The nervous system of humans
The human nervous system is composed of neurones or nerve cells which transmit electrical
impulses to and from the brain. The nervous system is divided into two parts:
The central nervous system (CNS) which consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) which consists of cranial and spinal nerves that
connect the central nervous system to all parts of the body.
The peripheral nervous system forms a vast communication network linking the reception of the
stimuli to a response. Receptors receive stimuli from the environment and responses are brought
about by effectors.
Neurones
Neurones make up both the CNS and PNS, and they transmit messages called nerve impulses.
Parts of a Neuron
Cell Body with nucleus – nucleus & most of cytoplasm with thin fibres of cytoplasm
extending from it called nerve fibres.
Dendrite – receive stimulus and carries it impulses toward the cell body.
Axon – fibre which carries impulses away from cell body.
Myelin sheath – dense lipid layer which insulates the axon; makes the axon look grey.
relay neurones do not have a myelin sheath
Node of Ranvier – gaps or nodes in the myelin sheath
Impulses travel from dendrite to cell body to axon: each neurone has only one axon.
All neurones have a cell body with thin fibres of cytoplasm extending from it called nerve fibres.
Nerve fibres that carry impulses towards the cell body are called dendrites. Nerve fibres that
carry impulses from the cell body are called axons; each neurone has only one axon. There are
three types of neurones:
Sensory neurones which transmit impulses from receptors to the CNS.
Motor neurones which transmit impulses from the CNS to effectors.
Relay or intermediate neurones which transmit impulses throughout the CNS. They
link sensory and motor neurones.
Nerves are made up of bundles of nerve fibres of sensory and/or motor neurones surrounded by
connective tissue. The brain and spinal cord are made up mainly of relay neurones and the cell
bodies of motor neurones.
Figure 18.8 is a typical pathway, from the stimulus touching the receptor to the effector bringing
about a response.
Transmitting impulses between neurones
The nervous system is adapted to carry messages quickly between specific locations in the body,
so that quick responses can be made. Adjacent neurones do not touch. There are tiny gaps called
synapses between the synaptic knobs at the end of one axon and the dendrites or cell body of
adjacent neurones. Electrical impulses cannot cross these gaps, so they are converted to a
chemical signal in order to cross the synapse. The chemicals (neurotransmitters) are released into
the synapses by the synaptic knobs and cause impulses to be set up in adjacent neurones. This
ensures impulses travel in one direction only. As they reach the other neurone, they are
converted back into electrical impulses so that they can continue quickly on their way.
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Coordinating function of the central nervous system
The job of the central nervous system is to coordinate the activities of all parts of the body. It
gathers information from receptors via sensory neurones. It then processes this information and
sends messages out to effectors via motor neurones so that the most appropriate action can be
taken. Messages are passed between the brain and the spinal cord by relay neurones.
Simple Reflex Actions
A reflex action is a rapid and automatic response to a stimulus. It does not require conscious
control (you do not think about doing it). Examples of reflex actions are the knee jerk, sneezing,
the pupil reflex and blinking (these are involuntary actions). The pathway between the receptor
and effector is called the reflex arc and it involves the following:
A receptor which detects the stimulus.
A sensory neurone which carries the impulse to the central nervous system.
A relay neurone in the central nervous system, which carries the impulse to a motor
neurone.
A motor neurone which carries the impulse away from the central nervous system.
An effector which responds to the stimulus.
There are two kinds of simple reflexes:
cranial reflexes
spinal reflexes
Cranial reflexes
In cranial reflexes, impulses pass through the brain, e.g. the pupil reflex, blinking, sneezing,
coughing and saliva production.
Spinal reflexes
In spinal reflexes, impulses pass through the spinal cord, and do not go to the brain e.g. the knee
jerk reflex and the withdrawal reflex.
Withdrawal Reflex
1. The stimulus is, say, a hot object touching a pain receptor in the skin of the hand.
2. A signal travels along the sensory neurone to the central nervous system (CNS).
3. In the CNS, a relay neurone carries the signal through the brain.
4. The relay neurone passes the signal to the motor neurone.
5. The signal travels along the motor neurone to the effector (biceps muscle) which
responds (contracts).
6. The hand is moved away from the hot object.