MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS

(21ME54)

5th Sem Mechanical Engineering

Module-5

Dr Shadakshari R
Associate Professor

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Acharya Institute of Technology
Bengaluru-107

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107 1

MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

Module-5
Electric Vehicles& Storage Batteries
Electric vehicles principle and components- layout of two & 4-wheeler, Motors used in
Electric vehicles –types- over view of construction and working, power transmission &
control system in Electric vehicles. Batteries –construction & working principle of
Lead acid, nickel based, sodium based, Lithium & Metal Air batteries. Battery charging
types and requirements, battery cooling, fire safety measures in EV vehicles
Major components of an electric vehicle
The major components of an electric vehicle system are the motor, controller,
power supply, charger and drive train Fig. 1 demonstrates a system model for
an electric vehicle. Controller is the heart of an electric vehicle, and it is the
key for the realization of a high-performance electric vehicle with an optimal
balance of maximum speed, acceleration performance, and traveling range per
charge.

Transmission
Converter

Fig. 1. Major components in an electric vehicle

Control of Electric Vehicle (EV) is not a simple task in that operation of an
EV is essentially time-variant (e.g., the operation parameters of EV and the
road condition are always varying). Therefore, the controller should be
designed to make the system robust and adaptive, improving the system on
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

both dynamic and steady state performances. Another factor making the
control of EV unique is that EV’s are really "energy-management" machines.
Currently, the major limiting factor for wide-spread use of EV’s is the short
running distance per battery charge. Hence, beside controlling the
performance of vehicle (e.g., smooth driving for comfortable riding),
significant efforts have to be paid to the energy management of the batteries
on the vehicle.

However, from the viewpoint of electric and control engineering, EV’s are
advantageous over traditional vehicles with internal combustion engine. The
remarkable merit of EV’s is the electric motor’s excellent performance in
motion control, torque generation is very quick and accurate, hence electric
motors can be controlled much more quickly and precisely output torque is
easily comprehensible motor can be small enough to be attached to each
wheel and the controller can be easily designed and implemented with
comparatively low cost
Hence, in recent years, there is quite a lot of researches in the exploring
advanced control strategies in electric vehicles. As the development of
the high computing capability microprocessor, such as DSP (Digital
Signal Processor), it is possible to perform complex control on the
electric vehicle to achieve optimal performance. These capabilities can
be utilized to enhance the performance and safety of individual vehicles
as well as to operate vehicles in formations for specific purposes. Due to
the complex operation condition of electric vehicle, intelligent or fuzzy
control is generally used to increase efficiency and deal with complex
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

operation modes. However, it is essential to establish a model-based

control for the EV system, and systematically study the characteristics to
achieve optimal and robust control.

Brushed DC motor
Due to the simplicity of DC motor controlling and the fact that the
power supply from the battery is DC power in nature, DC motor is
popularly selected for the traction of electric vehicles. There are
three classical types of brushed DC motor with field windings,
series, shunt and ‘separately excited’ windings, as shown in Fig. 4.
The shunt wound motor is particularly difficult to control, as
reducing the supply voltage also results in a weakened magnetic
field, thus reducing the back EMF, and tending to increase the speed.
A reduction in supply voltage may, in some circumstances, have very
little effect on the speed. The separately excited motor allows one to
have independent control of both the magnetic flux and the supply
voltage, which allows the required torque at any required angular
speed to be set with great flexibility. A series-wound DC motor is
easy to use and with added benefit of providing comparatively
larger startup torque. A (series) DC motor can generally be modeled
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

Where: i is the armature current (also field current); ω is the motor

angular speed; La, Ra, Lfield, Rf are the armature inductance, armature
resistance, field winding inductance and field winding resistance
respectively; V is the input voltage, as the control input; Laf is the mutual
inductance between the armature winding and the field winding,
generally non-linear due to saturation; J is the inertia of the motor,
including the gearing system and the tyre; B is the viscous coefficient;
and TL is representing the external torque, which is quantitatively the
same as the one aforementioned.

Brushless DC motor

The disadvantages of brushed DC motor are its frequent maintenance

and low life-span for high intensity uses. Therefore, brushless DC
(BLDC) motor is developed. Brushless DC motors use a rotating
permanent magnet in the rotor, and stationary electrical magnets on the
motor housing. A motor controller converts DC to AC. This design is
simpler than that of brushed motors because it eliminates the
complication of transferring power from outside the motor to the spinning
rotor. Brushless motors are advantageous over brushed ones due to their
long-life span, little or no maintenance, high efficiency, and good
performance of timing. The disadvantages are high initial cost, and more
complicated motor speed controllers.
A BLDC motor is composed of the motor, controller and position
sensor. In the BLDC motor, the electromagnets do not move; instead, the
permanent magnets rotate and the armature remains static. The rotor
magnetic steel is radially placed, and the permanent magnets (generally
Neodymium-iron-boron: NdFeB) are installed on the surface. The
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

magnetic permeability of such permanent magnets is close to that of air,

hence can be regarded as part of the air gap. Hence, there is no salient
pole effect, so that the magnetic field across the air gap is uniformly
distributed. The position sensor functions like the commutator of
brushed DC motor, reflecting the position of the rotor and determining
the phase of current and space distribution of magnetic force.
The BLDC motor is actually an AC motor. The wires from the windings
are electrically connected to each other either in delta configuration or
wye ("Y"-shaped) configuration. In Fig. 5, an equivalent circuit of wye-
connected BLDC is shown. With this configuration, the simplified
model can be obtained as:

Where, ω: the angular velocity of the motor; Te, TL: electromagnetic

torque of the motor and the load torque; Pe: electromagnetic power of
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

the motor; J: moment of inertia; f: friction coefficient.

Under normal operation, only two phases are in conduction. Then
the voltage balance equation, back EMF equation, torque equation,
and kinetic equations that govern the operation of a WYE connected
BLDC motor can be obtained as:

Where, ud: the voltage across the two windings under conduction; E:
the back EMF of the two windings under conduction; KT: torque
coefficient, and Ke: back EMF coefficient.
It is shown that, in BLDC motors, current to torque and voltage to
rpm are linear relationships.

Permanent magnet synchronous motor

A permanent magnet synchronous motor is a motor that uses
permanent magnets to produce the air gap magnetic field rather than
using electromagnets. Such motors have significant advantages, such as
high efficiency, small volume, light weight, high reliability and
maintenance-free, etc., attracting the interest of EV industry. The PMSM
has a sinusoidal back emf and requires sinusoidal stator currents to
produce constant torque while the BDCM has a trapezoidal back emf
and requires rectangular stator currents to produce constant torque.
The PMSM is very similar to the wound rotor synchronous machine
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

except that the PMSM that is used for servo applications tends not to
have any damper windings and excitation is provided by a permanent
magnet instead of a field winding. Hence the d, q model of the PMSM
can be derived from the well-known model of the synchronous
machine with the equations of the damper windings and field current
dynamics removed.
In a PMSM, the magnets are mounted on the surface of the motor
core. They have the same role as the field winding in a synchronous
machine except their magnetic field is constant and there is no
control on it. The stator carries a three-phase winding, which
produces a near sinusoidal distribution of magneto motive force
based on the value of the stator current. In modeling of rotating
machines like PMSM, it is a general practice to perform Park
transform and deal the quantities under dq framework. The dqo
transform applied to a three-phase quantities has following form:

Where, the x can be voltage u or current i.

Under the dq0 framework, the equivalent circuit of d-axis and q-axis
circuits of a PMSM motor is shown in Fig. 6, and the model of a PMSM
can be written as (Cui et al., 2001):
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

Where, Ψd, Ψq: the flux linkages of d-axis and q-axis respectively; Ld,
Lq: self inductance of dq axes; id, iq: dq-axis current; ud, uq: dq-axis
voltage; ωr: angular velocity of rotor; rs: stator resistance; pm: number
of poles; Ψ: flux linkage produced by the rotor permanent magnet;
Te: motor torque; TL: load torque; J: moment of inertia; B: friction
coefficient; p: differential operator.
The first two equations are the equations for stator voltage, the next

0  q 0  d
d +

im
d d
md uq Lmq
dt dt

Fig. 6. d-axis and q-axis equivalent circuit model of PMSM

two equations are about the magnetic flux linkage, the fifth equation is
about the calculation of torque, and the last equation is about the kinetics
of the motor.

Induction motor
Induction machines are among the top candidates for driving electric
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

vehicles and they are widely used in modern electric vehicles. Some
research even concludes that the induction machine provides better
overall performance compared to the other machines.
An induction motor (or asynchronous motor or squirrel-cage motor) is
a type of alternating current motor where power is supplied to the
rotor by means of electromagnetic induction. It has the advantages
such as low-cost, high-efficiency, high reliability, maintenance-free,
easy for cooling and firm structure, etc. making it especially competitive
in EV driving. In induction motor, stator windings are arranged around
the rotor so that when energized with a polyphase supply they create a
rotating magnetic field pattern which sweeps past the rotor. This
changing magnetic field pattern induces current in the rotor
conductors, which interact with the rotating magnetic field created by
the stator and in effect causes a rotational motion on the rotor.

AC induction motor is a time-varying multi-variable nonlinear

system; hence the modeling task is not easy. For simplicity,
following assumptions have to be made:
• Magnetic circuit is linear, and saturation effect is neglected;
• Symmetrical two-pole and three phases windings (1200
difference) with edge effect neglected;
• Slotting effects are neglected, and the flux density is radial in the
air gap and distributed along the circumference sinusoidally;
• Iron losses are neglected.
With such assumptions, the physical model of an induction motor
can be given as shown in Fig. 7. The three-phase stators are fixed on
A, B and C axes, which are stationary reference frames. The three-
phase rotor windings are fixed on a, b and c axes, which are rotating
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

frames. Hence the equations governing the dynamics of the

induction motor can be given as
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

Introduction to Batteries
Batteries play a pivotal role in powering a multitude of devices that have
become integral parts of our daily lives. From the portable electronics we carry
to the complex systems driving electric vehicles, batteries serve as the energy
storage solution that fuels modern technology. This introduction provides a broad
overview of batteries, exploring their fundamental principles, types, and applications.
“A battery is an electrochemical device that stores and provides electrical
energy through the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy”
Applications of battery
Batteries find diverse applications across various industries and in
numerous devices, providing portable and reliable sources of electrical energy.
Here are some common battery applications:

Consumer Electronics:
Smartphones and Tablets: Lithium-ion batteries power portable electronic devices,
providing a compact and rechargeable energy source.
Laptops and Computers: Batteries enable portability and backup power for
laptops, ensuring continued operation during power outages.
Automotive: Electric Vehicles (EVs): High-capacity lithium-ion or other
advanced batteries power electric cars, reducing reliance on traditional internal
combustion engines. Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs): Batteries work in
conjunction with internal combustion engines to enhance fuel efficiency.
Portable Power Tools: Cordless Drills, Saws, and Screwdrivers: Rechargeable
batteries provide convenience and mobility for various construction and tools.
Aerospace: Satellites and Space Probes: Batteries power space missions,
providing energy in the absence of traditional power sources.
Aviation Electronics: Batteries support critical systems in aircraft, including
Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107 13
emergency lighting and backup power for avionics.
Medical Devices:
Implantable Medical Devices: Batteries power devices like pacemakers and
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

defibrillators, ensuring continuous and reliable operation within the human body.
Portable Medical Equipment: Batteries enable the portability of devices such as
infusion pumps, portable monitors, and diagnostic equipment
Renewable Energy Storage: Solar Power Systems: Batteries store excess energy
generated by solar panels during periods of sunlight for later use during low light
conditions or at night. Wind Power Systems: Batteries store energy generated by
wind turbines to provide a stable power supply.
Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS): Critical Infrastructure: Batteries provide
backup power for servers, data centers, and other critical systems to prevent data loss
and maintain operations during power outages.
Electric Grid Stabilization: Grid Energy Storage: Batteries contribute to
stabilizing the electrical grid by providing fast response times to fluctuations in
supply and demand.

Portable Electronics: Batteries power communication devices, night vision

equipment, and other portable electronics used in military operations.
Submarines and Naval Systems: Batteries play a critical role in supplying
power to submarines and various naval applications.
Electric Bicycles and Scooters: Micro-Mobility Devices: Batteries power electric
bikes and scooters, providing an efficient and eco-friendly mode of transportation
for short distances.
Emergency Lighting: Exit Signs and Emergency Lights: Batteries provide
backup power in case of electrical failures, ensuring safety in buildings during
emergencies.
Wearable Technology: Smartwatches and Fitness Trackers: Compact batteries
power wearable devices, allowing users to monitor health and receive
notifications on the go.
Basic Principles of Batteries
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energy through the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy. Batteries
operate on the principle of electrochemical reactions. They consist of one or more
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

electrochemical cells, each comprising an anode, cathode, and electrolyte. During

discharge, electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through an external
circuit, generating electrical energy. In rechargeable batteries, this process can be
reversed during charging.
Electrochemical reactions are fundamental processes involving the transfer of
electrons between substances through a conductive medium. Understanding the
principles of electrochemical reactions is crucial in harnessing electrical energy from
chemical processes. Here, we'll explore the key concepts and types of
electrochemical reactions.

Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions: At the heart of electrochemical reactions

is the concept of redox reactions, where one substance undergoes oxidation (loses
electrons) and another undergoes reduction (gains electrons). The electron transfer is
often accompanied by the movement of ions in an electrolyte.
Components of an Electrochemical Cell:
Anode: The electrode where oxidation occurs, releasing electrons.
Cathode: The electrode where reduction occurs, accepting electrons.
Electrolyte: A conductive medium facilitating the flow of ions between the anode
and cathode.
Types of Batteries:
Batteries come in various types, each tailored to specific applications. Common
categories include:
Classification based on charging cycle
Primary Batteries: Non-rechargeable batteries like alkaline, zinc-carbon, and
Dr Shadakshari
lithium cells. R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107 15
Secondary Batteries: Rechargeable batteries like lithium-ion, nickel-metal
hydride, and lead-acid.
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

Lead-Acid Battery
Principle: The lead-acid battery operates on the principle of reversible
electrochemical reactions involving lead and lead dioxide electrodes immersed in a
sulfuric acid electrolyte. During discharge, lead dioxide (PbO₂) at the positive plate
reacts with sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) to form lead sulfate (PbSO₄), releasing electrical
energy. Meanwhile, at the negative plate, lead (Pb) reacts with sulfuric acid to form
lead sulphate. During charging, the reactions are reversed.
Construction:
Positive Plate: Lead dioxide (PbO₂) is typically used for the positive plate. It is coated
onto a lead grid to increase surface area.
Negative Plate: Sponge lead (Pb) is used for the negative plate. Like the positive
plate, it is also affixed to a lead grid to enhance surface area.
Separator: A porous material, often made of rubber or plastic, is used to keep the
positive and negative plates from directly touching each other while allowing the
flow of electrolyte.
Electrolyte: Dilute sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) serves as the electrolyte. It facilitates the
ion exchange during chemical reactions.
Container: The plates and electrolyte are housed in a container made of hard
rubber or plastic, ensuring containment and electrical isolation.
Vent Caps: Lead-acid batteries often have vent caps to release excess gas
generated during charging.
Lead-acid battery cells are typically connected in series within a battery casing to
achieve the desired voltage. For example, a common automotive lead-acid battery has
six cells connected in series, resulting in a nominal voltage of 12 volts. The cell
voltage is approximately 2 volts during normal operation.
Working:

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107 16

MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

During discharge:
Positive Plate: PbO₂ + H₂SO₄ + 2H⁺ + 2e⁻ PbSO₄ + 2H₂O Negative
Plate: Pb + H₂SO₄ PbSO₄ + 2H⁺ + 2e⁻

During charging,
Positive Plate: PbSO₄ + 2H₂O → PbO₂ + H₂SO₄ + 2H⁺ + 2e⁻Negative
Plate: PbSO₄ + 2H⁺ + 2e⁻ → Pb + H₂SO₄

The overall cell reaction during discharge is:

PbO₂ + Pb + 2H₂SO₄ → 2PbSO₄ + 2H₂O

The overall cell reaction during charging is the reverse of the discharge reaction.

Advantages of Lead-Acid Batteries:

Low Cost: Lead-acid batteries are relatively inexpensive to manufacture, making
them cost-effective for various applications.
Mature Technology: The technology behind lead-acid batteries is well-
established and has been used for many decades, resulting in a mature and reliable
technology.
High Discharge Currents: Lead-acid batteries can deliver high discharge
currents, making them suitable for applications that require a burst of power, such
as automotive starting.
Wide Range of Sizes: Lead-acid batteries are available in a wide range of sizes,
making them versatile for different applications, from small batteries for
motorcycles to large batteries for backup power systems.
Recyclability: Lead-acid batteries are recyclable, and the lead content can be
reused in the production of new batteries, contributing to environmental
sustainability.
Robust and Durable: Lead-acid batteries are known for their robustness and
durability, with the ability to withstand overcharging and deep discharging.

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107 17

Disadvantages of Lead-Acid Batteries:

Limited Energy Density: Lead-acid batteries have a lower energy density
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

compared to some other battery technologies, which means they store less energy
per unit of weight.
Heavy and Bulky: Lead-acid batteries are relatively heavy and bulky, which can
be a limitation in applications where weight and size are critical factors, such as in
electric vehicles.
Limited Cycle Life: The number of charge-discharge cycles that lead-acid
batteries can undergo is limited compared to some newer battery
technologies like lithium-ion batteries.
Maintenance Required: Some types of lead-acid batteries, such as flooded lead-
acid batteries, require periodic maintenance, including checking and topping up
electrolyte levels.
Sulfation: If lead-acid batteries are not properly maintained or are left in a
discharged state for extended periods, sulfation can occur, reducing their
performance.
Environmental Impact: While lead-acid batteries are recyclable, the production and
disposal of lead can have environmental implications. Improper disposal of lead-
acid batteries can lead to environmental contamination.
Limited Depth of Discharge: Lead-acid batteries perform best when not deeply
discharged. Deep cycling can reduce their lifespan and overall performance
Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH)
Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) batteries are a type of rechargeable battery that uses
a nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH) positive electrode (cathode), a hydrogen-absorbing
negative electrode (anode) made of a metal hydride alloy, and a potassium
hydroxide (KOH) electrolyte. NiMH batteries offer a compromise between the older
nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries and the more modern lithium-ion (Li-ion)
batteries. Here are some key characteristics and features of NiMH batteries:
Principle of Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) Battery: The NiMH battery operates on
the principles of electrochemical reactions involving the reversible oxidation and
reduction reactions at the positive (nickel oxyhydroxide) and negative (metal hydride)
electrodes. During discharging, electrical energy is generated as a result of these
reactions, and during charging, the reactions are reversed.
Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107 18
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

Construction of Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) Battery:

1. Positive Electrode (Cathode):
• Material: Nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH)
• Construction: Typically, in the form of a positive electrode plate or
grid.
2. Negative Electrode (Anode):
• Material: Metal hydride (MH) alloy
• Construction: Usually in the form of a negative electrode plate or
grid. The metal hydride alloy has the ability to absorb and release
hydrogen ions (protons) during charging and discharging.
3. Separator:
• A separator is placed between the positive and negative electrodes to
prevent a direct short circuit and to allow the movement of ions.
4. Electrolyte:
• Material: Potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution
• The electrolyte facilitates the movement of hydroxide (OH⁻) ions
between the positive and negative electrodes during the
electrochemical reactions.
5. Container:
• The entire assembly is housed in a container made of materials that
Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107 19
are compatible with the electrolyte and electrodes.
 MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

Working of Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) Battery:

1. Discharging (Power Delivery):
• During discharging, the nickel oxyhydroxide undergoes
oxidation at the positive electrode (cathode), and generating
hydroxide ions (OH⁻).
NiOOH+H2O+e−→Ni(OH)2+ OH−
• At the negative electrode (anode), the metal hydride alloy absorbs
protons (H⁺) and releases hydrogen ions.
MH+OH− M+H2O+e−
• The overall cell reaction during discharging is:
NiOOH+MH→Ni(OH)2+M
2. Charging (Recharging):
• During charging, the reactions are reversed. The nickel
oxyhydroxide is reduced at the positive electrode, and the metal
hydride alloy is oxidized at the negative electrode.
• The overall cell reaction during charging is the reverse of the
discharging reaction.
These electrochemical reactions illustrate how NiMH batteries convert
chemical energy into electrical energy during discharging and vice versa during
charging. The ability to reversibly absorb and release hydrogen ions in the
metal hydride alloy contributes to the rechargeable nature of NiMH batteries.
Advantages:
• Relatively low cost compared to lithium-ion batteries.
• Good energy density for certain applications.
• Suitable for high-drain devices and applications that require
frequent charging.
• -30–40 percent higher capacity than a standard NiCd
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

• -Less prone to memory than NiCd, can be rejuvenated

• Simple storage and transportation; not subject to regulatory
control
Disadvantages:
• Lower energy density compared to lithium-ion batteries.
• Higher self-discharge rate.
• Moderate cycle life.
• Sensitivity to overcharging.
Sodium–nickel chloride (Na–NiCl2)
Molten salt batteries (including liquid metal batteries) are a class of battery that uses
molten salts as an electrolyte and offers both ahigh energy density and a high power
density. Traditional ‘use-once’ thermal batteries can be stored in their solid state at room
temperature for long periods of time before being activated by heating. Rechargeable
liquid metal batteries are used for electric vehicles and potentially also for grid energy
storage, to balance out intermittent renewable power sources such as solar panels and
wind turbines. Thermal batteries use an electrolyte that is solid and inactive at normal
ambient temperatures. They can be stored indefinitely (over 50 years) yet provide full
power in an instant when required. Once activated, they provide a burst of high power
for a short period (a few tens of seconds) to 60 minutes or more, with output ranging
from a few watts to several kilowatts. The high power capability is due to the very high
ionic conductivity of the molten salt, which is three orders of magnitude (or
more)greater than that of the sulfuric acid in a lead–acid car battery.
There has been significant development relating to rechargeable batteries using sodium
(Na) for the negative electrodes. Sodium is attractive because of its high potential of 2.71
V, low weight, non-toxic nature, relative abundance and ready availability, and its low
cost. In order to construct practical batteries, the sodium must be used in liquid form. The
melting point of sodium is 98°C (208°F). This means that sodium-based batteries must
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

operate at high temperatures between 400 and 700°C, with newer designs running at
temperatures between 245 and 350°C.
Sodium–Sulphur (Na–S)
The sodium–sulphur or Na–S battery consists of a cathode of liquid sodium into
which is placed a current collector. This is a solid electrode of alumina (a form of
aluminium oxide). A metal can that is in contact with the anode (a sulphur electrode)
surrounds the whole assembly. The major problem with this system is that the
running temperature needs to be 300–350°C. A heater rated at a few hundred watts
forms part of the charging circuit. This maintains the battery temperature when the
vehicle is not running.
Battery temperature is maintained when in use due to current flowing through the

Sodium–sulphur battery

resistance of the battery (often described as I2R power loss).

MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

Each cell of this battery is very small, using only about 15 g of sodium. This is a
safety feature because, if the cell is damaged, the sulphur on the outside will cause
the potentially dangerous sodium to be converted into poly sulphides, which are
comparatively harmless. Small cells also have the advantage that they can be
distributed around the car.
The capacity of each cell is about 10 Ah. These cells fail in an open circuit condition and hence
this must be taken into account, as the whole string of cells used to create the required voltage
would be rendered inoperative. The output voltage of each cell is about 2 V.

Lithium-Ion Batteries

The principle behind lithium-ion batteries involves the electrochemical reactions

that occur during both the charging and discharging cycles. These batteries have
become widely popular for various applications, including portable electronic
devices, electric vehicles, and renewable energy storage, due to their high energy
density and rechargeable nature. Here's an overview of the key principles of
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

lithium-ion batteries
Construction of lithium-ion battery
A lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery is a rechargeable battery that uses lithium ions as
the charge carriers. It is commonly found in various electronic devices, electric
vehicles, and renewable energy storage systems. The construction of a typical
lithium-ion battery involves several key components:
Cathode: The cathode is typically composed of a lithium metal oxide, such
as lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2), lithium manganese oxide (LiMn2O4),
lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4), or other variations. The cathode material
determines the specific characteristics and performance of the battery.
Anode: The anode is usually made of a form of carbon, such as graphite.
During the discharge process, lithium ions move from the anode to the
cathode, releasing electrical energy.

Separator: A thin separator made of a porous material (often polyethylene or

polypropylene) is placed between the cathode and anode to prevent direct contact
while allowing the flow of lithium ions. The separator is essential for maintaining
the integrity and safety of the battery.
Electrolyte: The electrolyte is typically a lithium salt dissolved in a solvent.
Common lithium salts include lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6), lithium
hexafluoro arsenate (LiAsF6), or lithium perchlorate (LiClO4). The electrolyte
facilitates the movement of lithium ions between the cathode and anode during
the charge and discharge cycles.
Cell Container: The cathode, anode, separator, and electrolyte are housed in a
cell container, usually made of metal or a combination of metal and plastic.
The container provides structural support and protects the internal components.
Cell Voltage: A single lithium-ion cell typically has a voltage of about 3.7
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

volts. Multiple cells can be connected in series to achieve higher voltages.

Current Collectors: Thin metal foils, often made of aluminum for the cathode
and copper for the anode, serve as current collectors. These collectors help in
the efficient flow of electrons during charge and discharge.
Terminal: The battery has positive (+) and negative (-) terminals for external
electrical connections. These terminals allow the battery to be integrated into
electronic devices or connected to an external circuit.
Vent: Some lithium-ion batteries incorporate a venting mechanism to release
excess pressure and gases in the case of overcharging or other safety issues.
Outer Casing: The entire battery is enclosed in an outer casing, usually made
of a combination of plastic and metal, providing additional protection and
insulation.
The chemical reactions in a lithium-ion battery involve the movement of
lithium ions between the anode and the cathode during both the charging and
discharging processes. Here are the simplified chemical equations for a
lithium-ion battery:
The chemical reactions in a lithium-ion battery involve the movement of
lithium ions between the anode and the cathode during both the charging and
discharging processes. Here are the simplified chemical equations for a
lithium-ion battery:

Discharge (Providing Power):

Anode: LiC6→Li+ + e− +C6
Cathode: LiCoO2+Li+
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

+e−→Li2CoO2 Charge
(Charging the Battery):
Anode: Li++e−+C6→LiC6
Cathode: Li2CoO2→LiCoO2+Li++e−
These reactions illustrate the movement of lithium ions between the anode and
cathode during the discharging and charging processes of a lithium-ion batter
Working principle of a lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery
The working principle of a lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery involves electrochemical
reactions that occur during both discharging and charging cycles. A standard Li-
ion battery consists of three main components: a positive electrode (cathode), a
negative electrode (anode), and an electrolyte.
1. Discharging (Providing Power):
• When you use a device powered by a lithium-ion battery, such
as a smartphone or laptop, the battery undergoes a discharging
process.
• Anode Reaction: Lithium ions (Li+) move from the anode
material (typically graphite) to the electrolyte. Electrons (e−) are
released in the process and flow through the external circuit,
creating an electric current.
• Cathode Reaction: Lithium ions from the electrolyte are inserted
into the cathode material (often a lithium metal oxide, such as
LiCoO₂).
• Electrons travel through the external circuit, providing electrical
power to the device.
2. Charging (Recharging the Battery):
• When you plug the battery into a charger, the charging process
begins.
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

• Anode Reaction: Lithium ions from the cathode move back into
the anode material.
• Cathode Reaction: Lithium ions from the anode move back into
the cathode material.
• provides the energy needed to reverse the electrochemical
reactions, restoring the lithium-ion battery to its charged state.
It's crucial to note that these reactions are reversible, allowing lithium-ion
batteries to undergo numerous charge and discharge cycles. The overall
efficiency and performance of the battery are influenced by factors such as the
materials used for electrodes and electrolyte, design considerations, and the
charging/discharging conditions.
Advantages of lithium-ion battery
High Energy Density: Lithium-ion batteries offer a high energy density,
providing a lot of energy storage capacity in a relatively small and lightweight
package. This makes them suitable for portable electronic devices and electric
vehicles.
Long Cycle Life: Li-ion batteries typically have a longer cycle life compared to
other rechargeable batteries. They can withstand hundreds to thousands of charge
and discharge cycles, depending on the specific battery chemistry and usage
conditions.
Low Self-Discharge Rate: Lithium-ion batteries have a low self-discharge rate,
meaning they retain their charge for a more extended period when not in use.
This makes them suitable for applications where the battery is intermittently
used or needs to maintain a charge over time.
Fast Charging Capability: Li-ion batteries often support fast charging, allowing
for quicker recharge times compared to some other battery technologies. This
feature is crucial for applications where rapid charging is essential, such as in
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

electric vehicles.
Versatility in Applications: Lithium-ion batteries are versatile and can be used
in a wide range of applications, including consumer electronics (smartphones,
laptops), electric vehicles, renewable energy storage, medical devices, and
more.
Compact and Lightweight: The compact and lightweight nature of lithium- ion
batteries makes them well-suited for portable devices. They provide a high
energy-to-weight ratio, contributing to the development of lightweight and
portable electronic gadgets.
Low Maintenance: Li-ion batteries require minimal maintenance. They do not
have a memory effect (a phenomenon where the battery "forgets" its full
capacity if repeatedly charged before being fully discharged), reducing the
need for specific charging practices.
Reduced Environmental Impact: Lithium-ion batteries are considered more
environmentally friendly than some other battery types, as they do not contain
toxic heavy metals like lead or cadmium. Additionally, advancements in
recycling technologies are improving the sustainability of lithium-ion battery
disposal.
Despite these: Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries have become the preferred choice
for various applications due to their numerous advantages. Some of the key
advantages of lithium-ion batteries include:
Disadvantages of lithium ion battery
While lithium-ion batteries have many advantages, they also come with certain
disadvantages:
Limited Energy Density: While lithium-ion batteries have high energy density
compared to many other battery types, further improvements are still sought.
This limitation can impact the range and performance of electric vehicles and
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

portable devices.
Cost: Lithium-ion batteries can be expensive to manufacture, primarily due to
the cost of raw materials such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel. The overall cost of
lithium-ion batteries affects the final cost of products like electric vehicles.
Safety Concerns: Although modern lithium-ion batteries incorporate safety
features, they can still be prone to thermal runaway, a rapid and
uncontrolled increase in temperature. Safety hazards can arise if the battery is
damaged, overcharged, or exposed to high temperatures.
Temperature Sensitivity: Lithium-ion batteries are sensitive to temperature
extremes. High temperatures can accelerate the aging process and increase the
risk of thermal runaway, while low temperatures can reduce the battery's
efficiency.
Limited Lifespan: Over time, lithium-ion batteries experience degradation,
leading to a gradual reduction in capacity. Factors such as high operating
temperatures and frequent charge/discharge cycles can contribute to a
shortened lifespan.
Resource Availability and Environmental Impact: Lithium-ion batteries rely on
materials like lithium, cobalt, and nickel. The mining and extraction of these
materials can have environmental and social impacts, and concerns arise about
the sustainability of the supply chain.
Cobalt Dependency: Cobalt is a key component in many lithium-ion
batteries, and its extraction has raised ethical concerns due to issues related to
human rights, child labor, and environmental impact in some mining regions.
Flammability: While safety measures are implemented, lithium-ion batteries
have a flammable electrolyte. In rare cases, if a battery is damaged or subjected
to extreme conditions, it can catch fire or explode.
Charging Time: Despite advancements in fast-charging technology, lithium-
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

ion batteries still take some time to charge fully. This can be a limitation in
applications where quick recharging is critical.
Disposal and Recycling Challenges: The disposal and recycling of lithium-ion
batteries can be complex due to the need for specialized processes and
potential environmental concerns. Improper disposal can lead to environmental
contamination potential environmental concerns. Improper disposal can lead to
environmental contamination.

Charging
Charging, standards and infrastructure
Infrastructure
Most electric cars will be charged at home, but national infrastructures are developing.
There are, however, competing organizations and commercial companies, so it is
necessary to register with a few different organizations to access their charging points.
Many businesses now also provide charging stations for staff and visitors. Some are
pay in advance, some are pay as you go, and others require a monthly subscription.
Many apps and websites are available for locating charge points. One of the best I
have found is[Link]
Interestingly, having just completed a roundtrip UK journey in my PHEV of about
600 miles, I did not find any charging points on the main roads and would have had to
search local towns for the facilities. I wonder why they are not available in-service
areas where fuel is sold by multinational oil companies…

Safety note:

Although the rechargeable electric vehicles and equipment can be recharged from a
domestic wall socket, a charging station has additional current or connection-sensing
mechanisms to disconnect the power when the EV is not charging. There are two main
types of safety sensor:
• Current sensors, which monitor the power consumed and only maintain the
connection if the demand is within a predetermined range.
• Additional sensor wires, which provide a feedback signal that requires special
power plug fittings.
The majority of public charge points are lockable, meaning passers-by cannot unplug
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

the cable. Some charge points can send a text message to the car owner if the vehicle
is unexpectedly unplugged, or tell you when the vehicle is fully charged.
It is safe to charge in wet weather. When you plug in the charge lead, the connection to
the supply is not made until the plug is completely in position. Circuit breaker devices
are also used for additional safety. Clearly some common sense is necessary, but EV
charging is very safe.
Domestic charge points: It is strongly recommended that home charging sockets and
wiring are installed and approved by a qualified electrician. A home charge point with its
own dedicated circuit is the best way of charging an EV safely. This will ensure the circuit
can manage the electricity demand from the vehicle and that the circuit is activated only
when the charger communicates with the vehicle, known as the ‘handshake’. For rapid
charging, special equipment and an upgraded electrical supply would be required and is
therefore unlikely to be installed at home, where most consumers will charge overnight.

Figure 6.2 Charging point

MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

Figure Charging point on the roadside Figure Charging at home

Figure D o m e s t i c charging point

Charging time
How long it takes to charge an EV depends on the type of vehicle, how
discharged the battery is and the type of charge point used. Typically, pure-
electric cars using standard charging will take between 6 and 8 hours to charge
fully and can be ‘opportunity charged’ whenever possible to keep the battery
topped up. Pure-EVs capable of using rapid charge points could be fully
charged in around 30 minutes and can be topped up in around20 minutes,
depending on the type of charge point and available power. PHEVs take
approximately 2 hours to charge from a standard electricity supply. E-REVs take
approximately 4 hours to charge from a standard electricity supply. PHEVs and
E-REVsrequire less time to charge because their batteries are smaller.

Table 6.1 Estimated charging times

Charging time for 100-km range Power supply Power Voltage Max. current
6–8 hours Single phase 3.3 kW 230 V AC 16 A
3–4 hours Single phase 7.4 kW 230 V AC 32 A
2–3 hours Three phase 10 kW 400 V AC 16 A
1–2 hours Three phase 22 kW 400 V AC 32 A
20–30 minutes Three phase 43 kW 400 V AC 63 A
20–30 minutes Direct current 50 kW 400–500 V DC 100–125 A
10 minutes Direct current 120 kW 300–500 V DC 300–350 A
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

Cost
The cost of charging an EV depends on the size of the battery and how much
charge is left in the battery before charging. As a guide, charging an electric car
from flat to full will cost from as little as £1 to £4. This is for a typical pure-electric
car with a 24 kWh battery that will offer around 100-mile range. This results in an
average cost of a few pence per mile.
If you charge overnight you may be able to take advantage of cheaper electricity rates
when there is surplus energy. The cost of charging from public points will vary; many
will offer free electricity in the short term. It is also possible to register with supply
companies who concentrate on energy from renewable sources.

6.1.1 Standardization
So that electric vehicles can be charged everywhere with no connection problems, it
was necessary to standardize charging cables, sockets and methods. The IEC
publishes the standards that are valid worldwide, in which the technical requirements
have been defined. Table 7.2 below lists some of the most important standards
associated with the charging of EVs:
Types of charging cables: IEC 61851-1 defines the different variants of the
connection configuration:
Table 6.2 Charging standards

IEC IEC 62196-2 IEC 62196-3 IEC 61851-1 IEC IEC HD

62196-1
61851-21-1 61851-21-2 60364-7-722
Plugs, Dimensional Dimensional Electric vehicle Electric Electric Low-voltage
socket- compatibility and compatibility and Conductive vehicle vehicle electrical
outlets, interchangeability interchangeability Charging conductive conductive installations.
Vehicle requirements requirements for system. charging charging Requirements
connectors for AC pin and dedicated DC and Different systems. systems for special
and vehicle contact tube combined AC/DC variants of the Electric EMC Installations
inlets. accessories. The pin and contact- Connection vehicle requirements supply of
Conductive permissible plug tube vehicle configuration, on-board for off-board Electric
Charging and socket types couplers as well as charger EMC electric Vehicles
of electric are described the basic requirements vehicle
Vehicles Communication For charging
with the conductive systems
vehicle, are connection
defined in this to an AC/DC

Standard supply
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

Charging

Charging

Figure Case A: The charging cable is permanently connected to the vehicle

Charging

Charging

Figure Case B: The charging cable is not permanently connected to the vehicle
or the charging station
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

Charging

Charging

Figure C a s e C: The charging cable is permanently connected to the charging station

6.1.2 Charging methods

AC charging: Alternating current charging has now established itself as the standard charging
method. It is possible in the private sector, as well as at charging stations in the semi-public and
public sector, with relatively low investments. Consequently, this charging method also has a
long-term future. Standard charging occurs via an alternating current connection and is the most
common and most flexible charging method. In charging modes 1 and 2, charging is possible on
household sockets or on CEE sockets. On the household socket, charging can take up to several
hours due to the power limited through the socket, depending on rechargeable battery capacity,
fill level and charging current. In charging mode 3 a vehicle can be charged at a charging
station where power of up to 43.5 kW is possible with a significantly reduced charging time.
Particularly in the private sector, the usable power is limited by the fuse protection of the
building connection. Charging powers to maximum 22 kW at 400 V AC are usually the high
power limit for home charging stations.
The charging device is permanently installed in the vehicle. Its capacity is adjusted to the vehicle
battery. Compared with other charging
methods, the investment costs for AC charging are moderate
DC charging: With direct current charging here is a distinction between
• DC low charging: up to 38 kW with type 2plugs
• DC high charging: up to 170 kW.
The charging device is part of the charging station, so DC charging stations are significantly
more expensive as compared with AC charging stations. The prerequisite for DC charging is
an appropriate network of charging stations, which due to the high power require high
infrastructure investments. Fast charging with high currents requires appropriately
dimensioned line cross-sections that make connecting the vehicles to the charging station more
cumbersome.

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107 35

Standardization of the DC charging connection has not yet been concluded and market
availability is still uncertain. In practice, vehicles with a DC charging connection have an
additional connection for standard charging so that the vehicle can also be charged at home.
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

Inductive charging: Charging occurs without contacts via inductive loops. The technical
complexity and thus the costs are considerable, for the charging station as well as the
vehicle. This system is not yet ready for the market or for large-scale production.

Battery replacement: The vehicle’s rechargeable battery is replaced with a fully charged
battery at the change station. In this case you can continue driving after a few minutes. The
prerequisite for this concept would be that vehicle manufacturers would have to install
standardized rechargeable batteries at standardized positions in the vehicle. However, such
standardization would hardly be possible due to the different vehicle types and uses. The
charge stations would have to keep battery types for the different vehicles on hand, which in
practice would be equally difficult. Consequently, battery replacement could only be
implemented today in closed fleets.

Figure 6.8 DC high charging

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107 36

MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

Figure 6.9 Inductive charging

Figure 6.10 Replacement batteries

6.1.3 Charging modes

Four different charging modes have been defined for safe charging of electric vehicles in line with
demand. These charging modes differ relative to the power source used (protective contact, CEE,
AC or DC charging socket), and they differ relative to the maximum charging power and the
communication possibilities.
Mode 1: Charging from a socket to max 16 A three-phase without communication with the vehicle.
The charging device is integrated in the vehicle. Connection to the energy network occurs via an
off-the-shelf, standardized plug and socket that must be fused via a residual current protective
device. This method is not recommended because mode 2 offers greater safety thanks to
Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107 37
communication with the vehicle.
Mode 2: Mode for charging from a socket to max. 32 A, three-phase with a control function and
protective function integrated in the cable or the wall-side plug. The charging device is installed in
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

the vehicle. Connection to the energy network occurs via an off-the-shelf, standardized plug and
socket. For mode 2 the standard prescribes a mobile device to increase the level of protection.
Moreover, for the power setting and to satisfy the safety requirements, a communication device is
required with the vehicle. These two components
are combined in the In-Cable Control Box (ICCB).

Figure 6.11 In-Cable Control Box (ICCB)

Mode 3: Mode for charging at AC charging stations. The charging device is a fixed component
of the charging station and includes protection. In the charging station PWM communication,
residual current device (RCD), overcurrent protection, shutdown, as well as a specific charging
socket are prescribed. In mode 3 the vehicle can be charged three-phase with up to 63 A so a
charging power of up to 43.5 kW is possible. Depending on rechargeable battery capacity and
charge status, charges in less than 1 hour are possible.
Mode 4: Mode for charging at DC charging stations. The charging device is a component of the
charging station and includes protection. In mode 4 the vehicle can be charged with two plug-
and-socket systems, both of which are based on the Type 2 plug geometry.
The ‘Combined Charging System’ has two additional DC contacts to 200 A and up to 170 kW
charging power. The other option is a plug and socket with lower capacity fora charge to 80 A and
up to 38 kW in Type 2design. Standards continue to be reviewed and changed to improve safety
and ease of use as well as compatibility.
Communication
Basic communication: Safety check and charging current limitation is determined. Even before
the charging process starts, in charging modes 2, 3 and 4 PWM communication with the vehicle
occurs via a connection known as the control pilot (CP) line. Several parameters are
communicated and coordinated. The charging will only begin if all security queries clearly
correspond to the specifications and the maximum permissible charging current has been
communicated. These test steps a real way executed:
1 The charging station locks the infrastructure side charging coupler.
2 The vehicle locks the charging coupler and requests start of charging.
3 The charging station (in mode 2 the control unit in the charging cable) checks the connection
of the protective conductor to the vehicle and communicates the available charging current.
4 The vehicle sets the charger accordingly.
Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107 38
If all other prerequisites are met, the charging station switches the charging socket on.
For the duration of the charging process, the protective conductor is monitored via the PWM
connection and the vehicle has the possibility of having the voltage
supply switched off by the charging station. Charging is ended and the plugs and sockets are
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

unlocked via a stop device (in the vehicle).

Limitation of the charging current: The vehicle’s charging device determines the charging
process. To prevent the vehicle charging device from overloading the capacity of the charging
station or of the charging cable, the power data of the systems is identified and adjusted to
match. The CP box reads the power data of the cable from the cable. Before the charging process
is started, the box communicates the power data to the vehicle via PWM signal, the vehicle’s
charging device is adjusted accordingly and the charging process can begin, without the
possibility of an overload situation occurring.
The weakest link in the charging chain determines the maximum charging current: The
charging current in the charger is limited depending on the power of the charging station and
the resistance coding in the plug of the charging cable.

[Link] EU system
Due to the communication and safety devices used, charging couplers do not need a shutter.
However, in some European countries national regulations for household couplers are applied
to these charging couplers for charging of electric vehicles. Mennekes has developed an add-on
for Type 2. Thusa modular system has been produced that enables the Type 2 socket to be
equipped with a shutter. In countries that do not have these requirements, the shutter is simply
omitted. Thus Type 2 is a solution for all of Europe.

[Link] Charging plugs

Worldwide, three different plug-and-socket systems are standardized in IEC 62196-2 for
connection of electric vehicles; these three systems are not compatible. Basically, all three
standardized systems meet the high safety requirements for the consumer. Voltage is only
switched on when the system has detected that the plugs on the vehicle side and infrastructure
side are completely plugged in, that the plugs are locked, and that the protective conductor
connection is correct. As long as one of these conditions is not satisfied, the contacts will
remain de-energized.

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107 39

Figure 6.12 Type 2 system with and without shutter (Source: Mennekes)
MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

Type 1 is a single phase charging plug developed in Japan exclusively for the vehicle-side
charging connection. The maximum charging power is 7.4 kW at 230 V AC. Type 1 offers
insufficient possibilities for the three-phase European networks.

Figure 6.13 Type 1 plug

Type 2 is the EU charging plug developed in Germany by Mennekes. This is appropriate to

single phase alternating current in the private household to the powerful three-phase
connection with 63 A. With the EU charging plug at a connection voltage of 230 V single
phase, or 400 V three-phase, charging powers from 3.7 kW to 43.5 kW can be transmitted –
with identical plug geometry. Type 2 is also the basis for the combined charging system for
DC charging. Type 2 plugs and sockets can be used on the vehicle-side as well as on the
infrastructure-side. Due to the extensive electronic safety architecture, thereis no need for a
mechanical touch guard in the charging plug or charging connector.

Figure 6.14 Type 2 plug. The pins from the top left and clockwise are: Proximity (PP), Control pilot (CP),
Neutral (N), L3, L2, L1 and the Earth pin in the centre (Source: Mennekes)

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107 40

MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

Type 3 variant was developed in Italy. It is suitable for a connection voltage of 30 V single
phase or 400 V three-phase for charging powers from 3.7 kW to 43.5 kW. However,
three different plug geometries that are not compatible with each other are required for
the different power levels. For the information in the previous sections

Figure 6.15 Type 3 plug

6.1.4 Vehicle-to-grid technology

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107 41

MODERN MOBILITY & AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICS (21ME54)

Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) is a system that uses bidirectional power from the car to the grid as well
as the normal charging routine of grid to car. If this system is employed the car battery can be
used as a power back-up for the home or business. If the car is primarily charged from
renewable sources such as PV panels or wind generation then returning this to the grid is not
only ecologically beneficial, itis also an ideal way of stabilizing fluctuations of demand in the
grid. The potential problem is managing inrush currents if lots of vehicles fast charge at the
same time. This notion is a little way into the future at the time of writing (2015), but the
concept of the ‘smart grid’ using techniques such as this is not far off.

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107 42