14.

Scope of Goat Farming and its National importance

Introduction:
India occupies first position in terms of goat population and milk
production. Chevon (goat meat) is most preferred and widely consumed meat
in the country. Since ancient times goat milk has traditionally been known for
its medicinal properties and has recently gained importance in human health
due to its proximity to human milk for easy digestibility and it’s all round health
promoting traits. Still research is needed to explore and validate medicinal
properties of goat milk for projecting it as therapeutic milk for human health.
Demand for goat milk and milk products for internal consumption and export is
expected to rise in coming years. Goat husbandry provides glimpses of future
hope for employment generation, nutritional security and prosperity to the
millions of small and marginal farmers in the country.

Role in Rural Economy:

Among all species of farm animals, Goats have the widest ecological
range and have been poor people’s most reliable livelihood resource since their
domestication during Neolithic Revolution about 10 millennia ago. Goat plays a
significant role in providing supplementary income and livelihood to millions of
resource poor farmers and landless laborers of rural India. Small ruminant
rearing ensures self-employment and acts as a cushion in distress situations
like drought and famine.

Role in entrepreneurship:
In last few years, goat production in the country gained momentum in
the form of a commercially viable enterprise as evidenced by increasing
interest of young entrepreneurs to develop knowledge and skill in this species.
In many small-herd dairy goat enterprises, not all does must be milked, so
meat is often the main product. Along with meat, the sale of breeding stock
from small herds of dairy goats may be an important income source. This
versatility allows the producer to plan and operate a more stable economic
production unit. In some parts of the world, all breeds may be raised for fiber,
meat, and milk and cheese production. Kids of all breeds can be used for meat.
However, meat goat carcasses are generally leaner and more muscular than
dairy goat carcasses.

Role in global scenario:

India ranks on top in goat population. The demand for meat, milk and
fiber is increasing progressively and expected to further rise in future in view of
sizable increase in per capita income and health consciousness of people.
Worldwide consumers are preferring products that are “clean, green and
ethical”. As such goat producers are shifting to husbandry practices that do not
compromise the welfare of animals. Medicinal properties of goat milk increased
the interest of society to use it as therapeutic health food neutraceutical;
moreover, biotechnologists are focusing on designer milk for human health.

Role in Nutrition and Health:

 Goats possess distinct social, economical and biological advantages.
They can be maintained on a limited area and can sustain on wide variety of
vegetation in varied agro‐climatic conditions. Goat meat (chevon) is one of
most preferred meat type by the consumers in several countries including
India. The goat milk is easily digestible due to smaller size of fat globules and
serves as a ready source of family nutrition. In India, both demand and
production of goat meat have shown steady increase during the last decade
and despite the rising 3 production trend, country would need to double the
number of goats to meet the projected requirement of goat meat for growing
human population in the coming decades

15. Procure and rear goats on a goat farm using good

animal husbandry practices

BREEDS OF GOAT

Sirohi Jamnapari Black Bengal

Barbari Boer Beetal

Goats Breeds - Indian

There are about 19 well defined Indian breeds apart from a number of local non-descript
goats scattered throughout the country. The breeds are classified based on their locations.

Himalayan - Region (Hilly tract)

This region comprises the states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and parts of Uttar
Pradesh.

Himalayan breed: The goats of this breed are white haired and sturdily built. The breed is
also known as gaddi, jamba, kashmiri according to their localities where they are reared.
They inhabit kangra and kulu valleys, chamba, sirmur and Simla in Himachal pradesh and
parts of Jammu hills. Castrated bucks are used for transporting merchandise in the hilly
tracts.
Pashmina: These are small dainty animals with quick movements. They are raised above
3400 m elevations in the Himalayas, Ladakh and Lahaul and spiti valleys. They produce the
softest and warmest animal fibre used for high quality fabrics. The yield of pashmina varies
from 75-150 g/goat.

Chegu: This breed is found in the mountainous range of spiti, yaksar and Kashmir. The
goats of this breed yield of pashmina, good meat and a small quantity of milk.

Northern Region
The states which comes under the region are Punjab, Haryana and parts of Uttar Pradesh.
The important milch breeds of goats are distributed in this region only.

Jamnunapari: Native of Etawah district of Uttar Pradesh. These are large sized, tall, leggy
with large folded pendulous ears and prominent Roman nose. They carry long and thick
hair on their hind quarters and has a glossy goat. Horns are short flat. The body weight of
adult bucks and does varies from 65 to 86 kg and 45-61 respectively. The average daily
milk yield in 2.25 to 2.7 kg. The milk yield in a lactation period of, 250 days varies from 250
- 300 kg with 3.5 percent fat content. The Jamunapari goats have been used for evolving
the famous Anglo -Nubian breed of goats in England.

Beetal
Mainly found in Punjab and this breed is evolved from Jamunapari breed. Color is red and
tan, heavily spotted on white. Bucks weight 65 - 86 kg does weight 45-61 kg does yield
about 1 kg milk daily, bucks may have a beard.

Barbari: This breed is found in Etawah, Etah, Agra and Mathura districts of U.P, kamal,
Paniphat and Rothak in Hariyana, color varies with white, red and tan sports being
common. These are small and short haired, with erect horns. Adult buck weighs from 36 -
45 kg and the doe from 27 -36 kg. They are usually stall fed and yield 0.90 to 1.25 kg of
milk (fat 5%) per day in a lactation period of 108 days. They are prolific breeders and
usually kid twice in 12 -15 months. This breed is highly fit for intensive rearing.

Central region
This region includes Rajasthan, Madya pradesh, Gujarat and northern parts of Maharastra,
Marwari, Mehsana and Zalwadi. They are derived from Jamunapari breed. Commonly found
in Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhypradesh. These breeds comes in different color
combinations. They yield between 0.75 -1 kg of milk per day.

Berari: found in Nagpur and wardha district of Maharastra and Ninar district of Madhya
Pradesh. These are tall and dark colored breeds. Doe yields about 0.6 kg of milk per day.

Kathiiawari: This breed is native of Kutch, Northern Gujarat and Rajasthan. The goats
have black coat with reddish color marks on the neck. The doe yields about 1.25 k.g of milk
per day.

Southern region
The states under these region include parts of Maharastra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu and Kerala.

Surti: Surti goats resemble Berari goats and possess white, short legs. Surti is popular in
Bombay, Nasik and Surat. Does are good milk producers yielding 2.25 kg per day.

Deccania or Osmanabadi: These have originated from a mixture of the goats of the
plains. They are black, mixtures of white and black or red are also found. The milk yield is
1.4 to 2.25 kg per day.

Malarbar (or) Tellicherry: found in Northern Kerala

GBRI: This is a mixture of two more type of goats. The color is not uniform and may vary
from black to white. The milk yield in is 0.9 to 2.8 kg/day.
Eastern Region
This region consists of West Bengal, Assam, Tripura, Orissa and Part of Bihar.

Bengal: The goats of this breed are found in 3 colours viz. Black, Brown and White. They
are small short breeds. The meat of this breed is of superior quality. Bucks weigh 14-16 kg
and nannies 9-14 kg. Does kids twice in a year, twins are common. The skin of Bengal
goats are of excellent quality and is in great demand in India and abroad in foot-wear
industry.

Assam Hilly breed: These are smaller dwarf breeds of goats found in the hilly tract of
Assam and other eastern states.

Exotic Breeds
The principal exotic dairy breeds of goats are Toggenberg, Sannen, French Alpine and
Nubian. They are all noted for their higher milk yield and most of these breed, were
imported to India to improve milk yield of our local breeds and to upgrade our non descript
goats.

Toggenberg: it is originated in the Toggenberg valley in north Switzerland. Skin is very

soft and pliable. Usually both male and female are hornless. The adult doe weights 65 kg or
more and the bucks more than 80 kg. Average milk production is 5.5 kg per day. The butter
fat content of milk 3-4 percent. The male usually has longer hair than females.

Sannen: Native of Sannen valley of Switzerland noted for its consistency and high
production. Color is white or light cream. The face may be slightly dished and the ears point
upward and forward. Both sexes are normally polled but sometimes horns do appear. Does
weight 65 kg and the bucks 95 kg. Average milk yield is 2 - 5 kg per day during a lactation
period of 8 -10 months. Milk fat 3 - 5%.

Alpine: This breed was originated in Alps mountains. It was derived from French, Swiss and
Rock Alpine breeds. No distinct color has been established. Excellent milkers and they have
horns. Average milk yield is 2 - 3 kg with buffer fat of 3 -4%.

Nubian: Originated in Nubia of North eastern Africa. Also found in Ethiopia and Egypt. It is
a long legged and hardy animal. This breed along with Jamunapari of India together with
native breeds of U.K. formed the cross bred Anglo Nubian breed of goat.

Anglo Nubian: It is a big animal with a fine skin and glossy coat, -pendulous ears and
Roman nose. Anglo Nubian is known as the Jersey cow of the goat world. Udder is large and
pendulous with bigger teats. There is no fixed color. Bucks weight 65 - 80 kg and does from
50 -60 kg. Average milk yield in 3 - 4 kg/day. Peak yield may even go up to 6.5 kg or more.

Angora: Originated in Turkey or Asia minor. It produces a superior quality fibre called
mohair. The soft silky hairs cover the white body. If not shorn during spring the fleece drops
off naturally as summer approaches. Average fleece yield is 1.2 kg. Good animals yields
even up to 6 kg. The Angora is small in size with shorter legs. Horns are grey, spirally
twisted and inclined backward and outward. Tail is short and erect.

Conformation of a good milch goat: The general features of a good milkch goat are

1. Head: Long with medium width prominent muzzle and nostrils. Head in the does
should be well carried with feminine appearance.
2. Eyes: Should be large and bright, set well apart indicating docility.
3. Neck and shoulders: Neck should be long and slim with the tossels if present
evenly hung. Withers and shoulders should be fine in appearance and connect the
neck. with the body with ' litter break in continuity.
4. Chest: Should be of good width and smooth.
5. Forelegs: Should be straight and strong.
6. Feet: Animal should stand well on its legs without the tendency to turn toes or
walk on heels.
7. Body: Good depth is an important feature. The back should be level from the
shoulders to the hips and then drop slightly at the tail region. Excessive dip in the
back is undesirable.
 8. Higher length from the head to tail is a desirable factor
9. Ribs: The ribs should be well sprung so as to give a barrel, effect. Flat sides are a
common fault. The abdomen should not be protruding beyond the width of the ribs
10. Hind quarters: There should be sufficient width across the hips and the rump and
between the pin bones and the hocks. The hind legs should face straight forward
and not outward.
11. Hind legs: Bones of hind legs should give a appearance of strength with hocks
slightly bent Pastern should be short and its joint should not show signs of
weakness.
12. Udder and teats: Size large and proportional to the size of the goat should be
carried well under the body. When viewed from the side it should be in front of the
hind legs. Texture should be soft and pliable. The udder should collapse after
milking. Milk teats and ducts should be free from any lumps. Teats should be of
moderate length 'and of convenient size for easy milking. The milk veins should be
large and prominent under the belly.
13. Skin and hair: The skin should be soft, supple and loose. The coat should be glossy
with fine short hair.

Goats are one of the earliest discovery of mankind in prehistoric times as ready and
easy source of meat. Whether in cold arid up hills, or hot arid deserts, or hilly tracts of
mountains or ravines constituted of leached soil, goats have survived and sustained the
poor people. The present worldwide distribution of goats shows that the number of milch
type goats are more in the temperate zone and dual type or meat type goats are primarily
located in the sub-tropical and tropical Asian and African countries.
The goat belongs to the family Bovidae (hollow-horned ruminants) and is the member of
the genus Capra. Domesticated goats (C. hircus) are descendants of the pasang (C.
aegagrus), represented in Europe by the Cretan and Cyclades races. the East was probably
their original home, the earliest recorded being the Persian race.

Upgrading of local Goat, breeding aspects

Goat, an important domestic animal, is serving the mankind by producing meat,
milk, fibre, skin and offal. Since time immemorial goat rearing is being practiced in
India. Goat rearing provides livelihood and financial security to the large section rural
poor people in India. According to 21st Livestock census of India, the total goat
population is 148.88 million. ICAR- National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources- the
nodal agency for breed registration in India has registered 26 goat breeds with varying
potential for meat (chevon), milk and fibre production. Black Bengal, Osmanabadi,
Barbari and Kannaiadu goat breeds are excellent in chevon quality and production. The
major milk producing goat breeds are Jamunapari, Beetal, Jakhrana and Surti while
Changthangi, Chegu and Gaddi have good potential for fibre/pashmina production.

Chevon and goat milk production in India

Chevon refers to the meat produced from goats. Chevon shares 16 % of the
total meat produced in our country. West Bengal is the leading state in India in chevon
production and produces 0.242 million tonnes per year. The share of goat milk in
national milk pail is comparatively low (less than 4%) and Rajasthan is the leading
state (BAHS, 2014). At present scenario, India stands first in goat milk production and
second in goat meat production in the world.
Nutritional value of chevon and goat milk
Chevon:

 Chevon is generally lean and low in calorie

 Low in LDL count (bad quality cholesterol)
 Chevon is the most preferred red meat consumed worldwide
 High in vitamin B 12 and iron

(Tardiff, 2015)
Goat milk:

 rich in iron, calcium, phosphorous, chlorine and vitamins

 easily digestible and has a mild laxative effect
 rich in vitamin B1 which is useful in relieving stress, constipation and insomnia
 may be used to replace cow milk for those suffering from allergy to cows’ milk
 has low cholesterol than the cow’s milk thus suitable for people with high blood
pressure
 low in sugar than cow’s milk hence good for those suffering from diabetes

Formulation of breeding strategies for Improvement

of goat
A good breeding strategy is an integral part of genetic improvement of goats for meat,
fibre and milk production. While formulating the breeding strategy for goat
improvement, the formulators should take care of the following criteria:

1. Adaptability of the breeds in the local agro-climatic conditions

2. Socio-economic condition of the farmer
3. Market demands
4. Availability of good quality bucks
5. Conservation of indigenous recognised breeds by preventing them from
rampant genetic dilution

Breeding Strategies for improving chevon

production
Most of the goat breeds maintained at the organizational herd or farmers’ fields are
meant for chevon production. Meat production traits in goat include body weight at
slaughter, efficiency of feed conversion and dressing percentage (Mandal,
2014). Hence breeding strategies should be directed towards improving growth rate,
body weight, reproductive efficiency, dressing percentage and to reduce mortality
(National Livestock Policy, 2013). The optimum body weight for slaughter is an
important factor for consideration, while developing a breeding strategy for improving
the meat production. Crossing indigenous breeds with exotic breeds like Anglo-Nubian,
Boer goat may be encouraged for improving growth rate and chevon production in
areas where there is availability of good quality feed resources or where intensive
feeding is possible. Both selective pure breeding and crossbreeding can be adopted
based on the need of the locality, demand for the market, traits under consideration.
Since, growth traits are high heritable response to selection will be better.

Carcass weight at slaughter in some major meat breeds in India:

Breed Adult body weight (in kg) Reference

Male Female

Black Bengal 25 - 30 20 - 25

Osmanabadi 31 to 36 32 to 33 (Karunakaran,
2015)

Malabari 43 - 46 34 (Karunakaran,
2015)
 Sangamneri 39 to 42 32 to 34 (Karunakaran,
2015)

Barbari 37 - 38 22 - 23

Breeding Strategies for improving goat milk

production
The exotic breeds like Alpine, Sannen have been used with indigenous breed to
improve their milk production. Among indigenous breeds, Jamunapari, Beetal, Barbari,
Jhakrana, Sirohi and Surti are the major dairy breeds although their milk production is
not as par that of the exotic superior dairy breeds. Both selective breeding and
crossbreeding can be adopted based on the need of the locality, demand for the
market, traits under consideration. Since, milk yield traits are medium to high
heritable in nature, response to selection will be better. Performance recording and
progeny testing programs should be encouraged to select and propagate elite bucks.
Nucleus flocks/herds can be established with best performing females and their male
progenies and can be linked with farmers flock. Artificial insemination with liquid and
preferably frozen semen may be adopted to make the progeny testing programmed
more effective. Jamunapari, Beetal, Jakhrana and Surti could be used as improved
breeds in other regions for boosting up both milk and meat production. Crossing of low
producing indigenous breeds and non-descript may be taken up with Sannen goat
breeds. The crosses of Sannen have exhibited optimal performance in milk production,
survivability and reproduction. However, the crossbreeding with Sannen should be
taken up only in areas where feed resources are better and there is possibility of
making available cultivated fodder/concentrate (Mandal, 2014)

Policy issues and recommendations

1. Availability of reliable data on goat breeds population at different areas and

trends over time is one of the chief criterion for formulating appropriate
breeding policies and strategies. Hence, there is a need for availability of good
quality authenticated data on indigenous goats of India.
2. Animal identification and field performance recording of indigenous goat breeds
needs to be started. This will assist in identifying superior germplasms for
further use in breeding programme.
3. Participation of livestock keepers in the genetic improvement programme
should be encouraged.
4. Genetic improvement is permanent and is inherited from parental generation to
the progenies automatically so long as the selected elite animals are used for
breeding and their progenies are used for further breeding. But genetic and
environmental improvements act synergistically. Hence, making the genetic
improvement programmes broader by addressing disease/health, nutrition and
management will bring more success.
5. The period of a genetic improvement programme should be minimum 10 years
and require strong institutional/organizational support.
6. Encouraging semen freezing and artificial insemination (AI) technology can
effectively overcome the problem of unavailability of good quality breeding
bucks and the small holder farmers’ difficulty and economic non-feasibility of
maintaining a buck.

Reorientation of Breeding Policy by National Livestock Policy (2013)

National Livestock Policy (2013) have encouraged states to reorient their breeding
policy for livestock. It has been recommended to refine the breeding policy species-
wise to be implemented for bringing faster growth in production. For small ruminants
like sheep and goat, major aim is to improve growth, body weight, reproductive
competence, meat and wool quality and quantity and to lessen mortality rate. Chief
focus will be to produce and disseminate elite bucks of native breeds which can sustain
well in different agro-climatic conditions. Encouragement of artificial insemination is
also one of the chief criterion. Cross-breeding with superior exotic and other
indigenous breeds of goats will also be considered.

Dorper from South Africa

The Dorper is a South African breed of domestic sheep. One of the most fertile of
sheep breeds that is hornless with good body length and a short light covering of
hair and wool. It produce a high-quality carcass with excellent conformation and
fat distribution

16. Sheep Maintenance

I. Housing management:
1) Construct shed on dry and properly raised ground.
2) Avoid water-logging, marshy areas.
3) In low lying and heavy rainfall areas the floors should be preferably elevated.
4) In temperate Himalayan region the floor may be made of wood.
5) The shed should be 10 ft. high and should have good ventilation.
6) Bucks should be housed in individual pens.
7) Does can be housed in groups upto 60 per pen.
8) Provide proper shade and cool drinking water in summer.
9) Dispose of dung and urine properly.
10) Give adequate space for the animals. The housing space required for
11) goats of various age groups is given in Annexure VIII.
12) Avoid over stocking or crowding

II. Selection of breeding stock and it's management:

1. Immediately after release of the loan purchase the stock from a reliable
breeders or from nearest livestock market.
2. Animals in good health and having good physical features must be purchased
in consultation with Veterinarian/ Bank's technical officer.
[Link] animals which are ready to breed and in prime stage of production.
[Link] the newly purchased animals by suitable identification mark.
5. Vaccinate the newly purchased animals against the diseases
[Link] the newly purchased animals under observation for about 15 days and
then mix with the general flock.
[Link] animals should be culled promptly and should be replaced by the
newly purchased animals or farm born one
8. Animals are to be bred at the interval of 8-9 months for maximum
productivity.
9. Cull the old animals at the age of 6 years and above.
10. Avoid the kidding during peak periods of summer and winter.

III. Feeding management:

[Link] Bushes/shrubs for browising of animals
[Link] an alternative to above, supply of cultivated fodder from own farm or from
surrounding farms may be ensured.
[Link] roughages adlib.
[Link] a thumb rule 2/3rds of the energy requirements should be met through
roughages. Half of the roughages should be leguminous green fodders and rest
half should be grasses/tender tree leaves.
5. In the absence of good quality green fodders, concentrates must be
considered to replace them.
6. Kids should be fed colostrum upto 5 days of age. Later on they can be put on
Kid starter rations.
[Link] leguminous fodders should be offered adlib. to kids from 15 days
onwards.
[Link] salt and water to kids at all times
9. Additional concentrates should be given to bucks and does during breeding
season.
[Link] should be taken to meet the nutrient requirements as recommended

IV. Protection against diseases:

[Link] on the alert for signs of illness such as reduced feed intake, fever, abnormal
discharge or unusual behaviour.
[Link] the nearest veterinary aid centre for help if illness is suspected.
3. Protect the animals against common diseases.
4. In case of outbreak of contagious diseases, immediately segregate the
sickanimals from healthy one and take necessary disease control measures.
[Link] the animals regularly.
[Link] the faeces of adult animals to detect eggs of internal parasites and
treat the animals with suitable drugs.
[Link] clean and uncontaminated feed and water for minimising the health
disorders.
8. Strictly follow the recommended vaccine schedule as given below

V. Breeding care:
1. It should be planned to obtain 3 kiddings in 2 years period by adopting
optimal management conditions.
2. For every 25 does one buck should be provided in one breeding season.
3. Breed the animals 12 hours after the onset of the first symptoms of heat for
maximum conception.
4. Unbreedable animals must be examined thoroughly as directed by veterinary
doctor for prompt elimination of causes for anoestrum or cull them if necessary.

VI. Care during pregnancy:

In advanced stage of pregnancy the does must be transferred to either kidding
pens or separately earmarked space for kidding with in the main shed after
thoroughly disinfecting it. After kidding, the does should be provided with warm
bran mash for two days.

VII. Care of kids:

1. Take care of new born kids by providing guard rails.
2. Treat / disinfect the naval cord with tincture of iodine as soon as it is cut with
 a sharp knife.
3. Protect the kids from extreme weather conditions, particularly during the first
two months.
4. Dehorn the kids during first two weeks of age
5. Male kids should be castrated for better quality meat production.
6. Vaccinate the kids as per the recommended schedule
7. Wean the kids at the age of 8 weeks
8. Proper selection of kids on the basis of initial body weight and weaning weight
should be initiated by maintaining appropriate records for replacing the culled
adult stock as breeders.
9. Additional feed requirements of lactating does must be ensured for proper
nursing of all the piglets born.

VIII. Antibiotics

Antibiotics are used to treat and prevent disease in goats, but there are some
things to consider when using them, including:
 Withdrawal period
Most antibiotics require a withdrawal period before a goat can be slaughtered
to allow residues to leave the animal's system.
 Antibiotic residues
Antibiotic residues in animal products can pose a health risk to consumers. For
example, the presence of antibiotic residues in goat meat could increase the
antimicrobial resistance of enterococci.
 Extra-label drug use
Using a drug for a species it wasn't approved for is considered extra-label drug
use (ELDU). For example, sulfa drugs are used to treat coccidiosis in goats, but
they are not FDA-approved for this use.
 Antibiotic sources
Farmers may get antibiotics from veterinarians, feed stores, or online.
 Antibiotic types
Some antibiotics used to treat goats include:
 Enrofloxacin: A fluoroquinolone antibiotic used to treat gastrointestinal,
respiratory, and mammary diseases
 Nitrofurantoin: Used to treat urinary tract infections (UTIs) caused by
multidrug-resistant bacteria

17. Construct and maintain the goat farm

Housing

Low cost housing will be constructed on a raised platform (about 1

meterheight from ground level) by using bamboo/wooden poles or ‘pakka’
building by establishing concrete pillars. Floor and side walls will be made
of wooden material. Roof will be thatched with coconut leaves, grass or
asbestos sheets. Average floor space per kid is 0.75 to 1 sq. meter. Floor
should have at least 1 cm space between bamboos/wooden planks to
allow passage of dung and urine down to the ground.

Feed & Fodder cultivation

Fertile land with assured irrigation facilities is available so that fodder

crops could be successfully raised and abundant good quality green
fodders will be made available for animal feeding throughout the year.

Water

Good quality fresh water for animal drinking and for the cleaning, washing
etc. is available.

Labour

Honest,economicandregularsuppliesoflaboursareavailable.

VeterinaryAid

Veterinaryaid/
breedingcentresfacilitiesareavailabilityneartheproposedgoatfarm.

18. Feeds for the animals

Feeding different age groups of sheep

A. Feeding ewes in different stages

1. Feeding consideratins for breeding ewes
i. Reducing over fattening of ewes

 Over-fattening will result in excessive fat deposition resulting in reduced

fertility
 A good shepherd should watch for over-fattening at least one and a half to
two months before the onset of breeding season.
 The over-fat ewes may be gradually brought down to the desirable lean
condition, by reducing the ration and by exercising.
 The farmer should constantly check and keep the ewes in condition for
flushing by mild reduction in feed and providing exercise. .
ii. Flushing ewes

 About 2 to 3 weeks before the onset of the breeding season, nutrition of

ewes should be stepped up to promote their body weight.
 This practice will bring ewes into heat earlier in the season thereby giving
early lambs.
 It also has the effect of bringing the ewes into heat a more nearly the same
time, resulting in a more uniform lamb crop.
 Besides, flushing also increases the lambing rate and incidence of multiple
births in the flock.
 This period is usually during the latter half of May in India.
 Different flushing rations are furnished below and any one method can be
followed depending upon the availability of feed resources.

Suggested flushing rations

 A good mixed pasture of legumes and grasses,

 A grass pasture plus 150 g of wheat bran per head per day,
 Grass pasture plus 250 g of grains and 450 g of oil cakes,
 Legume hay full fed plus 100 g of wheat bran and 150 to 200 g of grain and
 Green fodder at the rate of 10 per cent of body weight and 150-200 g of
concentrate per head per day.

2. Feeding ewes during early and mid-pregnancy

 Subabul
 Neem
 Agathi
 Glyricidia
 Kodukapuli
 Arasu
 Vagai
 Karuvel
 Velvel
 Seemaikaruvel

Concentrate feed ingredients for sheep and goats

 Sorghum
  Maize
 Broken rice
 Jowar
 Soya bean cake
 Groundnut cake

Reducing over fattening of ewes

 Over-fattening will result in excessive fat deposition resulting in reduced

fertility.
 A good shepherd should watch for over-fattening at least one and a half to
two months before the onset of breeding season.
 The over-fat ewes may be gradually brought down to the desirable lean
condition, by reducing the ration and by exercising.
 The farmer should constantly check and keep the ewes in condition for
flushing by mild reduction in feed and providing exercise.

Flushing ewes

 About 2 to 3 weeks before the onset of the breeding season, nutrition of

ewes should be stepped up to promote their body weight.
 This practice will bring ewes into heat earlier in the season thereby giving
early lambs.
 It also has the effect of bringing the ewes into heat a more nearly the same
time, resulting in a more uniform lamb crop.
 Besides, flushing also increases the lambing rate and incidence of multiple
births in the flock.
 This period is usually during the latter half of May in India.
 Different flushing rations are furnished below and any one method can be
followed depending upon the availability of feed resources.

Suggested flushing rations

 A good mixed pasture of legumes and grasses,

 A grass pasture plus 150 g of wheat bran per head per day,
 Grass pasture plus 250 g of grains and 450 g of oil cakes,
 Legume hay full fed plus 100 g of wheat bran and 150 to 200 g of grain and
 Green fodder at the rate of 10 per cent of body weight and 150-200 g of
concentrate per head per day.

2. Feeding ewes during early and mid-pregnancy

 Good feeding during gestation is the keystone for a healthy strong lamb
crop
 If feeding is inadequate or defective, weak or dead lambs will result..
 It increase the number of strong healthy live lambs born,
 It prolongs the productive life of the ewes,
 It increases milk yield by the ewes resulting in healthier weanlings,
 It also improves the wool productivity,
 It lessens the incidence of lambing paralysis, and
 It decreases the probability of ewes disowning their lambs as a result of
exhaustion and weakness.

Suggested rations for ewes during this period

 Grazing: On a good pasture. .

 Sorghum silage: One to two kg. Sorghum silage plus legume hay half to one
kilogram per head per day.
  Ad libitum supply of maize or sorghum fodder plus 50g of oil cakes like
groundnut cake, per head per day.
 Grazing on stubbles and harvested fields supplemented with 100 g of oil
cakes per head per day.

3. Feeding ewes during late pregnancy

 During this period ewes may be allowed to graze on crop aftermaths (crop
stubbles), wild grasses and weeds
 Their ration must be supplemented with available green fodder fed at the
rate of 5 kg per head per day.
 During the last one month of pregnancy the foetus grows rapidly in the
uterus.
 Lack of enough energy in the feed can cause pregnancy toxaemia in ewes.
 Molasses or grains (barley, maize, oats, etc.) may be fed at the rate of 225 g
per head per day.
 Further, ewes should also receive available green fodder at the rate of 7 kg
per head per day or
 600 g of quality legume hay or 300 g of concentrate with 12 to 14 % DCP
and 65 to 70% TDN during last 45 days of pregnancy.

4. Feeding ewes at lambing time

 As lambing time approaches or immediately after lambing, the grain

allowance should be materially reduced but good quality dry roughage
should be fed free choice.
 After parturition the ration of the ewe may be gradually increased so that
she receives the full ration in divided doses six to seven times in a day.
 In general, bulky and laxative feedstuffs may be included in the ration
during the first few days.
 A mixture of wheat bran and barely or oats or maize at 1: 1 proportion is
excellent.
 Soon after lambing, the ewe must be given just enough of slightly warm
water.
 As soon as first lamb is born, formulate the creep feeders with lamb 'starter'
ration.
 An ideal starter ration can be 16 parts groundnut cake and 84 parts barely
or maize grain and available green or dry fodder.

5. Feeding lactating ewes

  Ration for lactating ewes must be supplemented to maintain adequate milk
production, which is necessary for rapid growth of lambs.
 If they are provided good pasture, the requirements are more or less met.
When supplementary feeding is necessary, the amount of additional feed
may be calculated as follows:
 An average ewe's daily pasture requirements can be replaced by 50 per
cent by 450 g of good hay, 1.4 kg silage or 250 g of grain.
 If they are fed cultivated green fodder, 10 kg per head is sufficient or 400 g
of concentrate mixture or 800 g of quality legume hay per day for 75 days
after lambing in addition to 8 hours of grazing.

6. Feeding of ewes from the time lambs are weaned until flushing
time

 This is the least critical period with respect to nutrient requirements

 Ewes may be maintained entirely on pasture.
 Poor quality pastures and other roughages of low quality can be
advantageously utilized during this period.

B. Feeding rams for breeding

 Rams in normal condition require some additional nutrients during the

breeding season.
 An over-fat ram on the other hand needs thinning before the
commencement of the breeding season.
  This may be gradually done by a combination of feed reduction and vigorous
exercise.
 The common practice is to allow the rams to graze with the ewes, which will
allow the rams to get the same ration as the ewes.
 If separate feeding is practiced for the ram, it may be given 300-500 g of
concentrate mixture consisting of three parts oats or barely, one part maize
and one part wheat per day.

C. Feeding lambs
1. Feeding suckling lambs

 This is the early part of a lamb's life in which it is dependent on its mother's
milk to a considerable degree for its nutrition.
 At one month of age the young ones should be provided with the
concentrate mixture (Creep feed).

1.1 Colostrum feeding of lambs

 The lamb should be allowed to suck its dam for the first three or four days so
that they can get good amount of colostrum.
to disowning by the mother.
 Colostrum feeding is a main factor in limiting kid losses.
 Cow colostrum is also efficient for lambs.
 Colostrum is given at the rate of 100 ml per kg live weight.
 Colostrum can be preserved with 1-1.5% (vol/wt) propionic acid or 0.1%
formaldehyde. Propionic acid is preferred for preservation as it keeps the pH
value low.
 The chemically treated colostrum is kept at cool place to ensure better
quality

1.2 Creep feeding for lambs

 This creep feed may be started from one month of age and up to 2-3 months
of age.
 The main purpose of creep feeding is to give more nutrients for their rapid
growth.
 The general quantity to be given to the lambs is 50 – 100 gm/animal/day.
 This should contain 22 per cent protein
 Antibiotics like oxytetracycline or chlortetracycline may be mixed at the rate
of 15 to 25 mg/kg of feed.
1.3 Composition of ideal creep feed

 Maize - 40%
 Ground nut cake -30 %
 Wheat bran – 10 %
 Deoiled rice bran- 13 %
 Molasses – 5%
 Mineral mixture- 2%
 Salt – 1% fortified with vitamins A, B2 and D3 and antibiotic feed
supplements

1.4 Feeding schedule for a kid/lamb from birth to 90 days:

Ewe’s milk or cow milk Creep feed Forage,
Age of lambs
(ml) (grams) green/day (gm)

1-3 days Colostrum-300 ml, 3 feedings - -

4-14days 350 ml, 3 feedings - -

15-30 days 350 ml, 3 feedings A little A little

31-60 days 400 ml, 2 feedings 100-150 Free choice

61-90 days 200 ml, 2 feedings 200-250 Free choice

2. Feeding early-weaned and orphan lambs

1. Lambs are usually weaned at three months of age. Similarly, some lambs may
be orphaned due to the death of ewe or due to disowning by the mother
2. Young suckling lambs on creep feeding, early-weaners and orphan lambs must
be well fed.
3. Up to six weeks age, grains should be cracked before feeding to lambs
4. After this, grains can be fed as such except in the case of hard grains, which
may be cracked, crimped or rolled
5. These infant lambs should get good pasture or high quality legume hay
preferably in the Pelleted form in addition to the grains.
6. If legume hay or good quality pasture is not available and if only poor roughage
is fed their grain ration should be supplemented with a protein cum vitamin
supplement with approximately 12 per cent digestible crude protein.
7. Complete Pelleted ration consisting of roughage and concentrate, both mixed
and made into pellets has been found to be advantageous.
8. Lambs had been found to consume more and grow faster
9. The pellets are self-fed and the nutrient intake is controlled by varying the
composition of the pellets as the capacity of consuming bulk is more or less fixed.
10. To start with, the pellets will have 65 to 70 per cent roughages but decreased
gradually to 50 per cent by ten to twelve weeks age.

A few recommended rations for the creep feeders and early

weaners
  Maize 40 per cent, oats 30 per cent, barley 30 per cent plus lucerne hay fed
ad libitum.
 Oats 20 per cent, maize 40 per cent, barley 20 per cent ground-nut cake 20
per cent plus vitamin supplementation.
 Maize 25 per cent, oats 40 per cent, wheat bran 20 per cent, groundnut
cake 15 per cent plus vitamins supplements.

3. Feeding from weaning to market

 The types of feeds used and the methods of feeding will vary with economic
and climatic conditions and the feeds available..
 In developing countries, the policy should be to utilize grazing lands, waste
lands and aftermath of grain crops as far as possible and supplement
whatever is deficient, with harvested good quality fodder, hay or
concentrates. .
 An average lamb may be fed 225 to 450g of concentrate mixture listed
below depending on the grazing conditions..
 If there is plenty of grazing 225g is sufficient.
 In over-grazed grasslands they may be given 450g of the concentrate
mixture plus half to two kilogram of good green fodder. .

II Feeding Allowance
Rate of feeding concentrate per day
Body When legume fodder is When legume fodder is not
weight(kg) available(g) available(g)

Upto 12 25-50 200-300

12-15 50 300

15-25 100 400

25-35 150 600

Feeding management of goats

CompositionI Feeding different age groups ofgoats

A. Feeding does in different stages
1. Feeding of breeding does

 If the availability of pasture is good there is no need to supplement

concentrate mixture.
 In poor grazing condition animals may be supplemented with concentrate
mixture @150 – 350 g of concentrate / animal/day depending up on the age
 The digestible crude protein level of concentrate mixture used in the adult
feed is 12 per cent.

2. Feeding does during the first four months of pregnancy:

 Pregnant animals should be allowed in good quality pasture 4-5 hours per
day.
 Their ration must be supplemented with available green fodder at the rate of
5 kg per head per day.

3. Feeding does during the last one month of pregnancy:

 In this period fetal growth increases 60 – 80 per cent until parturition and
lack of enough energy in the feed can cause pregnancy toxaemia in does.
So during this period animals should be allowed in very good quality pasture
4-5 hours per day.
 In addition to grazing, animals should be fed with concentrate mixture @
250 –350 g/animal/day.
 Their ration should be supplemented with available green fodder at the rate
of 7 kg per head per day.

4. Feeding does at kidding time

 As kidding time approaches or immediately after kidding the grain

allowance should be reduced but good quality dry roughage is fed free
choice.
 It is usually preferable to feed lightly on the day of parturition, but allow
plenty of clean, cool water.
 Soon after kidding the doe must be given just enough of slightly warm
water.
 After parturition the ration of the doe may be gradually increased so that
she receives the full ration in divided doses six to seven times in a day.
 Bulky and laxative feedstuffs may be included in the ration during the first
few days.
 A mixture of wheat bran and barely or oats or maize at 1: 1 proportion is
excellent.
5. Feeding lactating does

The following rations may be recommended

 6-8 hours grazing + 10 kg cultivated green fodder/day

 6-8 hours grazing + 400 g of concentrate mixture/day
 6-8 hours grazing + 800 g of good quality legume hay/day

6. Feeding non pregnant does

 If the availability of pasture is good no need to supplement with concentrate

mixture
 In poor grazing condition animals may be supplemented with 150 – 200 g of
concentrate / animal/day.

B. Feeding bucks for breeding

 The common practice is allowing the bucks to graze with does.

 Under such conditions the bucks will get the same ration as the does
 Usually, it will meet the nutritional requirements of the buck.
 Where there are facilities for separate feeding of the buck, it may be given
half a kilogram of a concentrate mixture consisting of three parts oats or
barley, one part maize and one part wheat per day.

C. Feeding kids
1. Feeding from birth to three months of age
  Immediately after birth feed the young ones with colostrum.
 Up to 3 days of birth keep dam and young ones together for 2-3 days for
frequent access of milk.
 After 3 days and up to weaning feed the kids with milk at 2 to 3 times a day.
 At about 2 weeks of age the young ones should be trained to eat green
roughages.
 At one month of age the young ones should be provided with the
concentrate mixture (Creep feed).

1.1 Colostrum feeding of kids

 The kid should be allowed to suck its dam for the first three or four days so
that they can get good amount of colostrum.
 Colostrum feeding is a main factor in limiting kid losses.
 Cow colostrum is also efficient for kids.
 Colostrum is given at the rate of 100 ml per kg live weight.
 Colostrum can be preserved with 1-1.5% (vol/wt) propionic acid or 0.1%
formaldehyde. Propionic acid is preferred for preservation as it keeps the pH
value low.
 The chemically treated colostrum is kept at cool place to ensure better
quality.

1.2 Creep feeding for kids

 This creep feed may be started from one month of age and up to 2-3 months
of age
 The main purpose of creep feeding is to give more nutrients for their rapid
growth.
 The general quantity to be given to the kids is 50 – 100 gm/animal/day.
 This should contain 22 per cent protein.
 Antibiotics like oxytetracycline or chlortetracycline may be mixed at the rate
of 15 to 25 mg/kg of feed.

1.3 Composition of ideal creep feed

 Maize - 40%
 Ground nut cake -30 %
 Wheat bran – 10 %
  Deoiled rice bran- 13 %
 Molasses – 5%
 Mineral mixture- 2%
 Salt – 1% fortified with vitamins A, B2 and D3 and antibiotic feed
supplements.

1.4 Feeding schedule for a kid from birth to 90 days:

Creep feed Forage, green/day
Age of kids Dam’smilk or cow milk (ml)
(grams) (gm)

1-3 days Colostrum-300 ml, 3 feedings - -

4-14days 350 ml, 3 feedings - -

15-30 days 350 ml, 3 feedings A little A little

31-60 days 400 ml, 2 feedings 100-150 Free choice

61-90 days 200 ml, 2 feedings 200-250 Free choice

2. Feeding after three months to twelve months of age

 Grazing in the pasture for about 8 hours per day.

 Supplementation of concentrate mixture @ 100 – 200 g/animal/day with protein

of 16-18 per cent.

 Dry fodder during night in summer months and during rainy days.

Feeding Management
1. Extensive Grazing

 Grazing the sheep and goat in the entire pasture and leaving them there for
the whole season is the extensive system of rearing.
 In this method feed cost is very much reduced.
 It is not conducive to making the best use of the whole grasses. So we can
preferably practice the rotational grazing method.

Rotational grazing method

 Rotational grazing should be practiced under which the pasture land should
be divided by temporary fences into several sections.
 The animals are then moved from one section to another section. By the
time the entire pasture is grazed, the first section will have sufficient grass
cover to provide second grazing.
 Parasitic infestations can be controlled to a great extent.
 Further, it helps to provide quality fodder (immature) for most part of the
year.
 Under this system, it is advisable to graze the lambs first on a section and
then bring in ewes to finish up the feed left by the lambs.

2. Semi-intensive
  Semi-intensive system of goat production is an intermediate compromise
between extensive and intensive system followed in some flocks having
limited grazing.
 It involves extensive management but usually with controlled grazing of
fenced pasture.
 It consists of provision of stall feeding, shelter at night under shed and 3 to 5
hour daily grazing and browsing on pasture and range.
 In this method the feed cost somewhat increased.

This system has the advantage of

 Meeting the nutrient requirement both from grazing and stall feeding.
 Managing medium to large flock of 50 to 350 heads and above.
 Utilizing cultivated forage during lean period.
 Harvesting good crop of kids both for meat and milk.
 Making a profitable gain due to less labour input.

3. Intensive system-zero grazing-system

 It is a system in which goats are continuously kept under housing in

confinement with limited access to land or otherwise so called zero grazing
system of goat production in which they are stall fed.
 It implies a system where goats are not left to fend for themselves with only
minimum care.
 Intensive operation of medium sized herd of 50 to 250 heads or more
oriented towards commercial milk production goes well with this system
particularly of dairy goats.
 It merits exploitation of the system of feeding agro-industrial by products as
on pangola grass (Digitaria Decumbens) with carrying capacity of 37 to 45
goats per hectare.
 This system of management requires more labour and high cash input.
 However, this has the advantage of close supervision and control over the
animals.
 In this method the dung is collected in one place and used as a good
fertilizer.
 Less space is sufficient for more number of animals.

3.1 Rearing in mud floor

 In this method, once in a year 1-2 inches of mud surface should be removed.
  Application of lime powder once in a month will reduce the disease
occurrence in the shed.
 The shed should be constructed in elevated area to prevent water
stagnation.

3.2 Deep litter shed

 In this method the litter materials ground nut husk, sugarcane tops etc. are
spread on the floor for a depth of ½ feet and animals are reared in it.
 The urine and dung mixed with the litter materials and used as fertilizer.
 The litter materials should be removed once in six months.
 In heavy rain seasons, the litter materials should not be over wet to prevent
ammonia gas production.

3.3 Elevated floor shed

 Its initial investment is high.

 In the wooden floor sheds, in a distance of 3m from the floor, the animals
are reared.
 This requires less labour and more irrigation land for the fodder production.

The elevated sheds will be clean and urine and dung will be collected in the floor
and periodical removing required once in six months.
|
Market potential

More than 80 percent of the Indian Population are meat eaters. Purchasing
power of
thepeopleisontheriseandthereisadistinctshiftinconsumptionpatterns,Non-
Veg now becoming almost an essential part of the diet. Mutton is relished
by people more than chicken or beef /pork (Consumed by a select
section). Availability of Mutton is less than the demand. It requires smaller
investments and is not as risky a business proposition as compared to
Dairy. Sale of goats/goat meat is nevera problem for the
[Link]
nand
[Link]
goat population. Goat plays a significant role in providing supplementary
income and livelihood to millions of resource poor farmers and landless
labourers of rural India.

Export Potential

The scope for exports too is huge, however for selling goat meat abroad
one has to adhere to strict phyto sanitary conditions and standards of the
respective nations.

SWOT Analysis

Strengths:

 Low labour requirement.

 Goat is a multi-functional animal and plays a significant role in the
economyand nutrition of landless, small and marginal farmers in the
country.
 Goats can efficiently survive on available shrubs and trees in
adverse harsh environment in low fertility lands where no other crop
can be grown.
 The initial investment needed for Goat farming is low.
 No religious taboo against goat slaughter and meat consumption
prevalent in the country.
 Goat milk is easy to digest.
 Goat creates employment to the rural poor besides effectively
utilizing unpaid family labour.
  Goats are strong creatures that are able to resist various diseases.
 Since goats are relatively small in size, the facilities and amenities
to support them are also minimal.
 Goats generally love being with humans and they are extremely
docile.
 They have a high fertility rate achieving maturity with just 5- 6
months. The probability of producing twins is high.
 Risk associated with drought is less in commercial goat farming
compared to other livestock breeds.
 Goats are good instruments to enhance the health of the grazing
land and minimize encroachment of bushes.
 Goat meat is a great appeal to the public because of the health
benefits it provides to its consumers. It is extremely low in fat,
cholesterol and calories. This is good for people who have low
energy diet scheme.

Opportunities:

 Highandreadymarketofgoat meat.
 ConfirmedeverincreasingMarketprice.

Weakness

 Large-scale, organized goat farming hasnotyet become a successful

venture in the country.
 Highmortalityrateofgoatkids

Threats

 The goat population is increasing & according to the government

census, declining grazing land poses a big challenge to the industry.

Economics of the Project

[Link] & PRESUMPTIONS

I. Techno-economic parameters
Particulars Unit Quantity
1 Bread of Goat Osmanabadi
2 System of rearing Semi
Intensive
3 [Link] does 50
 4 [Link] bucks 2
5 Age of maturity 10-12
6 Kidding interval Months 8
7 No. of kidding Per month 1.5
8 Kidding percentage % 80
9 Average litter size(average of single, 2
twinning, triplet, quadruplet)
10 Sex ratio 1.1
11 Mortality of kids % 20
12 Saleable age of kids Months 11
13 Paybackperiod:6yearsincluding
moratorium for the 1st year
II. Expenditure norms
1 Space requirement per head for buck [Link] 15
2 Space requirement per head for doe [Link] 15
3 Space requirement per head for kid [Link] 4
4 Cost of construction of shed for buck, Rs./[Link] 120
doe & kid
5 Cost of one doe(Female) Rs. 10,000
6 Cost of one buck(Male) Rs. 12,000
7 [Link] unskilled labour Nos. 1
8 Cost of one semi skilledlabour/annum Rs. 72,000
9 CostofChaffofcutter-1nos. Rs. 10,000
10 Requirement of concentrate Kg. 10.5
feed(adult animal/month)
11 Requirement of concentrate feed Kg. 4.5
(kid/month)
12 Rate of concentrate per Kg Rs. 17
13 Misc. expenditure [Link]
medicine and Veterinary aid per Rs. 100
animal per year
14 Electricity and Water supply per month 1,000
15 Rate of interest for bank loan % 12
16 Own contribution in project cost % 25
III. Income norms
1 Sale price of Rs. 8,500
Buck(attheage11months)
2 Sale price of Doe(attheage11months) Rs. 7,500

[Link] PROJECT
Sl. AMOUN
PARTICULARS UNIT UNIT/Rs QUANTITY
N T
o (Rs)
I. Capital Cost
1 Land Own
2 Site development Ls. 25,000
3 Cost of does Nos. 10,000 50 500,000
4 Cost of bucks Nos. 12,000 3 30,000
5 Shed of does [Link]. 120 750 90,000
6 Shed of bucks [Link]. 120 30 3,600
 7 Shed for kids [Link]. 120 750 90,000
Equipment for feeding
8 Nos. 100 53 5,250
ghemale & other
9 Chaff cutter Nos. 10,000 1 10,000
10 Rope, chains Ls. 5,000
Water storage and
11 Ls. 10,000
distribution
12 Contingencies % 5 38,443
TOTAL-A 807,293
II. Working Capital(IstYear requirement)
1 Fodder cultivation Acre/season 5,000 2 10,000
Concentrate feeds
2 Kg. 17 780 13,260
for two months @ 7.5
kg

/animal/month
Cost of concentrate
feed for kids @ 4.5
3
kg month/kid for one Kg. 17 270 4,590
months
Wages of labour per
4 Per labour 72,000 1 72,000
annum
5 Insurance % 5 26,500
Misc expenditure
6 /Animal/ 100 52 5,200
[Link],
year
medicine
Electricity and water
7 /month 1,000 52 52,000
supply
8 Transport charges Ls. 5,000
TOTAL-B 188,550
TOTALCOSTOFPROJECT TOTAL(A+B) 995,842
C. Means of finance
Particulars Unit UnitRate Amou
nt Rs
(1)Term Loan % 75 746882
(2)Own Contribution % 25 248960
Total 995842
(3)Subsidyentitlement@36%fromNABARDunderACABCScheme 358503

D. PROJECTEDPERFORMANCE&PROFITABILITY
[Link] CHART
Sl Particulars I Year II III IV V VI
. Year Year Year Year Year
N
o
1 [Link]/year 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
2 [Link] 75 75 75 75 75 75
3 [Link] 75 75 75 75 75 75
[Link]
4 15 15 15 15 15 15
20%
[Link]
5 15 15 15 15 15 15
20%
[Link]
6 * 60 60 60 60 60
availableforsale
*Kidsproducedinfirstyearwillbesoldinsecondyear&soon.
[Link]
7 60 60 60 60 60
available for sale -
[Link] (ValueinRs.)

Sl.
Uni
N Particulars Unit Quantity IYear IIYear III Year IVYear VYear VIYear
o tra
te
[Link]
Fromsale
1 ofmalego Buckling 8,500 60 - 510,000 510,000 510,000 510,000 510,000
ats
Fromsale
2 offemale Doeling 7,500 60 - 450,000 450,000 450,000 450,000 450,000
goats
3 Mannure Tonne 5,000 10 50,000 50,000 50,000 50,000 50,000 50,000
Interesto
4 nsubsidy 21,510 21,510 21,510 21,510 21,510 -
@6%

5 Subsidy - - - - - 358,503
TOTAL(A)
1,031,51 1,031,5 1,031,5 1,031,5 1,031,51 1,368,50
0 1 1 1 0 3
0 0 0
[Link]
Concentr
Rs./kg 17 6,300 107,100 117,810 117,810 117,810 117,810 117,810
atefeeds
Concentr
atefeedsf Rs./kg 17 3,240 55,080 60,588 60,588 60,588 60,588 60,588
orkids
Foddercultiv
acre/year 5,000 1 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000
ation
Unskilledwo 72,00
Nos. 0 1 72,000 79,200 79,200 79,200 79,200 79,200
rkers
Miscexpendi
ture
Peranimal 100 170 17,000 17,000 17,000 17,000 17,000 17,000
[Link]
,medicine
Insuranc
% 5 26,500 26,500 26,500 26,500 26,500 26,500
eofanim
als
Electricit
Animal/
yandWat 1,000 52,000 57,200 62,920 69,212 76,133 83,747
year
ersupply
Transpo
Ls. 5,000 5,500 6,050 6,655 7,321 8,053
rtcharge
s
TOTAL(B) 339,680 368,798 375,068 381,965 389,552 397,898
TOTAL(A
[Link] -B) 691,830 662,712 656,442 649,545 641,958 970,605

[Link]
Particular IYear IIYear IIIYear IVYear VYear VIYear Total
Capitalcosts 807,293
Recurringcosts 217,720 194,776 375,068 381,965 389,552 397,898
TotalCOST 1,146,972 194,776 375,068 381,965 389,552 397,898
Benefit 1,031,510 1,031,510 1,031,510 1,031,510 1,031,510 1,368,503
Depreciatedvalueof 107,498
building @10%
Depreciated value of 8,677
machinery&equipment’s
@15%
Closingstockvalue(adul 363,010
t & kids)
Totalbenefit 1,031,510 1,031,510 1,031,510 1,031,510 1,031,510 1,847,688
Netbenefit -115,462 662,712 656,442 649,545 641,958 970,605
Discountingfactor@15% 0.87 0.76 0.66 0.57 0.5 0.43
NPVcostat15% DF 997,866 280,286 247,545 217,720 194,776 171,096 2,109,289
NPVbenefitsat15%DF 897,414 783,948 680,797 587,961 515,755 794,506 4,260,380
NPWat15%DF 2,151,091
BCRat15%DF 2.02:1
IRR% 69.76
Maintain of good health of goats

I. General Health management

 Before onset of breeding, problematic animals should be culled from the flock.
 Neonatal mortality can be prevented by improving the level of nutrition in advanced stages of
pregnancy (last 6 weeks), ensuring hygienic condition in the kidding sheds, providing proper
bedding, and ensuring early feeding of colostrums.
 Does with chronic pneumonia, mastitis, and disabling arthritis, poor body condition should be
culled from the flock.
 Undernourished sheep/goats are likely to develop pregnancy toxemia and may deliver kids
with poor livability. So pregnant animals should be fed with additional level of food.
 Chronic diseases in adult goats like gastrointestinal infection (Coccidiosis. Mycobacterium
paratuberculosis) and gastrointestinal parasites (Haemonchus sp., tapeworm and immature
amphistomes) affect the digestive tract, retard the growth, weaken the physic and stunt the
animal. The affected animal act as a carrier hence should be removed from the flock.

II. Shed Hygiene

 The sheds should require seasonal spraying with disinfectants to protect the flock from
ectoparasites particularly prior to kidding operation.
 The earthen floors may need replacement for every three months besides disinfection with
carbolic acid, which takes care of snakes and other reptiles.
 Annual white washing with lime prior to winter may be suggested.
 Painting of sheds is recommended prior to monsoon.
 The shed area should be dry and clean and should be free from stagnated water, bushes etc.

III. Commonly used disinfectants and their usages

1. Bleaching powder (Chloride of lime)

 It can be used for disinfection of animal houses when a contagious disease has occurred and
for sterilization of water supplies.
 Concentration required is not less than 30 per cent available chlorine.
 Mode of application is dusting.
 Bleaching powder must be stored in airtight bins as damp surroundings, exposure light and air
causes it decompose rapidly.
2. Boric acid

 It can be used as an udder wash.

 It is a week antiseptic and is likely to harm nervous system if absorbed into body in large
quantities.
 It is used as wash for eyes and other sensitive parts of body.
 Concentration required is 6 per cent solution.
 Mode of application is splashing.
 Nowadays antibiotic solutions are replacing boric acid as eyewash solution.

3. Caustic soda (Sodium hydroxide)

 For general use in farm buildings and animal houses, caustic soda is a very effective
disinfectant as it is an excellent cleaning agent as well as a powerful germicide.
 It is highly destructive to virus of foot and mouth disease, hog cholera etc.
 It is not effective against tuberculosis and Johne’s disease organisms.
 Concentration required is 2 per cent solution for general use and 5 percent solution against
spores of anthrax and black quarter.
 Mode of application is splashing.
 Rubber gloves, goggles and protective clothing should always be worn when caustic soda
solution is being used as it burns skin and damages fabrics.

4. Cresols

 The cresols are only slightly soluble in water and are therefore generally emulsified with soap.
 Effective against a wide range of organisms including acid fast tuberculosis and Johne’s
disease bacteria but not effective against viruses and spores.
 Good for disinfecting floors, walls, equipment etc. but not in milking barns because of its
phenolic odour.
 Concentration required is 2-3 per cent.
 Mode of application is splashing.
 Use only soft water for preparing solutions, hard water precipitates soap.
 Lysol is a solution of cresol with soap.
5. Lime (Calcium Oxide, quick lime)

 It is a deodorant as well as a disinfectant.

 It can be used for sprinkling on manure and animal discharges, on floors or as a whitewash or
milk of lime (also known as slacked lime).
 Mode of application is sprinkling, scrubbing or sometimes dusting.
 Always use freshly prepared lime only.

6. Phenol (Carbolic acid)

 Effective against several types of bacteria; not so effective on spores and viruses.
 Its disinfectant value is not reduced by the presence of organic matter but oil or alcohol does
so.
 It is very toxic, corrosive and irritant.
 Concentration required is 1-2 per cent.
 Mode of application is splashing.
 Great care should be taken in using phenol to protect eyes, skin and clothing.
7. Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QAC)

 These are cationic detergents.

 They have no effect on spores and viruses.
 They can be used to disinfect dairy utensils, udders, milkers’ hands and towels for wiping
udders.
 Cetrimide, a white powder is an example for QAC.
 Concentration requires is 0.1 per cent solution (0.5 per cent cream for applying on teats and
hands to prevent mastitis.
 Mode of application is wiping of udder with clothes wetted in 0.1 per cent solution; washing of
milkers’ hands.
 Utensils should be scrubbed with boiling water before rinsing with QAC.

8. Soap

 Soap is an anionic detergent.

 It is a very week germicide.
 But its great usefulness in cleaning various surfaces including skin.
 It can be used preparatory to the application of a disinfectant.
 Mode of application is scrubbing.
 It should preferably be used only as surface-sanitizing agent.
9. Sodium hypochlorite

 It is a chlorine compound.
 It is an excellent disinfectant but is not effective against T.B bacteria and its effectiveness is
reduced by the presence of organic matter.
 Concentration required is 200 parts per million of available chlorine about 300 ml sodium
hypochlorite and about 200g of washing soda in 100 litres of hot water for washing utensils
etc. For udder wash-about 60 ml in 10 litres of clean water.
 Rinsing of utensils, wiping of udder.
 Should be stored in air-tight containers as hypochlorite deteriorate rapidly when exposed to
air.

10. Washing Soda (Soda ash, Sodium carbonate)

 It is good for disinfection of barn premises upon which an outbreak of virus disease like foot-
and-mouth disease has occurred.
 It is a good detergent.
 Concentration required is 4 per cent solution.
 Mode of application is scrubbing.
 Lye is better against Foot-and-mouth disease virus than soda ash.
 It should be used as a hot solution.
IV. Control of internal parasites (Deworming)

 Deworming should be done at 3 months interval (yearly four times) and all the kids should be
dewormed specifically for cestodiasis at 3 months of age.
 Dosing of trematode infection should be given in the post monsoon period (January to march)
of every year.
 The most suitable time of deworming is the early stages of infection when the worm load is
less.
 Young animals should preferably be dewormed every month using a suitable anthelmentic.
 Older stock can be dewormed at 4-6 months intervals.
 It is good to deworm adult females after parturition.
 In adult animals deworming is done on examination of dung.
 All the animals should preferably be fasted for 24 hours before giving the anthelmentic.
 Th deworming drugs should be rotated annually to avoid anthelmintic drug resistance.
 Periodical screening of individual and pooled dung samples for assessment of parasitic load
should be carried out to keep the parasitic load under control.
 The local veterinarian should be consulted for all suggestions regarding dewormers and
deworming.
V. External parasites control-dipping

Purpose

 To remove waste materials and dung from the fleece, prior to shearing.
 To eradicate ectoparasites.
 To prevent spread of “sheep scab”
 To wart off attacks by blowflies resulting in maggots.
 Dipping is done usually twice a year i.e once before shearing and a second time when the
fleece has grown long.

Precautions before dipping

 Do not dip ewes in advanced pregnancy to avoid inducing abortion.

 Always offer water before dipping so that sheep will not drink the dip.
 Always rest sheep before dipping.
 Do not dip sick animals.
 Dip about a month after shearing when the there is sufficient dip
 Dipping should preferably be completed before noon.
 Allow sheep in a draining pen for sometimes before turning them out on the pasture.
 Chooses a day is possible when the weather is not too hot.
 Dipping should be done during sunny days.
 Care should be taken to avoid contact of eyes and mouth with the solution·
 After dipping place the animal in the open place for quick drying.

Methods of Dipping

 The hand bath used for small flocks. Each sheep is lifted into the bath and turned over on its
back.
 The swim bath: this is used for large flocks of sheep.
 The sheep are allowed to swim through and walk up the ramp into the drying pen.
 Sheep dips: the active agents used are

o Sulphur
o Arsenic
 o D.D.T. and
o Carbolic acid etc

 The quantity of dip depends upon the length of the fleece.

Pouring

 means pouring a small quantity of dip into parts of the fleece along the back, sides and belly.

Smearing

 An ointment with a basis of tar and grease is smeared over the skin of the sheep to destroy
parasites.

Crutching

 Means removing soiled and dung – stained wool by hand shears from the crutch of the sheep
(perineal and inguinal regions).

Jetting

 Is a method adopted in foreign countries in which the sheep are made to run through a race or
“shedder” in which is fixed a pipe which plays a jet of water into the lower part of the abdomen
and the crutch.

VI. Control of arthropod pests

 Manure, filth, damp and dark corners, stagnant water etc. are all favorite breeding places of
insects and these places should be concentrated for removal and cleaning periodically.
 Eggs of ticks and mites deposited in cracks and crevices in the walls, floors and wood work of
the animal houses should be removed periodically.
 Periodical (once in April-June and once in July-September) dipping or spraying of animals with
suitable insecticides to prevent lice, flies, fleas, mites and ticks.
 Organophosphate insecticides like Malathion, Parathion, and Neguvon etc. are available which
are very destructive to insects but are quite toxic to animals as well.
 Newer generation synthetic pyrethroids like Deltamethrin (ButoxTM), Cypermethrin (Cyprol,
Tikkil) etc. are available in the market.
 Great care should be taken while using these chemicals and manufacturer’s instructions
regarding their usage should be scrupulously followed.

VII. Prevention of infection and infestation

 Feed should be placed in troughs that cannot be contaminated by faeces.

 Waterers and feed troughs should be kept clean and free of contaminants.
 Good grazing management to control pasture or grassland borne helminthic infections.
 Use of clean or safe pastures (not grazed for 6 to 12 months) will help to control helminths
problems.
 Rotational grazing of livestock species should be followed to minimize or limit the infection
from pasture.
 All new arrivals to the farm should be isolated for at least 30 days and dewormed.
 Young animals should be housed separately from adult animals to prevent disease spread.
 Infected/Infested animals should be removed from the flock or herd and housed separately.
 Treatment should be followed by chemoprophylaxis to prevent reinfection.
 Vaccines may be used to prevent infection, if suitable vaccines are available.
VIII. Vaccination schedule for sheep and goat

Disease Vaccine

Tetanus Within 48 hrs

after birth

FMD 2nd month of

age repeated
once in 6
months.

Sheep and 6 months of age

goat pox repeated
annually,
vaccination in
endemic area.

Anthrax 6 months of age

repeated
annually,
vaccination in
endemic area.

Enterotoxaemi 6 months of age

a repeated
annually,
vaccination
should be
completed
before onset of
monsoon.

PPR 6 months of age

repeated
annually,
vaccination in
endemic area.

Blue tongue 6 months of age,

repeated
annually.

IX. How to control and reduce the infection as soon as an outbreak occurs

 Segregate sick animals.

 Stop all animals, animal products, vehicles and persons coming into and out of the farm.
 Call a veterinarian for advice, adopt containment vaccination.
 Avoid grazing in a common place.
 Ban all visitors to the farm.
 Provide foot dips containing disinfectants at the entry of the farm and gear up sanitation and
hygiene.
X. Hoof trimming

 If the animals are maintained under intensive system of management their hooves have to be
trimmed regularly.
 Feet that are not kept properly trimmed can became deformed and may cause lameness and it
will affect the performance of the animals.
 An adequate care should be taken while trimming the hoof.
 Cut the hoof once in six months.
 First cut off any bent over portion of the hoof.
 Then cut from the heel towards the toe.
 When you see pink colouration, this means you are nearing the blood supply and should not go
any deeper.

XI. Footbath

 A footbath made of galvanized steel sheets, or brick in cement mortar shall be provided at the
entrance to the yard to protect the animals from foot-rot disease.
 These baths may be embedded in the soil suitably.

Common diseases in Goat and their control, vaccination,

disease prevention
Goat diseases can cause huge economic loss to the farmers due to
high intensity to goat farming with poor management practices. Factors
affecting livestock production in most countries includes diseases, poor
management and lack of proper breeding policies. Disease is an abnormal
condition that negatively affects the structure or function of a body system
of an animal. Various organisms like bacteria, fungal, parasite, protozoa,
rickettsia and viruses are said to caused goat diseases, low quality feeds and
poor management practice can predispose to metabolic disorders, which can
caused losses due to reduced productivity and death. Diseases are very
important to farmers and affect the production of small ruminants in several
ways. It incurs increase in the cost of production, reduces production rate,
which directly or indirectly affects the quantity and quality of animal
products and causes a great loss to the farmer. Goats are usually exposed to
vulnerable diseases and harsh conditions due to nonchalant attitudes of the
farmers, where they allowed their animals scavenge freely on the streets
without proper monitoring and sometimes subjected to extreme starvation
with little or no concern to their well-being. Several factors like
overpopulated herd size, less ventilation and poor management system can
predispose to disease. Fomites such as water and feed troughs, as well as
bedding can also transmit disease for a short time, but do not remain
infectious for long periods. Goats form an integral part of animal production
in most rural and urban communities, their economic advantage is primarily
associated with the case of handling as it favors small scale investment
minimum risk of loss and high reproductive efficiency. Livestock production
is a tremendous enterprise in East African countries where about 56% of
livestock wealth in Africa is maintained. Goats are mainly kept for meat,
milk, manure, wool and immediate source of income. In most developing
countries, the owner-ship of small ruminants varied from house-holds,
farmers with mixed farming activities to some landless agriculture migrant
workers. A sound management practice is a basic tool to maintain animal
health in the production of goats. There are some human health risks directly
associate with dealing with diseased animals, while some diseases affecting
goats do not have any zoonotic effect to human health. Small ruminants are
the main farm animals owned by the poor in most developing countries
which are considered as ‘mobile banks’ and are reared as source of not only
milk and meat for family consumption but also as source of income that can
easily be utilized for paying household expenditures. Efforts to improve the
productivity of goats have been hindered by a variety of factors including
infectious diseases that results in a countless number of animal deaths. The
basic knowledge about diseases and management practice at the
practitioner level on goats production deems necessary. Productivity of goats
is affected due to increased incidence of diseases and poor management
practices. Viral diseases like PPR, goat pox, contagious ecthyma and viral
pneumonia and bacterial diseases like enterotoxaemia, tetanus, brucellosis,
mastitis and metritis, mycotic diseases such as dermatophytosis and
rickettsial infections like conjunctivitis are common causes of goat’s
mortality in rural areas while, Gastrointestinal nematodiasis, fasciolopses
and tape worm infestation causes less mortality but can cause severe
depression in the growth and reproductive performance of goats [8]. This
study therefore seeks to make an attempt to identify some common
diseases of Goats and provide treatment and preventive measures to control
goat diseases. In view of that, the socioeconomic aspect of the farmers,
tendency to recognized common diseases (Table 1) and the professional
methods of preventing goat diseases are established. It is also believed to be
useful for scientists, extension service providers, veterinarians and para-
veterinarians in designing appropriate preventive measures to minimize the
risk for diseases in goat production.

Metabolic
Bacterial Fungal Parasitic Protozoa/Rickettsial Viral and
diseases diseases diseases diseases diseases nutritional
diseases

Endo
Anthrax Candidiasis Babesiosis PPR Mil fever
parasite

Ecto
Brucellosis Cryptococcosis Coccidiosis Goat pox Ketosis
parasite

CLA Ring worm Theileriosis CAE Grain overload

CCPP Aspergilosis Cowdriosis Orf

Dermatophilosis Anaplasmosis

Mastitis

Foot rot

Table 1.

Summary of common diseases of goats.

2. Methodology

This chapter is a detailed summary of the most important common diseases

of goats and this can be a guide to veterinary students, field veterinarians,
animal health workers, animal scientist and goat farmers regarding the
impact of these diseases. This chapter also gives out a hint on the treatment
and preventive measures associated with diseases of goats. Important
diseases that are zoonotic and economically important like anthrax,
brucellosis, caseous lymphadenitis, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia
(CCPP), dermatophilosis, foot rot, candidiasis, cryptococcosis, babesiosis,
cowdriosis, anaplasmosis, Peste des petits ruminants (PPR), goat pox,
ecthyma and hypocalcaemia (Table 1) are vividly discussed. Each disease is
dealt with various subsections like definition of the diseases, etiology,
transmission, clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment and preventive measures.

3. Bacterial disease of goats

3.1 Anthrax

Anthrax is an infectious zoonotic disease of wild and domestic herbivores

caused by a spore- forming bacterium, which is characterized by onset of
high fever, oozing of unclotted blood from natural orifice and sudden death.

Transmission: Susceptible animals get infected by ingesting spores while

grazing in highly contaminated soil or through the bite of certain flies. There
is report of human infection through contact with the infected animals or
contaminated animal tissue or products. The bacterium also penetrates body
through lesion and sometime be acquired through ingestion of poorly cooked
meat from infected animals.

Etiology: the disease is caused by Bacillus anthracis which is an aerobic or

facultative anaerobic capsulated gram-positive, rod shaped spore forming
bacterium. The spores can remain viable on soil for many years.

Clinical signs: Incubation period is typically 1–20 days. Most infections are
noticeable after 3–7 days. Anthrax disease may be per acute, acute, sub-
acute or chronic. The per acute form most often affects cattle, sheep and
goats at the start of an outbreak and is characterized by staggering,
trembling, difficulty in breathing, convulsions and death. Progression of the
disease is rapid and premonitory signs may go unnoticed often animals are
found dead with no rigormortis (Figure 1, Table 1). Blood may fail to clot due
to the toxin released by B. anthracis. The acute or subacute form is common
in cattle, sheep and horses and manifest high fever, increased heart rate,
excitement, depression, incoordination, cessation of rumination, low milk
production, bloody discharges, respiratory distress, convulsion, and death
within 48–72 hours. But the chronic form is usually seen in less susceptible
species like swine.
Figure 1.

Absence of rigor mortis in goat with anthrax by author.

Diagnosis: Careful microscopic examination of stained smears of blood,

vesicular fluid, or edema may reveal the presence of B.
anthracis. Biochemical and microbiologic tests provide a definitive diagnosis.
It can also be isolated from skin lesions or respiratory secretions.

Treatment: Treatment of per acute case is usually untimely because of

sudden death. Good recovery can be achieved through the use of anthrax
antiserum in the early stage of the disease. Oxytetracycline at the dose rate
of 5miligram/kilogram body weight parenterally can be effective if used from
anthrax is most often seen in less susceptible species such as swine, but it
has also been reported as developing in cattle, horses, dogs and cats. Route
of infection in animals is most often ingestion, rather than inhalation or
inoculation via skin lesions, initial suspicions of anthrax may be raised when
livestock are found dead, bloated the onset of the disease. Penicillin
streptomycin (Penstrep) also found effective if given concurrently with
antiserum for 5 consecutive days.

Prevention: Anthrax can be prevented through annual vaccination

programs. Rapid detection and reporting, quarantine, treatment of sub
clinically affected animals (post exposure prophylaxis) and burning or burial
of suspect and confirmed cases may prevent spore formation.

3.2 Brucellosis

Brucellosis is a bacterial infection that can affect goats and other livestock
such as sheep and cows and wild ruminants such as deer, elk and bison.
Brucellosis causes abortion or stillbirth in animals. Brucellosis is one of the
widest spread zoonosis transmitted by animals and in endemic areas, human
brucellosis has serious public health consequences.
Etiology: Brucellosis in goats is normally caused by a Gram-negative
coccobacillary rod, Brucella melitensis although Brucella abortus may also
cause clinical brucellosis.

Clinical sign:Brucella melitensis is the most common cause of brucellosis in

sheep and goats. It can cause abortion, retained placenta and swelling of the
testicles. Abortion usually occur in late pregnancy in sheep and during the
fourth month of pregnancy in goats (Figure 2, Table 1). Communicably,
brucellosis is contagious to humans. Bacteria are present in milk, placenta,
fetal fluids, fetus, vaginal discharges, semen and urine. Ruminants and other
animals can shed bacteria long-term or lifelong.

Figure 2.

Abortion complicated with uterine prolapse in brucellosis. By author.

Diagnosis: History and clinical signs may be suggestive of the brucellosis.

Demonstration of the bacteria in smears made from the samples of blood,
bone marrow and other bod fluids can help confirming the diagnosis of the
disease. Brucella can be isolated from the abomasal contents and lungs of
the fetus, mammary glands, supramammary, retropharyngeal, parotid and
mandibular lymph nodes and seminal vesicles by culturing on 5–10% blood
or selective serum agar. Other serological methods like Serum Agglutination
Test, Rose Bengal Plate Test, Enzyme Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay (ELISA),
Agar Gel Immuno-Diffusion (AGID) and Complement Fixation Test can be
diagnostically used in the confirmation of brucellosis.

Treatment: There is no specific treatment of brucellosis that is successful,

but long term antibiotics treatment can eliminate B. melitensis infections in
valuable goats but the reproductive performance may be poor.

Prevention: Prompt vaccination of cattle, sheep and goats is recommended

especially in endemic areas. Good hygiene practice such as milk
pasteurization, proper meat processing, correct handling of stillbirths and
animal carcasses are important strategy for the prevention of brucellosis in
goats.

3.3 Caseous lymphadenitis (CLA)

Caseous lymphadenitis is an infectious disease caused by the

bacterium Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis, that affects the lymphatic
system, resulting in abscesses in the lymph nodes (Figure 3, Table 1) and
internal organ of Goats and Sheep.

Figure 3.

Lymphnode abscess seen in clinical CLA in goat.

Transmission: The disease is highly contagious that affects sheep and

goats [9]. When abscess ruptures, it releases a huge number of bacteria on
to the skin and wool and it results to the consequent contamination of the
surrounding environment. Animals may get infected when come in contact
with the affected animals or indirectly via already contaminated fomites [10].
Infected animals may contaminate feed and water, which may become
source of infection. The disease is also easily spread through the materials
that are used during the operation of the animals such as castration,
identification with ear tags or by tattooing. It is thought to also be spread by
coughing or even by flies [11].
Etiology: CLA is caused by a gram-positive, nonmotile pleomorphic rods
bacterium known as Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis that has a
characteristic Chinese letter arrangement in the smear. When this organism
successfully established in the host, it surrounds and subdue the immune
system, as a result it causes chronic infection that may remain in the animal
for life but not pestilent [10].

Clinical signs: In CLA, there is abscessation in the region of peripheral

lymph nodes especially the submandibular, parotid, prescapular and
prefemoral nodes, which is termed superficial or cutaneous form. The
internal form of CLA more commonly presents as dyspnea, loss of weight and
failure to thrive. Other clinical signs include large pus filled cyst on the neck,
sides and udders, cough, purulent nasal discharge, fever and tachypnea with
abnormal lung sounds may be observed.

Diagnosis: A provisional diagnosis of the disease can be based on clinical

features and physical examination of lesions associated with lymphnodes.
Confirmation of the disease is achieved by bacterial culture of suspected
lesions and purulent materials from an intact abscess. Serologic tests are
available but their reliability is unrealistic.

Treatment: Treatment of CLA is often unsuccessful, but supportive care can

be helpful. However, CLA abscesses must be treated to prevent ruptures and
further contamination of other animals and environment. Parenteral
antibiotics may be used in severe cases. Surgical drainage of the affected
lymph nodes is recommended.

Prevention: The prevention of CLA can be achieved through strict

biosecurity measures, immediate isolation of the affected animals from the
flock. Surgical procedures such as castration, shearing or mass vaccination
should be carried out through aseptic means and affected premises should
be disinfected thoroughly.

3.4 Contagious caprine pleuro-pneumonia (CCPP)

Contagious caprine pleuro-pneumonia (CCPP) is a highly contagious and

rapidly spreading mycoplasmal disease that affects a vast majority of goat’s
population, which is characterized by severe respiratory distress associated
with sero-mucoid nasal discharge, dyspnea, coughing, pyrexia and general
malaise.

Transmission: Main route of transmission occurs through inhalation of

infected aerosol. Airborne transmission can result in distant spread [12].
Transmission by direct contact is also reported [13]. Infected objects,
vectors, fomites and animal products are yet to be known in transmission
role [14].

Etiology: Contagious caprine pleuro-pneumonia is a highly fatal disease that

is caused by Mycoplasma capricolum capripneumoniae or Mccp
(previously Mycoplama biotype F38), in Africa, Asia and the Middle East.
Morbidity is often 100% and mortality may reach 80%.

Clinical signs: The disease is characterized by anorexia, dullness,

depression, weakness and lethargy, pyrexia, weight loss and decreased
production. Also have respiratory signs of bilateral nasal discharge (Figure
4, Table 1), dyspnea, tachypnea and coughing. Occasionally, the only sign
seen is sudden death.

Figure 4.

Sign of bilateral nasal discharge in CCPP. By author.

Diagnosis: The simplest and quickest procedure in field diagnosis is the

detection of antibodies by Latex agglutination (LAT) as is easy to run and has
a long shelf life. Other diagnosis include growth inhibition disc tests (GI),
direct and indirect fluorescent antibody tests, complement fixation test
(CFT), indirect hemaglutination test, ELISA and PCR. Isolation of M.
capricolum capripneumonia from clinical samples is the only way to
definitively diagnose the infection but is not normally performed as it is
difficult and time consuming.

Treatment: Macrolides, tetracycline and quinolones are very active

against M. capricolum capripneumonia. Antibiotics like tylosin at 1 ml/10 kg
and enrofluxacin at 1 ml/20 kg body weight can be helpful in the treatment
of CCPP.

Prevention: Vaccination has been an important aspect of CCPP prevention

in a country where it is prevalent. Quarantine of affected animals and strict
biosecurity measures for the introduction of new animals is necessary to
reduce transmission and losses due to CCPP.

3.5 Dermatophilosis

Detmatophilosis is contagious bacterial disease of skin that affects sheep

and goats. It is an infection affecting multiple species of animals world-wide,
most common in young or immunosuppressed animals or in animals that are
chronically exposed to wet conditions.
Transmission: Dermatophilosis is believed to be spread by direct contact
between animals, through contaminated environments or possibly through
biting insects.

Etiology: The disease is caused by a dimorphic bacterium, Dermatophilus

congolensis that has two characteristic morphologic forms: filamentous
hyphae and motile zoospores. Is a gram positive, non-acid fast, facultative
anaerobic actinomycete, which is the only currently accepted species in the
genus but, a variety of strains can be present within a group of animals
during an outbreak [15].
Clinical signs: In severe generalized dermatophilosis, there is often loss of
condition and motion, scab formation on the lips, muzzle, nose, ears (Figure
5, Table 1), feet and scrotom which if severely affected make prehension
difficult. The scabs can become detached and reveal a yellow, creamy or
hemorrhagic exudate. Allopecia can occur if the scabs are rubbed off. There
is tufted papules and crusts that resembles paintbrushes. Concurrent
infection with orf virus and other stress factors like malnutrition, pregnancy
and lactation exacerbate the disease [16]. Most infections are mild thus
render susceptible animal with normal functioning immune system
spontaneously recover in time.

Figure 5.

Scab formation on the lips, muzzle and nose. By author.

Diagnosis: Clinical and cytological examinations of fresh lesions are

suggestive of the disease. A definitive diagnosis is made by demonstration of
the organism in cytological preparations, isolation on culture and/or via skin
biopsy. Indirect fluorescent antibody technique and a single dilution ELISA
test have been developed for large serologic and epidemiologic surveys.
Treatment: The causal organism is susceptible to a wide range of
antimicrobials. High doses of penicillin-streptomycin are effective in severely
affected animals, if administered in early stage of the disease. Heavy doses
of long acting tetra cline (20 mg/kg) may be used and topical application of
lime sulfur is a cost-effective adjuvant to antibacterial therapy. Insect
repellent can be use externally to control biting insects.

Prevention: Isolation and culling of clinically affected animals can be helpful

in preventing the disease. Ectoparasites control is a method used in breaking
the infective cycle of the parasite. Keeping susceptible animals dry and
frequent checking of the zinc sulphate and copper sulphate level in feeds
have been found useful in reducing the spread and incidence of the disease.

3.6 Mastitis

Mastitis is an inflammation of mammary gland due to physical injury, stress,

bacterial or viral infections. It can either be clinical or subclinical. It is
characterized clinically by clots or serum formation in the milk, swollen udder
(Figure 6, Table 1), hot and tender to touch. Sub clinically, can be detected
using California Mastitis Test (CMT), milk culture or Somatic Cell Count (SCC).

Figure 6.

Swollen udder in mastitic goat. By author.

Transmission: In goats, both vertical and horizontal transmissions are likely

to occur. But vertical transmission presents very low occurrence. The
introduction of mastitis is favored mainly by the factors that intervene in the
horizontal transmission of pathogen. The pathogens can be eliminated by
milk, feces, urine and oronasal secretions. The hands of the milker, milking
equipment, vectors and fomites as a general way. The most often entry is via
the galatogenic route [17]. All animals are susceptible, increasing the
predisposition mainly according to age and number of lactations [18].
Etiology: The disease has a multiple etiolo gy but Staphylococcus
aureus and Streptococcus agalactiae are the commonest bacteria isolated
from cases of mastitis in small ruminants. Other bacteria identified
include Corynebacterium pyogenes, Klebsiella spp, Mycobacterium
spp and Brucella spp [16].
Clinical signs: The clinical manifestations of acute mastitis include edema,
elevated fever above 1050 F, increased pulse rate, loss of appetite,
depression, apathy, dyspnea, swelling and redness of the mammary gland,
enlargement of the retro-mammary lymph nodes and lethargic movement
are observed. Agalactia or lack of milk and hard lumps are common features
of chronic mastitis. Claudication is a common sign in which small ruminants
limps in order not to tamper with the inflamed mammary gland [19].
However, in subclinical mastitis, there is no evidence of clinical signs, but
alterations in milk composition can occur and positive respond to CMT or
other suggestive tests [20].

Diagnosis: History and clinical features are suggestive for tentative

diagnosis. Microbiological culture can be reliable to determine the presence
of organism in milk sample; California Mastitis Test (CMT) and somatic cell
count (SCC) are commonest tests for mastitis. Other tests like multiplex-PCR
and Enzyme-Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay (ELISA) are important techniques
used in the diagnosis of mastitis.

Treatment: Glucocorticoids is recommended in the early course of disease,

antibiotics like penicillin streptomycin (penstrep) at 200 mg/ml for 3–5
consecutive days is effective, oxytetracycline, benzylpenicillin, cloxacillin,
amoxicillin,, ampicillin, or erythromycin have been recommended to treat
mastitis. Some strains of S. aureus have found to be resistant to penicillin,
hence drug sensitivity test is recommended before the use of such drugs on
the treatment of mastitis. Topical application of antibiotic cream can be
helpful.

Prevention: Proper milking practices, good hygiene for milking utensils and
culling persistent infectors can help in reducing the incidence of the disease.
Kidding pens and Bedding should be disinfected daily to avoid growth of
pathogenic bacteria. Abscess draining and proper wound dressing can be
carried out regularly. The hygienic-sanitary management aimed at
preventing mastitis involves a number of factors including the choice of
antimicrobial, microorganism susceptibility, duration of treatment, dosage
employed, and the animal’s immune status [21].

3.7 Foot rot

Foot rot is a contagious disease of the hooves in goats and sheep,

characterized by ulceration and necrosis of the sensitive laminae of the foot
(Figure 7, Table 1) and lameness. This disease is prevalent in the Southern
region of the United States due to wetness and humidity of the environment.

Figure 7.

Ulceration and necrosis of laminae of foot in goat.

Transmission: Transmission is mainly enhanced by genetics, stocking rate

and environmental factors. The disease can be spread from infected animal
to non-infected susceptible animals (direct transmission). Incidence of
overgrown hooves can predispose animals to foot rot. During the rainy
season, infected animals can contaminate the soil and muddy pens which
can enhance disease transmission to other animals If not treated; sick
animals can become permanently infected [22]. The organism can also be
transported to the soil by visitor’s shoes.

Etiology: Foot rot is disease caused by a large Gram-negative rod-shaped

bacterium, Fusobacterium necrophorum and Dichelobacter nodosus which
are mostly common in contaminated soil.

Clinical signs: Foot rot results in lameness, inappetence, loss of weight, and
necrotic lesions in the interdigital space with foul smelling of the foot, there
is elevated temperature and reduced production performance, lethargy,
grazing on knees and abnormal gait. This condition may result increase in
production losses, cost of treatment and prevention. Affected animals will
lose value due to the infection [23]. The disease is very difficult to eradicate
when it affects a herd/flock.

Diagnosis: The first signs of hoof rot are limping, holding limbs above the
ground, grazing on knees, and abnormal gait, should be sufficient for
diagnosis. If laboratory confirmation is required, submit smears and swabs of
interdigital exudate and necrotic tissue from multiple animals for
bacteriology.
Treatment: Systemic administration of antibiotics (penicillin streptomycin or
oxytetracycline) and dry underfoot conditions usually resolve even severe
lameness after a few days without the need to pare away dead horn. To
curate in-between hooves with potassium per manganite and topical
application of aerosol sprays of cetrimide or oxytetracycline may be helpful.
Foot bathing in formalin or zinc sulphate (with surfactant) is another success
achievable option.

Prevention: Quarantine all newly purchased animals before introducing in

to the flock, isolate affected animals and give a deserving treatment, keep
barn dry and clean to avoid contamination, Provide good drainage to areas of
pastures and paddock, trim hooves regularly, supplement trace minerals and
vitamins and give adequate nutrition.

A DVERTISEMENT

4. Fungal disease of goats

4.1 Candidiasis

Candidiasis is a mucocutaneous fungal disease caused by a yeast-like

fungus. It is a normal inhabitant of gastro intestinal tract, nasopharynx and
outer genitalia of different species of animals.

Etiology: Candidiasis is caused by a yeast-like candida specie most

commonly Candida albicans that usually affects immunocompromized
animals and opportunistic in causing diseases. The disease is distributed
worldwide in a different spp. of animals [24].
Clinical signs: Signs noticed are defined patch of red itchy skin, pustules
and scabs (Figure 8, Table 1). There is a local overgrowth of candida spp. on
the tongue and mucosa of the mouth that appears as white plaques.
Anorexia, dehydration, watery diarrhea, loss of weight and sometime death.
Affected kids may develop listlessness, inappettance and stunted growth.
Figure 8.

Area of pustules and scabs in goats with candidiasis. By author.

Diagnosis: Diagnosis can be made by microscopic examination of scrapings

or biopsy specimens from mucocutaneous lesions. The fungus can be seen
visibly on staining with Wrights, methylene or Gram stain techniques. It can
also be confirmed on culture of a sample in blood or tissue agar.

Treatment: Antifungal like amphotericin B or nystatin ointment can be

effective when use topically, 1% iodine solution may also be used in the
treatment of cutaneous candidiasis.

4.2 Cryptococcosis

Cryptococcosis is a dimorphic potential fungal disease of mainly the lung and

brain that is distributed worldwide and affects immunocompromised animals
especially goats and sheep causing pneumonia and or meningitis [25].
Etiology: At least 322 species of the genus Cryptococcus (Tremellales,
Agaricomycotina) have been described [26]. However, only Cryptococcus
neoformans (var. neoformans and [Link]) and C. gattii have been
described as causing disease in humans and domestic animals [27]. The
pathogenic species of Cryptococcus are the only species of the order
Tremellales able to grow well at temperatures >30°C, and their capacity to
grow at 37°C is one of their main virulence factors [28].
Clinical signs: In cryptococcosis signs observed are; pyrexia, paraplegia,
depression, severe dyspnea due to the obstruction of the nostrils, swelling of
the nasal region, purulent nasal discharge, with abundant granulation tissue
and hemorrhagic exudate in the nostrils [29]. Goats may have severe
respiratory disease, including cough, anorexia, fever and severe weight loss
[27]. Neurologic signs may also be observed in goats [30] and or meningitis
(Figure 9, Table 1). The infection is sub-acute to chronic, with a clinical
course of 2–6 week in goats and sheep [29].

Figure 9.

A sign of cryptococcal meningitis in goat. By author.

Diagnosis: Diagnosis. A definitive diagnosis can be achieved by cytologic

evaluation of cerebrospinal fluid, skin and nasal exudates or isolation of C.
neoformans from blood or body fluids such as CSF. Cryptococcal antigen
latex agglutination serology (CALAS) can be performed on serum or body
fluids but only provides presumptive evidence [31]. Gram stain is also useful.
Treatment: Prompt anti-fungal treatment such as Amphotericin B plus
flucytosine, fluconazole, itraconazole or ketoconazole was found effective in
the treatment of Cryptococcus in goats especially when treatment with
antibiotics did not give any result. Success with oral fluconazole
(5 mg/Kg/day orally for 6 months) was established in a goat with abdominal
wall infection with C. gatti [32].
Prevention: It is difficult to prevent exposure to Cryptococcus in goats,
since it is commonly found in the environment. Avoidance and environmental
control of bird droppings (especially pigeons) are important [33]. Good
hygiene and environmental sanitation is paramount in the prevention of the
Cryptococcus.

4.3 Ringworm

Ringworm is a skin lesion usually circular and hairless, caused by a fungal

infection of the hair follicle and outer layer of skin. Ringworm is a zoonotic
disease. Sheep and goats develop crusty, scaly, circular patches that may or
may not be pruritic (itchy).
Transmission: It is transmitted by close contact between animals or via
animals contracting infective spores in the environment or by direct or
indirect contact with contaminated equipment or environment.

Etiology: Ringworm is sometime called wool fungus, which is typically from

the Trichophyton or Mycosporum genera. Ringworm is highly contagious and
zoonotic in nature.

Clinical Signs: The primary signs observed are alopecia, scaling, crusting
and poor growth. Sheep and goats develop moist and reddened skin, but
later gray, scaly and dry, circular patches (Figure 10, Table 1) which is due to
coalesced lesions that may or may not be pruritic (itchy). In more severely
affected animals, lesions become confluent to produce an extensive areas of
infection. Sheep and goats used for exhibition are at a much higher risk of
contracting ringworm due to shearing practices, which cause exposure of the
skin and the spread of fungal spores [34].

Figure 10.

Gray scaly dried circular area consumed by ringworm. By author.

Diagnosis: Diagnosis is typically made by visual examination and/or

microscopic examination of biopsy of lesions, hair or skin scrapings. A
definitive diagnosis and identification of the organism is made by a fungal
culture.

Treatment: Treatments may not shorten the time to complete healing of

lesions. Treatment with ketoconazole is found effective. Topical application
of charmil gel can be helpful. The use of imidazole spray may stop
progression of lesions and lower the spread to other animals.
Prevention: It is important to isolate infected animals so as not to spread
ringworm to the rest of the flock or herd. Minimize mixing of animals in pre-
confinement periods. Not only is it important to treat the animal, it is
important to disinfect pens and anything with which the infected sheep or
goat may have been in contact [34]. Thorough hand washing is also
recommended after treating the animals.

4.4 Aspergillosis

Aspergillus spp. may cause infections in a variety of domestic animals. They

are saprobes that are widely distributed in nature. Spread occurs via
aerosols of spores present in soil, decaying vegetation, and occasionally
animal tissues [35], a specialized hyphal structure of some fungi that
produce conidia (asexually produced spores borne externally to the cells),
can be observed in highly oxygenated tissues, such as those of the
respiratory system [36].
Etiology: Aspergillosis is caused by several species of aspergillus, and there
are more than 300 species of Aspergillus [37]. A. fumigatus is known to be
directly associated with infection. Other spps like A. niger, A. flavus, A.
terreus, and A. nidulans are opportunistic pathogens that are being
recognized commonly with the use of molecular techniques.
Clinical signs: In ruminants, signs include moist cough, nasal discharge,
pyrexia and shallow respiration. Pulmonary aspergillosis in sheep and goats
is characterized clinically by anorexia, dyspnea, apathy, cough and nasal
discharge [38]. The lungs are mottled, firm and heavy. There may be loss of
condition associated with necrosis of the nasal mucosa in goats with nasal
form of aspergillosis which may result in severe dyspnea (Figure 11, Table
1).

Figure 11.

Nasal and cutaneous aspergillosis in goat. By author.

Diagnosis: Aspergillosis can be confirmed by immunohistochemical,
molecular and culture-based diagnostic methods. Macroscopic and histologic
lesions can be used as presumptive diagnosis. There is another alternative
diagnostic approach which involves the use of pan-fungal PCR on animal
tissues [39]. Immunodiffusion, complement fixation, and ELISA can be used
to detect antibodies against Aspergillus spp [40].

Treatment and prevention: Antifungal agents are currently unlicensed,

but management of the disease usually relies on preventative measures
such as ensuring clean bedding, good hygiene and good husbandry.

A DVERTISEMENT

5. Parasitic diseases of goats

Parasites commonly found in goats can be divided into two general

categories: Internal (Endo) and External (Ecto) parasites:

5.1 Endo parasites of goats

Endo parasites are worms that live in the body or inside an organ and there
are multiple types. The most common internal parasites in goats are:
Nematodes (roundworms) e.g. lung worms (Dictyocaulus spp. or Muellerius
capillaris), Tapeworms, for example, moniezia, Liver flukes, for
example, Fasciola hepatica, and intestinal parasites like Coccidia, for
example, Eimeria or Isospora and Cryptosporidia. Parasites grow and
reproduce in certain environments. Goats that live in those environments are
at high risk of becoming infested [41].
Clinical signs: The clinical signs of endoparasitism in goats include: reduced
weight gain, decreased milk yield, Diarrhea, Rough hair coat (Figure
12, Table 1), loss of condition, Weakness, Anemia, Fever, hyperpnea,
Coughing and Bottle jaw.
Figure 12.

Diarrhea and rough haircoat in goat affected by internal parasite. By author.

Diagnosis: Endo parasite of goats can be diagnosed mainly based on

laboratory tests. The commonly used laboratory tests for the diagnosis of
endo parasitic diseases include blood packed cell volume, etiological
examination, which involves the detecting of the parasitic larvae or eggs
from stool, blood, nasal secretions as well as tissue of the animals,
serological assay such as Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay, indirect
hemagglutination test or fluorescence immunoassay and molecular
diagnostic techniques such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or DNA
sequencing.

Treatment: Benzimidazoles (oxfendazole, febantel, fenbendazole and

albendazole) Macrocyclic lactones: Avermectins (ivermectin, doramectin and
eprinomectin) Milbemycins Cholinergic agonists: Imidazothiazoles
(levamisole) Tetrahydropyrimidines (pyrantel and morantel) are found
effective for internal parasite. However, only morantel, thiabendazole,
fenbendazole, albendazole and phenothiazine are approved for goats [42].
Dewormer resistance occurs when there is less than 95% reduction in fecal
egg count 14 days after administration. Resistance has risen due to
anthelmintics being used often, rotated too frequently or under dosed.

Prevention: The best prevention is to alternate livestock species grazing,

avoiding overcrowding of pens or premises, genetic improvement and
pasture rotation. Balanced nutrition is very important to keep animals
healthy and help them develop appropriate resistance to external
pathogens, especially for dams before and after lambing/kidding. Also
practice the use of effective dewormers.

5.2 Ectoparasite of goats

Ectoparasites feed on body tissues like skin, hair or blood, and they include
fleas, flies, lice, mites, nose botfly and ticks. The wounds and skin irritation
produced by these parasites result in discomfort and irritation to the animals.
Parasites can transmit diseases from sick to healthy animals, which can
reduce weight gains and milk production.

Clinical signs: Mites infect the head, legs, body or tail region causing the
skin to become crusted and cause loss of hair and wool (Figure 13, Table 1).
The infected area itches and the animal scratches. The host does not feed
well. The infections cause skin damage to a goat. Lice, flea and flies are
found where animals are kept in overcrowded confined environment and
cause irritation of the skin, anemia and damage to the skin. It causes loss of
weight and condition to the host. The can transfer from one animal to
another through close contact. Ticks are very important parasites that can
harm its host by bites resulting in anemia, weakness and debility. Ticks can
be classified according to groups; one-host, two-host and three-host ticks.
Ticks that are known to infest goats are those belonging to three-host tick as
they parasitize three different hosts in their life cycle that make their control
very difficult. Ticks also spread diseases (tick borne diseases) that are so
fatal to its host. Nose botfly infests the nostril of goats causing irritation,
sneezing, shaking of the head, nasal discharge, respiratory distress, loss of
appetite and grinding of the teeth.
Figure 13.

Loss of hair caused by ectoparasite by author.

Diagnosis: Identification of ectoparasites can prove difficult because

detailed clinical examination can fail to confirm the presence of some
ectoparasites. It may be necessary to take skin stub samples to investigate
whether arthropods such as mites are in residence. Ticks, flea, flies and
biting lice usually can be seen with the naked eye. The presence of mites can
be confirmed by examining mites, eggs and fecal pellets in skin scrapings
under the stereoscopic microscope.

Treatment: Mites and lice are controlled by washing the infected area,
spraying or dipping the animal with a suitable treatment. If an animal has
only a few ticks these can be carefully pulled off making sure the mouth
parts of the tick are removed. Dipping is very effective if large numbers of
livestock need to be treated. Ivermetin injection and pour on are also
effective in the treatment of ectoparasite, but accurate dose must be
maintained.

Prevention: Monitoring program should be exercise to insure early

identification. Sanitation and regular cleaning of facilities using appropriate
detergent and disinfectant is helpful in the prevention of ectoparasite.
Eliminate areas where external parasites can breed and develop (e.g.
elimination of standing water reservoirs decreases mosquito levels). The use
of Insecticides and fly predators may be necessary.

6. Protozoa/Rickettsial diseases of goats

6.1 Babesiosis

Babesiosis is an infectious tickborne, obligate, intraerythrocytic protozoan

parasites from the phylum Apicomplexa, order Piroplasmida affecting a wild
and domestic animals which include cattle, sheep and ggoats. It is typically
fatal disease that is characterized by hemoglobinuria, fever, icterus and
intravascular hemolysis resulting to anemia. Variety of animals. Susceptible
animals may suffer high rate of mortality but recovered animals that are
latently infected has an immunity for a certain period of time. It is
transmitted transovarially by ticks. By the ingestion of the parasite, the
female tick becomes infected during engorgement, upon drops off of the
babesial agents on the host, it reproduce within the tick’s tissues which is
incorperated within the embryo of the developing ticks resulting to the
transmission of the disease to the new hosts by feding of ensuing tick larvae,
nymphs, or adults.
Transmission: Babesiosis is transmitted by
ticks Boophilus, Hemaphysalis, Hyalomma, Dermaentor and Ixodus spp are
the vetor in the transmission of Babesia of different species. It is transmitted
in both transovarially and transstadially. Babesia spp affecting goats and
sheep may be maintained in non-susceptible hosts such as wild animals.

Etiology: Although small ruminants can be infected by several species

of Babesia, the two most important species associated with Babesiosis in
goats are B. ovis and B. motasi, transmitted by Rhipicephalus
bursa and Haemaphysalis spp, respectively. Infection is of importance in the
Middle East, southern Europe, and some African and Asian countries.

Clinical signs:B. motasi can cause an acute or chronic Babesiosis in goats,

generally runs a course of 1 week or less. In acute infection, the first clinical
signs are anorexia, lethargy, depression, and fever (frequently ≥41°C]),
which persist throughout, and these are accompanied later by inappetence,
anemia and jaundice (Figure 14, Table 1), hemoglobinemia and
hemoglobinuria occur in the final stages. Chronic infection is manifested by
emaciation, coughing and edema. Many animals recover; however, some
may die if not treated.

Figure 14.

Anemia and jaundice seen in Babesiosis. By author.

Diagnosis: History and clinical findings may provide a presumptive

diagnosis of babesiosis. However, Giemsa-stained blood or organ smears by
light microscopy is essential to confirm the diagnosis. The most commonly
used tests are ELISA, PCR and a DNA probe, which can detect specific
parasitemias at very low levels of infection.
Treatment and prevention: Babesiosis can be treated using diminazene
aceturate (3-5 mg/kg), phenemidine diisethionate (8-13 mg/kg), imidocarb
dipropionate (1-3 mg/kg), and amicarbalide diisethionate (5–10 mg/kg).
Supportive treatment such as blood transfusions (4liters of whole blood per
250 kg of body weight), fluids, hematinics, and prophylactic antibiotics are
important. The disease can be prevented by effective quarantine of the
susceptible animals so as not allow the introduction of the vector ticks. The
control of ticks by dipping or spraying animals at risk with recommended
acaricides is paramount.

6.2 Coccidiosis

Coccidiosis is an enteric protozoan disease of goats caused by the

genus Eimeria. Coccidia go through a complex life cycle in the intestinal cells
of animals. Large number of eggs called oocysts are being produced in the
intestine and passed in the feces. The intestinal cells can be damaged as a
result of growth and multiplication of the coccidia in the intestinal epithelial
cell thereby causing diarrhea and other signs of the disease.

Etiology: Coccidiosis in goats is caused by several species of Eimeria, but E.

arloingi and E. ninakohlyakimovae are known to be pathogenic. All the
goat Eimeria spp are considered host specific and do not transfer infection
from goats to sheep. In most cases, concurrent coccidial and helminthic
infections can occur especially in animals on extensive management system.

Clinical signs: In most cases, clinical coccidiosis occurs between 5 and

8 weeks of age. Most goat kids have subclinical infection. In acute or sub-
acute infections, the usual signs are pasty feces, dirty tails, stary coat, loss
of weight, dehydration and inappetence. More severe acute cases show
mucoid or bloody diarrhea, possible tenesmus, dullness, anorexia, weakness
and anemia. Severe problems lead to rapid onset of diarrhea, often with
blood, tenesmus, and signs of abdominal pain, lethargy, recumbences, and
death. In chronic infections, there is delayed puberty, debilitation, poor
appetite, loss of weight and liver failure especially in milking goats.

Diagnosis: Diagnosis can be based on history, age of kids, clinical signs

especially of severe diarrhea, fecal examination and postmortem findings.
Acute coccidiosis can be diagnosed by direct examination of feces but in
chronic coccidiosis that have very low oocysts number are seen in feces
(Figure 15, Table 1), direct examination of feces may not be adequate.
Figure 15.

Slide showing coccidiosis in goats.

Treatment and prevention: Sulfadimidine (sulfamethazine) injection (10–

50 mg/kg) for five consecutive days is found effective. Vetcotrim bolus (10-
30 m/kg Per Os once daily for 3 days) has a good result. Decoquinate
(Deccox, 0.5 mg/kg) and Monensin 13-20grams/ton of feed can be used in
non-lactating goats. Diclazuril (1 mg/kg, PO, once) and toltrazuril (20 mg/kg,
PO, once) have been used successfully; doses may need to be repeated. A
metabolite of toltrazuril, ponazuril (10 mg/kg, PO, once) reduced oocyst
counts when used experimentally in goat kids. Ensure good nutrition
program, Improved good hygiene in the house, minimize predisposing
factors, avoid crowded pens and pastures, Feed and water troughs should be
raised off the ground to prevent fecal contamination.

6.3 Theileriosis

Theileriosis is caused by Theileria spp. a genus comprising tick-borne

transmitted protozoa of the family Theileridae, order Piroplasmida,
subclass Piroplasmia, Phylum Apicomplexa. Theileria species affect domestic
and wild ruminants, especially in Africa, Europe, Australia, and Asia [47].

Etiology: Theileriosis in sheep and goats is usually caused by T.

lestoquardi (formerly T. hirci), T. uilenbergi or T. luwenshuni. Morbidity and
mortality rates of up to 65% (T. luwenshuni) and 75% (T. uilenbergi) have
been seen in susceptible animals introduced into endemic areas. Affected
animals show sustained fever and anemia.

Clinical signs: The clinical signs of theileriosis in goats infected with T.

lestoquardi are similar to other forms of theileriosis, which include anorexia,
slight oculo-nasal discharges, fever, salivation, enlargement of superficial
lymphnodes, weight loss, respiratory distress (Figure 16, Table 1), edema of
the lungs, anemia, icterus and diarrhea, death may occur due to asphyxia.
Abortions may also be seen. In most cases, experimental infection of sheep
and goats with T. annulata resulted in only mild to moderate clinical signs of
fever and lymphadenopathy.

Figure 16.

Respiratory distress and loss of weight by author.

Diagnosis: Theileriosis can be diagnosed on Giemsa-stained thin smears

from blood or lymph node biopsies. At necropsy, impression smears can also
be used to detect schizonts from many internal organs of infected animals
such as the liver, spleen, lymph nodes and lungs. Other diagnostics tools like
antigen- specific ELISAs and PCR are often used in diagnosis and can
identify Theileria in the blood of both carriers and clinical cases. Some tests
can differentiate the species of Theileria, while others are specific for the
genus.
Treatment and prevention: Infected goats can be treated with
antiparasitic drugs like Buparvaquone (2.5 mg/kg) is very effective in the
early stage of the disease. Use of Oxytetracycline 10 mg/kg is found helpful.
Antidiuretics and anti-inflammatory drugs may also be used when there is
evidence of pulmonary edema. In advanced stage of the disease, treatment
is less effective especially where there is extensive destruction of lymphoid
and hematopoietic tissues. Control of ticks by spraying or dipping of animals
with acaracides is the most successful method used for the prevention of
theileriosis, but this needs to be applied at regular intervals to be effective.
Pyrethroid compounds are often used where animals are exposed to
tickborne diseases.

6.4 Cowdriosis
Cowdriosis (Heartwater) is regarded as the most important infectious,
noncontagious, tickborne rickettsial disease of ruminants that is clinically
characterized by diarrhea, fever, hydropericardium, hydrothorax and edema
of lung and brain. The disease is seen only in areas infested by ticks of the
genus Amblyomma.

Etiology and transmission: The disease is caused by a pleomorphic

ricketssia Ehrlichia ruminantium which is an obligate intracellular parasite
previously known as Cowdria ruminantium.. Under natural conditions, E
ruminantium is transmitted by Amblyomma ticks. Transmission occur mainly
transstadially, but transovarial transmission rarely occurs.

Clinical signs: The incubation period of Heartwater in goats and sheep is 1–

5 weeks and the course of acute disease takes 3–6 days. The clinical signs
are dramatic in the peracute and acute forms. In peracute cases, animals
may die suddenly without any premonitory signs; other animals developed
dyspnea and intense convulsion. In the acute form, there is pale mucous
membrane, anorexia and depression (Figure 17, Table 1). Other signs of
hyperesthesia, nystagmus, chewing movements and a high-stepping stiff
gait may be noticed. Terminally, prostration with bouts of opisthotonus,
circling or galloping movement, and stiffening of the limbs, intermittent
diarhea and convulsions are also seen. Subacute form is less pronounced,
but there may be prolonged fever, mild incoordination and coughing.
Nervous signs are inconsistent.

Figure 17.

Anorexia and depression by author.

Diagnosis: presumptive diagnosis is based on clinical, epidemiological and
pathological features; [Link] colonies can be identifiable in the brain
or intima of blood vessels on staining with Giemsa or methylene blue;
Molecular methods like real-time PCR has an advantage of being less time
consuming and free of cross contamination; Serological tests such as indirect
fluorescent antibody tests, enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA)
and Western blot are used for definitive diagnosis.

Treatment and prevention: Sulfonamides and tetracyclines can be used in

the early stage of the disease, when it advances the prognosis may be poor.
Oxytetracycline 20%long acting at 10 mg/kg/day may be helpful or
doxycycline at 2 mg/kg/day will be effective, if administered early in the
course of heartwater infection. Diazepam may be required to control
convulsions. Dexamethasone injection will be serve as supportive care,
although the rationale behind its effectiveness is much more controversial.
Control of tick infestation is a good preventive measure in some instances
but may be difficult and expensive to maintain in others. In areas of
endemicity, the use of dips against ticks of domestic animals is highly
recommended. Affected animals must be confined in a quiet and cool areas
that is devoid of any other disturbances because, any stimulation can cause
a convulsion and abrupt death. Vaccination can be helpful in the prevention
and control of cowdriosis.

6.5 Anaplasmosis

Anaplasmosis is a tickborne obligate intraerythrocytic bacteria of the

order Rickettsiales, family Anaplasmataceae, genus Anaplasma, that infect
red blood cells, causing fever and anemia.

Etiology and transmission:Anaplasma ovis may cause mild to severe

disease in sheep, goats and deer which is typically transmitted by ticks or
biting flies. Up to 17 different tick vector species
(including Dermacentor, Rhipicephalus, Ixodes, Hyalomma, and Argas) have
been reported to transmit Anaplasma spp. Iatrogenic transmission can occur
when instruments are re-used without proper sanitation, including
instruments used for dehorning, ear tagging, castrating, and vaccinating. In
utero transmission has also been reported.

Clinical signs: Anaplasmosis is usually subclinical or less severe in young

animals, it is severe and often fatal in older. Anaplasmosis is characterized
by progressive anemia due to extravascular destruction of erythrocytes.
Macrocytic anemia with circulating reticulocytes may be present late in the
disease [50]. Animals with peracute infections succumb within a few hours of
the onset of clinical signs. Acutely infected animals lose condition rapidly.
Incoordination, loss of appetite, dyspnea, and a rapid pulse are usually
evident in the late stages. The urine may be brown, but, contrary to
babesiosis, with no hemoglobinuria. Mucous membranes appear pale and
yellowish. There is abortion, hematologic parameters gradually return to
normal after convalescence.
Diagnosis: Diagnosis based on clinical features, hematological changes,
blood smears, and serologic testing. Microscopic examination of Giemsa-
stained thin and thick blood films (Figure 18, Table 1) is critical to distinguish
anaplasmosis from babesiosis and other conditions that result in anemia and
jaundice, such as leptospirosis and theileriosis. Serological tests like ELISA,
complement fixation, or card agglutination tests has been used to identify
chronically infected carriers but with doubtful degree of accuracy. Nucleic
acid-based detection methods can be used, but carrier level of infections
may not be detected.

Figure 18.

Slide showing anaplsma spp.

Treatment and prevention: Oxytetracycline has been reported to reduce

severity of the disease. The use of imidocarb has been shown to be very
effective in the treatment of anaplasmosis. Good sanitary methods such as
cleaning of stalls/pens regularly can help to reduce contamination. Avoid re-
using of needles and disinfect medical equipments when use. Treatment with
an effective acaricides to kill ticks may help to reduce the incidence of
anaplasmosis.

7. Viral diseases of goats

7.1 Peste des petits ruminants (goat plaque)

Peste des petits ruminants is an acute, highly contagious transboundry viral

disease primarily affecting goats and less commonly in sheep associated
with high morbidity and mortality caused by PPR virus of the
genus morbilliirus and family paramoviridae that closely resembles
rinderpest virus.

Etiology and transmission: is caused by a PPR virus of the

genus Morbillivirus of the family paramoviridae (sub family Paramixovirinae)
under the order Mononegavirales which is related to but distinct from
Rinderpest virus of cattle. The PPRV is genetically grouped into four
genotypes (lineages), based on the Fusion (F) and Nucleoprotein (N) gene
sequences. Lineages I and II circulate mainly in West Africa, lineage III is
mostly in Eastern part of Africa, while lineage IV is generally found in Asia,
but has now spread to the African continent and become the most prevalent
of all the lineages. The disease is transmitted by infected aerosols in
situation of close contact of animals and confinement seems to favor
outreaks. Fomites like bedding, feed and water troughs also help in the
transmission of PPR.
Clinical signs: In acute form, goats typically display an abrupt rise in
temperature to 40–41°C. Within a few days, infected animals develop oculo-
nasal discharges (Figure 19, Table 1), thirst, anorexia, depression and
leukopenia.

Figure 19.

Purulent oculo-nasal discharges. By author.

Conjunctival mucous membranes may be congested, followed by serous and

mucopurulent exudates. Affected animal develop necrotic oral erosions that
produce a fetid smell. There is profuse diarrhea which develops within 2 to
3 days and is accompanied by abdominal pain, tachypnea, loss of weight and
severe dehydration. There may be abortion 5 to 10 days after the onset of
fever. The incSubation period is usually 4-5 days.
Diagnosis: History and clinical features give a presumptive diagnosis in
endemic regions. The virus can also be detected in acute cases from various
swabs and blood samples, using PCR and ELISA.

Treatment and prevention: PPRV infection has no specific treatment.

Mortality can be reduced by supportive care, including the administration of
Antibiotics such as chloramphenicol, penicillin, and streptomycin,
inflammatory agents, as well as nutritional support. State and federal
veterinarians should be notified if PPRV is suspected. Sheep and goats can
be protected against PPR by immunization with rinderpest vaccines or by the
simultaneous administration of PPR hyper immune bovine serum and virulent
PPRV [52]. Premises should be decontaminated, and the area quarantined.
Movement restrictions can also aid in the prevention of the disease.

7.2 Goat pox

The sheep pox virus (SPV) and goatpox virus (GPV) are serious acute, often
fatal febrile contagious viral skin diseases of sheep and goats caused by the
members of the Poxviridae, genus Capripoxvirus which is characterized by
widespread skin eruptions. They are believed to be closely related
antigenically and physicochemically, which are able to infect both sheep and
goats.

Etiology and transmission: Sheep pox and goat pox is caused by the
infection of sheep pox virus (SPV) or goat pox virus (GPV), closely related
members of the genus Capripox virus in the family Poxviridae. SPV is mainly
thought to affect sheep and GPV primarily to affect goats, but some isolates
can cause mild to serious disease in both species. (CFSPH). Transmission is
by direct contact, while indirect transmission by contaminated implements,
vehicles or products such as litter or fodder. Indirect transmission by
mechanical vectors like insects is also possible. Transmission by inhalation is
important. SPV and GPV are shed in saliva, nasal and conjunctival secretions.

Clinical signs: Sheep pox and goat pox appear similar, with clinical signs
that typically include: Fever, red spots that become blisters (Figure 20, Table
1) on the muzzle, eyelids, ears, udder or in severe cases all over the body.
Lesions can develop internally causing breathing difficulties, depression,
lethargy, reluctant to feed, oculo-nasal discharges or swollen eyelids and
enlarged superficial lymphnode.
Figure 20.

Clinical manifestation of capripoxvirus. By author.

Diagnosis:Capripoxviruses, their antigens and nucleic acids can be detected

in skin lesions (e.g. biopsies, scrapings, vesicular fluid, scabs); oral, nasal
and ocular secretions; blood; lymph node aspirates; and tissue samples from
external or internal lesions collected at necropsy PCR can identify viral RNA
directly in tissue samples, blood and secretions. Other tests to detect
capripoxvirus antigens include enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays
(ELISAs), immunostaining methods and agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID).

Treatment and prevention: There is no specific treatment for sheep pox

or goat pox, but supportive treatment may reduce morbidity and other
complications. Newly introduced animals should be quarantined. Other
biosecurity measures, such as prevention of contact with other herds and
disinfection of fomites are also helpful. Stringent cleaning and disinfection of
farms and equipment, animal and vehicle movement controls within infected
areas, Vaccination may be considered in the area where the disease is
endemic.

7.3 Caprine arthritis encephalitis (CAE)

Is a viral disease of goats caused by a lentivirus called caprine arthritis

encephalitis virus, which is an enveloped, single-stranded RNA in the
family Retroviridae. The disease is found worldwide. There are several
genetically distinct isolates of the virus that differ in virulence.
Etiology and transmission: Caprine arthritis encephalitis virus is an
enveloped, single-stranded RNA lentivirus in the family Retroviridae. There
are several genetically distinct isolates of the virus that differ in virulence.
Cross-species transmission is possible via feeding of colostrum or milk from
infected goats. Therefore, the ovine and caprine lentiviruses are commonly
referred to as small ruminant lentiviruses.
Clinical signs: the most common sign is polysynovitis-arthritis which
includes joint swelling (Figure 21, Table 1) and lameness of varying severity.
There is Stiffness, abnormal gait and posture, loss of weight and depression.
In goats which develop the neurological form of the disease, show ataxia,
incoordination, hypertonia and hyperreflexia are also common. The goat has
increased difficulty standing and eventually is unable to stand. Lameness
may be sudden.

Figure 21.

Joint swelling seen in CAE. By author.

Diagnosis: Based on history and clinical manifestations. Serologic tests like

agar gel immune diffusion test and ELISA are useful to determine herd CAEV
status.

Treatment and prevention: There is no specific treatments currently exist,

likewise there is no vaccine but supportive care is indicated. To prevent
spread of the disease, infected animals are separated from non-infected
goats, or culled. Separating goat kids from infected goats, and feeding the
kids with cow’s milk, or pasteurized goat milk, will prevent infection. Goats
should also be quarantine and tested for CAE virus before introducing to the
herd.

7.4 Contagious ecthyma (orf)

Orf is one of the most widespread highly infectious viral diseases of mostly
small ruminants and sometimes other species, including wild animals. It
occurs worldwide and characterized by scabby and pustular lesions on the
muzzle, commissures of the lips and nostrils.
Etiology and transmission: is caused by Orf virus which is type species of
the genus Parapoxvirus of subfamily Chordopoxvirinae of
family Poxviridae. Natural transmission of disease occurs through direct or
indirect contact with infected animals particularly with dried crusts that falls
on the pastures during grazing.

Clinical signs: The primary lesion develops on the lips, muzzle and may
extend to the mucosa of the oral cavity. Early in the infection, sores appear
as blisters that develop into crusty scabs (Figure 22, Table 1). Lesions can
sometimes be found on the feet and around the coronet, there is
inappettance and loss of condition. During the course of the disease, there is
presence of a nodules with red colorations in the center, a bluish white rings
in the middle and peripheral erythematous. The lesions may progress to
form papules and extends through vesicular and pustular stages to become
encrusted. The Coalition of the numerous discrete lesions produces a large
scab that result in the proliferation of dermal tissue that produces a
verrucose mass beneath them.

Figure 22.

Crusty scab in Orf. By author.

Diagnosis: is based on clinical features and histopathology of skin lesions,

transmission experiments and demonstration of a pox virus by electron
microscopy of skin biopsies of infected skin.

Treatment and prevention: Antibiotics such as penicillin, chloramphenicol

and10% Potassium permanganate solution is effective in case of lip lesions.
In a situation complicated with stomatitis or enteritis, parenteral
administration of antibiotics in conjunction with topical applications of
salicylic acid ointment can give good result. Live vaccines should be used
cautiously to avoid contaminating uninfected premises, and vaccinated
animals should be separated from unprotected ones.

8. Metabolic and nutritional diseases of goats

8.1 Peripaturient hypocalemia (milk fever)

Parturient paresis is a non-febrile metabolism disturbance of pregnant and

lactating ewes and does characterized by acute-onset of hypocalcemia,
hyper excitability, circulatory collapse, flaccid paralysis, depression,
recumbency, coma, and death.

Causes: Parturient paresis is as a result of decreased calcium intake on

circumstance of high demand for calcium particularly during late gestation.
This will result to low serum calcium concentration in pregnant animals with
multiple fetuses. As fetuses mature and their bones mineralize, they require
increasing amounts of calcium. Goats are required to mobilize stored calcium
so as to increase calcium absorption, to meet up with the requirement.
Failure to meet up with such calcium requirement especially during these
periods put goats at significantly high risk of this condition.

Clinical signs: In early hypocalcemia, the most commonly noted clinical

signs are lethargy and inappetence (Figure 23, Table 1), decreased body
temperature, stiff gait, ataxia, salivation, depressed rumen motility, mild
bloat or constipation, recumbency, weakened uterine contraction and if
untreated, death.

Figure 23.

Lethargy and inappettance by author.

Diagnosis: A working diagnosis is based on history and clinical signs. In

outbreaks occurring before parturition, pregnancy toxemia is the main
differential diagnosis. Diagnosis can be confirmed by testing serum calcium
concentration before treatment. Urine ketone or serum beta-
hydroxybutyrate concentrations should always be evaluated at the same
time. Tentatively, diagnosis of acute hypocalcemia is aided by a rapid
response to slow IV administration of calcium.
Treatment and prevention: Treatment is by IV administration of calcium
borogluconate 50–150 milliliters of a 23% solution, which will elicit rapid
response. Oral or subcutaneous administration of a calcium solution helps to
prevent relapse. Other treatment of Calcium-containing products that also
contain phosphorus and magnesium, as well as dextrose, will have an
additional therapeutic effect. Prevention is by supplementing adequate
dietary requirement for calcium throughout gestation.

8.2 Pregnancy toxemia/ketosis

Is a metabolic often fatal disease that occurs in all parts of the world. It is
most prevalent in very fat does or does carrying multiple fetuses. This is a
condition of late pregnancy and early lactation most commonly occurring in
the last month of gestation.

Causes: is caused by in adequate nutrition or disturbance in carbohydrate or

sugar metabolism especially during last trimester of pregnancy in does. As
the pregnancy progresses, the need for energy in the body increases, at the
same time, the rumen capacity decreases as a result of fetal growth.

Clinical signs: Does with ketosis have poor appetite, lethargy and stress.
They also tend to separate from the herd, lag behind and become depressed.
There is abnormal gait and posture, apparent blindness with severe
depression and frequent urination. A classic symptom is sweet-smelling
(ketotic) breath. Goats may also grind their teeth and grunt, muscle tremors,
opisthotonos, followed by recumbency (Figure 24, Table 1), coma and death
usually follows within a few days.
Figure 24.

Goat with ketosis showing sternal recumbency. By author.

Diagnosis: To determine pregnancy toxemia in a flock. Blood glucose

monitor should be used with a BHBA (beta-hydroxybutyrate) blood strip to
test the glucose level. Does with a reading of 0.8 mmol/L or higher can be
classified positive for pregnancy toxemia and should be treated accordingly.

Treatment and prevention: Administer a readily usable form of energy

(especially glucose) and get the doe eating on her own usually with the help
of anabolic steroids. Treatment is often ineffective if pregnancy toxemia is in
advanced stages. Oral administration of propylene glycol 1o0ml/day for
three consecutive days may be helpful. Supplementation with calcium
lactate may also be suggested. Subcutaneous administration of protamine
zinc insulin at 0.4 U/kg daily may increase survival rate especially during the
first half of pregnancy. Excessive fat should be reduced and weight gains
should be allowed only during the 6 weeks before kidding will reduce the
incidence of ketosis. Give high-quality forages in addition to supplements
that are very palatable during the last 2 months of pregnancy. This allows
does to receive adequate energy even though rumen volume is decreased.

8.3 Lactic acidosis (grain overload)

Is a carbohydrate fermentation disorder of the rumen that usually affect

goats of all breeds and ages, as a result of feeding with large amount of
highly fermentable concentrates, underfeeding of effective fiber and poor
management practices.
Causes: occurs in goats that have been fed predominantly forage but
abruptly introduced to a large of amount of readily digestible carbohydrates
especially grain. It can be caused by abnormal feeding of an effective fiber
and poor management practices.

Clinical signs: In acute acidosis, there will be sudden death. Other signs
include an increased pulse and respiratory rates, decreased rumen motility,
mild bloat, staggering, abnormal posture (Figure 25, Table 1) and even coma
[60]. Subacute acidosis is difficult to recognize but occurs more frequently.
Loss of appetite, panting, diarrhea, dehydration, lack of rumination and signs
of discomfort may be noticed.

Figure 25.

Goat with grain overload.

Diagnosis: The diagnosis is obviously based on history and clinical findings.

It can also be confirmed by, a low rumen fluid pH (less than 5.5), and the
absence of live protozoa when rumen fluid is examined under the
microscope.

Treatment and prevention: Treatment usually includes drenching with a

solution of sodium bicarbonate, Magnessium sulphate, administration of an
antibiotic to suppress the lactic acid-producing bacteria and a change in
feeding practices. Prevention involves slowly introducing concentrate feeds
to allow the adaptation of rumen microflora. Provision of a properly balanced
diet and proper feed management practices.

Livestock Insurance
Livestock Insurance Scheme:
The Livestock Insurance Scheme, a centrally sponsored scheme, which
was implemented on a pilot basis during 2005-06 and 2006-07 of the 10th
Five Year Plan and 2007-08 of the 11th Five Year Plan in 100 selected
districts. The scheme is being implemented on a regular basis from 2008-09
in 100 newly selected districts of the country. Under the scheme, the
crossbred and high yielding cattle and buffaloes are being insured at
maximum of their current market price. The premium of the insurance is
subsidized to the tune of 50%. The entire cost of the subsidy is being borne
by the Central Government. The benefit of subsidy is being provided to a
maximum of 2 animals per beneficiary for a policy of maximum of three
years. The scheme is being implemented in all states except Goa through
the State Livestock Development Boards of respective states. The scheme is
proposed to be extended to 100 old districts covered during pilot period and
more species of livestock including indigenous cattle, yak & mithun.
The Livestock Insurance Scheme has been formulated with the twin objective
of providing protection mechanizm to the farmers and cattle rearers against
any eventual loss of their animals due to death and to demonstrate the
benefit of the insurance of livestock to the people and popularize it with the
ultimate goal of attaining qualitative improvement in livestock and their
products.
Guidelines for Implementation of Livestock Insurance Scheme:
Livestock Sector is an important sector of national, especially rural
economy. The supplemental income derived from rearing of livestock is a
great source of support to the farmers facing uncertainties of crop
production, apart from providing sustenance to poor and landless farmers.
For promotion of the livestock sector, it has been felt that along with
providing more effective steps for disease control and improvement of
genetic quality of animals, a mechanism of assured protection to the farmers
and cattle rearers needs to be devised against eventual losses of such
animals. In this direction, the Government approved a new centrally
sponsored scheme on Livestock Insurance which was implemented on pilot
basis during the 10th Plan. From 2008-09 onwards, the scheme is being
implemented as a regular scheme in the100 newly selected districts till the
end of 11th Five Year Plan i.e. 2011-12. The broad guidelines, subject to the
plausible discretion of the Chief Executive Officers to be followed by the
States for implementing the scheme are detailed below:-
 Implementing Agency:
Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries is implementing
the Centrally Sponsored Scheme of National Project for Cattle and Buffalo
Breeding (NPCBB) with the objective of bringing about genetic up-gradation
of cattle and buffaloes by artificial insemination as well as acquisition of
proven indigenous animals. NPCBB is implemented through State
Implementing Agencies (SIAs) like State Livestock Development Boards. In
order to bring about synergy between NPCBB and Livestock Insurance, the
latter scheme will also be implemented through the SIAs. Almost all the
states have opted for NPCBB. In states which are not implementing NPCBB or
where there are no SIAs, the livestock insurance scheme will be
implemented through the State Animal Husbandry Departments.

Economics of Goat Rearing Unit and Marketing

Management
Sheep and Goat Production as a Business Venture

To obtain the largest possible benefit from a sheep and goat business
venture, producers should conduct an enterprise analysis that includes
production, marketing and financial analyses.

Production analysis –Related to the analysis of physical performance

measures like percent lamb/kid crop, lambs/kids produced per ewe/doe,
weight of weaning lambs/kids, feed consumed per head, etc. These have
been dealt with in detail in previous chapters. In production analysis,
production efficiency is the main goal.

Marketing analysis – Related to the availability of markets for inputs and

products, market calendar, market facilities and market information on
sheep and goat transactions.

Financial analysis – Deals with the analysis of the profitability of the

sheep/goat enterprises. Most farmers and pastoralists spend much of their
time planning production activities. However, marketing plan and financial
analyses are also equally important for optimizing income. It is essential that
Ethiopian sheep and goat producers become market- and business-oriented.