Chapter One
Introduction
What is a Fuel ?
How do you classify Fuel Sources ?
What are Alternative Fuels?
1
1. Introduction
Fuels are those substances which release thermal energy (heat) when ignited
(burned) under a specified condition. The most commonly (frequently) used fuels
consist primarily of Hydrogen (H) and Carbon (C); and hence, they are called
hydrocarbon fuels, denoted by CnHm or CaHb . But, such fuels may also contain:
Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), Sulfur (S), moisture (H2O), … in small amounts.
These fuels exist in all states; for instance: coal or wood (solid), gasoline or diesel
oil (liquid), propane or butane (gas).
The properties and characteristics of fuels play a vital role in the design,
performance and characteristics of the IC engines, such as: power, torque, fuel
consumption, emission, noise, … .
One of the engineer’s duty in this field of study is, to estimate the quantity or
amount of air required to burn a given quantity or amount of fuel efficiently and
also the amount of thermal energy (heat) to be released. This requires a further
knowledge on the properties of matter and the chemistry of combustion.
2
1. Introduction …
IC engines use different kinds of Conventional and/or Non-Conventional
(Alternative) fuels.
Conventional Fuels: Gasoline, Diesel Oil, … ;
Non-Conventional (Alternative) Fuels: Alcohol (Methanol, Ethanol,…),
Biodiesel (Jatropha, Castor,…), Hydrogen, CNG, LNG, LPG, … .
Conventional Fuels are derivatives of petroleum (crude oil). Petroleum is
derived from a Greek words: petra and oleum; petra means rock and oleum
means oil. Hence, petroleum means rock oil. It is formed from bacterial
decomposition of the remains of animals and plants buried under the sea or the
crust of the earth over millions of years ago. When these organisms (animals and
plants) died, they sank to the bottom and got covered by sand and clay. Over a
period of millions of years, gradually converted into hydrocarbons due to heat,
pressure and catalytic action. The so formed hydrocarbons rose through porous
rocks and trapped by impervious rocks forming an oil trap (crude oil).
Natural gas is usually found above petroleum. The crude petroleum is obtained by
drilling a hole into the earth’s crust and sinking a pipe into it. When the pipe
reaches the oil deposit, natural gas comes out first with a high pressure. After the
pressure has subsided, the crude oil is pumped out of the oil well. The process of
3
obtaining crude oil from its source is called mining.
1. Introduction …
Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons,
such as: Alkanes (Paraffins), Alkenes
(Olefins), Naphtenes (Cycloparaffins),
Aromatics (Benzene).
The chemical composition of petroleum
depends upon its place of origin.
Petroleum, obtained by mining, is a dark
viscous liquid called Crude Oil. Before
using petroleum it must be separated into
various components. The process of
separating petroleum (crude oil) into
useful fractions or components is called
fractional distillation (as shown in the
figure). Fractional Distillation of Petroleum
4
1. Introduction …
During fractional distillation, the fractions (components) with a lower boiling
points rise up the tower and condense at different levels depending upon their
boiling points.
Various Fractions of Petroleum 5
1. Introduction …
Chemical Composition of Pertoleum
i) Alkanes (Paraffins): have a chemical formula CnH2n+2. They can be ‘Straight
chain or Normal Paraffins (n-Paraffins)’ and ‘Branched chain or Iso-Paraffins’.
a) Straight chain or n-Paraffins consist of a single bond, straight molecular
structure and are saturated compounds as the valency of carbon is fully
utilized. Hence they are stable but have poor knock-resistant quality.
Some of the hydrocarbons in this series are shown in the figure.
Structure of Straight Chain or n-Paraffins
6
1. Introduction …
i) Alkanes (Paraffins): …
b) Branched chain or Iso-Paraffins consist of a single bond, branched molecular
structure and are saturated compounds as the valency of carbon is fully
utilized. Hence they are stable and also have good knock-resistant quality.
Some of the hydrocarbons in this series are shown in the figure.
Structure of Branched chain or Iso-Paraffins
7
1. Introduction …
ii) Alkenes (Olefins): have a chemical formula CnH2n for ‘mono-olefins’ and
CnH2n-2 for ‘di-olefins’. They consist of one or more double bonded carbon
atoms with a straight molecular structure and are unsaturated compounds as the
valency of carbon is not fully utilized. Hence they are unstable but have good
knock-resistant quality. These hydrocarbons can readily oxidize when they
present in a cracked fuel. This results in ‘gummy deposit’ formation in the
storage. Some of the hydrocarbons in this series are shown in the figure.
Structure of Olefins
8
1. Introduction …
iii) Naphtenes (Cyloparaffins): have a chemical formula CnH2n. They consist of
a single bond with a ring molecular structure and are saturated compounds as
the valency of carbon is fully utilized. Hence they are stable and also have
good knock-resistant quality. Some of the hydrocarbons in this series are
shown in the figure.
Structure of Naphtenes
9
1. Introduction …
iv) Aromatics (Benzene): have a chemical formula CnH2n-6. They consist of one
or more double bonded carbon atoms with a ring molecular structure and are
unsaturated compounds as the valency of carbon is not fully utilized. Hence
they are unstable but have good knock-resistant quality. Some of the
hydrocarbons in this series are shown in the figure.
Structure of Aromatics
Note: The Heating Value (QLHV) of carbon (C) is 32.8 MJ/kg and that of
hydrogen (H) is 120.9 MJ/kg. 10
1. Introduction …
Refinery Processes
The refining of petroleum is done in big refineries. The various refining processes
are: Neutralization, Fractional Distillation, Cracking, Hydrogenation,
Polymerization, Alkylation, Isomerization, Cyclization, Aromatization,
Reforming, Bonding, Desulfurization, … .
11
1. Introduction …
Useful products of Petroleum
iii) Kerosene: Its molecular composition varies from C12 to C15 hydrocarbons with
boiling point range of 448 K to 548 K.
iv) Diesel Oil: It is a mixture or blend of mainly n-cetane or n-Hexadecane
(C16H34) having a ‘Cetane Number (CN)’ of ‘100’ and Iso-Cetane or
heptamethylnonane (C16H34) having a ‘Cetane Number (CN)’ of ’15’ and
also other additives. It is ‘commonly ‘ represented by C12H26 ‘for Light Diesel
Oil’, by C13H28 ‘for Medium Diesel Oil’ and by C14H20 ‘for Heavy Diesel
Oil’. Its molecular composition, in general, varies from C13 to C15
hydrocarbons with boiling point range of 523 K to 623 K. Hence, it is a
‘liquid’.
v) Fuel Oil: Its molecular composition varies from C13 to C15 hydrocarbons with
boiling point range of 623 K to 723 K.
vi) Lubricating Oil: Its molecular composition varies from C17 to C20
hydrocarbons with boiling point above 723 K. Hence, it is a ‘liquid with
higher viscosity’.
Others are:
vii) Paraffin Wax and viii) Asphalt.
12
1. Introduction …
How to obtain Gasoline and Diesel as a Fuel for IC engines ?
Conventional fuels for IC engines can be classified as: Primary and Secondary
fuels.
The fuels which exist in nature are called primary (natural or raw) fuels.
eg: Natural Gas, Petroleum, … .
The fuels which are obtained from the primary fuels are called secondary (final)
fuels.
eg: Gasoline, Diesel, … .
For instance, Gasoline (C8H15) can be obtained by mixing (blending) the two
secondary fuels: n-heptane (C7H16) and Iso-Octane (C8H18), using Cracking,
Bonding or other types of refinery processes and adding proper additives. One
way of getting final fuels is by cracking as shown,
CH3(CH2)8CH3 C8H18 + CH2 = CH2
Primary Fuel Secondary Fuel
Question: Which secondary blend fuels are used to obtain Diesel Oil ?
13
1. Introduction …
Fuel Additives
Additives are mainly chemicals mixed in a very small proportions into the fuel to
reduce undesirable effects; such as: corrosion, freezing, … . Some of the main
additives are:
• Corrosion inhibitors: prevent corrosion effect on the component parts.
• Anti-icing: prevents freezing of moisture in carburetor and induction system.
• Lead Compounds: (C2H5)4Pb and (CH3)4Pb, to improve the anti-knock
quality of the fuel. But, now-a-days the use of this compound is limited due to
its damaging effect on the ‘catalytic converter’ and formation of deposit and
emission. Instead, a bend of other fuels with high octane number (alcohols) are
widely used.
• Demulsifies: promote water separation, inhibit water-fuel emulsion formation.
• Detergents (Deposit control additives): prevent deposits in carburetors, fuel
injectors, intake valves and ports, combustion chamber, … .
• Antioxidants: prevent gum formation due to oxidation with air.
14
1. Introduction …
Summary : …
• The heating values of various hydrocarbons should be compared from a Hydrogen to
Carbon ratio (H/C). Higher H/C mean, higher Heating value as the heating (Calorific)
value of hydrogen (H) is relatively very high.
• As the number of atoms in a molecular structure increase, the boiling temperature and
also self ignition temperature (SIT) increases.
• Comparison of Gasoline (C8H15) and Light Diesel Oil (C12H26),
Some properties of Gasoline (C8H15) and Light Diesel Oil (C12H26) 15
1. Introduction …
1.1. Conventional Fuels for SI Engines
Gasoline is one of the major fuels used in SI engines which is a mixture of various
hydrocarbons.
Main Desirable Properties of ‘Gasoline’
1. Heating Value (QLHV).
2. Volatility.
3. Octane Number (ON) and Self-Ignition.
4. Storage and Safety.
5. Availability and Cost.
6. Clean burning (minimum deposit or residue).
16
1. Introduction …
1.1. Conventional Fuels for SI (Gasoline) Engines …
Heating Value (HV): refers to the energy content of the fuel. The higher the
heating value, the more energy it releases during combustion. This depends on the
H/C ratio. Higher H/C ratio mean, more HV.
Note: Heating Value (HV) can be of Higher Heating Value (HHV) or Lower
Heating Value (LHV) depending on the state of H2O in the product.
Volatility: is commonly known as the evaporating tendency of a liquid fuel.
Advantage
• If the fuel is more volatile, there will be good or homogeneous air-fuel
mixture formation during intake and compression strokes and promotes or
improve the cold staring behavior of the engine.
Disadvantage
• If the fuel is more volatile, the self ignition temperature (SIT) or the fuel
resistance to knock will be lower. Hence, there will be self- or auto-ignition
of air-fuel mixture.
17
1. Introduction …
1.1. Conventional Fuels for SI (Gasoline) Engines …
Disadvantage…
• If the fuel is more volatile, during warm or ‘hot’ ambient condition there will
be evaporative emission (this tends to lower fuel economy and increases
atmospheric pollution) and vapor lock in the fuel system (this may cause hard
‘hot’ starting and engine stalling). This also makes storage and/or handling of
the fuel difficult, due to higher vapor pressure.
• If the fuel is less volatile, during cold engine operation the fuel may not readily
vaporize and causes ‘hard starting’.
• In addition, the fuel enters into the engine cylinder as a fine droplets which tend
to wash away the lubricating oil around the piston and cylinder wall. This
effect tends to wash engine oil around the cylinder, the result will be: engine
wear and also oil contamination.
18
1. Introduction …
1.1. Conventional Fuels for SI (Gasoline) Engines …
Knock Resistance and Self Ignition Temperature (SIT)
When the temperature of an air-fuel mixture is raised high enough, the mixture
tends to ignite by itself without the assistance of the igniter (spark plug). The
temperature at which ‘self-ignition’ occur is called ‘Self Ignition Temperature
(SIT)’. This is the basic principle of ignition in CI (diesel) engines, where
compression ratio is high enough so that the temperature rises above self ignition
temperature (SIT) at the end of compression stroke. Self-ignition then occurs when
the fuel is injected into the combustion chamber. On the other hand, self-ignition
or auto-ignition is not desirable in SI engines, where spark plug is used to ignite
the air-fuel mixture at the proper time during the engine cycle. When self-ignition
occurs in SI engine, undesirable high pressure pulses or waves are generated and
this may cause an audible sound and vibration and also tend to damage the engine.
It is, therefore, recommended to use a fuel with a lower Self Ignition
Temperature (SIT) or higher Knock-resistant quality or higher Octane Number
(ON) (for SI engines).
19
1. Introduction …
1.1. Conventional Fuels for SI (Gasoline) Engines …
Knock Resistance and Self Ignition Temperature (SIT) …
If the temperature of the fuel is raised above self ignition temperature (SIT), the
fuel spontaneously ignites after a short Ignition Delay (I.D.). The higher the fuel is
heated above SIT the shorter will be ID as shown.
Self Ignition Temperature (SIT) and Ignition Delay (ID)
20
1. Introduction …
1.1. Conventional Fuels for SI (Gasoline) Engines …
Ignition Delay (ID) period is a very small fraction of a second ( 0.001 sec. at a
particular intermediate engine speed). During this short period of time, pre-
ignition reaction occurs including oxidation of some fuel components and even
cracking of some large hydrocarbon components into smaller hydrocarbon
molecules. These pre-ignition reactions raise the temperature at local spots, which
then promotes additional reactions until the actual combustion reaction occurs.
Octane Number (ON)
The property of a fuel which describes how a fuel will or will not self-ignite is
called the Octane Number (ON). This is a numerical scale generated by comparing
the self-ignition characteristics of the given fuel to that of a standard reference
fuels. The two standard reference fuels are:
• Normal heptane or n-heptane (C7H16): this fuel has lower resistance to knock
and is given an octane number of ‘0’.
• Iso-octane (C8H18): this fuel has higher resistance to knock and is given an
octane number of ‘100’.
21
1. Introduction …
1.1. Conventional Fuels for SI (Gasoline) Engines …
Blends of these reference fuels define the knock resistance qualities of
intermediate octane number fuels. A blend fuel of 10% n-heptane and 85% iso-
octane has an Octane Number (ON) of 85 (eg: Gasoline: C8H15).
Note: Octane Number (ON) can be of Motor Octane Number (MON) or Research
Octane Number (RON). In this context ON mean, the average value of the two.
As shown in the figure, high compression
engines must use high octane fuel to avoid
self-ignition and knock.
The higher the octane number of a fuel, the
lesser it will self-ignite.
ON versus compression Ratio (Rc).
22
1. Introduction …
1.2. Conventional Fuels for CI (Diesel) Engines
Diesel Oil is one of the major fuels used for CI engines which can be obtained
from crude oil (crude petroleum) in a similar way as gasoline is obtained.
Main desirable properties of ‘Diesel’
1. Heating Value (QLHV).
2. Volatility.
3. Cetane Number(CN) and Ignition Delay (ID).
4. Sulfur content.
5. Flash and Cloud point. (Ease of handling or storage).
6. Water and Sediments.
7. Smoke and Particulates.
8. Availability and cost.
9. Clean burning (minimum deposit or residue).
23
1. Introduction …
1.2. Conventional Fuels for CI (Diesel) Engines …
Heating Value (HV):
• Affects power output and fuel economy.
• The heat of combustion (MJ/kg and/or MJ/liter) is a measure of the amount of
energy available to produce work.
• In general, a fuel with a higher volumetric heating value (MJ/liter) will produce
more power or provide better fuel economy.
Note: Diesel fuel is more denser than Gasoline fuel. Hence, for the same
volume (1 liter) diesel has more energy content than gasoline.
Volatility:
• Less volatile fuel causes: hard cold starting, deposit formation, wear, and
exhaust smoke.
• Less volatile fuels have higher boiling points and higher self ignition
temperature (SIT).
Note: Diesel fuel is less volatile than Gasoline fuel. Hence, it has poor cold
starting behavior, but suitable for storage and handling.
24
1. Introduction …
1.2. Conventional Fuels for CI (Diesel) Engines …
Cetane Number (CN) and Ignition Delay (ID)
The cetane number (CN) is a measure of the ignition delay of a diesel fuel.
When a diesel fuel is injected into the hot compressed air within the engine
cylinder, atomization, vaporization, physical mixing of fuel and air, molecular
interaction and ignition at various locations, and actual combustion taking place. If
the ignition delay is longer due to lower cetane number (CN) or due to
accumulation of large quantity of fuel as a result of large quantity of fuel injection,
a bulk of charge or mixture catch fire almost instantaneously and causing violent
combustion called ‘diesel knock’ or ‘detonation’. In order to avoid or minimize
ignition delay (ID), a diesel fuel with the proper or higher cetane number (CN)
should be used.
Note: As the combustion mechanism of diesel engine is based on the auto-ignition
of the charge, mild (soft) knock is expected.
25
1. Introduction …
1.2. Conventional Fuels for CI (Diesel) Engines …
Cetane Number (CN)
Cetane Number is a measure of ignition delay of a diesel fuel. This is a numerical
scale generated by comparing the ignition delay (ID) characteristics of the given
fuel to that of a standard reference fuels. The two standard reference fuels are: n-
cetane or n-Hexadecane (C16H34) and Iso-Cetane or heptamethylnonane
(C16H34) .
• Normal cetane or n-cetane or n-Hexadecane (C16H34) :- this fuel has a short
ignition delay (high ignition quality) and is given a cetane number of ‘100’.
• Iso-Cetane or heptamethylnonane (C16H34) :- this fuel has a long ignition
delay (low ignition quality) and is given a cetane number of ‘15’.
Blends of these reference fuels define the ignition qualities of intermediate cetane
number fuels (eg:- Light Diesel (C12H26) has a Cetane Number (CN) of about 45).
26
1. Introduction …
1.2. Conventional Fuels for CI (Diesel) Engines …
Sulfur Content
• The sulfur content depends on the crude oil source and the refining steps it
undergoes. As the fractions temperature increases, the content of sulfur also
increases. Hence, the content of sulfur in diesel is more than gasoline. It causes
wear, deposits, and particulate emissions.
• Sulfur oxides (SO2 and SO3) are produced during combustion of fuel. SO3
combines with water in the exhaust to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Sulfuric
acid causes corrosive wear and contributes to engine deposits.
Flash Point
• It is the temperature at which fuel vapors can be ignited when exposed to a
flame.
• It is related to volatility and fire hazard in handling. Hence, it is important for
safety reasons.
27
1. Introduction …
1.2. Conventional Fuels for CI (Diesel) Engines …
Viscosity
• Affects injector lubrication and atomization. Low viscosity fuels may not
provide sufficient lubrication in close-fit pumps and injectors. Hence, this may
cause abnormal wear, loss of power and smoke.
• Influences the size of the fuel droplets.
• High viscosity increases wear of fuel pump and gear train due to high injection
pressures.
Cloud Point
• Cloud Point is the temperature where a cloud or fog appears in the fuel. This
happens when the temperature falls below the melting point of the wax in the
fuel. Hence, it affects low temperature operation.
• Cloud point must be below the lowest outside operating temperature to prevent
filter plugging and it is recommended to use a fuel heater or blended fuel or
proper additives.
28
1. Introduction …
1.2. Conventional Fuels for CI (Diesel) Engines …
Water and Sediments
• Water introduces during shipment and condensation during storage.
• Water affects the life of fuel filters, injectors, particularly to fuel lubricated
pumps. Hence, water separators are critical to fuel systems.
• Sediments (rust, scale, dirt, weld slag, ...) should be removed by settling,
straining or filtration.
Smoke and Particulates
• White Smoke is the result of too low a temperature or water in the combustion
chamber.
• Blue Smoke is the result of excess lubricating oil in the combustion chamber.
• Black Smoke is produced near or at full load due to excess fuel.
29
1. Introduction …
1.2. Conventional Fuels for CI (Diesel) Engines …
Diesel ‘Additives’
• Detergents: prevent deposit buildup and extend injector, and filter life by
cleaning.
• Cetane Improvers: raise the cetane number.
• Lubricity: replaces natural lubricants.
• Anti-foam: reduces foaming when pumping a fuel.
30
2. Alcohols
Alcohol is an alternative and a renewable fuel. The most widely used alcohols in
IC engines are: methyl-alcohol (methanol) and ethyl-alcohol (ethanol) .
Advantages of Alcohol:
• It is a high octane fuel with ON over 100. Thus, Tetraethyl lead (TEL) can be
replaced as it forms deposits within the engine cylinder and damages the
catalytic converter. In addition, high compression engine can be designed.
• It can be obtained from a number of sources; such as: sugarcane, grain, coal, ... .
• It has high evaporative cooling which makes the intake process relatively cooler.
This tends to increase the volumetric efficiency.
• It produces relatively less pollutants.
• It forms more moles of combustion products. This means, high cylinder pressure
during power stroke.
31
2. Alcohols …
Disadvantages of Alcohol:
• Low energy content (QLHV). This means, the engine develops relatively less
power under the same operating conditions.
• The exhaust contains more aldehydes which cause atmospheric pollution.
Aldehydes are class of organic compounds containing ‘CHO’ group which tend
to yield acids when oxidized.
• As compared to gasoline, alcohols have more corrosive effect on: aluminum,
copper, brass, … . This makes the design and manufacturing process relatively
difficult.
• The ignition characteristics of alcohol is relatively poor.
• Alcohol can result clogging of fuel filters with dirt cleaned from the fuel tank,
pump and lines.
• Low flame temperature generates less NOx, but the resulting lower exhaust
temperature takes longer time to bring the catalytic converter to its operating
temperature.
32
2. Alcohols …
Methanol (Methyl-Alcohol: CH3OH)
• Methanol can be obtained from various sources; such as: natural gas, biomass,
wood, coal, … .
• Methanol has a relatively less CO and HC emission.
• Methanol can be mixed or blended with gasoline in some proportion as: M10,
M85, … .
33
2. Alcohols …
Ethanol (Ethyl-Alcohol: C2H5OH)
• Ethanol can be obtained from fermentation of: sugarcane, grains, …. .
• Ethanol has less CO and HC emission than gasoline but more than methanol.
• Ethanol is used to form E10 and E85 types of blend fuels.
E10 is a blend or mixture of 10% of ethanol and 90% of gasoline by mass.
Whereas, E85 is a blend or mixture of 85% ethanol and 15% of gasoline by
mass.
34
2. Alcohols …
Alcohol-Gasoline Blends (M10, M85 , E10, E85, …)
Normally pure alcohols are not widely used in IC engines (except in flex engines).
If the engine is operated with a pure alcohol, some major design modifications are
needed. The design modifications include:
a) The type of materials to be used must be corrosive resistant.
b) Design consideration on the fuel system: fuel pump, fuel filter, carburetor, … .
c) Use of high energy ignition system with a cooler running spark plugs to
improve combustion.
d) Increase in compression ratio to make use of its better antiknock property.
35
2. Alcohols …
Some Design Modifications
a) The carburetor jet needs to be relatively wider to increase fuel flow ( 1.5
times that of pure gasoline).
b) The float has to be adjusted (lower down) to match the higher specific gravity.
c) Air inlet has to be modified to get less air as the blend fuel requires less air for
complete combustion than pure gasoline.
d) Provisions and arrangements for heating the carburetor and intake manifold as
lower vapor pressure of alcohol makes engine cold starting difficult.
Some Advantages of Blend Fuels over Pure Gasoline
a) reduces the total cost of fuel,
b) lowers engine emission,
c) increases resistance to knock.
36
2. Alcohols …
Important properties of Gasoline, Methanol and Ethanol
37
2. Alcohols …
Combustion and Emission Formation of Blend Fuels
38
2. Alcohols …
Performance and Characteristics of Fuels
Performance mainly includes: brake Power (Pb), brake Torque (Tb), bsfc,
bmep, v , …
Characteristics mainly includes: Emission (Pollutant), Noise, … .
39
2. Alcohols …
Performance and Characteristics of Fuels …
40
2. Alcohols …
Performance and Characteristics of Fuels …
41
2. Alcohols …
Performance and Characteristics of Fuels …
42
2. Alcohols …
Exercise 1
If a blend fuel (E10) is used instead of pure gasoline, how do the engine
performance (Pb ,Tb , bsfc , …) and emission (CO , HC , NOx ) change ?
43