UNIT 2
Morality:
Variety of moral issues, Types of Inquiry,
Moral Dilemma & Moral Autonomy,
Theories of Moral Development
MORAL ISSUES
o MICRO approach emphasizes typical everyday problems
that take on significant proportions in an employees’
personal and professional life.
o MACRO approach addresses societal problems that are
often shunted aside and are not addressed until they
unexpectedly resurface on a regional or national scale.
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VARIETY OF MORAL ISSUES
Organization Customer/Client
oriented issues oriented issues
Competitor Family oriented
oriented issues issues
Legal/ Govt.
Social/Environment
oriented issues
oriented issues
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WHY DO MORAL ISSUES ARISE?
o RESOURCE CRUNCH
• Due to pressure created through time limits, availability of
money or budgetary constraints, and technology decay or
obsolescence.
o OPPORTUNITY
• Double standards or behavior of the employers towards the
employees and the public.
• Emphasis on results and gains at the expense of the
employees.
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WHY DO MORAL ISSUES ARISE?
o ATTITUDE
• Low morale of the employees because of dissatisfaction and
downsizing
• Absence of grievance redressal mechanism
• Lack of promotion or career development policies or denied
promotions,
• Lack of transparency
• Poor working environments.
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TYPES OF INQUIRIES
There are three types of inquiries available which we use to
resolve moral issues:
Normative Conceptual
Inquiry Inquiry
Factual
Inquiry
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NORMATIVE INQUIRY
It seeks to identify and justify the morally-desirable norms or
standards that should guide individuals and groups. It also has the
theoretical goal of justifying particular moral judgments.
Questions to be probed:
• How far does the obligation of employees to their employer,
their clients and general public extend in any given situation?
• Whose values are primary in taking a moral decision: their own,
the public, the government or their organization?
• When, if ever, should employees be expected to blow whistle
on dangerous practices of their employers?
• When is the government justified in interfering with the
organisations on such issues and why?
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CONCEPTUAL INQUIRY
It is directed to clarify the concepts, principles and issues in
applying morals and ethics.
Questions to be probed:
• What is bribe?
• When do a gift becomes bribe?
• What is a profession and who are professionals?
• What is safety?
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FACTUAL INQUIRY
Also known as ‘descriptive or explorative’ inquiry, it is aimed to
obtain facts needed for understanding and resolving moral issues.
Researchers conduct factual inquiries using mathematical or
statistical techniques. The inquiry provide important information on
business realities, the procedures used, and the psychological
profiles of managers.
Questions to be probed:
• What are the laws enforced in intellectual property rights
recently?
• What is the validity period of a patented product?
• What tests are to be conducted to keep a check on quality of
products?
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MORAL DILEMMA
o Moral dilemmas are situations in which two or more moral
obligations, duties, rights, goods, or ideals come into
conflict with each other.
o The crucial feature of a moral dilemma is that all the moral
principles cannot be fully respected in a given situation.
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MORAL DILEMMA
Three complexities leading to moral dilemma are:
o The problem of vagueness: This complexity arises due to the
fact that it is not clear to individuals as to which moral
considerations or principles apply to their situation. In
simple words, One is unable to distinguish between good
and bad (right or wrong) principle.
o The problem of conflicting reasons: Even when it is perfectly
clear as to which moral principle is applicable to one’s
situation, there could develop a situation where in two or
more clearly applicable good moral principles come into
conflict.
o The problem of disagreement: Individuals and groups may
disagree how to interpret, apply and balance moral reasons
in particular situations.
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STEPS IN CONFRONTING MORAL DILEMMA
1. Identification of all pertinent moral factors and reasons. It involves
addressing solutions for conflicting responsibilities, opposing rights,
incompatible ideals involved.
2. Collection of all information, data, and facts (factual inquiry) relevant to
the situation.
3. Rank the moral options i.e., priority in application through value system,
and also as obligatory, all right, acceptable, not acceptable, damaging,
and most damaging etc.
4. Generate alternate courses of action to resolve the dilemma. Write down
the main options and sub-options as a matrix or decision tree to ensure
that all options are included.
5. Discuss with colleagues and obtain their perspectives, priorities, and
suggestions on various alternatives.
6. Decide upon a final course of action, based on priority fixed or assumed.
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MORAL AUTONOMY
o Moral autonomy is defined as a skill and habit of
thinking rationally about the ethical issues, on the basis
of moral concern.
o Moral autonomy uses reason to solve a problem.
o Moral Autonomy is the philosophy which is self-
governing or self-determining.
o Moral Autonomy is concerned with independent attitude
of a person related to moral/ethical issues.
o Autonomous people hold moral beliefs and attitudes
based on their critical reflection rather than on passive
adoption of the conventions of the society or profession.
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Skills to Improve/ Develop Moral
Autonomy
• Ability to relate the problems with the problems of law, economics and
religious principles − It is essential to have the ability to analyze a problem and
finding the relation with the existing law or the topic of issue with the existing
principles on that topic.
• Skill to process, clarify and understand the arguments against the moral
issues − If the issue is against some moral values or the ethical values to be
followed in the society, then clarity should be maintained about the differences
and similarities. Both of these differences and similarities are to be judged based
on why they are a matter of concern and in what aspect.
• Ability to suggest the solutions to moral issues on the basis of facts − If the
moral issues are not fulfilling the needs, then the solutions are to be suggested
according to the moral issues based on the facts and truths of the issue. These
suggestions must be consistent and must include all the aspects of the problem.
No partiality is to be allowed in any such aspect.
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• Must have the imaginative skill to view the problems from all the
viewpoints − After having known about the facts and illusions of the issue, a
clear understanding is attained in viewing the problem in all kinds of
viewpoints. This enables one to be able to suggest a proper alternative solution.
• Tolerance while giving moral judgment, which may cause trouble − When
the whole analysis is made considering all the viewpoints of the issue, the final
output might be or might not be pleasing to the persons involved. Hence while
declaring the judgment or the decisions taken, a detailed description of the
actions done should be given, while the actions ought to be done should be
presented in a better way, to ensure others that the decisions have been taken
without any partialities towards any party.
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THEORIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
These theories are based on the sorts of reasoning and
motivation adopted by individuals with regard to moral
questions.
o Lawrence Kohlberg Theory
o Carol Gilligan Theory
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KOHLBERG’S THEORY
o According to Kohlberg, people develop the cognitive
ability to engage in moral reasoning through a series of
stages from infancy to adulthood.
o Pre-Conventional Moral Development
➢Stage 1
➢Stage 2
o Conventional Moral Development
➢Stage 3
➢Stage 4
o Post-Conventional Moral Development
➢Stage 5
➢Stage 6
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Level 1: PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY 0-9
YEARS
Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment Orientation
Especially common in young children, but adults are capable of
expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, children see rules as fixed
and absolute.
o Obeys rules in order to avoid punishment
o Determines a sense of right and wrong by what is punished and what is
not punished
o Obeys superior authority and allows that authority to make the rules,
especially if that authority has the power to inflict pain
Stage 2 – Self Interest Orientation
At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points
of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs.
Reciprocity is possible, but only if it serves one's own interests.
o Is motivated by vengeance or “an eye for an eye” philosophy
o Believes in equal sharing in that everyone gets the same, regardless of
need
o Expects to be rewarded for every non-selfish deed he/she does 5-18
LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL MORALITY 10-20 YEARS
Stage 3 - "Good Boy-Good Girl" Orientation
This stage is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is
an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices
influence relationships.
o Finds peer approval very important
o Feels that intentions are as important as deeds and expects others to
accept intentions or promises in place of deeds
Stage 4 – Authority and Social Order Orientation
At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a
whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order
by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.
o Respects authority and obeys it without question
o Supports the rights of the majority without concern for those in the
minority
o Is part of about 80% of the population that does not progress past stage 4.
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LEVEL 3: POST CONVENTIONAL MORALITY – 20+
Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights Orientation
At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions,
and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a
society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards.
o Is motivated by the belief in the greatest amount of good for the greatest
number of people
o Believes in consensus (everyone agrees), rather than in majority rule
o Respects the rights of the minority especially the rights of the individual
Stage 6 – Universal Ethical Principles Orientation
Kolhberg’s final level is based upon universal ethical principles and
abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized
principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.
o Believes that there are high moral principles than those represented by
social rules and customs
o Is willing to accept the consequences for disobedience of the social rule
he/she has rejected
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CAROL GILLIGAN THEORY
o Carol Gilligan, a former student and colleague of
Kohlberg, criticized Kohlberg’s theory as male biased.
o She charged that Kohlberg’s studies were concluded with
male samples only and also his approach is dominated by
a typical preoccupation with general rules and rights.
o According to Gilligan, males have tendency to over-ride
the importance of moral rules and convictions while
resolving moral dilemmas; whereas females have
tendency to try hard to preserve personal relationships
with all people involved in a situation.
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CAROL GILLIGAN THEORY
o Gilligan felt that men mostly focus their attention on content
of the problem, whereas women focus their attention on
context, i.e., situation of the problem.
o Gilligan refers her context oriented emphasis on
maintaining personal relationships as the ethics of care, and
contrasts it with Kohlberg’s ethics of rules and rights.
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GILLIGAN’S LEVELS OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
o Gilligan reconstructed the Kohlberg’s three levels of moral
development, as given below:
o Pre-conventional level: Almost same as Kohlberg’s first level. That
is, in this level an individual is concerned with self-centered
reasoning.
o Conventional level: Differs from Kohlberg’s second level.
According to Gilligan, women will not hurt others and have
willingness to sacrifice their own interests in order to help others.
This is the characteristic feature of women.
o Post conventional level: Differs from Kohlberg’s third level. in this
level, an individual is able to maintain balance between his own
needs with the needs of others. The balancing can be achieved
through context-oriented reasoning i.e., examining all facts, people
and circumstances involved, rather than by applying abstract rules
ranked in a hierarchy of importance.
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DIFFERENCES
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A man that has lost moral sense is like a man in battle with
both of his legs shot off, he has nothing to stand on.
HENRY WARD BEECHER
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