 = 13.6 eV , which corresponds to moving an electron
from 𝐸1 = − 13.6 eV to 𝐸𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 0 eV
 Quantized energies

Note that the atomic energies are all negative by convention:

• electron bound to an atom: 𝐸 < 0
• electron free: 𝐸 ≥ 0

An energy input is required to remove an electron from an atom.

The minimum energy required to remove an electron from an

atom initially in the ground state is called the binding energy or
ionization energy: 𝐸𝑏
(note that for the photoelectric effect, the binding energy is the energy
keeping an electron bound to the metal – it is a collective effect)

For hydrogen, the binding energy is: 𝐸𝑏 = 13.6 eV , which corresponds to moving an electron
from 𝐸1 = − 13.6 eV to 𝐸𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 0 eV
13.6 the excited states have greater energy
The upper energy levels are: 𝐸𝑛>1 = − eV (n > 1)
𝑛2 (less negative) than the ground state.
Quantized energies

Predicted energy levels of Hydrogen:

𝑒4𝑚 1
𝐸𝑛 = − 2 2 2 , with 𝑛 = 1,2,3 …
8𝜖0 ℎ 𝑛

1/n2 scaling looks familiar?

Hydrogen spectral lines explained!

Rydberg formula

1 1 1
= 𝑓/𝑐 = 𝑅𝑦 ′ 2 − 2 , where 𝑛 > 𝑛′
𝜆 𝑛 𝑛
Hydrogen spectral lines explained

Rydberg formula

1 1 1
= 𝑓/𝑐 = 𝑅𝑦 ′ 2 − 2 , where 𝑛 > 𝑛′
𝜆 𝑛 𝑛

Consider difference between energy levels:

𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1
𝐸𝑛 = , with 𝑛 = 1,2,3 …
8𝜖02 ℎ2 𝑛2

𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1 1
𝐸𝑛 − 𝐸𝑛′ = −
8𝜖02 ℎ2 𝑛′ 2 𝑛2
Hydrogen spectral lines explained

Rydberg formula

1 1 1
= 𝑓/𝑐 = 𝑅𝑦 ′ 2 − 2 , where 𝑛 > 𝑛′
𝜆 𝑛 𝑛

Consider difference between energy levels:

𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1
𝐸𝑛 = , with 𝑛 = 1,2,3 …
8𝜖02 ℎ2 𝑛2

𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1 1
𝐸𝑛 − 𝐸𝑛′ = −
8𝜖02 ℎ2 𝑛′ 2 𝑛2
Hydrogen spectral lines explained

Rydberg formula

1 1 1
= 𝑓/𝑐 = 𝑅𝑦 ′ 2 − 2 , where 𝑛 > 𝑛′
𝜆 𝑛 𝑛

Consider difference between energy levels:

𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1
𝐸𝑛 = , with 𝑛 = 1,2,3 …
8𝜖02 ℎ2 𝑛2

𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1 1
𝐸𝑛 − 𝐸𝑛′ = −
8𝜖02 ℎ2 𝑛′ 2 𝑛2
Hydrogen spectral lines explained

Rydberg formula

1 1 1
= 𝑓/𝑐 = 𝑅𝑦 ′ 2 − 2 , where 𝑛 > 𝑛′
𝜆 𝑛 𝑛

Consider difference between energy levels:

𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1
𝐸𝑛 = , with 𝑛 = 1,2,3 …
8𝜖02 ℎ2 𝑛2

𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1 1
𝐸𝑛 − 𝐸𝑛′ = −
8𝜖02 ℎ2 𝑛′ 2 𝑛2
Hydrogen spectral lines explained

Rydberg formula

1 1 1
= 𝑓/𝑐 = 𝑅𝑦 ′ 2 − 2 , where 𝑛 > 𝑛′
𝜆 𝑛 𝑛

Consider difference between energy levels:

𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1
𝐸𝑛 = , with 𝑛 = 1,2,3 …
8𝜖02 ℎ2 𝑛2

𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1 1
𝐸𝑛 − 𝐸𝑛′ = −
8𝜖02 ℎ2 𝑛′ 2 𝑛2
Hydrogen spectral lines explained

Rydberg formula

1 1 1
= 𝑓/𝑐 = 𝑅𝑦 ′ 2 − 2 , where 𝑛 > 𝑛′
𝜆 𝑛 𝑛

Consider difference between energy levels:

𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1
𝐸𝑛 = , with 𝑛 = 1,2,3 …
8𝜖02 ℎ2 𝑛2

2 4
etc.
𝑍 𝑒 𝑚 1 1
𝐸𝑛 − 𝐸𝑛′ = −
8𝜖02 ℎ2 𝑛′ 2 𝑛2
The Bohr model
• Electrons orbit the nucleus at only discrete distances from the nucleus.

• Since only discrete orbits are allowed, the electrons

cannot be continuously radiating and loosing energy as
classical electromagnetism predicts.

𝐿 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝Ԧ
The Bohr model
• Electrons orbit the nucleus at only discrete distances from the nucleus.

• Since only discrete orbits are allowed, the electrons

cannot be continuously radiating and loosing energy as
classical electromagnetism predicts.

𝐿 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝Ԧ
The Bohr model
• Electrons orbit the nucleus at only discrete distances from the nucleus.

• Since only discrete orbits are allowed, the electrons

cannot be continuously radiating and loosing energy as
classical electromagnetism predicts.

• In each allowed orbit, the electrons have a definite energy.

𝐿 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝Ԧ
The Bohr model
• Electrons orbit the nucleus at only discrete distances from the nucleus.

• Since only discrete orbits are allowed, the electrons

cannot be continuously radiating and loosing energy as
classical electromagnetism predicts.

• In each allowed orbit, the electrons have a definite energy.

• Assumption: electrons can jump from one orbit to another

by absorbing or emitting electromagnetic radiation
with a frequency determined by the energy difference of the
levels using: E = h f. (similar to Planck’s quantum hypothesis
for black body radiation) 𝐿 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝Ԧ

𝐸𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟
ℎ𝑓 ℎ𝑓 = 𝐸𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 − 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
(today we view this as a single photon being emitted/absorbed, but this is not how Bohr viewed it.)
The Bohr model
• Electrons orbit the nucleus at only discrete distances from the nucleus.

• Since only discrete orbits are allowed, the electrons

cannot be continuously radiating and loosing energy as
classical electromagnetism predicts.

• In each allowed orbit, the electrons have a definite energy.

• Assumption: electrons can jump from one orbit to another

by absorbing or emitting electromagnetic radiation
with a frequency determined by the energy difference of the
levels using: E = h f. (similar to Planck’s quantum hypothesis
for black body radiation) 𝐿 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝Ԧ

𝐸𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟
ℎ𝑓 ℎ𝑓 = 𝐸𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 − 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
(today we view this as a single photon being emitted/absorbed, but this is not how Bohr viewed it.)

• Electrons cannot combine with the nucleus (there is no n = 0 level). The lowest orbit is n = 1,
called the ground state.
The Bohr model

Classical (Rutherford) Quantum (Bohr)

model model
Hydrogen spectral lines explained

Rydberg formula

1 1 1
= 𝑓/𝑐 = 𝑅𝑦 ′ 2 − 2 , where 𝑛 = 𝑛′
𝜆 𝑛 𝑛

Consider difference between energy levels:

𝐿 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝Ԧ
𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1
𝐸𝑛 = , with 𝑛 = 1,2,3 …
8𝜖02 ℎ2 𝑛2

𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1 1
𝐸𝑛 − 𝐸𝑛′ = −
8𝜖02 ℎ2 𝑛′ 2 𝑛2

Identify energy difference with ∆E = h f = h c / (Planck again!)

Hydrogen spectral lines explained

Rydberg formula

1 1 1
= 𝑓/𝑐 = 𝑅𝑦 ′ 2 − 2 , where 𝑛 = 𝑛′
𝜆 𝑛 𝑛

Energy
Consider difference between energy difference between levels matches energy of photon
levels:
(energy conservation)
𝐿 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝Ԧ
𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1
𝐸𝑛 = , with 𝑛 = 1,2,3 …
8𝜖02 ℎ2 𝑛2

𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1 1
𝐸𝑛 − 𝐸𝑛′ = −
8𝜖02 ℎ2 𝑛′ 2 𝑛2

Identify energy difference with ∆E = h f = h c / (Planck again!)

Hydrogen spectral lines explained

Rydberg formula

1 1 1
= 𝑓/𝑐 = 𝑅𝑦 ′ 2 − 2 , where 𝑛 = 𝑛′
𝜆 𝑛 𝑛

Consider difference between energy levels:

𝐿 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝Ԧ
𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1
𝐸𝑛 = , with 𝑛 = 1,2,3 …
8𝜖02 ℎ2 𝑛2

𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1 1
𝐸𝑛 − 𝐸𝑛′ = −
8𝜖02 ℎ2 𝑛′ 2 𝑛2

Identify energy difference with ∆E = h f = h c /

Hydrogen spectral lines explained

Rydberg formula

1 1 1
= 𝑓/𝑐 = 𝑅𝑦 ′ 2 − 2 , where 𝑛 = 𝑛′
𝜆 𝑛 𝑛

Consider difference between energy levels:

𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1
𝐸𝑛 = , with 𝑛 = 1,2,3 …
8𝜖02 ℎ2 𝑛2

𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1 1
𝐸𝑛 − 𝐸𝑛′ = −
8𝜖02 ℎ2 𝑛′ 2 𝑛2

Identify energy difference with ∆E = h f = h c /

1 𝐸𝑛 − 𝐸𝑛′ 𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1 1
= = 2 3 −
𝜆 ℎ𝑐 8𝜖0 ℎ 𝑐 𝑛′ 2 𝑛2
Hydrogen spectral lines explained
In general, the Bohr model predicts:

1 𝐸𝑛 − 𝐸𝑛′ 𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1 1
= = 2 3 −
𝜆 ℎ𝑐 8𝜖0 ℎ 𝑐 𝑛′ 2 𝑛2

Using the Rydberg formula:

1 1 1
= 𝑅𝑦 ′ 2 − 2
𝜆 𝑛 𝑛

we can identify the Rydberg constant:

𝑒4𝑚
𝑅𝑦 = 2 3 ≃ 1.0907 × 107 m−1
8𝜖0 ℎ 𝑐
Hydrogen spectral lines explained
In general, the Bohr model predicts:

1 𝐸𝑛 − 𝐸𝑛′ 𝑍2𝑒4𝑚 1 1
= = 2 3 −
𝜆 ℎ𝑐 8𝜖0 ℎ 𝑐 𝑛′ 2 𝑛2

Using the Rydberg formula:

1 1 1
= 𝑅𝑦 ′ 2 − 2
𝜆 𝑛 𝑛

we can identify the Rydberg constant:

𝑒4𝑚
𝑅𝑦 = 2 3 ≃ 1.0907 × 107 m−1
8𝜖0 ℎ 𝑐

Experimental value: 𝑅𝑦 = 1.0974 × 107 m−1

Remarkable agreement!
 Emission Absorption

𝐿 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝Ԧ 𝐿 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝Ԧ
 Emission Absorption

𝐿 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝Ԧ 𝐿 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝Ԧ
 1 1 1
Hydrogen spectral lines explained = 𝑅𝑦 ′ 2 − 2
𝜆 𝑛 𝑛

E.g. Balmer series 𝑛′ = 2

 1 1 1
Hydrogen spectral lines explained = 𝑅𝑦 ′ 2 − 2
𝜆 𝑛 𝑛

E.g. Balmer series 𝑛′ = 2

E.g. consider n = 3 to n = 2:

Bohr model predicts:

ℎ𝑓3→2 = 𝐸3 − 𝐸2 = −1.5 eV − −3.4 eV = 1.9 eV

𝑐 6.626 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

𝜆3→2 = = = 654 nm
𝑓3→2 1.9 × 1.6 × 10−19

Similar calculations for all the other lines

Bohr model

Planck had previously quantized energy (of black body oscillators):

But to explain atoms, Bohr had to quantize angular momentum (of electrons):

Why? What tells us what must be quantized and how?

Is there a general “quantum law”?

de Broglie’s hypothesis

Wave-particle duality says that an electron can behave as a wave with wavelength: 𝜆 = ℎ/𝑝
de Broglie’s hypothesis

Wave-particle duality says that an electron can behave as a wave with wavelength: 𝜆 = ℎ/𝑝

de Broglie argued (1924) that when orbiting a nucleus, an electron’s wave forms a circular
standing wave that closes in on itself.
de Broglie’s hypothesis

Wave-particle duality says that an electron can behave as a wave with wavelength: 𝜆 = ℎ/𝑝

de Broglie argued (1924) that when orbiting a nucleus, an electron’s wave forms a circular
standing wave that closes in on itself.

As with normal standing waves, the total length of the

wave, here the circumference of the orbit, is equal to a
whole number of wavelengths:

2𝜋𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛 𝜆 , with 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …

de Broglie’s hypothesis

Wave-particle duality says that an electron can behave as a wave with wavelength: 𝜆 = ℎ/𝑝

de Broglie argued (1924) that when orbiting a nucleus, an electron’s wave forms a circular
standing wave that closes in on itself.

As with normal standing waves, the total length of the

wave, here the circumference of the orbit, is equal to a
whole number of wavelengths:

2𝜋𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛 𝜆 , with 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …

𝑛ℎ
2𝜋𝑟𝑛 =
𝑝
de Broglie’s hypothesis

Wave-particle duality says that an electron can behave as a wave with wavelength: 𝜆 = ℎ/𝑝

de Broglie argued (1924) that when orbiting a nucleus, an electron’s wave forms a circular
standing wave that closes in on itself.

As with normal standing waves, the total length of the

wave, here the circumference of the orbit, is equal to a
whole number of wavelengths:

2𝜋𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛 𝜆 , with 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …

𝑛ℎ 𝑛ℎ
2𝜋𝑟𝑛 = 𝑚𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 = Exactly Bohr’s assumption!
𝑝 2𝜋

Suggests a more fundamental reason behind the “quantum laws” of discretization/quantization

Bohr’s model

Although it works well for Hydrogen, Bohr’s model does not work so well for other gases, also
suggesting a more fundamental model – see “modern” quantum mechanics and the valence
shell model.

Also, while the Bohr model suggests that atoms are stable, this is not generally true –
radioactivity ……
Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the result of the decay (or disintegration) of an unstable nucleus.

Some isotopes are naturally unstable and lead to natural radioactivity. Radioactive isotopes
are often referred to as radioisotopes or radionuclides.
Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the result of the decay (or disintegration) of an unstable nucleus.

Some isotopes are naturally unstable and lead to natural radioactivity. Radioactive isotopes
are often referred to as radioisotopes or radionuclides.

Unstable nuclei decay with the emission of a certain type of radiation

(not necessarily EM radiation! –> “radiation” = emission or transmission of energy in the
form of waves or particles through space)
Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the result of the decay (or disintegration) of an unstable nucleus.

Some isotopes are naturally unstable and lead to natural radioactivity. Radioactive isotopes
are often referred to as radioisotopes or radionuclides.

Unstable nuclei decay with the emission of a certain type of radiation

(not necessarily EM radiation! –> “radiation” = emission or transmission of energy in the
form of waves or particles through space)

Three types of radiation, associated with three types of decay:

• 𝛼-particle (He2+) is emitted in 𝛼-decay

• 𝛽-particle (e- or e+) is emitted in 𝛽-decay

• 𝛾-particle (photon) is emitted (𝜆 < 10 pm, 𝐸 > 100 keV)

Radioactivity

Alpha radiation: 𝛼

𝛼-decay occurs when the nuclear force is unable to hold a large nucleus
all together.

Reminder: a nucleus is made up of a number of neutrons and/or protons

(jointly called nucleons)

For an element 𝐴𝑍𝑁 , Z = number of protons, and A – Z = number of neutrons, where Z =

“atomic number” and A = “atomic mass number” , “nucleon number”, or “mass number”.

12
e.g. 6𝐶 has 6 protons and 6 neutrons.

The nucleons are held together by the nuclear force (a residual effect of the more fundamental
strong force that binds together the quarks of the nucleons)
Radioactivity

Alpha radiation: 𝛼

𝛼-decay occurs when the nuclear force is unable to hold a large nucleus
all together.

The nuclear force is a short-range force acting on mostly nearest neighbours

in the nucleus.

The electric force is a long-range force acting across the nucleus on protons (positively charged).
Radioactivity

Alpha radiation: 𝛼

𝛼-decay occurs when the nuclear force is unable to hold a large nucleus
all together.

The nuclear force is a short-range force acting on mostly nearest neighbours

in the nucleus.

The electric force is a long-range force acting across the nucleus on protons (positively charged).

For large nuclei with large atomic number (Z), the repulsive long-range electric force between
protons becomes large enough that the short-range nuclear force is unable to hold the nucleus
together. The nucleus is unstable.

This leads the nucleus to decay to a smaller nucleus (daughter nucleus) that is more stable,
releasing an 𝛼-particle (He2+) in the process.
Radioactivity

Alpha radiation: 𝛼
Radioactivity

Alpha radiation: 𝛼

In general, a 𝛼-decay is written:

2- 2+ A: atomic mass number (number of nucleons)
𝐴
𝑍𝑁
𝐴−4 ′
𝑍−2𝑁 + 4
2𝐻𝑒
nucleons = protons and neutrons.

parent daughter 𝛼- Z: atomic number (number of protons)

nucleus nucleus particle

226
E.g. Radium 226 88𝑅𝑎 is an 𝛼-emitter.
The decay is written:
226
88𝑅𝑎
222
86𝑅𝑛 + 4
2𝐻𝑒

Radium Radon 𝛼-
particle
Radioactivity

Alpha radiation: 𝛼

From conservation of energy:

mass of
daughter disintegration
nucleus energy

𝑀𝑃 𝑐 2 = 𝑀𝐷 𝑐 2 + 𝑀𝛼 𝑐 2 + 𝑄 or 𝑄 = 𝑀𝑃 𝑐 2 − 𝑀𝐷 𝑐 2 − 𝑀𝛼 𝑐 2

mass of mass of 𝑄 represents the sum of the kinetic energies

parent 𝛼-particle of the daughter nucleus and the alpha particle
nucleus
If 𝑄 < 0, the decay is not kinematically possible
Radioactivity

Beta radiation: 𝜷
𝛽-decay occurs via the weak nuclear force
Radioactivity

Beta radiation: 𝜷
𝛽-decay occurs via the weak nuclear force

Two types:
• 𝛽− decay:

• 𝛽+ decay:
Radioactivity

Beta radiation: 𝜷
𝛽-decay occurs via the weak nuclear force

Two types:
• 𝛽− decay: a neutron turns into a proton, emitting an electron (𝑒 − ) + an (electron) anti-neutrino (𝜈ഥ𝑒 ) :

𝑛 𝑝 + 𝑒− + 𝜈ഥ𝑒

𝐴 𝐴 ′+ + 𝑒−
𝑍𝑁 𝑍+1𝑁 + 𝜈ഥ𝑒
(electron)

• 𝛽+ decay:
Radioactivity

Beta radiation: 𝜷
𝛽-decay occurs via the weak nuclear force

Two types:
• 𝛽− decay: a neutron turns into a proton, emitting an electron (𝑒 − ) + an (electron) anti-neutrino (𝜈ഥ𝑒 ) :

𝑛 𝑝 + 𝑒− + 𝜈ഥ𝑒

𝐴 𝐴 ′+ + 𝑒−
𝑍𝑁 𝑍+1𝑁 + 𝜈ഥ𝑒
(electron)

• 𝛽+ decay: a proton turns into a neutron, emitting a positron (𝑒 + ) + an (electron) neutrino (𝜈𝑒 )

𝑝 𝑛 + 𝑒+ + 𝜈𝑒

𝐴 𝐴 ′- + 𝑒+
𝑍𝑁 𝑍−1𝑁 + 𝜈𝑒
Radioactivity
Beta radiation: 𝜷
Mass of neutron > mass of proton, making the decay
energetically favourable

𝛽− decay: nuclei with unnecessarily high number of neutrons compared to protons can decay
via 𝛽− decay
Radioactivity
Beta radiation: 𝜷
Mass of neutron > mass of proton, making the decay
energetically favourable

𝛽− decay: nuclei with unnecessarily high number of neutrons compared to protons can decay
via 𝛽− decay

Example of 𝜷− decay:
small mass
14 14 + + 𝑒− + 𝜈ഥ𝑒
6𝐶 7𝑁

(Carbon) (anti-neutrino)

The emitted electron is sometimes called a beta particle – a type of ionizing radiation.

Note that it is not from the electron cloud of Carbon – it comes from within the nucleus itself
due to the weak nuclear force. It does not combine with the Nitrogen ion.
Radioactivity
14 14 + + 𝑒 − + 𝜈ഥ𝑒
6𝐶 7𝑁
Beta radiation: 𝜷−

How much energy is released in the 𝛽− decay of 146𝐶 ?

Radioactivity
14 14 + + 𝑒 − + 𝜈ഥ𝑒
6𝐶 7𝑁
Beta radiation: 𝜷−

How much energy is released in the 𝛽− decay of 146𝐶 ?

From conservation of energy: disintegration

energy
𝑀𝐶 𝑐 2 = 𝑀𝑁 𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝜈 𝑐 2 + 𝑄
Radioactivity
14 14 + + 𝑒 − + 𝜈ഥ𝑒
Beta radiation: 𝜷− 6𝐶 7𝑁

How much energy is released in the 𝛽− decay of 146𝐶 ?

We need to know the mass of the parent and daughter isotopes:

𝑀𝐶 = 14.003242 𝑢 (mass of 146𝐶) (Note - see later)

𝑀𝑁 = 14.003074 𝑢 (mass of 147𝑁) (Note despite having same number of nucleons, masses not the same)

where 𝑢 = 931 Mev/c 2 represents the atomic mass unit (= 1/12 mass of Carbon-12)
Radioactivity
14 14 + + 𝑒 − + 𝜈ഥ𝑒
Beta radiation: 𝜷− 6𝐶 7𝑁

How much energy is released in the 𝛽− decay of 146𝐶 ?

We need to know the mass of the parent and daughter isotopes:

𝑀𝐶 = 14.003242 𝑢 (mass of 146𝐶) (Note - see later)

𝑀𝑁 = 14.003074 𝑢 (mass of 147𝑁) (Note despite having same number of nucleons, masses not the same)

where 𝑢 = 931 Mev/c 2 represents the atomic mass unit (= 1/12 mass of Carbon-12)

Note: These masses are for the neutral atoms and include the requisite number of electrons.
𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐶𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑒 + 6𝑚𝑒 and 𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑒 +7𝑚𝑒 (ignoring potential energy of electric force)
Radioactivity
14 14 + + 𝑒 − + 𝜈ഥ𝑒
Beta radiation: 𝜷− 6𝐶 7𝑁

How much energy is released in the 𝛽− decay of 146𝐶 ?

We need to know the mass of the parent and daughter isotopes:

𝑀𝐶 = 14.003242 𝑢 (mass of 146𝐶) (Note - see later)

𝑀𝑁 = 14.003074 𝑢 (mass of 147𝑁) (Note despite having same number of nucleons, masses not the same)

where 𝑢 = 931 Mev/c 2 represents the atomic mass unit (= 1/12 mass of Carbon-12)

Note: These masses are for the neutral atoms and include the requisite number of electrons.
𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐶𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑒 + 6𝑚𝑒 and 𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑒 +7𝑚𝑒 (ignoring potential energy of electric force)

Energy balance:
(𝑀𝐶𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐 2 + 6𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 ) = (𝑀𝑁𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐 2 + 6𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 ) + 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 + 𝑄 (ignoring the small anti-neutrino contribution)

𝑀𝐶 𝑐 2 = 𝑀𝑁 𝑐 2 + 𝑄
Radioactivity
14 14 + + 𝑒 − + 𝜈ഥ𝑒
Beta radiation: 𝜷− 6𝐶 7𝑁

How much energy is released in the 𝛽− decay of 146𝐶 ?

We need to know the mass of the parent and daughter isotopes:

𝑀𝐶 = 14.003242 𝑢 (mass of 146𝐶) (Note - see later)

𝑀𝑁 = 14.003074 𝑢 (mass of 147𝑁) (Note despite having same number of nucleons, masses not the same)

where 𝑢 = 931 Mev/c 2 represents the atomic mass unit (= 1/12 mass of Carbon-12)

Note: These masses are for the neutral atoms and include the requisite number of electrons.
𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐶𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑒 + 6𝑚𝑒 and 𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑒 +7𝑚𝑒 (ignoring potential energy of electric force)

Energy balance:
(𝑀𝐶𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐 2 + 6𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 ) = (𝑀𝑁𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐 2 + 6𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 ) + 𝑄 (ignoring the small anti-neutrino contribution)

𝑀𝐶 𝑐 2 = 𝑀𝑁 𝑐 2 + 𝑄
Radioactivity

Beta radiation: 𝜷

14 14 + + 𝑒 − + 𝜈ഥ𝑒
6𝐶 7𝑁

𝑀𝐶 𝑐 2 = 𝑀𝑁 𝑐 2 + 𝑄

𝑄 = 𝑀𝐶 𝑐 2 − 𝑀𝑁 𝑐 2 = 0.000168 𝑢 𝑐 2 = 156 keV

The disintegration energy Q is then approximately just the difference in the mass of the
daughter and parent (neutral) atoms.

The disintegration energy is shared between the electron and anti-neutrino kinetic energies.
A tiny portion of the total energy is going in the recoiling of the Nitrogen atom.
Radioactivity
Note:
Radioactivity
Note:

By “mass” here, we mean the energy in the rest frame of the object/c2.
Radioactivity
Note:

By “mass” here, we mean the energy in the rest frame of the object/c2.

Since there is the nuclear force present in the nucleus, this energy
involves the potential energy of the nuclear force (which is negative)
as well as the energy from the invariant (rest) masses of the nucleons
(and any kinetic energy they might have).

Because the potential energy is negative, the object’s “mass” is always less than the
combined invariant masses of the nucleons.
Radioactivity
Note:

By “mass”, here we mean the energy in the rest frame of the object/c2.

Since there is the nuclear force present in the nucleus, this energy
involves the potential energy of the nuclear force (which is negative)
as well as the energy from the invariant (rest) masses of the nucleons
(and any kinetic energy they might have).

Because the potential energy is negative, the object’s “mass” is always less than the
combined invariant masses of the nucleons.

So, if the parent atom has greater mass than the daughter, the magnitude of the potential
energy (binding energy) of the daughter must be greater than that of the parent (the nuclear
force more strongly binds the nucleons together in the daughter – it is more stable).

We could thus equivalently think of the energy released as the difference in the potential
energies (nuclear binding energies) of the nucelli (note that this energy is of the order of the
energy of the mass of the nucleons – illustrating how powerful the strong force is!).
Radioactivity
Beta radiation: 𝜷+
𝛽+ decay: Nuclei with too many protons compared to neutrons (opposite to 𝛽− decay) can decay
via 𝛽+ decay.

𝑝 𝑛 + 𝑒+ + 𝜈𝑒 positron neutrino

𝐴
𝑍𝑁
𝐴 ′
𝑍−1𝑁 + 𝑒+ + 𝜈𝑒

Since mass of neutron > mass of proton, energy from the surrounding nucleons (the binding
energy) is used to make the process possible:
𝑝 + input energy 𝑛 + 𝑒 + + 𝜈𝑒
Radioactivity
Beta radiation: 𝜷+
𝛽+ decay: Nuclei with too many protons compared to neutrons (opposite to 𝛽− decay) can decay
via 𝛽+ decay.

𝑝 𝑛 + 𝑒+ + 𝜈𝑒 positron neutrino

𝐴
𝑍𝑁
𝐴 ′
𝑍−1𝑁 + 𝑒+ + 𝜈𝑒

Example of 𝜷+ decay:
small mass
19 19 − + 𝑒+ + 𝜈𝑒
10𝑁𝑒 9𝐹

(Neon) (Fluorine) (positron) (neutrino)

Since mass of neutron > mass of proton, energy from the surrounding nucleons (the binding
energy) is used to make the process possible:
𝑝 + input energy 𝑛 + 𝑒 + + 𝜈𝑒
Radioactivity

Beta decay: 𝜷

Electron capture
Electron capture involves one of the orbital electron being captured by the nucleus (!), often it is
the electron on the innermost atomic shell (the ground state) that is captured.

Example:
7 7
4𝐵𝑒 + 𝑒− 3𝐿𝑖 + 𝜈𝑒

(Beryllium) (Lithium)

𝐴
𝑍𝑁 + 𝑒− 𝐴 ′
𝑍−1𝑁 + 𝜈𝑒

𝑝 + 𝑒− 𝑛 + 𝜈𝑒
Radioactivity

Gamma decay: 𝛾

Like an electron in an atom, a nucleus can have different energy levels.

When an excited nucleus transitions to a lower energy state it emits a

photon.
Radioactivity

Gamma decay: 𝛾

Like an electron in an atom, a nucleus can have different energy levels.

When an excited nucleus transitions to a lower energy state it emits a

photon.
Because energy levels in a nucleus are much farther apart than those
in an atom, the emitted photon will have a larger energy, usually in the
keV or MeV -> gamma ray (1010 Hz)
Radioactivity

Gamma decay: 𝛾

Like an electron in an atom, a nucleus can have different energy levels.

When an excited nucleus transitions to a lower energy state it emits a

photon.
Because energy levels in a nucleus are much farther apart than those
in an atom, the emitted photon will have a larger energy, usually in the
keV or MeV -> gamma ray (1010 Hz)

A nucleus can get in an excited state by for example:

• a result of a collision with another particle.
• after another radioactive decay, often the case after a 𝛽− decay.
Radioactivity

Gamma decay: 𝛾

Like an electron in an atom, a nucleus can have different energy levels.

When an excited nucleus transitions to a lower energy state it emits a

photon.
Because energy levels in a nucleus are much farther apart than those
in an atom, the emitted photon will have a larger energy, usually in the
keV or MeV -> gamma ray (1010 Hz)

A nucleus can get in an excited state by for example:

• a result of a collision with another particle.
• after another radioactive decay, often the case after a 𝛽− decay.

In general, we have:
𝐴 ∗
𝑍𝑁
𝐴
𝑍𝑁 + 𝛾 Gamma decay

(excited state)
Radioactivity

Example:
Beta-decay and then gamma-decay:
Radioactivity

Summary:

𝐴
𝑍𝑁
𝐴−4 ′
𝑍−2𝑁 + 4
2𝐻𝑒
𝛼 decay

𝐴
𝑍𝑁
𝐴 ′
𝑍+1𝑁 + 𝑒− + 𝜈ഥ𝑒
𝐴
𝑍𝑁
𝐴 ′
𝑍−1𝑁 + 𝑒+ + 𝜈𝑒
𝑛 𝑝 + 𝑒− + 𝜈ഥ𝑒 𝑝 𝑛 + 𝑒+ + 𝜈𝑒

𝛽 − decay 𝛽+ decay

𝐴
𝑍𝑁 + 𝑒− 𝐴 ′
𝑍−1𝑁 + 𝜈𝑒 𝐴 ∗
𝑍𝑁
𝐴
𝑍𝑁 + 𝛾

Electron capture Gamma decay

Radioactivity
Stability of nuclei