CHAPTER 5
DYNAMICS OF FLUID
FLOW
5.0. Introduction:
➢ The dynamics of fluid motion deals with kinetics,
which relates the kinematics with the forces
responsible for causing the motion.
❖ This relation ship of fluid motion is established by
the use of laws of nature.
I. The principle of conservation of mass (the
continuity relation ship)
II. Newton’s laws of motion
III. The 1st and 2nd laws of thermodynamics
5.1. Equations of motion
❑ The dynamic behavior of fluid motion is governed by a set
of equations, known as equations of motion. These
equations are obtained by using the Newton’s second law,
which is written as
Fx = [Link]
❑ Where, Fx is the net force acting in the x-direction upon a
fluid element of mass m producing an acceleration ax in
the x-direction.
❑ The forces which may be present in fluid flow problems are
Gravity forces Fg, pressure force Fp, force due to viscosity
Fv, force due to turbulence Ft, Surface tension Fs, and
force due to compressibility of fluid Fc.
Cont…
I. Gravity forces (Fg.) is due to the weight of the fluid. Its
component in flow direction results in acceleration.
II. Pressure force (Fp): It is equal to the product of
pressure intensity and cross sectional area of the flowing
fluid Acts normal to the surface under consideration and
produces acceleration in the given direction.
III. Viscous forces (Fv): - Exists in real fluids. It is the
shearing resistance generated when there is relative
motion between two layers of fluids. It acts opposite to
the direction of motion, and retards flow.
IV. Surface tension (Fs): This force is important when the
depth of flow is extremely small.
Cont…
V. Force due to compressibility (Fc): for incompressible
fluids, this becomes significant in problems of unsteady
flow like water hammer.
V. Force due to turbulence (Ft): the continuous
momentum transfer between layers in highly turbulent
flow results in normal and shear stresses known as
Reynolds's stress.
▪ In most of flow problems, Fs and Fc are neglected.
[Link] = (Fg)x+(Fp)x+(Fv)x+(Ft)x
is the general form of fluid flow equation
Euler’s Equation of Motion
❖ Forces on a cylindrical element along a streamline are Pressure
and gravity forces.
❖ The velocity varies along the streamline and there is acceleration.
❖ It is necessary to take into account force due to acceleration
when considering the longitudinal balance of force
❖ The forces tending to accelerate the fluid mass are pressure force
on the two ends of the element.
➢ Summation of force in the arbitrary’ direction.
Euler’s Equation if Motion
5.2. Bernoulli’s Equation
❑ Bernoulli’s assumptions:
✓ The flow is Steady
✓ Incompressible type of flow,
✓ Frictionless and non viscous
flow,
✓ No shaft work - no pump or
turbines on the streamline,
✓ No transfer of heat either
added or removed
Bernoulli’s Equation
Energy Form
Head Form
𝜌
P + 2 𝑉 2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ Pressure Form
Energy and Head
A liquid in motion possess three forms of energy
1. Potential energy /elevation /positional energy/ because of
its elevation above datum level. If a weight w of liquid is at
a height of z above datum
✓ Potential energy = Wz
✓ Potential energy per unit weight = z (meters) = Potential
head
2. Pressure energy: When a fluid flows in a continuous
stream under pressure it can do work.
✓ If the area of cross – section of the stream of fluid is A,
then force due to pressure p on cross- section is PA.
✓ Pressure energy per unit weight = = pressure head
Cont…
3. Kinetic energy
✓ If a mass of fluid (m) moves at some velocity (v), Kinetic
energy = ½ mv2 = ½ (W/g) v2
❖ Kinetic energy pr unit weight = = kinetic head
➢ Total head = potential head + pressure head + velocity head
✓ Bernoulli’s theorem states that the total energy of each
particle of a body of fluid is the same provided that no
energy enters or leaves the system at any point.
✓ The division of this energy between potential, pressure and
kinetic energy may vary, but the total remains constant.
Example
5.2.1. Bernoulli’s Equation for real fluid
✓ A real fluid does possess viscosity and consequently, it offers
resistance to flow
✓ In order to overcome this viscous resistance and other
resistances due to surface roughness and turbulence, some part
of the total energy of the flow is lost
✓ Energy is neither created nor destroyed but may be changed to
heat energy increasing the temperature of the fluid
✓ The increase in temperature of the fluid causes an increase in
the internal energy.
✓ The increase in internal energy and the heat transfer from the
fluid represents a loss of useful energy.
✓ The total energy of flow decreases in the flow direction, and
consequently the energy line has a downward slope.
Cont…
5.2.2. Energy correction factor
❖ In order to compensate for the discrepancy a coefficient
known as energy correction factor denoted by α is used.
The multiplication of α with V2/2g yields the kinetic energy
actually passing a section
Cont…
➢ The kinetic energy per unit time passing through on elemental
area dA is ½ (ρdAu)u2 u - velocity at that point
➢ Total kinetic energy passing the section
And the actual kinetic energy passed on average
velocity V passing the section is equal to
➢ Kinetic energy correction factor α is a measure of viscous
resistance generated in a given flow,
➢ Then Bernoulli's equation becomes
Practical Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
❑ Bernoulli’s equation is applicable in all problems of incompressible fluid
flow where energy considerations are involved. In addition, it is practically
applied for flow measurement using the following measuring devices.
1. Venturi meter (Tube) (G.B Venturi (1746 –1822)
▪ It is a device used for measuring rate of flow in a pipeline and it
consists of three components:
I. A converging entrance cone of angle of about 200
II. A cylindrical portion of short length called the “throat”
III. A diverging section known as a diffuser, of cone angle 50 to 70 to
ensure a minimum loss of energy, but where this is unimportant
the angle may be as large as 140.
Application
▪ A "venturi meter" is a device used in hydraulics engineering to
measure the flow rate of fluid in a pipe.
▪ Pressure Difference Measurement
▪ Calculation of Flow Rate:
Horizontal Venturi-meter
❖ Applying Bernoulli’s
equation between points
(1) and (2) on a central
stream line and
Assuming no frictional
resistance,
❖ For an incompressible
fluid, continuity of flow
at sections 1 and 2 is,
Example
Soln.
2. Pitot tube (Total head tube) / (Henri Pitot)
➢ Pitot tube is a device used for measuring velocity of flow at
any point in a pipe or a channel.
Simple Pitot tube in pipe Simple Pitot tube in
flow open channel flow
Applications
• Pitot tubes are utilized in meteorology to measure wind speed and direction.
• Pitot tubes are employed to measure the flow velocity of liquids in pipes,
channels, and open channels.
• Pitot tubes are extensively used to measure the airspeed of aircraft.
Cont…
➢ Applying Bernoulli’s equation to point A in the undisturbed
flow region and the stagnation point B we have
For finding the velocity at any point in a pipe by Pitot tube,
the following arrangements are adopted.
Pitot tube along with a Pitot tube connected with
Vertical piezometer tube Piezometer tube
❖ Pitot static tube, which
Cont… consists of two circular
concentric tubes one inside
the other with some annular
space in between as shown
in Fig.
❖ The outlets of these two
tubes are connected to the
differential manometer
where the difference of
pressure head is measured
by knowing the difference of
the levels of the manometer
liquid hm.
3. Orifices
➢ An orifice is an opening (usually circular) in the wall of a
tank or in a plate normal to the axis of a pipe, the plate
being either at the end of the pipe or in some intermediate
location and used for measuring rate of flow out of a
reservoir (tank) or through a pipe.
a. Orifice flow in pipes, Orifice meter or orifice plate
Cont…
➢ The orifice meter consists of a flat orifice plate with a
circular hole drilled in it. There is a pressure tap upstream
from the orifice plate and another just downstream.
Applications
Flow Measurement
Flow Control and Regulation
Pressure Reduction
Metering and Monitoring
Cost-Effective Solution
Cont…
ρ
b. Flow through a reservoir opening (orifice flow)
➢ For a reservoir at water level h above orifice opening
shown in the following figure. The reservoir is assumed to
be very large as compared to size of the opening, so that the
velocities of all points in the reservoir are negligibly small.
Cont…
Hydraulic Coefficients for flow through
orifices
Cont…
C. Unsteady orifice flow from reservoirs
Cont…
❖ The volume discharged from the orifice in time δt is Qδt,
which must just equal the reduction in volume in the
reservoir in the same time increment δt. AR(-δy), in which
AR is the surface area of the reservoir at level y above the
orifice.
4. Weirs
Open channel flow may be measured by a weir or
obstruction in the channel that causes the liquid to back up
behind it and flow over it or through it.
There may be sharp crested or broad crested based on their length
along the channel section
a. Rectangular weir
Cont…
b. Triangular weir (V-notch)
Impulse-momentum theorem
It is often important to determine the force produced on a solid
body by fluid flowing steadily over it.
For example, the force on a pipe bend caused by the fluid
flowing through it; the force exerted by jet of fluid striking
against a solid surface; thrust on a propeller. All these forces
are hydrodynamic forces and they are associated with a
change in the momentum of the fluid.
The magnitude of such a force is determined by Newton’s
second law of motion, by modifying the law to suit particularly
to the steady flow of a fluid called the steady flow momentum
equation. Only the forces acting at the boundaries of this space
concern us, and use of momentum equation doesn’t require the
knowledge of the flow pattern in detail.
Cont..
❑ Consider a stream tube shown below with the following
assumptions
➢ The c/s of stream tube is sufficiently small so that the
velocity may be considered uniformly distributed
➢ The flow is steady i.e. the stream tube remains stationary
with respect to the fixed coordinate axis.
Applications of momentum equations
1) The force caused by a jet striking a surface
ii) Moving plate
Initial velocity of jet v1x = V1
Final velocity of jet = velocity of = v2x = U = velocity of
plate
Cont…
v) Series of flat plates
➢ The force exerted by the impact of jet can be fruitfully
utilized if the flat plates are mounted on the periphery of a
wheel as shown below. The force exerted by the jet causes
the rotation of the wheel. The flat plates thus occupy the bottom
most position according to their turn.
B. Force on curved vane
Consider a symmetrical curved vane having smooth
surface. The jet strikes at the center and after impact it is
deflected equally along the vane surface.
3) Force in Nozzle
➢ A nozzle, attached to a pipeline, and discharging to the atmosphere
provides a good example of a rapid change in velocity. The fluid exerts a
force on the nozzle and per Newton's third law, there is a similar force, of
opposite sign, exerted by the nozzle on the fluid.
➢ In Fig below, the component forces are the hydrostatic forces P1A1 and
P2A2 and the force Fx exerted by the nozzle on the fluid. The rate of
change of momentum is ρ Q(V2 - V1) so that the momentum equation
may be expressed as:
End of Chapter 5