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Academic Stress and Emotional Intelligence

The document presents a study on academic stress among undergraduate students, examining its relationship with emotional intelligence, psychological well-being, and perceived social support. It includes a comprehensive methodology, literature review, and analysis of findings, highlighting the implications for educational practices and student support services. The study aims to provide insights into managing academic stress effectively across different academic streams in central universities.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

9 views105 pages

Academic Stress and Emotional Intelligence

Uploaded by

tariquewali11

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

1

A study of academic stress in relation to emotional

intelligence, psychological well-being and perceived social
support among undergraduate students studying in
different streams of central universities.
2

Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................... 8

UNDERSTANDING STRESS....................................................................................................................11
ACADEMIC STRESS............................................................................................................................12
IMPACT OF ACADEMIC STRESS.............................................................................................................15
ACADEMIC STRESS AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES RELATIONSHIP.................................................................16
ACADEMIC STRESS AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE..................................................................................17
THE RELATIONSHIP OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL, BEING AND ACADEMIC STRESS...................................................18
THE EFFECTS OF PERCEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT AND ACADEMIC STRESS HAS BEEN CHARACTERIZED..........................19
AIMS OF THE PRESENT STUDY..............................................................................................................21
ACADEMIC STRESS............................................................................................................................22
SPECIFICALLY, THIS STUDY AIMS TO:......................................................................................................23
CONCEPT AND DEFINITIONS OF THE TERMS USED.....................................................................................24
ACADEMIC STRESS............................................................................................................................24
PREDICTIVE VARIABLES.......................................................................................................................26
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE..................................................................................................................26
PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING..............................................................................................................28
CONCEPT AND DEFINITIONS OF THE TERMS USED.....................................................................................30
ACADEMIC STRESS............................................................................................................................30
SOURCES OF ACADEMIC STRESS OFTEN INCLUDE:......................................................................................31
PREDICTIVE VARIABLES.......................................................................................................................32
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE..................................................................................................................32
PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING..............................................................................................................34
PERCEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT...............................................................................................................36
RELATED VARIABLES..........................................................................................................................39
UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS...............................................................................................................39
RELATED VARIABLES..........................................................................................................................41
UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS...............................................................................................................41
GENDER..........................................................................................................................................41
RELATED VARIABLES..........................................................................................................................43
UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS...............................................................................................................44
GENDER..........................................................................................................................................44
3

ACADEMIC STREAMS.........................................................................................................................45
CENTRAL UNIVERSITY.........................................................................................................................45
RELATED VARIABLES..........................................................................................................................47
UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS...............................................................................................................47
GENDER..........................................................................................................................................48
ACADEMIC STREAMS.........................................................................................................................49
CENTRAL UNIVERSITY.........................................................................................................................49
KEY FEATURES OF CENTRAL UNIVERSITIES INCLUDE:..................................................................................50
RATIONALE OF THE STUDY..................................................................................................................50
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY..................................................................................................................53
HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY................................................................................................................54
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY:...............................................................................................................59

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE.............................................................................. 61

2.1 ACADEMIC STRESS.......................................................................................................................61

2.2 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE.............................................................................................................62
2.3 PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING.........................................................................................................62
2.4 PERCEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT..........................................................................................................63
[Link] STRESS: 5 SYNTHESIS OF LITERATURE...................................................................................64
2.5.4 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND IT’S ROLE IN ACADEMIC STRESS...........................................................67
2.5.5 ACADEMIC STRESS AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL BEING........................................................................69
2.5.7 SYNTHESIS OF LITERATURE:.........................................................................................................74

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY........................................................................................................ 81

3.1 INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................81
3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN.......................................................................................................................81
3.3 SAMPLE AND SAMPLING PROCEDURE...............................................................................................82
3.3.1 POPULATION..................................................................................................................................83
3.3.2 SAMPLE SIZE..................................................................................................................................84
3.3.3 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE.....................................................................................................................84
3.4. ADMINISTRATION OF THE TOOLS AND COLLECTION OF DATA:...............................................................85
VALIDITY OF THE SCALE:............................................................................................................................86
3.5. PERCEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT SCALE CONSTRUCTION:...........................................................................86
4

3.5.1. PLANNING.....................................................................................................................................88
CONSTRUCTION OF THE SCALE..............................................................................................................88
3.5.2. SCRUTINY AND CRITIQUE:................................................................................................................89
3.5.3. PRELIMINARY TRY OUT:...................................................................................................................90
3.5.4. ITEM ANALYSIS:.............................................................................................................................90
3.5.5. FORMULA OF ITEM DISCRIMINATION:.................................................................................................91
3.5.6. RELIABILITY:..................................................................................................................................94
CRONBACH’S ALPHA RELIABILITY:................................................................................................................94
3.5.7. VALIDITY.......................................................................................................................................95
3.5.8. SCORING PROCEDURE:....................................................................................................................96
3.6. CLASSIFICATION OF RESPONDENTS FOR DIFFERENT VARIABLES:.............................................................97
3.7 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES.....................................................................................................97
3.8 STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES USED......................................................................................................98
3.9 CONTROL OF EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES...........................................................................................100
3.10 LIMITATIONS OF THE METHODOLOGY...........................................................................................100
3.11 SUMMARY OF THE METHODOLOGY..............................................................................................101

CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS.....................................103

4.1 OBJECTIVES..............................................................................................................................108
4.2 HYPOTHESES:...........................................................................................................................108
4.3 PRESENTATION OF THE RESULTS:...................................................................................................111
4.4TABULATION AND INTERPRETATION OF PERCENTAGE ANALYSIS:............................................................112
4.5 TABULATION AND INTERPRETATION OF CORRELATION ANALYSIS:..........................................................116
4.6 TABULATION AND INTERPRETATION OF STEPWISE MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS:................................118
4.7 TABULATION AND INTERPRETATION OF ONE WAY ANOVA:..............................................................134
4.8 TABULATION AND INTERPRETATION OF 2X3 WAY ANOVA:...............................................................144

CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS....................................................................... 148

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH FINDINGS....................................................................................148

5.2 MAJOR FINDINGS......................................................................................................................148
5.2.1 FINDINGS RELATED TO ACADEMIC STRESS LEVELS................................................................................148
5.2.2 FINDINGS RELATED TO PREDICTIVE VARIABLES....................................................................................148
5.2.3 PREDICTIVE RELATIONSHIPS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS..........................................................................149
5

5.2.4 FINDINGS RELATED TO GROUP DIFFERENCES......................................................................................149

5.3 IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS...................................................................................................150
5.3.1 THEORETICAL IMPLICATIONS............................................................................................................150
5.3.2 PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS................................................................................................................150
5.3.3 POLICY IMPLICATIONS....................................................................................................................151
5.3.4 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS...........................................................................................................151
5.3.5 PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS........................................................................................................152
5.3.6 SOCIAL SUPPORT IMPLICATIONS.......................................................................................................153
5.3.7 INSTITUTIONAL POLICY IMPLICATIONS................................................................................................154
5.3.8 PEDAGOGICAL PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS.............................................................................................155
5.3.9 PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IMPLICATIONS.....................................................................................155
5.3.10 STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES IMPLICATIONS.....................................................................................156
5.3.11 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IMPLICATIONS.....................................................................................157
5.3.12 ADMINISTRATIVE POLICY IMPLICATIONS...........................................................................................158
5.3.13 IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES AND RECOMMENDATIONS...................................................................159
5.3.14 LONG-TERM IMPACT ASSESSMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY.....................................................................160
5.3.15 TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION AND DIGITAL SUPPORT SYSTEMS..............................................................161
5.3.16 CROSS-CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS AND INTERNATIONAL APPLICATIONS...............................................162
5.4 ANALYSIS OF VARIABLE RELATIONSHIPS AND THEIR MANIFESTATIONS...................................................165
5.4.1 DETAILED ANALYSIS OF ACADEMIC STRESS PATTERNS...........................................................................165
5.4.2 COMPLEX DYNAMICS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN ACADEMIC SETTINGS............................................166
5.4.3 PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING MANIFESTATIONS ACROSS DEMOGRAPHICS...............................................166
5.4.4 SOCIAL SUPPORT NETWORK ANALYSIS AND IMPACT PATTERNS..............................................................167
5.4.5 INTERSECTIONAL ANALYSIS OF VARIABLES..........................................................................................168
5.4.6 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS WITH PREVIOUS STUDIES..............................................................................168
5.4.7 REGIONAL AND INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT ANALYSIS..............................................................................169
5.5 IN-DEPTH STATISTICAL ANALYSIS AND RESULT INTERPRETATIONS..........................................................169
5.5.1 EFFECT SIZE ANALYSIS AND STATISTICAL POWER.................................................................................172
5.5.2 INTERACTION EFFECT ANALYSIS........................................................................................................172
5.5.3 PATH ANALYSIS AND STRUCTURAL RELATIONSHIPS...............................................................................173
5.5.4 FACTOR STRUCTURE ANALYSIS.........................................................................................................173
5.5.5 REGRESSION DIAGNOSTICS AND MODEL VALIDATION...........................................................................174
5.5.6 CLUSTER ANALYSIS AND PATTERN RECOGNITION.................................................................................174
5.5.7 DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS AND GROUP CLASSIFICATION.........................................................................175
6

5.5.8 TIME-SERIES ANALYSIS OF STRESS PATTERNS......................................................................................175

5.5.9 NON-PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS AND ROBUST STATISTICS..........................................................................176
5.5.10 ADVANCED MODELING AND PREDICTION ANALYSIS...........................................................................176
5.6 INTEGRATED DISCUSSION AND COMPREHENSIVE ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS................................................177
5.6.1 SYNTHESIS OF MAJOR FINDINGS AND THEIR INTERCONNECTIONS...........................................................177
5.6.2 STREAM-WISE INTEGRATION AND ANALYSIS........................................................................................178
5.6.3 TEMPORAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL PATTERNS......................................................................................178
5.6.4 CONTEXTUAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES................................................................................179
5.6.5 METHODOLOGICAL INTEGRATION AND VALIDATION.............................................................................179
5.6.6 THEORETICAL INTEGRATION AND EXTENSION......................................................................................180
5.6.7 PRACTICAL IMPLEMENTATION INTEGRATION AND STRATEGIC DEVELOPMENT............................................180
5.6.12 RESOURCE ALLOCATION OPTIMIZATION AND IMPLEMENTATION EFFICIENCY...........................................183
5.7 SYNTHESIS OF FINDINGS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS............................................................................188

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION, FUTURE WORK, AND RECOMMENDATIONS.......................................192

6.1 COMPREHENSIVE CONCLUSIONS....................................................................................................192

6.2 FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS....................................................................................................193
6.3 COMPREHENSIVE RECOMMENDATIONS...........................................................................................193

REFERENCES............................................................................................................................... 195

List of Figures and Tables

Fig 3.1. Flow Chart of Scale Construction...........................................................................92

Table 3.2. Item Total Correlations for final 48 items.........................................................94

Table 3.3 Reliability Coefficients of final Social Media Usage scale.................................98

Table 3.4. Values of Coefficient of Correlation between Each Dimension and Total
Score of Social Media Usage Scale........................................................................................99

Table 3.5: Scoring System...................................................................................................100

Table 3.6: Classification of Respondents for Different Variables...................................100

Table 4.1. Showing Normality of Data...............................................................................106

Fig 4.1: Normal Q-Q plot of Academic Stress...................................................................108

Fig 4.2: Normal Q-Q plot of Psychological Well Being....................................................109

Fig 4.3: Normal Q-Q plot of Emotional Intelligence.........................................................110

Fig 4.4: Normal Q-Q plot of Perceived Social Support.........................................................110

Table 4.2. The relative percentages in regard to levels of academic stress.....................115

Table 4.3 The relative percentages in regard to levels of Psychological Well Being
among total sample..............................................................................................................116

Table 4.4 The relative percentages in regard to levels of Emotional Intelligence among
total sample...........................................................................................................................117

Table 4.5. The relative percentages in regard to levels of Perceived Social Support
among total sample..............................................................................................................118

Table. 4.6. Correlation between Academic Stress and Predictive Variables for Total
Sample...................................................................................................................................119

Table. 4.7. Correlation between Academic Stress and Predictive Variables for Total
Male and Female Sample....................................................................................................120

Table. 4.8. Correlation between Academic Achievement and Predictive Variables......120

Table 4.10. Regression Analysis among Criterion (Academic Stress) and Predictive
Variables for total Sample...................................................................................................121

Table 4.10.1. Summary of ANOVA for Regression..........................................................121

Table 4.10.2. Regression Coefficients.................................................................................122

Fig. 4.5. Percentage contribution of Predictive Variables on the Criterion Variable

(Academic Stress) for Total Sample of Undergraduate students....................................123
8

Table 4.11. Regression Analysis among Criterion (Academic Stress) and Predictive
Variables for Male Sample..................................................................................................123

Table 4.11.1. Summary of ANOVA for Regression..........................................................124

Table 4.11.2. Regression Coefficients.................................................................................124

Fig. 4.6. Percentage contribution of Predictive Variables on the Criterion Variable

(Academic Stress) for Male Sample of senior secondary students..................................125

Table 4.12. Regression Analysis among Criterion (Academic Stress) and Predictive
Variables for Female Sample..............................................................................................126

Table 4.12.1. Summary of ANOVA for Regression..........................................................126

Table 4.12.2. Regression Coefficients.................................................................................127

Fig. 4.7. Percentage contribution of Predictive Variables on the Criterion Variable

(Academic Stress) for Female Sample................................................................................128

Table 4.13. Regression Analysis among Criterion (Academic Stress) and Predictive
Variables for Arts Stream Sample.....................................................................................128

Table 4.13.1. Summary of ANOVA for Regression..........................................................128

Table 4.13.2. Regression Coefficients.................................................................................129

Fig. 4.8. Percentage Contribution of Predictive Variable on the Criterion Variable

(Academic Stress) for Arts stream sample........................................................................130

Table 4.14. Regression Analysis among Criterion (Academic Stress) and Predictive
Variables for Science Stream Sample................................................................................130

Table 4.14.1. Summary of ANOVA for Regression..........................................................131

Table 4.14.2. Regression Coefficients.................................................................................131

Fig. 4.9. Percentage Contribution of Predictive Variable on the Criterion Variable

(Academic Stress) for Science sample................................................................................132
9

Table 4.15. Regression Analysis among Criterion (Academic Stress) and Predictive
Variables for Social Science Stream Sample.....................................................................133

Table 4.15.1. Summary of ANOVA for Regression..........................................................133

Table 4.15.2. Regression Coefficients.................................................................................134

Fig. 4.10. Percentage Contribution of Predictive Variable on the Criterion Variable

(Academic Stress) for Social Science Sample....................................................................135

Table 4.17: Summary of the Significant Predictors of Academic Stress for total sample
and sub samples....................................................................................................................135

Table 4.18. Comparison of mean scores of Academic Stress in relation to levels of

emotional Intelligence for male and female sample..........................................................137

Table 4.18.1. Scheffe Post Hoc Test for mean difference in Levels of Emotional
Intelligence for male and female sample............................................................................138

Table 4.19. Comparison of mean scores of Academic Stress in relation to levels of

emotional Intelligence for Arts, Science and Social Science streams sample.................138

Table 4.19.1. Scheffe Post Hoc Test for mean difference in Levels of Emotional
Intelligence for Arts, Science and Social Science sample.................................................139

Table 4.20. Comparison of mean scores of Academic Stress in relation to levels of

Psychological Well Being for male and female sample.....................................................140

Table 4.20.1. Scheffe Post Hoc Test for mean difference in Levels of Psychological Well
Being for female sample......................................................................................................141

Table 4.21. Comparison of mean scores of Academic Stress in relation to levels of

Psychological Well Being for Arts, Science and Social Science streams.........................142

Table 4.21.1. Scheffe Post Hoc Test for mean difference in Levels of Psychological Well
Being for Arts, Science and Social Science sample...........................................................143

Table 4.22. Comparison of mean scores of Academic Stress in relation to levels of

Perceived Social Support for male and female sample.....................................................144
10

Table 4.22.1. Scheffe Post Hoc Test for mean difference in Levels of Perceived Social
Support for male and female sample..................................................................................144

Table 4.23. Comparison of mean scores of Academic Stress in relation to levels of

Perceived Social Support for Arts, Science and Social Science streams.........................145

Table 4.23.1. Scheffe Post Hoc Test for mean difference in Levels of Perceived Social
Support for Arts, Science and Social Science sample.......................................................146

Table 4.18 Difference in Academic Stress based on Gender and Stream among total
sample....................................................................................................................................147

Table 4.19. Difference in Psychological Well Being based on Gender and Stream.......148

Table 4.20. Difference in Emotional Intelligence based on Gender and Stream among
total sample...........................................................................................................................149

Table 4.20.1 Difference in Perceived Social Support based on Gender and Streams...150
11

Chapter 1: Introduction
Education is a process of holistic development of human personality. It develops intellectual
faculties, creates emotional stability and generalizes individuals into culture, civilized, and
cultured members of society. The general aim of education is to develop well developed
individuals who can add to the well being of the general society and life time self satisfaction.
But, in recent decades the education scenario has gained a fundamental shift in terms of
competition, as well as in terms of societal expectations. As we enter the 21st century,
education is more and more becoming a battlefield of who 'wins' or can survive. But there has
been an extraordinary load to carry for students over these years, resulting in increased stress
from different places such as schools, workplaces and parents expectations. Parents have
made the pressure of succeeding academically a matter of prestige as well as a determinate of
social status. As a result, students have to constantly keep up with the unrelenting
expectations for higher and higher demands.

In recent years, the landscape of higher education has undergone significant transformations,
particularly in light of global events such as the COVID-19 pandemic. These changes have
had profound implications for academic stress, emotional intelligence, psychological well-
being, and perceived social support among undergraduate students. Chen et al. (2023)
conducted a comprehensive study examining the moderating role of social support on the
associations between academic stress, anxiety, and depression among Chinese college
students during the COVID-19 pandemic. Their findings revealed that perceived social
support significantly buffered the negative impact of academic stress on mental health
outcomes, highlighting the crucial role of support systems in times of unprecedented global
challenges. This research underscores the need for universities to prioritize and enhance
social support mechanisms, particularly during periods of heightened stress and uncertainty.

The rapid shift to online learning environments has introduced new dimensions to the
academic stress experienced by undergraduate students. Jiang et al. (2021) investigated the
impact of online learning on academic stress and mental health among university students.
Their study found that while online learning offered certain conveniences, it also presented
unique challenges such as technological issues, reduced interaction with peers and
instructors, and difficulties in maintaining focus and motivation. These factors contributed to
12

increased levels of academic stress and feelings of isolation among students. The researchers
emphasized the importance of developing tailored strategies to support students in navigating
the complexities of online learning environments, including enhancing digital literacy skills
and fostering virtual communities to promote social connection.

The concept of academic resilience has gained renewed attention in the context of recent
global challenges. Cassidy et al. (2022) explored the relationship between emotional
intelligence, academic resilience, and student well-being in the face of educational
disruptions. Their longitudinal study revealed that students with higher levels of emotional
intelligence demonstrated greater academic resilience and adaptability to changing learning
conditions. Moreover, these students reported better overall psychological well-being and
lower levels of academic stress. The researchers suggested that incorporating emotional
intelligence training into university curricula could enhance students' capacity to navigate
academic challenges and maintain well-being in the face of adversity.

The intersection of academic stress and career readiness has become an increasingly
important area of research. Zhang and Wang (2024) examined the impact of academic stress
on career decision-making self-efficacy among final-year undergraduate students. Their
findings indicated that high levels of academic stress were negatively associated with
students' confidence in making career-related decisions. However, the study also found that
emotional intelligence and perceived social support acted as protective factors, mitigating the
negative effects of academic stress on career decision-making processes. This research
highlights the importance of holistic approaches to student support that address both
immediate academic concerns and longer-term career preparation.

Recent advancements in neuroscience have provided new insights into the physiological
impacts of academic stress on student cognition and performance. Patel et al. (2023) utilized
neuroimaging techniques to investigate the effects of chronic academic stress on brain
structure and function among university students. Their groundbreaking study revealed that
prolonged exposure to high levels of academic stress was associated with alterations in brain
regions involved in memory, emotional regulation, and decision-making. These neurological
changes were correlated with decreased academic performance and heightened anxiety levels.
The researchers emphasized the urgent need for stress reduction interventions that not only
13

address psychological well-being but also consider the neurobiological implications of

chronic academic stress.

The role of technology in both exacerbating and mitigating academic stress has been a subject
of growing interest. Li et al. (2022) conducted a mixed-methods study exploring the double-
edged nature of technology in the academic lives of undergraduate students. Their research
found that while excessive use of digital devices and social media platforms could contribute
to academic procrastination and increased stress levels, targeted use of educational
technology and digital well-being apps had the potential to enhance time management skills
and reduce academic anxiety. The study highlighted the importance of promoting digital
literacy and healthy technology habits as part of comprehensive strategies to address
academic stress in the modern educational landscape.

The concept of mindfulness has gained traction as a potential intervention for managing
academic stress. Nguyen et al. (2023) conducted a randomized controlled trial investigating
the efficacy of a mindfulness-based stress reduction program for undergraduate students. The
study demonstrated significant reductions in perceived academic stress and improvements in
emotional well-being among participants in the mindfulness intervention group compared to
the control group. Additionally, the researchers observed enhanced cognitive flexibility and
improved academic performance among students who regularly practiced mindfulness
techniques. These findings suggest that incorporating mindfulness training into university
support services could provide students with valuable tools for managing academic stress and
enhancing overall well-being.

The interplay between academic stress and sleep quality has emerged as a critical area of
concern. Morales-Muñoz et al. (2024) conducted a large-scale longitudinal study examining
the bidirectional relationship between academic stress and sleep patterns among university
students. Their findings revealed a vicious cycle wherein high levels of academic stress led to
poor sleep quality, which in turn exacerbated stress levels and impaired academic
performance. The researchers also found that emotional intelligence and perceived social
support moderated this relationship, with emotionally intelligent students and those with
strong support networks demonstrating better sleep hygiene and stress management skills.
14

This research underscores the importance of addressing sleep health as an integral component
of academic stress interventions.

The role of institutional policies and campus culture in shaping students' experiences of
academic stress has received increased attention. Wang et al. (2023) conducted a multi-
institutional study examining how different university policies and cultural norms influenced
levels of academic stress and student well-being. Their research revealed significant
variations in stress levels and coping mechanisms across institutions with different grading
policies, workload expectations, and support structures. Universities that emphasized
collaborative learning, provided flexible assessment options, and fostered a culture of work-
life balance reported lower levels of academic stress and higher levels of student satisfaction.
These findings highlight the potential for institutional-level interventions to create more
supportive and less stressful academic environments.

Finally, the concept of academic thriving, which goes beyond mere stress reduction to
promote optimal student functioning, has gained prominence in recent literature. Schreiner et
al. (2022) proposed a comprehensive model of academic thriving that integrates elements of
psychological well-being, emotional intelligence, and social support. Their longitudinal study
demonstrated that students who exhibited high levels of academic thriving not only
experienced lower levels of stress but also showed greater academic engagement, persistence,
and overall life satisfaction. The researchers emphasized the importance of shifting from a
deficit-focused approach to stress management towards a more holistic, strengths-based
approach that fosters student thriving. This paradigm shift has significant implications for
how universities conceptualize and implement student support services, suggesting a need for
more proactive and growth-oriented interventions.

Understanding Stress

People of all walks of life face stress as an almost inevitable part of life. But its effects hit
students the hardest. Stress was defined by Selye (1956) as the "father" of stress research, as:
'The non-specific response of the body to any demand for change'. According to this
definition, stress is a physiological and psychological response to environmental demands
that unites the response/application in every human being from all over the universe.
15

Types of stress can be broadly categorized into:

1. Acute Stress: Intense but short term stress, passes quicky.

2. Chronic Stress: A prolonged stress over a span of time.

3. Eustress: Stress in the positive sense: it motivates and focuses energy.

4. Distress: Stress that is negative and causes anxiety and concern.

In education, stress in students is a mix between a type and a type. However, like everything,
there is a threshold, too much stress can become too much (distress), causing negative effect
on students’ well being and their performance.

Academic Stress

address psychological well-being but also consider the neurobiological implications of

chronic academic stress.

In simple term academic stress can be defined as a particular type of stress that exists due to
expectations and academic demands. Academic stress was conceptualized by Bisht (1989) as
the situation where a student feel the academic frustration, academic conflict, academic
pressure and academic anxiety. It encompasses stress related to various aspects of academic
life, including:

1. It’s a demand of the educational institution.

2. But its curriculum and its subject difficulties.

3. Evaluation patterns and examinations aim in

4. Result announcements

5. Attitudes and expectations of teachers

6. Resources that are (or aren’t) available

7. Competition with peers

8. Time management challenges

There are a number of studies available that show how stress affects university students.
According to a study published on Asian Journal of Psychiatry (2017), 37.7%, 13.1%, as well
as 2.4% of Indian University Students have moderate, severe as well as extremely severe
depression, respectively, which has been associated with academic stress.

In one of comprehensive study of university students regarding academic stress was carried
out by Reddy et al. (2018). According to our findings, 48.80% of students were in the average
to high stress level category. Interesting observation here, they observed significant
differences in academic stress amongst different academic streams, Commerce stream
students were the highest in stress compared to Management and Science streams. The least
academic stress was reported with the Humanities stream.

Academic stress sources are multifaceted, and taken up differently by various individuals and
in different educational contexts. Marwan (2013) identified several key factors contributing
to academic stress:

1. Academic overload

2. Course difficulty

3. Inadequate study time

4. Heavy workload each semester

5. Challenging exams

6. Low motivation

7. High family expectations

In Marwan’s study, fear of failure was a big source of stress among undergraduate students.

Gender disparity in academic stress level was reported by Khan et al. (2015) where higher
stress level reported by male students than female students. This finding shows that
demographic factors should be taken into account when studying academic stress.

Impact of Academic Stress

Academic stress can have far reaching effects on so many parts of a student's life. Academic
stress can manifest in:

1. Psychological disorders: Depression, anxiety, and the emotional strain

(dissatisfaction, fatigue, and tension)

2. Maladaptive behaviors: Aggression and substance abuse included.

3. Cognitive impairment: Disturbances on the level of concentration and memory

4. Physical health issues: Headaches, digestive problems and sleep disturbances are
examples of these.

The result of these conditions are poor adjustment, poor concentration and ultimately in poor
performance academically. Academic stress and its effects tend to be a cyclical issue, and I
believe this duality creates a negative feedback loop, making this issue worse for the more
people that engage with it.
19

Academic Stress and Independent Variables Relationship

Given the intrinsic value of understanding how academic stress might be driven, it is
important to understand the factors that influence academic stress, in order to develop
effective interventions and support systems for students. This study focuses on three key
variables that have been shown to have significant relationships with academic stress: These
are Emotional Intelligence, Psychological Well-being and Perceived Social Support.

demonstrated that students who exhibited high levels of academic thriving not only
experienced lower levels of stress but also showed greater academic engagement, persistence,
and overall life satisfaction. The researchers emphasized the importance of shifting from a
deficit-focused approach to stress management towards a more holistic, strengths-based
approach that fosters student thriving. This paradigm shift has significant implications for
how universities conceptualize and implement student support services, suggesting a need for
more proactive and growth-oriented interventions.

Academic Stress And Emotional Intelligence

Furthermore, how students deal with Academic Stress has critical dependance at Emotional
Intelligence (EI). Consequently, Salovey and Mayer (1990) proposed emotional intelligence
as being a form of social intelligence entailing the ability to monitor one's own and other's
feelings and emotions, discriminate among them and use this information to guide thinking
and actions.

Several studies have demonstrated the relationship between emotional intelligence and
academic stress:

1. Using a survey measuring emotional intelligence and stress levels, Kalyoncu et al.
(2012) discovered that there was a statistically significant relationship in this relationship.
Their study concluded that people with high emotional intelligence are just more equipped to
manage the stress better.

2. College students were studied by Deepa (2016) in relation to academic stress and
emotional intelligence. The results revealed the impact that emotional intelligence played in a
student's academic stress. Students with low emotional intelligence had higher academic
stress relative to students with high emotional intelligence.

3. According to Mahmood (2010), emotional intelligence, academic stress and academic

success were found to significantly relate each other among both boys and girls. We noted
how emotional intelligence may have a mediating role in within the relationship between
academic stress and performance.
21

4. Emotional intelligence (high, average, & low) levels affected the examination stress
differently, as found by Poonam (2006). So, this implies that emotional intelligence might be
the backbone of how students handle certain academic stressors, for example commencement
examinations.

Collectively these studies imply that emotional intelligence may act as a protective factor
against academic stress. High emotional intelligence seems to better prepare students with
regard to managing academic pressures, regulating emotions and remaining focused on the
task at hand, even when in stressful circumstances.

The relationship of psychological well, being and academic stress

The psychological well being is to what extent individuals feel the positive feelings and
satisfaction and joy. According to Ryff (1989), psychological well being is the level of how
well people excel at their maximum potential.

The relationship between psychological well-being and academic stress is bidirectional and
complex:

1. The effect of academic stress and perceived social support on psychological well
being of herdsmen in Ghana was studied by Glozah (2013). Results revealed that perceived
social (resource) support buffered the effects that academic stress had upon psychological
well being.

2. Also, in academic stress among university student study, Reddy et al., 2018
discovered that high academic stress has been associated with low psychological well-being.
Students who reported higher stress levels were also more likely to report symptoms of
anxiety and depression, they observed.

3. A study was performed by Deb et al. (2015) on academic stress, parental pressure,
anxiety and mental health of Indian high school students. Academic stress was found to be
significantly related to anxiety and depression, as measures of poor psychological well being.
22

4. Bhujade (2017) explored the effects of academic stress on psychological well being of
college students. A significant negative correlation was found between academic stress and
psychological well being: that is, as academic stress increases, psychological well being
decreases.

Consequently, these studies potray the correlation of the nexus between academic stress and
psychological well being. High levels of academic stress can have a negative effect on
psychological well being, but good psychological well being can protect people from the bad
effects of academic stress. In this reciprocal relationship, educational settings need to have
academic stress and psychological well being addressed together.

The effects of perceived social support and academic stress has been
characterized.

It is about perceived support: The perception given by the individual about the quality of
support he receives from his network of social relationships. This can be support from
parents, siblings, friends, teachers, and family, among other important people in people’s
lives.

Several studies have explored the relationship between perceived social support and
academic stress:

1. Social support, according to Cohen (2002), offsets part of the negative psychological
influence of exposure to stressful life events and to nagging life strains. In terms of academic
stress, this means that if students can rely on strong social support systems the academic
pressures they face may be better met.

2. The relationship between social support and academic stress were examined by
Marhamah & Hamzah (2016) for first year students at Syiah Kuala University. However,
they discovered that students with greater amount of social support had lower degree of
academic stress suggesting the protective effect of social support.

3. In using the stated study of Ghanaian adolescents by Glozah (2013), the results were
that perceived social support acted as a buffer variable between academic stress and
23

psychological well being. In addition, interestingly however, girls reported better perception
of social support and at the same time reported more depression, highlighting complex gender
ramifications of the relationship between social support and stress.

4. Social support, however, was found to be important when exploring how stress effects
(Solberg, 1997); those who had a higher perception of social support experienced less stress.
The study also revealed that lack of social support relates also to psychological problems
(depression and anxiety).

5. Yurdakul (2018) identified three types of social support: The second is based on three
types of parental support; psychological, instrumental and informational support. Having all
of these kinds of support available can help students to cope with academic stress.

Taken together, these studies indicate that perceived social support may be a very important
protective mechanism against academic stress. Compared to students who perceived high
levels of social support, students with low perceptions seem less suited to absorb academic
pressures or to keep one’s psychological well being intact in the presence of stress.

Importantly, I also examine Academic Stress and factors related to it.

In the context of the current educational landscape, the study of academic stress, its relation
with emotional intelligence, psychological well being and perceived social support is
extremely important. Given that pressure to succeed academically still goes up, this
information can help educators, policymakers and mental health professionals who work with
student populations.

1. Improving Student Well-being: Only if we clearly know what causes academic stress
and what can reduce it, can we devise more efficient instruments to promote student well
being. Students’ mental health, as well as for their quality of life during their academic years
is greatly important.
24

2. Enhancing Academic Performance: Negative impact of academic stress on academic

performance has been demonstrated. We can potentially improve academic outcomes by
identifying methods to reduce academic stress, or to improve students' ability to cope with it.

3. Informing Educational Policies: Information from this research is useful for

educational policies and practices. For instance successful integration of emotional
intelligence program in curricular programs could be supported by the fact that emotional
intelligence mitigates academic stress.

4. Developing Targeted Interventions: With knowledge of the specific roles of emotional

intelligence, psychological well being and perceived social support in relation to academic
stress, interventions targeted to achieve the maximum can be developed. They could include
emotional intelligence workshops, or supporting social support networks among students; or
both.

5. Addressing Gender and Disciplinary Differences: Research on previous findings

suggest variations in gender and fields of academic stress levels and how stress is dealt with.
In this study, we intend to dig deeper into these differences and perhaps take it a step further
to help develop more differentiated support strategies for different student groups.

6. Long-term Impact: This means that any skills and coping mechanisms the students
learn how to manage the academic stress will have a long lasting effect on how they manage
stress in their future professional and personal lives. As a result, this research has important
implications beyond the academic one.

Aims of the Present Study

In the light of these complex interplay between the academic stress and the factors like
emotional intelligence, psychological well being and perceived social support, this study
takes into account overall relationships between these variables keeping the undergraduate
student in various streams of Central Universities in India as the unit of analysis.

Specifically, this study aims to:

1. To examine how strong is a relationship between academic stress, emotional

intelligence, psychological well being and perceived social support amongst undergraduates.

2. Investigate these relationships across various academic streams, (Science, Arts, and
Social Science).

3. The influence of emotional intelligence, psychological well being, and perceived

social support on academic stress levels was analysed.

4. To explore possible gender differences in the relations among these variables.

5. In addition, determine the levels of academic stress of each of the various student
groups and the respective percentages of each.

This study aims to contribute to the burgeoning literature on academic stress by addressing
these aims and to bring actionable insights that can be invoked to assist in promoting well
being and academic success of the students in the higher education.

In the chapters that follow, we detail the theoretical bases for these concepts, the
methodology we utilized to study them, and the implications for practice and future research.

This document comprises the concept and definitions of the terms used in the dissertation.

Academic Stress

Academic stress means the mental or emotional pressure, tension, or stress created by
requirements of academic life. This includes all kinds of stressors that are educational in
nature — for example, how hard you are working, preparing for exams, expecting to perform
well, and even stress related to finding a job after your studies.

Several researchers have provided definitions for academic stress:

1. As cited in Bisht (1989), academic stress was defined as a demand for academic
frustration, academic conflict, academic pressure and academic anxiety.

2. According to Fairbrother and Warn (2003), academic stress results from a set of
academic related demands beyond the adaptive resources of the individual.

3. According to Wilks (2008), academic stress is demonstrated by the body as the

reaction of students to the demands of the university which exceed the body’s adaptive
capabilities of students.

4. Raghavan and Safaei (2015) viewed academic stress as a pervasive problem in

modern education involving the feeling of academic related tension, anxiety, and stress.

5. According to Kumaraswamy (2013) academic stress is mental distress concerning

some impending frustration due to the possibility of an academic failure or even lack of such
understanding of the possibility of such an academic failure.• A lack of support by teachers
and/or [Link] of the financial concerns that arise with [Link] and personal
life [Link] interplay between academic stress and factors such as emotional
intelligence, psychological well-being, and perceived social support, this study aims to
provide a comprehensive examination of these relationships in the context of undergraduate
students in different streams of Central Universities in India.

Specifically, this study aims to:

1. Examine the extent of the relationship between academic stress and emotional
intelligence, psychological well-being, and perceived social support among undergraduate
students.

2. Investigate how these relationships may differ across different academic streams
(Science, Arts, and Social Science).

3. Analyze the influence of emotional intelligence, psychological well-being, and

perceived social support on academic stress levels.
27

4. Explore potential gender differences in the relationships between these variables.

5. Identify the levels of academic stress among different student groups and their relative
percentages.

By addressing these aims, this study seeks to contribute to the growing body of literature on
academic stress and provide practical insights that can be used to support student well-being
and academic success in higher education settings.

As we delve into the details of this study in the following chapters, we will explore the
theoretical foundations of these concepts, the methodological approach taken to investigate
them, and the implications of our findings for educational practice and future research.

Concept and Definitions of the Terms Used

Academic Stress

Academic stress refers to the mental and emotional pressure, tension, or stress that occurs due
to the demands of academic life. It encompasses a range of stressors related to educational
pursuits, including course workload, exam preparation, performance expectations, and future
career concerns.

Several researchers have provided definitions for academic stress:

1. Bisht (1989) defined academic stress as a demand related to academic frustration,

academic conflict, academic pressure, and academic anxiety.

2. Fairbrother and Warn (2003) described academic stress as the product of a

combination of academic-related demands that exceed the adaptive resources available to an
individual.

3. Wilks (2008) conceptualized academic stress as the body's response to academic-

related demands that exceed adaptive capabilities of students.
28

4. Raghavan and Safaei (2015) defined academic stress as a pervasive problem in

modern education, characterized by feelings of academic-related tension, anxiety, and
pressure.

5. Kumaraswamy (2013) described academic stress as mental distress with respect to

some anticipated frustration associated with academic failure or even unawareness to the
possibility of such failure.

Types of academic stress can include:

• Exam stress

• Performance stress

• Peer competition stress

• Parental expectation stress

• Time management stress

• Future career stress

Sources of academic stress often include:

• Heavy course load

• Difficult subjects

• Poor study conditions

• Lack of support from teachers or peers

• Financial concerns related to education

• Balancing academic and personal life

Academic stress can have a huge effect on students as it can influence students’ physical
health, mental health and academic performance. Experiencing some of those symptoms is
also possible, including anxiety, depression, sleep disturbances and decreased motivation. In
extreme cases academic stress can bring about burnout or dropout.

For the development of effective interventions and support systems in educational settings it
is crucial to understand academic stress. The article looks at the causes and symptoms of
academic stress and how educators and institutions can assist students to deal with stress to
do better in their academics as well as in their personal life.

Predictive Variables

Emotional Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence (EI) means being able to recognize, understand, and manage your own
emotions, and to recognize, understand, and manage the emotions of others. Very crucially, it
determines personal and professional success such as academic achievement and stress
management.

Several prominent researchers have provided definitions for emotional intelligence:

1. Emotional intelligence, according to Salovey and Mayer (1990), is the 'ability to

monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use
this information to guide one's thinking and actions.'

2. According to Goleman (1995), 'Emotional intelligence is the capacity for recognizing

our own feelings and that of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions
well in ourselves and our relationships.'

3. According to Bar-On (1997), emotional intelligence is "a blending of noncognitive

capabilities, competencies, and skills that influence one's ability to succeed in coping with
environmental demands and pressures."
30

4. According to Petrides & Furnham (2003), trait emotional intelligence is 'a

constellation of emotion related self perceptions and dispositions residing at the lower levels
of the personality hierarchies' (p. 575).

5. According to Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso (2004), emotional intelligence is more

detailed and is defined as the ability to 'reason about emotions, and of emotions to enhance
thought'.

Dimensions of Emotional Intelligence typically include:

1. Self-awareness: The ability to see and understand one’s feelings.

2. Self-regulation: The ability of a person to control and take care of emotions.

3. Motivation: The desire to keep on going after life throws you off course, and work
towards achieving goals.

4. Empathy: The art of being in another's place and thinking with his or her feelings.

5. Social skills: Ability to create and sustain relationships and effectively communicate,
and influence others.

Characteristics of emotionally intelligent individuals often include:

1. The capacity to correctly identify and express an emotion.

2. And to manage impulse and handle stress and our own ability effectively.

3. Changes in the situation can be adapted.

4. Optimism and positive outlook

5. Strong problem-solving skills

6. Good abilities to communicate easily and solve conflicts.

7. Empathy, social awareness and (over)reaction time

8. Faced with challenges, then, there must be resilience.

It has been proven that having emotional intelligence has a very huge role in academic
settings because it helps students to solve stress, build relationships and perform
academically. Students with higher levels of emotional intelligence have been associated with
better stress management, academic performance, an overall well being.

Psychological Well-being

Psychological well being is an overall state of an individual s mental health, and life
satisfaction. It signifies other aspects such as positive functioning and maximising of
potential.

Several researchers have provided definitions for psychological well-being:

1. Psychological well being is defined by Ryff (1989) as "the striving for perfection that
represents the realization of one's true potential" (p. 141).

2. In reference to the above, Deci and Ryan (2008) said psychological well being is ' a
combination of positive affective states and the ability to function at a level of optimal
effectiveness in one's individual and social life'.

3. Psychological well?having that Huppert (2009) defined as "the combination of feeling

good and functioning effectively."

4. Another closely related concept, subjective well being, was defined by Diener et al.
(1999) as: "a broad category of phenomena that includes people's emotional responses,
domain satisfactions, and global judgments of life satisfaction."
32

5. Psychological well being was defined by Keyes (2002) as "the presence of positive
affect, the absence of negative affect and a cognitive evaluation of life satisfaction."

Characteristics of psychological well-being often include:

1. And positive emotions and in life satisfaction

2. Positive self respect, and self acceptance

3. Growth and development of the person.

4. Sense of purpose and meaning in life is.

5. Self determination and autonomy

6. Environmental mastery

7. Good relationships in other areasPositive people reach out, they build relationships.
the complex interplay between academic stress and factors such as emotional intelligence,
psychological well-being, and perceived social support, this study aims to provide a
comprehensive examination of these relationships in the context of undergraduate students in
different streams of Central Universities in India.

Specifically, this study aims to:

1. Examine the extent of the relationship between academic stress and emotional
intelligence, psychological well-being, and perceived social support among undergraduate
students.

2. Investigate how these relationships may differ across different academic streams
(Science, Arts, and Social Science).
33

3. Analyze the influence of emotional intelligence, psychological well-being, and

perceived social support on academic stress levels.

4. Explore potential gender differences in the relationships between these variables.

5. Identify the levels of academic stress among different student groups and their relative
percentages.

Concept and Definitions of the Terms Used

Academic Stress

Several researchers have provided definitions for academic stress:

1. Bisht (1989) defined academic stress as a demand related to academic frustration,

academic conflict, academic pressure, and academic anxiety.

2. Fairbrother and Warn (2003) described academic stress as the product of a

combination of academic-related demands that exceed the adaptive resources available to an
individual.
34

3. Wilks (2008) conceptualized academic stress as the body's response to academic-

related demands that exceed adaptive capabilities of students.

4. Raghavan and Safaei (2015) defined academic stress as a pervasive problem in

modern education, characterized by feelings of academic-related tension, anxiety, and
pressure.

5. Kumaraswamy (2013) described academic stress as mental distress with respect to

some anticipated frustration associated with academic failure or even unawareness to the
possibility of such failure.

Types of academic stress can include:

• Exam stress

• Performance stress

• Peer competition stress

• Parental expectation stress

• Time management stress

• Future career stress

Sources of academic stress often include:

• Heavy course load

• Difficult subjects

• Poor study conditions

• Lack of support from teachers or peers

• Financial concerns related to education

• Balancing academic and personal life

The impact of academic stress on students can be significant, affecting their physical health,
mental well-being, and academic performance. It can lead to symptoms such as anxiety,
depression, sleep disturbances, and decreased motivation. In severe cases, prolonged
academic stress can result in burnout or dropout.

Understanding academic stress is crucial for developing effective interventions and support
systems in educational settings. By addressing the sources and manifestations of academic
stress, educators and institutions can help students manage their stress levels and achieve
better academic and personal outcomes.

Predictive Variables

Emotional Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence (EI) refers to the ability to recognize, understand, and manage one's
own emotions, as well as the emotions of others. It plays a crucial role in personal and
professional success, including academic achievement and stress management.

Several prominent researchers have provided definitions for emotional intelligence:

1. Salovey and Mayer (1990) defined emotional intelligence as "the ability to monitor
one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this
information to guide one's thinking and actions."

2. Goleman (1995) described emotional intelligence as "the capacity for recognizing our
own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well
in ourselves and in our relationships."
36

3. Bar-On (1997) conceptualized emotional intelligence as "an array of non-cognitive

capabilities, competencies, and skills that influence one's ability to succeed in coping with
environmental demands and pressures."

4. Petrides and Furnham (2003) defined trait emotional intelligence as "a constellation of
emotion-related self-perceptions and dispositions located at the lower levels of personality
hierarchies."

5. Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso (2004) refined their definition, describing emotional
intelligence as "the capacity to reason about emotions, and of emotions to enhance thinking."

Dimensions of Emotional Intelligence typically include:

1. Self-awareness: The ability to recognize and understand one's own emotions.

2. Self-regulation: The capacity to manage and control one's emotions effectively.

3. Motivation: The drive to achieve goals and persist in the face of setbacks.

4. Empathy: The ability to understand and share the feelings of others.

5. Social skills: The capacity to build and maintain relationships, communicate

effectively, and influence others.

Characteristics of emotionally intelligent individuals often include:

1. Ability to identify and express emotions accurately

2. Effective stress management and impulse control

3. Adaptability to changing situations

4. Optimism and positive outlook

5. Strong problem-solving skills

6. Effective communication and conflict resolution abilities

7. High levels of empathy and social awareness

8. Resilience in the face of challenges

Emotional intelligence has been found to play a significant role in academic settings,
influencing students' ability to cope with stress, build relationships, and perform
academically. Higher levels of emotional intelligence have been associated with better stress
management, improved academic performance, and overall well-being among students.

Psychological Well-being

Psychological well-being refers to the overall state of an individual's mental health and life
satisfaction. It encompasses various aspects of positive functioning and the realization of
one's potential.

Several researchers have provided definitions for psychological well-being:

1. Ryff (1989) defined psychological well-being as "the striving for perfection that
represents the realization of one's true potential."

2. Deci and Ryan (2008) described psychological well-being as "a combination of

positive affective states and the ability to function at an optimal effectiveness in one's
individual and social life."

3. Huppert (2009) conceptualized psychological well-being as "the combination of

feeling good and functioning effectively."
38

4. Diener et al. (1999) defined subjective well-being, a closely related concept, as "a
broad category of phenomena that includes people's emotional responses, domain
satisfactions, and global judgments of life satisfaction."

5. Keyes (2002) described psychological well-being as "the presence of positive affect,

the absence of negative affect, and a cognitive evaluation of life satisfaction."

Characteristics of psychological well-being often include:

1. Positive emotions and life satisfaction

2. Self-acceptance and positive self-regard

3. Personal growth and development

4. Sense of purpose and meaning in life

5. Autonomy and self-determination

6. Environmental mastery

7. Positive relationships with others

Dimensions of psychological well-being, as proposed by Ryff (1989), include:

• Self-acceptance

• Positive relations with others

• Autonomy

• Environmental mastery
39

• Purpose in life

• Personal growth

Psychological well being is influential in regards to students' ability to withstand stress,

persevere in motivation, and earn academic success in academic settings. Students with high
psychological well-being are more resilient to academic problems, work life balance is better
and overall they have a better educational experience.

Perceived Social Support

Social support perceived is the individual subject’s perception of having and adequacy of
social support at a given time from his social network. And it means an understanding that
you are cared for, you are valued, and that you are part of a kind of network of mutual
assistance and obligation.

Several researchers have provided definitions for perceived social support:

1. This led Cobb (1976) to define social support in terms of information provided to the
subject which leads him to believe he is cared for and loved, esteemed and a member of a
network of mutual obligations.

2. House (1981) described social support as "the functional content of relationships that
can be categorized into four broad types of supportive behaviors or acts: Includes emotional,
instrumental, informational, and appraisal support."

3. Perceived social support was conceptualized as "the extent to which individual

believes that his/her needs for support, information and feedback are satisfied" by Sarason et
al (1983).

4. Social support was defined by Thoits (1995) as "the functions performed for the
individual by significant others, (a) family members, (b) friends, and (c) coworkers."
40

5. According to Cohen (2004), perceived social support is referred as "the provision of

psychological and material resources by a social network intended to facilitate an individual's
coping with stress."

Types and sources of social support often include:

1. Family support: Family moral and practical support.

2. Friend support: Peers act as companionship and an emotional support.

3. Institutional support: Teachers, classmates, and other school administrative staff such
as faculty, guidance, and social workers were providing guidance and resources.

4. Community support: To the extent that assistance and belonging were derived through
community organizations and social groups.

5. Online support: Social media and online communities support that is emotional and
informational.• Includes the belief that you have people in times of need to rely on.• To feel
valued and cared about.• Assistance when needed.• A feeling of community belonging that
leads to a supportive community.• An emotional comfort and comfort zone• Information and
advice from trusted sources in general, and especially in remote [Link] to an individual's
subjective assessment of the availability and adequacy of support from their social network. It
encompasses the belief that one is cared for, valued, and part of a network of mutual
assistance and obligations.

Several researchers have provided definitions for perceived social support:

1. Cobb (1976) defined social support as "information leading the subject to believe that
he is cared for and loved, esteemed, and a member of a network of mutual obligations."

2. House (1981) described social support as "the functional content of relationships that
can be categorized into four broad types of supportive behaviors or acts: emotional,
instrumental, informational, and appraisal support."
41

3. Sarason et al. (1983) conceptualized perceived social support as "the extent to which
an individual believes that his/her needs for support, information, and feedback are fulfilled."

4. Thoits (1995) defined social support as "the functions performed for the individual by
significant others, such as family members, friends, and coworkers."

5. Cohen (2004) described perceived social support as "a social network's provision of
psychological and material resources intended to benefit an individual's ability to cope with
stress."

Types and sources of social support often include:

1. Family support: Emotional and practical assistance from family members

2. Friend support: Companionship and emotional support from peers

3. Institutional support: Guidance and resources provided by teachers, classmates, and

administrative staff

4. Community support: Assistance and belonging derived from community

organizations and social groups

5. Online support: Emotional and informational support obtained through social media
and online communities

Characteristics of high perceived social support include:

• Belief that one has people to turn to in times of need

• Feeling valued and cared for by others

• Access to practical assistance when required

• Sense of belonging to a supportive community

• Availability of emotional comfort and understanding

• Access to information and advice from trusted sources

Nevertheless, perceived social support is too important in academic settings, because it

affects students' adaptation to stress, their level of motivation, and their academic success.
Students with perceived social support at high levels tend to cope with less academic stress,
higher levels of academic engagement, and better overall well being. Academic stress is
harmful to academic performance, but it can be acted as a buffer by social support, which can
also increase students' resilience.

Related Variables

Undergraduate Students

Undergraduate, simply defined, means undergraduate students; persons in pursuit of their

first level of higher education toward a bachelor’s degree. They are students who have done
their secondary and are currently in a college or university program.• Typically between the
age range of 18-25 years, but can be older if studying through non traditional means.•
Bachelors degree or equivalent qualification.• Studying in a range of academic subjects like
arts, sciences, social sciences, engineering and so [Link] fact, they often grow personally and
intellectually significantly.• Transition of secondary to higher education• Academic related
activities, personal development, and social being integrated.e assessment of the availability
and adequacy of support from their social network. It encompasses the belief that one is cared
for, valued, and part of a network of mutual assistance and obligations.

Several researchers have provided definitions for perceived social support:

1. Cobb (1976) defined social support as "information leading the subject to believe that
he is cared for and loved, esteemed, and a member of a network of mutual obligations."
43

3. Sarason et al. (1983) conceptualized perceived social support as "the extent to which
an individual believes that his/her needs for support, information, and feedback are fulfilled."

4. Thoits (1995) defined social support as "the functions performed for the individual by
significant others, such as family members, friends, and coworkers."

5. Cohen (2004) described perceived social support as "a social network's provision of
psychological and material resources intended to benefit an individual's ability to cope with
stress."

Types and sources of social support often include:

1. Family support: Emotional and practical assistance from family members

2. Friend support: Companionship and emotional support from peers

3. Institutional support: Guidance and resources provided by teachers, classmates, and

administrative staff

4. Community support: Assistance and belonging derived from community

organizations and social groups

5. Online support: Emotional and informational support obtained through social media
and online communities

Characteristics of high perceived social support include:

• Belief that one has people to turn to in times of need

• Feeling valued and cared for by others

• Access to practical assistance when required

• Sense of belonging to a supportive community

• Availability of emotional comfort and understanding

• Access to information and advice from trusted sources

In academic settings, perceived social support plays a crucial role in students' ability to cope
with stress, maintain motivation, and achieve academic success. Students with high levels of
perceived social support tend to experience lower levels of academic stress, higher academic
engagement, and better overall well-being. Social support can act as a buffer against the
negative effects of academic stress and contribute to students' resilience and academic
performance.

Related Variables

Undergraduate Students

Undergraduate students refer to individuals pursuing their first level of higher education,
typically leading to a bachelor's degree. These students have completed their secondary
education and are enrolled in a college or university program.

Key characteristics of undergraduate students include:

• Age range typically between 18-25 years, though non-traditional students may be
older

• Pursuing a bachelor's degree or equivalent qualification

• Enrolled in a variety of academic disciplines such as arts, sciences, social sciences,

engineering, etc.
45

• Often experiencing significant personal and intellectual growth

• Navigating the transition from secondary education to higher education

• Balancing academic responsibilities with personal development and social

experiences

Gender

In the specific sense of academic research, gender encompasses the socially learned roles,
behaviors, activities and attributes that a society considers appropriate to males and females.
Gender is something unique separate from biological sex and ranges across many types of
identities.• Perceiving and coping with stressTo the extent that academic performance and
expectations may vary from one district to another.• In emotional intelligence and
expressionFactors such as psychological well being.d social support refers to an individual's
subjective assessment of the availability and adequacy of support from their social network. It
encompasses the belief that one is cared for, valued, and part of a network of mutual
assistance and obligations.

Several researchers have provided definitions for perceived social support:

1. Cobb (1976) defined social support as "information leading the subject to believe that
he is cared for and loved, esteemed, and a member of a network of mutual obligations."

3. Sarason et al. (1983) conceptualized perceived social support as "the extent to which
an individual believes that his/her needs for support, information, and feedback are fulfilled."

4. Thoits (1995) defined social support as "the functions performed for the individual by
significant others, such as family members, friends, and coworkers."
46

5. Cohen (2004) described perceived social support as "a social network's provision of
psychological and material resources intended to benefit an individual's ability to cope with
stress."

Types and sources of social support often include:

1. Family support: Emotional and practical assistance from family members

2. Friend support: Companionship and emotional support from peers

3. Institutional support: Guidance and resources provided by teachers, classmates, and

administrative staff

4. Community support: Assistance and belonging derived from community

organizations and social groups

5. Online support: Emotional and informational support obtained through social media
and online communities

Characteristics of high perceived social support include:

• Belief that one has people to turn to in times of need

• Feeling valued and cared for by others

• Access to practical assistance when required

• Sense of belonging to a supportive community

• Availability of emotional comfort and understanding

• Access to information and advice from trusted sources

Related Variables

Undergraduate Students

Key characteristics of undergraduate students include:

• Age range typically between 18-25 years, though non-traditional students may be
older

• Pursuing a bachelor's degree or equivalent qualification

• Enrolled in a variety of academic disciplines such as arts, sciences, social sciences,

engineering, etc.

• Often experiencing significant personal and intellectual growth

• Navigating the transition from secondary education to higher education

• Balancing academic responsibilities with personal development and social

experiences

Gender
48

In the context of academic research, gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors,
activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women. It is
important to note that gender is distinct from biological sex and can encompass a spectrum of
identities.

In academic stress research, gender is often considered as a variable due to potential

differences in:

• Stress perception and coping mechanisms

• Academic performance and expectations

• Social support structures

• Emotional intelligence and expression

• Psychological well-being factors

Academic Streams

Academic streams are the broad categories of fields of studies which students choose to
pursue in their undergraduate education. Common streams include:

• Science: Futher includes among other subjects: physics, chemistry, biology,

mathematics, computer science.

• Arts: Embraces literature, history, philosophy, fine arts and languages.

• Social Sciences: These include psychology, sociology, economics, political science

and anthropology.

• Commerce: Deal with topics of a business nature such as accounting, finance and
management.
49

• Engineering: It covers Mechanical engineering, Electrical engineering, Civil

engineering and Computer engineering.

Students have their own characteristics of each stream, each stream has their own curriculum
and can lead them to their own career paths where can provide the different nature and
intensity of academic stress from students to students.

Central University

In India, public university established by an Act of Parliament and funded by the Central
government is called Central University. They are high reputed universities for their high
academic standards and high research [Link] institutions endowed with power
to design curricula and to conduct examinations• Supported and controlled by the University
Grants Commission (UGC)• Usually, among their student body there is diversity from all
parts of the country• Rigorous academic programs for which they are known, competitive
admissions processes• They typically cover a whole lot of academic programs across various
disciplines• They have often strong research capabilities and infrastructure. an individual's
subjective assessment of the availability and adequacy of support from their social network. It
encompasses the belief that one is cared for, valued, and part of a network of mutual
assistance and obligations.

Several researchers have provided definitions for perceived social support:

1. Cobb (1976) defined social support as "information leading the subject to believe that
he is cared for and loved, esteemed, and a member of a network of mutual obligations."

3. Sarason et al. (1983) conceptualized perceived social support as "the extent to which
an individual believes that his/her needs for support, information, and feedback are fulfilled."
50

4. Thoits (1995) defined social support as "the functions performed for the individual by
significant others, such as family members, friends, and coworkers."

5. Cohen (2004) described perceived social support as "a social network's provision of
psychological and material resources intended to benefit an individual's ability to cope with
stress."

Types and sources of social support often include:

1. Family support: Emotional and practical assistance from family members

2. Friend support: Companionship and emotional support from peers

3. Institutional support: Guidance and resources provided by teachers, classmates, and

administrative staff

4. Community support: Assistance and belonging derived from community

organizations and social groups

5. Online support: Emotional and informational support obtained through social media
and online communities

Characteristics of high perceived social support include:

• Belief that one has people to turn to in times of need

• Feeling valued and cared for by others

• Access to practical assistance when required

• Sense of belonging to a supportive community

• Availability of emotional comfort and understanding

• Access to information and advice from trusted sources

Related Variables

Undergraduate Students

Key characteristics of undergraduate students include:

• Age range typically between 18-25 years, though non-traditional students may be
older

• Pursuing a bachelor's degree or equivalent qualification

• Enrolled in a variety of academic disciplines such as arts, sciences, social sciences,

engineering, etc.

• Often experiencing significant personal and intellectual growth

• Navigating the transition from secondary education to higher education

• Balancing academic responsibilities with personal development and social

experiences
52

Gender

In academic stress research, gender is often considered as a variable due to potential

differences in:

• Stress perception and coping mechanisms

• Academic performance and expectations

• Social support structures

• Emotional intelligence and expression

• Psychological well-being factors

Academic Streams

Academic streams refer to the broad categories or fields of study that students choose to
pursue in their undergraduate education. Common streams include:

• Science: Includes disciplines such as physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, and

computer science

• Arts: Encompasses subjects like literature, history, philosophy, fine arts, and
languages

• Social Sciences: Includes fields such as psychology, sociology, economics, political

science, and anthropology
53

• Commerce: Focuses on business-related subjects like accounting, finance, and

management

• Engineering: Covers various branches of engineering such as mechanical, electrical,

civil, and computer engineering

Each stream has its unique characteristics, curriculum, and potential career paths, which can
influence the nature and intensity of academic stress experienced by students.

Central University

A Central University in India refers to a public university established by an Act of Parliament

and funded by the central government. These universities are recognized for their high
academic standards and research output.

Key features of Central Universities include:

• Autonomous institutions with the power to design curricula and conduct examinations

• Funded and regulated by the University Grants Commission (UGC)

• Often have a diverse student body from various parts of the country

• Known for their rigorous academic programs and competitive admissions processes

• Typically offer a wide range of academic programs across various disciplines

• Often have strong research capabilities and infrastructure

With these related variables’ understanding, the study of Academic Stress, in relation to
Emotional Intelligence, Psychological Well being and Perceived Social Support among
undergraduate students of Central Universities can be coherently understood.

Rationale of the Study

In current educational landscape, academic stress in the undergraduate students of Central

Universities and its relationship with emotional intelligence, psychological well-being and
perceived social support warrants a thorough investigation. There are numerous compelling
reasons that motivate this study, which are further confirmed by the theoretical and practical
introduction on the importance of this study in the field of educational psychology and
student well-being.

1. Increasing Prevalence of Academic Stress: Over the past few years, academic stress
levels of the university students have increased remarkably. The competitive nature of higher
education, combined with the society pressure and expectations on a student, have made
students' lives so stressful. Reddy et al. (2018) observed in their study that First of all, nearly
half (48.80%) of students are suffering from average to high levels of academic stress. More
alarming is that research is pointing to a serious need to understand how academic stress adds
up and what we can do to combat this from an early age.

2. Impact on Student Well-being and Academic Performance: Excess academic stress

has far of reaching harm on students health, both mental and physical, and academic
performance. Stress causes anxiety, depression, sleep disorders and can significantly decrease
your quality of life. In addition, persevering with one too many assignments without rests can
disrupt your cognition, like memory and concentration, which again will impact school work.
This study explores the association of academic stress to factors such as emotional
intelligence, psychological well being and perceived social support within the context of
Students and the relationship is used to identify protective factors through which students can
overcome academic pressures.

3. Emotional Intelligence as a Potential Buffer: Recent research indicates that emotional

intelligence is a key factor for how students react to academic stress. Kalyoncu et al. (2012),
and Deepa (2016) have carried out studies, which have proven that there are significant
relationships between emotional intelligence and stress levels and they mentioned that the
increase in emotional intelligence leads to better results in stress management. However, the
mechanism by which emotional intelligence impacts academic stress in particular and in case
of Indian Central Universities in general is not explored. This study intends to bridge this
55

gap, by offering important insights that may be applied to interventions and the practice of
education.

4. The Role of Psychological Well-being: Bidirectionally, academic stress is intrinsically

related to psychological well being and both need more investigation. High levels of
academic stress can have negative consequences for psychological well being, but good
psychological well being can serve as a buffer against stress. It's in understanding this
relationship more in depth that will allow for development of more holistic student support
that encompasses academic stressors as well as a student's overall mental health.

5. Perceived Social Support in the Academic Context: The role of social support in
managing stress is well demonstrated, however its work in students of Central Universities in
the management of stress related with academics is yet to be explored. For instance, a study
of Social Support from Marhamah & Hamzah (2016) showed that students with high level
social support have lower level of academic stress. However, its dynamics might be rather
different in different cultural and institutional contexts. This study is an attempt to break the
homogenised concept of social support and offer nuanced understanding of the role of
perceived social support in the distinctive environment of the Indian Central Universities.

6. Addressing Gaps in Existing Literature: Numerous studies of academic stress,

emotional intelligence, psychological well being and social support have been carried out but
not in concert and not in Indian higher education in a coordinated manner. The objective of
this study is to build a comprehensive analysis of these interrelationships so that the complete
picture of student experiences in Central Universities can be gained.

7. Implications for Educational Policy and Practice: This study may have implications
on educational policy and practice in Indian Central Universities. Therefore, this research
informs on the factors which aggravate or help to minimize academic stress to guide
interventions on targeted support services as well as curriculum modifications. For example,
if emotional intelligence is shown to be one of the largest factors behind managing academic
stress, universities can look to including emotional intelligence training in their curriculum,
or in support programs for their student body.
56

8. Focus on Different Academic Streams: The study is especially significant, and this is
due to the examination of students from different academic streams i.e. Science, Arts and
Social Science. Stress levels are known to vary by academic discipline (Reddy et al., 2018).
Finally, by examining these differences, this study can make a contribution to the
development of stream specific approaches to managing academic stress, as it is understood
that academic fields will vary with regards to challenges and stressors that they present.

9. Gender Considerations in Academic Stress: This study is important because gender is

included as a variable, as previous literature contains mixed findings with regard to gender
differences in academic stress. Some studies (like Khan et al., 2015) have found male
students to have higher stress but others have found female students to have more stress. The
aim of this study is to clarify these gender dynamics at the Indian Central Universities to help
develop gender sensitive approaches to stress management and support.

10. Long-term Implications for Student Success: The skills and coping mechanisms
developed by students to manage academic stress can have far reaching implications for how
these individuals will handle stress for the rest of their life in both their professional and
personal life. Thus, this study will indirectly help in making students competent to face the
problems they might face after academic careers by understanding the factors which make
stress management effective during the university years.

11. Contribution to Cross-Cultural Understanding: Research on academic stress and

related factors currently exists mostly in Western contexts. As an Indian Central Universities
study, this contribution of study will bring valuable insights to the cross cultural
understanding of stress at academia level, perhaps putting fine dots on specific cultural
differences in how stress is experienced and handled in different educational systems.

12. Methodological Contributions: This study is able to give an overview of academic

stress that is more nuanced and holistic than studies which deal with only a single variable.
The benefits of this methodological approach may be useful for educational psychology and
the well being of students in future research.
57

As a whole, this study responds to a critical need in the way, by understanding the complexity
of academic stress among undergraduate students in Indian Central Universities. This
research has the potential to make valuable contributions to educational theory and practice,
by exploring the relationships between academic stress and emotional intelligence,
psychological well being and perceived social support. The finding can help make more
effective the support system and support intervention for effective well being, good academic
performance to the quality of higher education in India.

Objectives of the Study

The present study is designed to achieve the following objectives:

1. To find out the extent of relationship between criterion variable (academic stress) and
predictive variables (emotional intelligence, psychological well-being and perceived
social support) among total sample. (Total male, total female samples)
2. To determine the strength of relationship between criterion variable (academic stress)
and predictive variables (emotional intelligence, psychological well-being and
perceived social support) among sub groups of total sample. (Science, Arts and Social
Science sample)
3. To find out the influence of emotional intelligence, psychological well-being and
perceived social support on academic stress among total sample. (Total male, total
female samples)
4. To find out the influence of emotional intelligence, psychological well-being and
perceived social support on academic stress among sub groups of total sample.
(Science, Arts and Social Science sample)
5. To compare the effects of predictive variable (emotional intelligence, psychological
well-being and perceived social support) on criterion variable (academic stress) of
graduate students with respect to their gender.
6. To find out the levels of academic stress and their relative percentages among total,
male and female sample groups.
7. To explore the levels of academic stress and their relative percentages among total,
male and female sample groups of Arts Science and Social Science stream.

Hypotheses of the Study

To every problem, there may be more than one solution. In research an investigator’s effort is
also directed towards the solution of some selected academic problems. Most of the time, it is
possible to make intelligent guesses about the solution of the problem, such intelligent guess
or tentative solution to the problem is known as Hypothesis. Following hypotheses were
framed for present investigation by keeping in mind the stipulated objectives of the study.

Ho1: There would be no significant relationship between criterion variable (academic stress)
and predictive variables (emotional intelligence, psychological well-being and perceived
social support) among total sample. (Total male, total female samples)

Ho2: There would be no significant relationship between criterion variable (academic stress)
and predictive variables emotional intelligence, psychological well-being and perceived
social support) among sub groups of total sample. (Science, Arts and Social Science sample)

Ho2.1: There would be no significant relationship between criterion variable (academic stress)
and predictive variables (emotional intelligence, psychological well-being and perceived
social support) among sub groups of total Science students.

Ho2.2: There would be no significant relationship between criterion variable (academic stress)
and predictive variables (emotional intelligence, psychological well-being and perceived
social support) among sub groups of total Arts students.

Ho2.3: There would be no significant relationship between criterion variable (academic stress)
and predictive variables (emotional intelligence, psychological well-being and perceived
social support) among sub groups of total Social Science students.

Ho3: There would be no significant influence of emotional intelligence, psychological well-

being and perceived social support on academic stress of total sample.

Ho3.1: There would be no significant influence of emotional intelligence, psychological well-

being and perceived social support on academic stress of total male sample.
59

Ho3.2: There would be no significant influence of emotional intelligence, psychological well-

being and perceived social support on academic stress of total female sample.

Ho4: There would be no significant influence of emotional intelligence, psychological well-

being and perceived social support on academic stress among sub-groups of total sample.

Ho4.1: There would be no significant influence of emotional intelligence, psychological well-

being and perceived social support on academic stress of total Science sample.

Ho4.2: There would be no significant influence of emotional intelligence, psychological well-

being and perceived social support on academic stress of total Arts sample.

Ho4.3: There would be no significant influence of emotional intelligence, psychological well-

being and perceived social support on academic stress of total Social Science sample.

Ho5: There would be no significant effect of emotional intelligence, psychological well-being

and perceived social support on academic stress of graduate student with respect to their
gender.

Ho5.1: There would be no significant effect of emotional intelligence on academic stress

among male & female.

Ho5.2: There would be no significant effect of psychological well-being on academic stress

among male & female.

Ho5.3: There would be no significant effect of perceived social support on academic stress
among male & female.

Q1: What will be the relative percentages in regard to the levels of academic stress among
total, male and female sample groups?

Q2: What will be the relative percentages in regard to the levels of academic stress among
total male and female sample groups of Arts, Science and Social science streams ?
60

Delimitations of the Study

Having identified this problem, this study shall provide a detailed analysis of academic stress
in relation to emotional intelligence, psychological well being and perceived social support
amongst undergraduate students in Central Universities in Ethiopia with the understanding
that this study is limited to academic stress and its relationship to a few factors. The
following delimitations define the parameters within which this research has been conducted:

1. Sample Population: This study is restricted to undergraduate students of Central

Universities. This focus provides for a rich study of this particular population, but it restricts
the generalizability of implicated results to other higher educational institutions or
educational levels. Experiences and stressors by all undergraduate students in state
universities may be different from state universities, private colleges, or postgraduate
programs.

2. Geographical Scope: The research is limited to only three Central Universities:

Aligarh Muslim University, Jamia Millia Islamia University Delhi, and Baba Saheb Bhimrao
Ambedker University of Lucknow. The Central Universities represented here cover a variety
of geographical locations, however, the variation over all Central Universities of India may
not be completely represented by these. This study does not fully represent regional and
cultural differences, which might have effect upon academic stress and its related factors in
other parts of the country.

3. Sample Size: A sample of approximately 900 students is studied. This is a sizeable

sample, but a larger sample size may have afforded more robust statistical analyses and a
greater level of insight into more finely grained divisions. However, the current sample size
has been chosen to balance in depth analysis with the practicality of collecting and processing
the data.

4. Academic Streams: In particular, the research is carried out on students in three

general academic streams, namely Science, Social Science and Arts. These streams cover a
diversity of disciplines, but they may not be well suited to the specific experiences of students
studying in more specialised disciplines, for instance, Engineering, Medicine or Fine Arts.
61

These specialized fields may have different kinds of stressors and coping mechanisms than
those we researched in the general fields in this study.

5. Independent Variables: Three independent variables considered in the study are:

emotional intelligence, psychological well being, and perceived social support. However,
these are key variables in the interpretation of academic stress, but other possible factors such
as personality traits, coping mechanisms or certain institutional factors are not investigated.
By focusing on these three variables, an in depth analysis of academic stress can be
conducted, however not all the factors that affect academic stress may be captured.

6. Time Frame: However, this study offers a cross sectional view of stress in a
University set up at any one particular point in time. This is not able to account for
longitudinal changes in students' stress level or coping mechanisms during their academic
life. The second limitation of stress reporting, however, is that (other than in cases of
regulation of study load) factors such as seasonally variations in levels of stress (e.g., during
exam periods) or developmental differences as students move through their degree program,
are not addressed.

7. Methodology: Primarily this study utilizes quantitative methods employing

standardized tools for data collection. This approach supports statistical analysis and
comparison, however, it may not effectively describe the fine grained, qualitative experience
of individual students. The quantitative framework presented here does not explore the depth
of individual narratives and the contextualized experiences of academic stress.

8. Cultural Context: The study endeavors to be conducted in the Indian higher education
context and does not specifically investigate the cultural factors likely to affect academic
stress or its associated variables. The research design does not particularly address the unique
cultural aspects of stress perception or of emotional expression or of social support structures
based in the context of the Indian people.

9. Institutional Factors: Although the study does not dig down into particular
institutional policies, practices and environmental factors in each university that may
contribute to academic stress, it does highlight a few general features. Although Central
62

Universities are the focus of study, a common institutional setting is not combined with
considerations of institutionally specific campus cultures, support services, or policies.

10. Self-Reported Data: All of the measures are self reported measures of academic
stress, emotional intelligence, psychological well being, and perceived social support. Self
report measures are widely used and validated, but they may suffer from response biases, or
from limitations in self awareness. This study does not include measures (e.g., physiological
indicators) that are objective measures of stress or external assessments of the variables.

11. Focus on Undergraduate Level: The study is limited by being only focused on
undergraduate students; thus, the experiences of postgraduate students or in a professional
course are not included in the study. This research doesn’t capture the unique stressors or
coping mechanisms that may be relevant to further study.

12. Language and Cultural Adaptation: However, despite the efforts to use culturally
appropriate and validated tools, the study is not designed to examine potential language
barriers and problems of cultural meanings associated with constructs under study. The ways
in which academic stress, emotional intelligence, psychological well being and social support
are understood across various linguistic/cultural groups in the sample are not explicitly
explored.

When we analyze these results and further interpret the scope of this study, these
delimitations are important to consider. However, the study boundaries defined by these
characteristics also hint at areas we can explore in subsequent studies that complement or
expand on those presented in this investigation. However, this study is motivated by the need
to offer insights into the experience of academic stress among in undergraduate students in
the Central universities and the factors that influence their ability to respond to academic
pressures.

Significance of the study:

Academic Stress is a complex concept. From the very start till the university life, different
styles of education and its diverse demands cause stress. A student’s life is subjected to
different kinds of stressors, such as the pressure of academics with an obligation of success,
63

uncertain future and difficulties envisaged for integration in to the system. Stress is viewed as
a negative emotional, cognitive, behavioural and physiological process that occurs as a
person tries to adjust to or deal with stressors. These students face, social, emotional and
physical and family problems which may affect their learning ability, preference towards
career and academic performance. Stress can have a very significant impact on their
academic endeavor. The students studying particularly at higher level are having a kind of
fear and pessimistic feelings about what they want to be in their future. The parents expect
them to perform outstandingly to earn good grades and get high ranked jobs for themselves.
The academic pressure created by self, parents and the society affect the health of the
students and they undergo high level of stress during their studies. Academic stress booms
individual’s perception of academic frustration, academic conflict, academic pressure and
academic anxiety which are the components of academic stress. Likewise, academic stress is
defined as a mental and emotional pressure or tension that occurs due to the painful demands
of college life. Therefore, it seems pertinent to conduct a study to see the effect of various
predictive variables on academic stress of the under graduate students. Research has been
conducted on emotional intelligence and it was found to be appearing as an important factor
in the prediction of personal, academic and career success. Stress can also affect students’
well-being and academic performance. Social support is considered as one of the most
important way of coping with academic stress. Social support has generally been found to
promote psychological well-being, as well as to buffer the effects of stress. The findings of
present study will help in determining that whether any significant difference exists between
the academic stress of students belonging to high perceived social support and low perceived
social support. The finding will also helpful in exploring that is there any significant impact
of emotional intelligence, psychological well-being and perceived social support on academic
stress of under graduate students or not. A comparative analysis of the results of this
research in relation to different streams will render a great help to student, teachers, teacher
educators, guidance workers, curriculum designers as well as educational managers in the
improvement of total teaching learning process as well in guidance and counseling services
for students. In order to improve the educational processes and problems of students at higher
stage academic stress should be systematically investigated. This is very essential for them in
achieving higher goals in every walk of life and education in particular.
64

Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature

This chapter reviews literature on academic stress and its relationship with emotional
intelligence, psychological well being, and perceived social support with undergraduate
students. It reviews studies concerning relevant studies published between years 2000 to 2024
and presents up to date reviews with regard to the latest research on these subjects.

2.1 Academic Stress

For the past two decades academic stress has been a hot topic of research looking in to the
prevalence, causes and its impacts on students' well being and their performance.

A study of relationship between academic stress, anxiety, time management and leisure
satisfaction among college students was performed by Misra and McKean (2000). However,
they came to learn that female students reported higher academic stress and anxiety from
their academics than did their male counterparts but also had better time management skills.

University students in Botswana and the stress that they endure, was investigated by Agolla
and Ongori (2009). Their finding showed that academic workload, lack of resources, lack of
motivation, poor academic performance are major sources of stress that affect the study
participants. The study stressed the importance that universities ought to offer stress
management programs to students.

Bedewy and Gabriel (2015) conducted a longitudinal study to examine, develop and examine
the psychometric properties of a scale to measure the academic stress in higher education.
The outcome of their research was the development of the Perception of Academic Stress
Scale (PAS), a questionnaire which has been used extensively in academic stress research.

Chronic academic stress and its effects on mental and physical health in students within
higher education is studied by Pascoe et al. (2020) in a systematic review. Strong evidence of
a link between chronic academic stress and depression, anxiety, burnout, and poor sleep was
found in students, they said.
65

Being university student during this pandemic period, a recent study conducted by Chen et al.
(2023) studied the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the academic stress level of
university students. During the pandemic made for a significant increase in academic stress,
according to the reported reasons for this increase were online-learning challenges and
uncertainty about the future.

2.2 Emotional Intelligence

In the past few years there is a growing interest in the role of emotional intelligence in
academic contexts and its relationship to academic stress and performance.

Trait emotional intelligence was tested by Petrides et al. (2004) for its role in academic
performance and deviant behavior at school. They argue that emotional intelligence
moderated the relationship between cognitive ability and academic performance.

Perera and DiGiacomo (2013) conducted a meta analysis of the relationship between trait
emotional intelligence and academic performance. A small but statistically significant
positive correlation between emotional intelligence and academic performance was
discovered, and was perceived to have important implications for educational contexts.

The impact of emotional intelligence on medical students’ academic stress and well being
was studied by the Thomas et al. (2017). Good emotional intelligence was linked to lower
stress and improved psychological well being in academics, they learned.

Recently, Miao et al. (2022) conducted a study on the use of emotional intelligence to assist
in buffering the academic stress negative effects on mental health among college students
during the COVID 19 pandemic. Academic stress correlated with depression symptoms
because the higher their emotional intelligence, the less likely they were to get depression.

2.3 Psychological Well-being

Many studies have been conducted to study the relationship between psychological well
being and academic stress in academics.
66

The structure of psychological well being was re visited by Ryff and Keyes (2005). They also
confirmed the multidimensional and life stage aspects of feelings of well being for young
adults.

The relationships among academic stress, coping, and psychological well being in university
students were examined by Burris et al. (2009). When compared with emotion focused
coping, problem focused coping strategies were linked with better psychological well being
while at higher levels of distress were linked with emotion focused coping strategies.

Peter Bowman (2010) conducted a longitudinal study focusing on the impact of college
experiences on psychological well being in a study. The research demonstrated how
interactions between students and academic challenge are beneficial for students'
psychological well being in the long term.

Academic stress and psychological well being among college students in India was studied
by Bhujade (Bhujade, 2017). The results showed a strong negative correlation of academic
stress with psychological well being and stressed the importance of stress management
interventions in higher education.

To that end, Zhang et al. (2024) conducted a recent metaanalysis, synthesizing research on
psychological well being interventions for university students. Mindfulnessbased
interventions and cognitive behavioral therapy have shown some promise, they found, in
easing psychologic distress and academic stress in students.

2.4 Perceived Social Support

Much work has been done studying the role of perceived social support in mitigating
academic stress with a focus on sources and their effects.

Solberg & Villarreal (2017) examined the effect of social support upon the psychological and
academic acculturation among Latino college students. They also found through their
findings that social support acts as a buffer against stress; as well as social support produces a
positive impact on academic outcome.
67

In Laursen et al. (2006) we were interested in the effects of social support on academic stress
and depression in adolescents. Perceived support from friends and family was associated with
lower levels of academic stress and depressive symptoms, they found.

Friedlander et al. (2007) then used a longitudinal study to examine the joint effects of stress
and social support on adjustment to university. They found that increases in social support
recorded over time were associated with better adjustment to university life and lower stress
levels.

Rayle and Chung (2007) examined the relation between perceived social support from
friends, family, and their college as they related to academic stress among first-year and non-
first-year students. For both groups, perceived support from family was the strongest
predictor of lower academic stress.

Using a dyadic design, Li et al. (2023) conducted a recent study to discover the function of
online social aid in troubling learning pressure amid the COVID-19 pandemic. According to
them, perceived online social support was negatively linked to academic stress and positively
related to academic engagement.

[Link] Stress: 5 Synthesis of Literature

The literature on academic stress of undergraduates has indicated that there are a plethora of
factors that play a role in contributing to such experience of stress with the students. The
majority of this section is a synthesis of several studies performed from 2000 to 2024 that
focus on academic stress studies and seeking to understand the key themes and trends.

[Link], a review of the prevalence and sources of academic stress is provided.

Multipart of multiple studies that consistently have shown higher rates of academic stress
among different undergraduate students in different cultural contexts. An example is Reddy
et al. (2018) study indicated that about half (48.80%) of university students were at the
moderate to high stress of academic stress. The result obtained in this study is consistent with
Misra and McKean's (2000) finding of high academic stress among college students,
specifically related to time management and academic expectation.
68

The sources of academic stress have been extensively investigated, with several common
themes emerging:

1. Academic Workload: According to Agolla and Ongori (2009), heavy academic

workload was found by them to be a major stressor on university students in Botswana.
Hamaideh's (2011) own finding corroborated mine as he stated that academic overload and
coursework are among the main sources of stress suffered by Jordanian university students.

2. Examinations and Assessments: In their systematic review of stress among dental

students, Alzahem et al. (2011) found that examinations were always the most stressful factor
reported. Abouserie (2006) also found fear of failure in exams to be a major source of stress
to UK university students.

3. Time Management: Time management, particularly, was identified by Misra and

McKean (2000) as what leads to academic stress for students who could not balance
numerous academic demands. This was a theme taken up in subsequent studies, most notably
in Robotham and Julian's (2006) comprehensive review, which identified time pressure as a
major source of stress.

4. Future Career Concerns: Academic stress among Indian university students is related
to fear of failure and concern about future career prospects indicated by Banu et al. (2015).

5. Competition and High Expectations: Banu et al. (2015)’ study was also focusing on
high parental expectations and peer competition which has been reflected to have the ability
to increase the levels of academic stress as well.

[Link] second demographic factors in the academic stress are

Research has explored how demographic factors, particularly gender, influence the
experience of academic stress:

1. Gender Differences: According to Misra and McKean (2000), female students went
through more academic stress than male students. Support for this finding was backed up by
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Abouserie (2006) who also found higher stress levels amongst female university students in
the UK. Khan et al., for instance, found in stark contrast, that the male students had higher
stress levels, therefore further research is required to gain insight into gender specific
experiences of academic stress.

2. Academic Disciplines: Most importantly, Reddy et al. (2018) explored the variations
in academic stress levels in different academic streams. The nature of academic disciplines,
they found, could make a difference in the stress experience as they noted that it was
commerce students who reported the highest stress level compared to students in
management and science stream.

[Link] induced by academic performance affects the fell in the lack of mental well being
and leads to cognitive problems for students.

The literature consistently demonstrates the far-reaching effects of academic stress on various
aspects of student life:

1. Mental Health: A systematic review (Pascoe et al. 2020) reports strong evidence for a
link between chronic academic stress and depression, anxiety, and burnout among higher
education students. A similar finding was made by Sarita et al. (2019), where a very positive
relationship between high academic stress and symptoms of anxiety and depression was
found.

2. Physical Health: In the systematic review by Pascoe et al. (2020) it is also stressed
that chronic academic stress influences physical health, for instance, sleep problems. In
particular, Wang et al. (2022) went a step further and found that academic stress is negatively
significantly related to sleep quality of the university students during the COVID-19
pandemic.

3. Academic Performance: Exposure to academic stress also hurt academic persistence

in college students, according to Struthers et al. (2000). They also found, however, that
students who used problem focused coping strategies were more likely to persist despite high
stress level.
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4. Burnout: Academic stress and academic performance, however, are related to each
other in the context of academic burnout (Mofrad and Poursharifi, 2021). The study found
that their academic burnout served as the mediator of the negative effect of academic stress to
students' academic performance in their study.

2.5.4 Emotional intelligence and it’s role in academic stress

Over the past two decades, the concept of emotional intelligence has received substantial
attention among educational researchers, who have devoted considerable scholarly work to
examining its relationship to stu dent performance, academic stress, and well being in
college. According to Salovey and Mayer (1990), emotional intelligence was defined as an
ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate, and to use this
information to guide both thought and actions. This definition also established a foundation
upon which subsequent research was constructed within the academic setting.

Schutte et al. (2001) more closely investigated the implications of emotional intelligence,
discovering that one's emotional intelligence score was associated with greater social skills
and cooperativeness reactions during interactions with others, leading to expected benefits in
educational settings where cooperation and interpersonal relationships are so very significant.
A high number of studies provided data on the relationship between emotional intelligence
and academic performance.

Some of these years ago, Parker et al. (2004), carried out a key study in the researching this
relationship, where they found out that different aspects of emotional intelligence were
effective predictors of academic success in high school students. There was no difference in
test anxiety between the high and low levels of the other five TESAT levels, but this finding
indicated that emotional skills could be important for academic achievement and may have
helped students to cope better with academic stressors.

This builds on by using trait emotional intelligence to predict school deviant behavior and
academic performance, according to Petrides et al. (2004). Emotional intelligence mediated
the association between cognitive ability and academic performance according to their study,
serving as a reminder of the nuanced crosstalk of emotional capabilities with more traditional
measures of intelligence related to school performance.
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MacCann et al.’s (2011) meta analysis offered a complete review of the emotional
intelligence and its relationships with academic performance. Their analysis comprised of
synthesis of various studies, which reported a small, but significant positive correlation
between emotional intelligence and academic performance at different educational levels. In
sum, this meta-analytic evidence gave strong support to the hypothesis that emotional
intelligence makes some unique allowance to academic achievement, after statistical control
of traditional predictors of academic success.

Additionally, Brackett et al. (2011) extended the investigation to explore the mechanisms by
which emotional intelligence would affect academic outcomes by examining the effects of
emotion skills (overall emotional intelligence and each of the branches of emotional
intelligence) in predicting social and academic outcomes of college students. However, their
research also indicated that higher emotional intelligence was associated with better social
functioning (e.g., assisting friends with school work or sticking up for a student being taunted
in the schoolyard) as well as higher academic performance, and that emotional skills may
help both social integration and academic engagement in university settings. The longitudinal
study by

Emotional intelligence developmental aspects were insightfully provided by Rivers et al.

(2012) who examined the association between children’s and adolescents’ emotion regulation
ability and social functioning. They found that better emotion regulation skills were linked to
better social competence and academic performance, which may be the byproduct of
emotional intelligence that builds up over time and has a positive influence on longer term
academic success.

Recent research, however, has continued to sharpen our understanding of emotional

intelligence in academic contexts. This study borrowed empirical influence from past studies
conducted by Perera and DiGiacomo (2015) of the role of trait emotional intelligence in
academic performance and deviant behavior among adolescents, which found that emotional
intelligence offered a significant moderate role in the relationship between cognitive ability
and academic performance. Therefore, the potential protective role of emotional intelligence
was reflected as emotional intelligence to facilitate constructing student’s cognitive abilities
have been utilized to leverage more effectively in academic setting.
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However, Costa and Faria (2015) further investigate the effects of emotional intelligence on
academic achievement and school behavior, finding positive relations between emotional
intelligence and academic achievement and adaptive school behaviors. Findings highlighted
broad ranging effects of emotional intelligence in educational settings beyond just academic
performance to also embrace the general school adjustment.

Udayar et al. (2020) combined incremental validity study on academic performance, which
was a significant contribution. Their research builds a strong argument for adding emotional
intelligence measures to comprehensive assessments of student potential and performance by
arguing that emotional intelligence uniquely contributes to the prediction of academic success
over and above traditional cognitive predictors.

2.5.5 Academic stress and psychological well being

Due to the comprehensive results of the numerous researches into the relationship between
psychological well being and academic stress among undergraduate students, the researches
have pointed out how these two constructs interact intricately in the lives of the students. A
clear framework for understanding the nature of well being in the academic context was
provided by Ryff and Keyes (2005) seminal work on the structure of psychological well
being. The multitemporal model they created, incorporating aspects like personal growth,
purposes on life and positive relations with others, has been adopted in further investigation
of the psychological health of students.

On this foundation, Chambel and Curral (2005) build on to study how work-school conflict
affects psychological well ‐ being of university students. They found a statistically significant
negative association between work school conflict and psychological well being because
work school conflict is prevalent and takes a toll on students trying to meet their work and
other life demands. More generally, this study highlighted the need to consider students' life
context when considering the relationship between psychological well being and academic
stress.

Further work in the area is explored by Ramos-Sánchez and Nichols (2007), who examined
the association between self efficacy, optimism and psychological well being in college
students. Their findings indicated that higher levels of self efficacy and optimism were
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related to better psychological well being and academic performance, and could be protective
factors for the negative effect of academic stress.

Bowman acquired valuable findings from a longitudinal study on psychological well being in
academia. Bowman's research also found that diverse interactions and academic challenges
led to positive effects on the students' psychological well being over time by examining the
effects of college experiences on psychological well being over time. This study focused on
the potential for academic environments to encourage personal development and augment
psychological well being despite academic stressor.

This line of inquiry continued with Chow (2010) who sought to explain which predictors
affect university students’ academic success, such as a psychological well being. Findings
from this study emphasized the importance of psychological well being as a predictor of
academic success, and that mental health does play an important role in academic
achievement.

These findings were supported by earlier research of Salami (2011), which investigated the
relationship between psychological well being and academic performance among secondary
school students and found a positive correlation between psychological well being and
academic achievement. Taken together, these studies highlighted the mutual nature of the
association between psychological well being and future academic success, and indicated that
interventions designed to boost psychological well being could have broad implications for
students' academic trajectory.

Resilience was the concept that persisted in the literature on psychological well being and
academic stress. The relationship between psychological well being and resilience was
investigated by Bhullar et al. (2014) among university students and discovered that as
psychological well being increased, so did resilience to academic challenges. This research
indicated the usefulness of psychological well being as a buffer to other academic stressors
allowing students to cope with the demands of higher education.

The theme of the relationship of psychological well being and academic burnout was further
explored by Poormahmood et al. (2017) by looking at the relationship between these factors
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among university students. They found a strong negative correlation between psychological
well‐being and academic burnout indicating that psychological well‐being may be a good
way to intervene against or ameliorate academic burnout. These results provide insight about
the need for holistic support for students, which attends to academic as well as mental health
needs.

The complex relationship between psychological, well‐being, academic stress and other
constructs has been further refined by recent research. Academic stress and life satisfaction:
A mediation study of psychological well being contribute to Guo et al. (2019). They found
that psychological well being partially mediated this relationship and stressed its importance
to life satisfaction under academic stress. This study pointed out the possible wide−range
benefits of interventions in psychological well−being for the students including areas beyond
academic performance to overall life satisfaction. As with many other facets of society, the
global COVID 19 pandemic also presented some unique challenges to student well being and
academic experiences, thus necessitating an examination of these constructs in the context of
wide spread disruption and uncertainty.

In the work of Brailovskaia et al. (2021) the effect of the pandemic on psychological well-
being and academic motivation in university students was explored. Bu research, the
psychological well being's resilience dynamics that promote the facing of unprecedented
challenges in crisis period were underlined and it was emphasised how a student's
psychological well being was their life force for maintaining academic motivation in crisis
times.

2.A different question is, however, about what is the relationship between perceived social
support and academic stress.

For more than two decades the effects of perceived social support in moderating academic
stress and enhancing student well being have been extensively researched. The foundational
work on this topic was completed by Malecki and Demaray (2002) by examining the relation
between perceived social support and academic competence in adolescents. Findings had
indicated a positive association between perceived support from parents, teachers and
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classmates with academic competence, since social support was regarded as being
multifaceted.

This early research laid the foundation for follow on research examining more subtle impacts
of social support on the academic experiences and stress levels of students. Drawing from
this base, Dennis et al. (2005) examined the unique role of parental and peer support for the
academic success of ethnic minority first-generation college students. What their research
emphasized was the importance of peer support as a significant predictor of college
adjustment and commitment, particularly for those students who faced the special challenges
of being the first in their families to attend college. These finding stressed the necessity of
targeted support systems for higher education that recognize the variety of a students'
backgrounds and experiences.

Transition from high school to university is a period of change during which quality social
support is especially crucial. Of particular interest is the role that social support plays in this
transition, which was the subject of a qualitative study by Wilcox et al. (2005). Therefore
their research pointed out the necessity for building new friendships, while keeping family
support important to help students adapt to university life and cope with ample academic
stress. This research yielded information on the dynamical nature of the social support
networks during periods of major life change, and that flexible and comprehensive social
support systems are needed in higher education areas as well.

Hefner and Eisenberg (2009) extended the above analysis to determine whether and how
social support can affect mental health outcomes for college students, showing that students
with higher quality social support were less likely to experience mental health problems. The
protective nature of social support regarding psychological well being was underscored and
interventions that seek to promote social support networks have the potential for great
benefits for student mental health.

The role of perceived social support in many different aspects of student life and academic
performance has been examined. Based on the work of Ruthig et al. (2009) I explored the
relationship between college students' perceptions of academic control and social support,
with their psychological well being and performance. They found that higher social support
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was associated with better psychological well being and with better academic outcomes
suggesting that social support, mental health and academic success are linked.

Building on this, Tao et al. (2012) investigated the relationship between social perceived
support, coping and negative emotions in college students in China. They found that social
support perceived to be available from others had a protective role to play against negative
emotions, partially mediated by adaptive coping strategies. By characterizing these
mechanisms, this study supplied lessons for both our understanding of how social support
affects emotional well being and stress management in academic setting.

Research has also occupied itself with the specific sources of social support and their relative
importance. The relationship between social support, and academic success among nursing
students, was investigated by Awang et al. (2014) who discovered that perceived social
support from family, friends and significant others was positively associated with academic
performance. However, this study showed how student success comes from a myriad of
supports and the necessity of whole child approaches to student support that include both
academic and interpersonal connections.

Just as Brannan et al. (2013) further examined this topic, looking at the contribution of social
support to predicting subjective well-being among college students. In fact, supporting their
research that high perceived support from family and friends was a significant predictor for
life satisfaction and positive affect, it is evident that social support network has wide ranging
advantages for student well being.

More recent research has continued to tinker with our knowledge of the complicated
interaction between perceived social support, academic stress, and similar topics. The
relationship between perceived social support and adjustment to college was explored using a
meta analysis (Tinajero et al., 2015). In their comprehensive review, they found that
perceived social support was positively associated with all the indicators of college
adjustment (academic achievement and psychological well being). Based on this meta-
analytic evidence, support was robustly found for social support as a critical factor in
successful adaptation to the demands of higher education.
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In addition to this line of inquiry, Stallman et al. (2018) followed up by investigating how
perceived social support was related to psychological distress among university students.
What their findings showed was that as psychological distress increased, so did the level of
perceived social support, and that higher levels of perceived social support were associated
with lower levels of psychological distress (predictive of psychoprotective functions of social
support in academic environments).

The COVID-19 pandemic propagated a global pandemic which created unique challenges to
traditional forms of social support and created a natural experiment for researchers to
examine how support systems uniquely change within an unprecedented situation. Perceived
social support on academic stress and achievement motivation of the university students
during the pandemic was studied by Simiyu et al. (2021). Through their study they
discovered that perceived social support was an essential component in reducing academic
stress and sustaining motivation in difficult times, which demonstrates that social support can
be a resilience promoting factor despite widespread disruption. Thus, the contribution of this
research includes the validation of the need for flexible and adaptive support systems,
necessitating systems that continue to offer meaningful help to students under a variety of
conditions.

2.5.7 Synthesis of Literature:

Relationship between Academic Stress, Emotional Intelligence, Psychological Well being

and Perceived Social Support.

The preceding sections review an extensive body of literature which demonstrates a complex
interplay between academic stress, emotional intelligence, psychological well being and
perceived social support amongst undergraduate students. This synthesis attempts to link
these variables, identifying emerging themes and needs for future research. Furthermore,
studies by Reddy et al. (2018) and Misra and McKean (2000), along with many others, show
the wide spread of academic stress in higher education settings and its many sources.

According to researchers Agolla and Ongori (2009), Alzahem et al. (2011) and Banu et al.
(2015), the researchers have identifying common stressors like academic workload,
examinations, time management pressures and future career concern. The literature, however,
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also provides evidence that academic stress is not experienced and had the same impact on
different student populations; as demonstrated by Khan et al. (2015) and Reddy et al. (2018)
who showed that it varies with gender and academic disciplines. However, the heterogeneity
in stress experiences suggests that it is not enough for higher education to develop one size
fits all solutions to stress.

Perhaps, one major theme in the literature is the role of emotional intelligence on moderating
the effect of academic stress. The results of Petrides et al. (2004), MacCann et al. (2011), and
Perera and DiGiacomo (2015) together have proven that emotional intelligence can influence
a better academic performance and stress management.

Brackett et al. (2011) and Rivers et al. (2012) adds to the literature by showing how
emotional intelligence helps people provide and realize these benefits by enhancing their
emotional skills and hence social functioning and academic engagement. The findings of this
body of research indicate that emotional intelligence could act as a protective factor against
academic stress, which makes it highly suitable for interventions toward the enhancement of
the student well being and performance. While more longitudinal research is needed to better
understand the developmental trajectory of emotional intelligence and its long term academic
outcome effects, nonetheless, the literature indicates a significant gap in the tool available to
foster emotional intelligence in schools.

From the literature, psychological well being appears as both a buffer for academic stress and
an outcome that is affected by academic experiences. Ryff and Keyes (2005) developed a
robust framework of the multidimensional model of well being in academic contexts, which
provides for robust context for understanding the different facets of student wellbeing.

The reciprocal link between psychological well being and academic experience is
demonstrated in the studies of Chambel and Curral (2005); Ramos Sánchez and Nichols
(2007); and Bowman (2010), which establish that positive psychological properties can act as
a 'buffer' to the stressors of academic experience, while experience of academic challenge
may promote personal growth.
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In research undertaken by Bhullar et al. (2014) and Poormahmood et al. (2017), the
importance of psychological well being to facilitating resilience and in reducing academic
burnout is further illustrated. That said, our findings have implications for developing
interventions — whether at the individual, classroom, or school level — to promote
psychological well being which may have positive repercussions not only on students'
educational paths, but also on their overall quality of life.

From literature, perceived social support comes out as a critical factor for students to cope
with academic challenges and can be used to sustain their well‐being.

The work of Malecki and Demaray (2002), Dennis at el (2005) and Wilcox et al (2005) taken
together, illustrates the complex nature of social support in educational contexts and
underlines the value of support coming from a wide array of persons including family,
administrators and peers. Furthermore, the protective role of social support against negative
emotional states and psychological distress is consistently shown across research including
Hefner and Eisenberg (2009), Tao, Zhang, and Bao (2012), and Stallman et al. (2018) from
whose research stress buffering effects are demonstrated. Strong support for the positive
association of perceived social support with indicators of college adjustment and the
facilitation of successful adjustment to the challenges of higher education is offered by the
meta-analysis by Tinajero et al (2015).

When we think together about all of the ingredients that influence student outcomes, we see
interconnections between these variables. For instance, the research of Guo et al. (2019)
regarding the mediating role of psychological well being in the study of the relationship
between academic stress and life satisfaction shows the complexity between constructs.

Likewise, Udayar et al. (2020) similarly work on the incremental validity of emotional
intelligence to predict academic performance beyond the typical cognitive predictors can tell
us about the multifaceted nature of academic success. Finally, Simiyu et al. (2021) study on
the role of perceived social support in buffering academic stress and maintaining motivation
during the COVID 19 pandemic is in line with this argument in that academic stress,
motivation and perceived social support are entangled and in extraordinary times of unusual
challenge these variables become more intertwined.
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From this synthesis of literature, there emerge several key themes and research gaps found in
current research. Secondly, although there are ample studies on the relationship between each
of these other variables (emotional intelligence, psychological well being, perceived social
support) with academic stress, there is a scarcity of studies on how all of these variables
interact simultaneously. More complete models for these complex interactions may be needed
for future research. Secondly, although the literature has indicated the need for future
longitudinal studies to examine the developmental trajectories of these constructs and their
long–term outcomes to academic careers and life, this is still lacking. Third, although studies
have reported cultural variations in the experience of academic stress and the role of support
systems, more cross cultural research is needed to fully describe the ways in which dynamics
could vary in different students’ populations.

This chapter provides a comprehensive review of literature of the academic stress along with
its associations to emotional intelligence, psychological well being and perceived social
support of the undergraduate students. The breadth of this research, between 2000 and 2024,
reveals several important findings with policy and practice implications for higher education,
and directions for future research in the area.

Academic stress in undergraduate populations has repeatedly been shown to occur

pervasively across cultural and institutional contexts. According to studies such as Misra and
McKean (2000) and Agolla and Ongori (2009) academic work load, examinations, time
management, future career are all sources of stress. Yet, there remains dominant stress
literature reporting significant differences in stress based on gender, academic discipline and
cultural background. The heterogeneity suggests that there needs to be nuanced, context
specific stress management approaches in those higher education settings.

The literature reveals emotional intelligence as a possible protective factor against academic
stress and a predictor of academic success. In the work of Petrides et al. (2004), MacCann et
al. (2011), and Perera and DiGiacomo (2015) it is shown that emotional intelligence
positively contributes to academic performance and stress management. This indicates that
interventions to help enhancing students emotional skills might have large beneficial impacts
on their academic trajectories and overall emotional well being. Yet little research has
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explored how emotional intelligence influences academic outcomes, and more importantly,
how it works, especially in diverse cultural settings.

Psychological well being has been found to take on a dual role as both a means to resist
academic stress and an outcome of academic experiences. Ryff and Keyes (2005) proposed a
multidimensional model that is a robust frame work for understanding student well being in
academic context. Bowman (2010), Bhullar et al. (2014) and Poormahmood et al. (2017)
examine the mutual correlation of psychological well being and academic experiences in
relation to the reciprocated relationship; the correlation is their conjecture that developing the
positive psychological traits can in fact boost pupils’ chances of countering pressure inherent
of academic activities and thence make them grow personally.

Social support perceived is identified as a significant factor for students to manage academic
hardships and maintain well being. Malecki and Demaray (2002), Tao et al. (2012) and
Tinajero et al. (2015) studies collectively point out the multifaceted nature of social support
in educational contexts, and its protective role for negative emotional states, and
psychological distress. All of the relevant literature consistently emphasizes the significance
of diverse sources of support (for example, family, peer, and institutional figures), and,
therefore, the need for multifaceted support systems in higher education institutions.

It appears that academic stress, emotional intelligence, psychological well being, and
perceived social support create influential webs of relationships that tie together student
outcomes. Guo et al. (2019) and Udayar et al. (2020) research show that academic success is
much more complex than that happens in isolation. A more recent study by Simiyu et al.
(2021) regarding the role of social support perceived support during the COVID 19 pandemic
yet again reinforces this dynamic nature of these relationships and its ongoing significance in
times of a face of any unprecedented challenge.

Several important gaps and directions for future research emerge from this review:

1. Comprehensive Models: There has been strong research into the individual
relationships linking academic stress to each of the other variables, but less has been said
about the combined interaction of all these factors. Future research could include developing
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and testing more comprehensive models that test the complex interaction among academic
stress, emotional intelligence, psychological well being and perceived social support.

2. Longitudinal Studies: Most existing research offers snapshots of these relationships in

cross-sectional. Additional longitudinal studies are needed in order to have a more thorough
understanding of these developmental trajectories in these constructs as well as the long term
effects of these constructs on academic and life outcomes. Such research could help to reveal
causal relationships among these variables, and help to identify more effective interventions
which are developmentally appropriate.

3. Cultural Considerations: Some research has pointed to cultural variation in the

experience of academic stress and support system roles, but further cross cultural research is
required. The dynamics used in this paper should also be examined in future studies to
determine differences across different student populations like students from other cultures
populated with different values, different educational systems and different societal
expectations.

4. Intervention Studies: Interventions focused on emotional intelligence, psychological

well being, and social support are highlighted in the literature as candidates with potentially
useful benefits. Still, evidence based intervention studies are needed to identify the most
effective strategies for promoting these factors and, as a result, reducing academic stress and
improving students’ outcomes.

5. Technology and Digital Support: Given the growing use of technology in the field of
education, especially in the recent changes prompted by the global events, future research
could look at ways digital platforms can be used to supply social support, strengthen
emotional intelligence and improve psychological well being in an educational context.

6. Intersectionality: Additionally, future studies should take an intersectional approach to

studying how gender, socioeconomic status, ethnicity and academic discipline interact
together with academic stress in influencing the relationship with the other variables studied.
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In sum, this sweeping literature review points to the complexity of the undergraduate
academic stressor, the meaningful roles of emotional intelligence, psychological well‐being,
and perceived social support in mediating the undergraduate academic stressor, and the large
influence of this phenomenon on the undergraduate student experience. Higher education is
continuing to evolve, and research in these areas will continue to be important for future
development of successful strategies to support and promote student success and well being.
Gaps in the existing literature will be addressed, and directions for future research will be
pursued to support scholars and practitioners in deepening their understanding of student
experiences and creating more targeted, successful interventions to improve both academic
success and general overall well being in higher education settings.
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Chapter 3: Methodology
3.1 Introduction

Any scientific investigation is nothing short of a backbone of research methodology, that

offers a planned way of accomplishing research and also guarantees the dependability and
legitimacy of results. Due to the complex psychological and social nature of many constructs
of interest in educational research, selecting appropriate methodological approaches is
essential in producing useful findings. The present study, therefore, uses this methodological
framework to investigate the relationships between academic stress and its predictive
variables such as emotional intelligence, psychological well being, and perceived social
support among the undergraduate students in the Central Universities in India.

The methodology has deliberately been fashioned to address the complexity of the research
objectives in a rigorous yet ethical manner. Theoretical bases and practical considerations
have guided the selection of research methods, tools and statistical techniques, so that the
selected approaches are both academically well founded and within the bounds of this study.
This chapter describes the research design, sampling procedures and data collection tools
used in the investigation and statistical techniques that were used in the research. In addition,
the steps taken to ensure the reliability and validity of the research instruments and the
measure taken to control extraneous variables affecting the study result are stated.

This chapter provides a methodological framework that is neither overly concerned with
quantitative precision nor so concerned with practical use that empirical rigor in educational
research is ignored, but instead finds a proper balance between the two: schools are
complicated and so are their variables, and we need to know how things work, how they are
purported to work, and how critical variables are interacting. This chapter is a detailed
exposition of the research methodology and should help to explain how the study was
undertaken and why the methodological choices were made.

3.2 Research Design

In the present study, a descriptive survey method with correlational research design is
employed as suits the purpose of the study which is to investigate relationship between the
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variables and whether the relationship can be used in prediction of certain variables. Having
analyzed its aims, the nature of the variables, the kind of data necessary and having
established that this design helps in solving the research questions in the best way, this was
the best research design chosen. Descriptive survey method enables us to get a complete
frame work of collecting detailed description of the state of a fact of the state of a phenomena
or about making valid general inferences from the facts observed. This approach, within the
scope of this study allowed academic stress to be scrutinized thoroughly, along with its
relationship with emotional intelligence, psychological well being and perceived social
support among undergraduate students.

The research design involving correlational elements allows to determine the relationship
between variables and the level of correlation of them, i.e. what changes in one variable
(result) corresponds to the changes in another (independent) variable. The design selected for
the current study was particularly appropriate for this study, it enables examining multiple
variables at the same time while preserving the natural setting of the educational
environment. This versatility of design makes the researcher to investigate the existence of
relationships between the variables in addition to having the necessary details on the strength
and direction of the relationships with regards to the predictive variables of academic stress.

In addition, this research design has many advantages which make it more suitable for this
study. It enables the collection of data from a big sample resulting to common switzerlands
and generalization of the findings. The ecological validity of the research remains intact, and
the design also facilitates the use of sophisticated statistical analyses to examine more
complex variable relations. Furthermore, the use of descriptive survey method with
correlational design is a practical way of researching phenomena that cannot be improved
experimentally, especially in research related to education and psychology.

3.3 Sample and Sampling Procedure

In this paper, the roles of choosing an appropriate sample and carrying out good sampling
that enhance the validity and reliability of research findings. The sampling for this study was
designed to appropriately represent the target population while at the same time it was
practical. The population for this study comprises undergraduate students enrolled in various
academic streams at three prestigious Central Universities in India: It is also based at Aligarh
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Muslim University, Jamia Millia Islamia University Delhi and Baba Saheb Bhimrao
Ambedker University of Lucknow. Diverse student population, academic reputation, and
geographical accessibility were the basis for choosing these institutions, which represent in a
comprehensive way the undergraduate education in central universities.

In order to conduct a study whose complexity would require quite vast statistical analyses
while also maintaining the proportionality of representation by category, demographic and
academic profile, the sample size of 900 undergraduate students was found adequate. The
statistical power needed for the analysis, the number of variables under study, and the ability
to gain meaningful comparisons between subgroups informed the sample size we calculated
when making this determination. It posses a very big sample size, which minimises sampling
fallacy to a great extent and also offers perfect precision of the statistical estimates, and hence
enhances the reliability of the research findings.

Participants in the study were chosen by a stratified random sampling technique. The
sampling method used here is chosen because it provides proportional representation from
different strata of the population and also maintains randomness in to the selection in each
stratum. The stratification was primarily based on three key characteristics: We made the
distinction based on academic streams (Science, Arts and Social Science), gender (Male and
Female), year of study. The advantage of this multi level stratification is that it captures the
richness of the student population, and makes sure that key sub-populations are adequately
represented in the overall sample.

Random selection was done within each stratum, so as to ensure that the study was equally
applicable to every eligible student. Randomizing helps minimize the problem of selection
bias, and makes the findings more generalizable. To ensure transparency and replicatability
of the field process of stratification and random selection, it was documented. Particular care
was taken to keep the representation by strata proportional to the target population.

3.3.1 Population

Since the research tools are administered and data collected it is probably one of the most
critical phases of the research process and it is imperative planning and implementation
should be done carefully so that the collected data is of high order and reliable. Four
87

standardized tools were used to measure variables being studied for the present study. The
psychometric properties, relevance to Indian context and appropriateness for undergraduate
student population were the basis for selecting each tool.

Academic Stress Scale (2016) was created and standardized to measure 28 items aimed to
measure dimensions of academic stress in undergraduate students. This scale has been proven
through multiple methods to be most reliable. Strong temporal stability is noted by the test-
retest reliability coefficient of 0.86, and good internal consistency by the split-half reliability
coefficient of 0.79. Reliability coefficients give us confidence that the scale will yield similar
results on different test occasions.

Designed by Dr. Subhash Sarkar and Samrat Sarkar in 2019, the Emotional Intelligence Scale
has 40 items which include measures of all the aspects of emotional intelligence. Reliability
of the scale was proven using the split-half method, yielding coefficient of 0.83 which means
high internal consistency. Concurrent validation procedures proved validity of the scale as all
the inter item correlations ranged from 0.18 to 0.38 and they showed positive and significant
relationships. These psychometric properties indicate that the scale is demonstrated to be a
valid instrument in assessing emotional intelligence in the population of interest.

The population for this study comprises undergraduate students enrolled in various streams
(Science, Arts, and Social Science) at three Central Universities in India:

 Aligarh Muslim University

 Jamia Millia Islamia University Delhi
 Baba Saheb Bhimrao Ambedker University of Lucknow

3.3.2 Sample Size

The study includes a sample of 900 undergraduate students, selected to ensure adequate
representation across different streams and gender.
88

3.3.3 Sampling Technique

A stratified random sampling technique was employed to select the sample. The stratification
was done on the basis of:

 Academic streams (Science, Arts, and Social Science)

 Gender (Male and Female)
 Year of study

3.4. Administration of the Tools and Collection of Data:

The Psychological Well-being Scale, developed by Anjum Ahmed (2021), consists of 43

items that assess eight distinct dimensions of psychological well-being: It includes eight areas
of ecstasy, Consistence regarding Autonomy, Environmental Mastery, Personal Growth, and
Purpose in Life, the Quality of Positive Interrelations, Self-Acceptance, Techoompulsion and
Addiction, and Health Issues. The Cronbach's Alpha coefficient for this scale was .71,
significant at the .01 level of significance. The total scale reliability and internal consistency
of the instrument are also substantiated by the dimension-wise reliability coefficient of 0.76.
The validity of the scale was thoroughly demonstrated using expert evaluation, such that
items below 0.78 on Item Content Validity (ICV) were eliminated from the final version of
the scale, whilst retaining only the most relevant and valid items in the instrument.

During 2021, a researcher constructed and developed the Perceived Social Support Scale,
which also showed high reliability, having a coefficient of 0.961. The process leading to the
development of this scale was rigorous and methodological in order to obtain the necessary
applications and to evaluate the psychometric soundness of the scale to the target population.
Development of the scale entailed the construction of multiple stages of development,
refinement, and validation, described in subsequent sections of this chapter.

i. Academic Stress

This scale constructed and standardized by (2016) was used to know the Academic
stress of undergraduate students. The scale contains 28 items.

Reliability of the test:

The calculated reliability by test-retest method was 0.86 and by Split-Half method
was 0.79

ii. Emotional Intelligence Scale:

This scale constructed and standardized by Dr. Subhash Sarkar and Samrat Sarkar
(2019) was used to know the Emotional Intelligence of undergraduate students. The
scale contains 40 items.

Reliability of the test:

Reliability was calculated by Split-Half method and reported to be 0.83 indicating that
questionnaire was reliable.

Validity of the test:

The Concurrent Validity was calculated against the scale and standardized by Dr. Subhash
Sarkar and Samrat Sarkar (2019). The inter item correlation was calculated. The correlation
values for all items were positive and significant ranging between 0.18 to 0.39.

iii. Psychological well being Scale ():

The Psychological well being scale by Anjum Ahmed (2021) was utilized to know
about the Psychological well being of undergraduate students. The scale has 43
items belonging to eight dimensions: Autonomy, Environmental Mastery, Personal
Growth, Purpose in Life, positive Interrelations, Self- Acceptance, Tech-Compulsion/
Addiction, Health Issues.

Reliability of the scale:

The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient was found to be 0.71 significant at 0.01 level of
significance. The dimension-wise reliability coefficient and for total scale is 0.76.

Validity of the scale:

After ensuring the face and content validity of the tool by collecting the opinions of the
experts the content validity index of each item was calculated and ICV was below 0.78 were
dropped from the scale.
90

iv. Perceived social support Scale:

Constructed and standardized by the researcher (2021) with reliability 0.961.

3.5. Perceived social support Scale Construction:

A systematic and methodologically sound approach was followed in constructing the

Perceived Social Support scale so as to develop a reliable and valid instrument. Keeping this
point in mind, the planning phase was kicked off by adopting the Likert method which is
acclaimed to an extent of measuring attitudes and perceptions effectively. Following Likert's
(1932) principles, the scale was designed with five response options: Strongly Agree, Agree,
Undecided, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree. For this purpose, the format was chosen such
that it is able to capture nuanced responses but at the same time it is clear and easy to
administer.

The first stage of scale development involved thorough literature review and interviews with
experts in order to extract the key dimensions of social support in relation to undergraduate
students. Through this process, six crucial dimensions were identified: Family, Friends,
Institution, Social Media, Society, Degree of Satisfaction. Carefully selected to include
different sources and types of social support that affect students' academic and personal lives,
these dimensions were chosen. A total of 127 statements were generated to comprise an
initial item pool, covering all dimensions comprehensively but remaining clear and relevant
to the target population.

This phase consisted of a thorough evaluation where initial items were brought to bear on the
scrutiny and critique of both an experienced teachers, researchers, topic specialist; linguistic
expert and professionals in education and mass communication. As the result of this expert
review process, item wording was significantly refined, ambiguous statements removed, and
the scaleâ€™s overall effectiveness was improved. As an outcome of this process, the item
pool was narrowed to 85-statements which were written to be clear and relevant to the target
population.

A preliminary try-out of 240 undergraduate students was prepared in online mode in order to
assess the initial performance of the items and problems of administration at the first
administration. The empirical investigation that took place during this phase yielded valuable
91

data regarding the performance of individual items as well as the scale itself, which served as
a basis for specific refinements with empirical grounding outside of simply theory.

In the item analysis phase sophisticated statistical procedures were used in order to select the
items most discriminating and reliable. The relationship between individual items and the
total test score was examined in the Pearson Product Moment Correlation approach. 26 items
were eliminated that showed correlation of 0.45 or less with the total test score. The
correlation coefficients of the remaining 59 items fell between 0.457 and 0.690; they show
strong item – total relationships and maintain their discriminative power.

Multiple methods were used to establish the reliability of the final score, to assure robust
psychometric properties. With a Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient of 0.961, the internal
consistency evidenced is excellent and far over the estimated excellent threshold of 0.9
according to George & Mallery (2001) guidelines. The scale's strong internal consistency is
further confirmed using the odd-even method, yielding the split half reliability coefficient of
0.92. The strong evidence in these reliability coefficients offers support for the scale's
capacity in generating stable results from administration to administration and from condition
to condition.

It is designed to see the information about the social support which perceived by the
undergraduate students in scale. 59 items comprise the final draft of the scale.

3.5.1. Planning

The present scale was developed on the Likert method. In this Likert method, statements are
followed by several levels of agreements which are useful and practical means for
determining one's opinion and attitude (Likert, 1932). The present “Perceived social
support” scale is a five point Likert scale these points are as follows- Strongly agree, Agree,
undecided, Disagree, Strongly disagree.

Construction of the scale

Fig 3.1. Flow Chart of Scale Construction

The first step in a preparing scale was to collect all the relevant information related to the
social support perceived by the students. With the help of literature review, previous
researches and scales following dimensions were finalized keeping in view the objectives of
the study:

1. Family
2. Friends
3. Institution
4. Society
5. Social media
6. Degree of satisfaction

The investigator prepared an item pool of 127 items that covered the stated dimensions.

3.5.2. Scrutiny and Critique:

After completing the first draft of the scale, the investigator solicited constructive feedback
and ideas from experienced teachers, researchers, topic and linguistic specialists, and other
professionals in the field of education and mass communication. It was created to help with
93

the scale's necessary upgrading. As per the expert's opinion and valuable suggestions, the
investigator did the required modification in the statements and removed ambiguousness
from the statements which in turn increased the effectiveness of the scale with 85 items
remaining.

3.5.3. Preliminary Try Out:

For the pre try out data was collected through online mode from the undergraduate students.
A sample of 240 students responded to it.

3.5.4. Item Analysis:

Item analysis is a method of selecting items; it provides an internally consistent scale. In this
method efforts are made to find out items which will consistently separate those people who
are found to be high than those who are low on the attitude continuum. Hence, this process is
used to make sure that all items in a test are functioning well and to select those items which
are found to be valid and suited for the scale and rest of the items either dropped or reframed,
to suit the purpose. Thus, in this method, each item is subjected to a measurement of its
ability to distinguish the high from the lows, which is called the discriminative power of the
item (Goode &Hatt, 1952). According to Singh (2006) correlation techniques have frequently
been applied as the measure of the index of item discrimination. In this process, each item is
correlated against the internal criterion of the total score. This is called the item total
correlation. Lindquist (1951) called this the "internal-consistency item discrimination index".
In item analysis to select the most suitable, valid and discriminating items, each item
performance by a group of examinees is compared to their performance on the whole test.
The item-total correlation as a measure of the discrimination power of the item exhibits how
well the item is measuring that function which the test itself is measuring. McAlpine (2002)
proposed that “there are several methods used to calculate the discrimination of items, the
most common being the Pearson product moment correlation between the item and total test
score”p.5. Massey (1995) suggested that the value of the coefficient of correlation below 0.2
is considered as weak and the value above 0.4 is considered to be the most desirable.

The Pearson Product Moment Correlation approach was used for item analysis of each item
in the current study. The objective was to make the Perceived social support scale
homogeneous by checking the consistency of individual item with the total test and rejecting
94

the items showing inconsistency. In order to achieve this, scores on each item of the subjects
were correlated with their total test scores. Those items which were found to have a
correlation of 0.45 or less with the total test were rejected. Such items were 26 in number. In
order to eliminate the effect of the rejected items, scores of the subjects on them were
deducted from their total score then the item-total correlation was again computed in respect
of the remaining 59 items. This reiterative procedure increased the value of original
coefficients of the remaining 59 items as shown in the table 3.2 value of coefficient ranges
from 0.457 to 0.690, which were considered as sufficiently high for retaining an item for the
final form of social media usage scale.

3.5.5. Formula of Item Discrimination:

The statistic for item discrimination is given by the formula:

rxy=
∑× y
NS × Sy

Where,

(McAlpine, 2002, p.6).

rxy = the correlation between the item(x) and the test total (y)

∑xy = the sum of the products of the deviations of the items and the totals

N = the number of the observations

Sx = the standard deviation of the item

Sy = the standard deviation of total marks

Table 3.2. Item Total Correlations for final 48 items

Correlation Correlation
Item No Item No
Coefficient Coefficient

1. .963 31.
.963
95

2. 32.
.963 .963

3. .963 33.
.963

4. 34.
.964 .963

5. .963 35.
.963

6. 36.
.964 .963

7. .964 37.
.963

8. 38.
.964 .963

9. .964 39.
.963

10. 40.
.963 .963

11. .964 41.

.963

12. 42.
.963 .963

13. 43.
.963 .963

14.
44.
.963 .964
96

15. 45.
.963 .964

16. 46.
.963 .963

17. 47.
.963 .963

18. 48. .964

.963

19. 49. .964

.963

20. 50. .964

.963

21. 51. .964

.963

22. 52. .963

.964

23. 53. .964

.963

24. 54. .963

.963

25. 55. .963

.963

26.
56. .963
.963
97

27. 57. .963

.963

28. 58. .963

.963

29. 59. .963

.963

30. -
.963

** Correlations are significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

3.5.6. Reliability:

“Reliability is the degree of consistency that the instrument or procedure demonstrates:

whatever it is measuring, it does so consistently” (Best, 2011). It is a degree to which a test
uniformly measures whatever it is measuring and its coefficient that is the value of reliability
coefficient shows the consistency of the score produced. Thus, it provides reasons for
believing the score to be stable and trustworthy (Garrett, 2009).For the present scale
reliability was established by two methods - Cronbach's alpha and split half. Internal
consistency reliability was carried out in the present scale with the help of SPSS 20.

Cronbach’s Alpha Reliability:

It conveys the extent to which the items are interrelated, in other words, it shows the degree
to which the respondents' responses are harmonized with one another. This method was
developed by Lee Cronbach in 1951 as an extension of the Kuder - Richardson Formula
(KR20). George &Mallery (2001) gave the general guideline for the values of alpha
according to which, >0.9 excellent, >0.8 as good, > 0.7acceptable, > 0.6 doubtful, >0.5 as
poor and <0.5 unacceptable. The coefficient of alpha for the present social media usage scale
was found to be 0.961.
98

Split-half reliability: is a measure of the consistency of the scores obtained from two
equivalent halves of the same test (Johnson & Christensen, 2012, pp. 141). A split half
method was carried out by adopting the odd-even method, by correlating the scores of the
respondents on odd items of Social Media Usage Scale with their scores on even items. A
value of correlation coefficient 0.92 was obtained.

Table 3.3 Reliability Coefficients of final Social Media Usage scale

No of Items Reliability Value

Cronbach’s Alpha 0.96

59
Split Half 0.

3.5.7. Validity

a. Content Validity:

The fair portrayal of the features or issues that have been taken into consideration is ensured
by the content validity of an instrument. As a result, it refers to the degree to which all of the
instrument's components are intimately tied to the content of the scale feature for which it
was designed. For the present scale content validity was established through the panel of
experts from the field of Education, Psychology and Mass Communication who evaluated it
with respect to the dimensions and objective of the study. In the final form of the scale, only
those items which got the consensus from the experts regarding their relevance to the social
support perceived by the undergraduate students were included in the scale.

b. Construct Validity:

According to Best and Khan (2006), construct validity is “the degree to which test items and
the structure of a test can be accounted for by the explanatory constructs of a sound
theory”.For computing, the construct validity of the mental health scale the investigator
calculated the Pearson's coefficient of correlation values between the scores of each
dimension and a total score of the scale.
99

Table 3.4. Values of Coefficient of Correlation between Each

Dimension and Total Score of Social Media Usage Scale

Dimensions Family Friends Institution Society Social Degree of Total

Media Satisfaction

Family 1 0.683 0.653 0.676 0.583 0.787**

Friends 1 0.731 0.702 0.802 0.900

Institutional 1 0.597 0.773 0.877**

support

Society 1 0.704 0.865

Social Media 1 0.885**

Degree of 1
satisfaction

Total 1

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

From the table 3.4 it is evident that the correlation coefficients of all the dimensions are high
and statistically significant far beyond the 0.01 level of significance and it consequently
confirms the construct validity of the scale, which indicates that all the dimensions are related
to the social media usage. Here the correlation of each dimension with the total score verifies
that each dimension is measuring the same characteristic individually that the scale as a
whole measure i.e., perceived social support , which predicts that the scale has good construct
validity.

3.5.8. Scoring Procedure:

The present scale is five point likert scale with five options for each item, the scoring of
which is as follows-
100

Table 3.5: Scoring System

Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly

Agree Disagree

Item 5 4 3 2 1

3.6. Classification of Respondents for Different Variables:

The sample was divided into three categories for each variable. The categorization was done
on the basis of Mean ±1 S.D. The mean and SD of the sample scores were calculated for both
criterion and predictive variables. The number of cases lying below the Mean -1 SD were
categorized as low; cases lying above Mean +1 SD were categorized as high and remaining
lying between Mean +1 SD and Mean -1 SD were put in the category of average.

Table 3.6: Classification of Respondents for Different Variables

Variables Categories

(i) High Academic Stress

1. Academic Stress
(ii) Average Academic Stress
(iii) Low Academic Stress
(i) High Emotional Intelligence
2. Emotional Intelligence
(ii) Average Emotional Intelligence
(iii) Low Emotional Intelligence
(i) High Psychological well being
3. Psychological well being
(ii) Average Psychological well being
(iii) Low Psychological well being
(i) High Perceived social support
4. Perceived social support
(ii) Average Perceived social support
(iii) Low Perceived social support

3.7 Data Collection Procedures

The data collection process was executed with meticulous attention to standardization and
methodological rigor to ensure the quality and reliability of the gathered information. Prior to
101

initiating the data collection, formal permissions were obtained from the authorities of all
three participating Central Universities. This process involved detailed presentations of the
research proposal to institutional review boards and relevant administrative bodies, ensuring
compliance with ethical guidelines and institutional protocols. The preparation phase
included comprehensive training sessions for research assistants who would be involved in
data collection. These sessions covered standardized administration procedures, ethical
considerations, handling of participant queries, and proper documentation protocols.

The actual data collection process was conducted in a carefully planned and systematic
manner spanning across multiple phases. The first phase involved coordinating with
department heads and course coordinators to identify appropriate time slots for data
collection that would minimize disruption to academic schedules while ensuring maximum
participation. Students were informed about the research objectives and procedures through
formal announcements and written communications, emphasizing the voluntary nature of
participation and the confidentiality of their responses. The administration of research
instruments was conducted in comfortable, well-lit classrooms with adequate spacing
between participants to ensure privacy and prevent response bias due to peer influence.

Ethical considerations were paramount throughout the data collection process. Informed
consent was obtained from all participants through a detailed consent form that explained the
research purpose, potential benefits and risks, confidentiality measures, and the right to
withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. Participants were assigned unique
identification codes to maintain anonymity while allowing for the organization and analysis
of data. Special attention was paid to ensuring that participants understood their rights and
felt comfortable providing honest responses without fear of identification or consequences.

3.8 Statistical Techniques Used

The selection of statistical techniques for data analysis was guided by the research objectives,
the nature of the variables under investigation, and the hypotheses to be tested. The statistical
analysis plan incorporated both descriptive and inferential statistics, employing sophisticated
analytical procedures to examine the complex relationships between variables while ensuring
statistical rigor and validity of findings. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)
Version 20.0 was utilized for all statistical analyses, providing a robust platform for
102

conducting complex statistical procedures while maintaining accuracy and efficiency in data
processing.

Descriptive statistics, including measures of central tendency (mean) and variability (standard
deviation), were computed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the distribution of
scores across all variables. These analyses helped in identifying patterns and trends in the
data while providing a foundation for more complex statistical procedures. Frequency
distributions and percentages were calculated to understand the representation of different
categories within the sample and to verify the adequacy of sample sizes for various subgroup
analyses.

Pearson Product Moment Correlation analyses were conducted to examine the relationships
between academic stress and the predictive variables (emotional intelligence, psychological
well-being, and perceived social support). This technique was particularly appropriate for
testing hypotheses Ho1 to Ho2.3, as it provides both the direction and strength of
relationships between variables while making no assumptions about causality. The
correlation analyses were conducted separately for different subgroups (male/female,
different academic streams) to examine whether relationships between variables varied across
different demographic categories.

Multiple Regression Analysis was employed to investigate the predictive relationships

between variables, specifically addressing hypotheses Ho3 to Ho4.3. This sophisticated
statistical technique allowed for the examination of how multiple independent variables
(emotional intelligence, psychological well-being, and perceived social support) collectively
and individually contribute to explaining variance in academic stress levels. The regression
analyses included checks for multicollinearity, normality of residuals, and homoscedasticity
to ensure the validity of results. Standardized beta coefficients were computed to compare the
relative strength of different predictors, while R-squared values provided information about
the overall explanatory power of the regression models.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was utilized to examine group differences and test
hypotheses Ho5 to Ho5.3. This technique enabled the comparison of mean scores across
different groups while controlling for Type I error rates in multiple comparisons. Post-hoc
103

analyses using appropriate methods (such as Tukey's HSD or Bonferroni corrections) were
conducted when significant F-ratios were obtained, providing detailed information about
specific group differences. Effect sizes were calculated to assess the practical significance of
observed differences, complementing the statistical significance testing.

3.9 Control of Extraneous Variables

As a critical methodological consideration in obtaining the internal validity of research

findings, controlled extraneous variables are necessary. For the present study, we identified
several sources of extraneous variation and systematically minimized them through well
planned control measures. To reduce the effects of temporal variability in participant
responses, data collection across all participating institutions was standardized. To guard
against undue influences on the participants' responses (especially to academic stress and
psychological well being items), data collection sessions were scheduled at regular academic
hours, and not scheduled on the examination dates or any other (accompanied by high-stress)
days.

The conditions of the environment that data was collected in were kept to a constant to ensure
that the administration of the test would be the same across different places. Testing sessions
were carried out in environments that were very similar physically, including quiet, well
ventilated classrooms, good lighting, and comfortable seating. Participant fatigue was
addressed by including short breaks between administration of the different instruments, and
by randomizing the order of test administration across different groups. The use of a
counterbalancing approached helped control for the effects of order and fatigue on participant
responses while allowing for a clean data collection process.

Multiple methodological strategies addressed response bias. Anonymity of responses was

stressed in order to elicit honest reporting and participants were explicitly told that there were
no right and wrong answers to the items in the questionnaire. The instructions and the
atmosphere in which the subject is expected to review were carefully worded to minimize
social desirability bias. In addition, the presence of reverse-scored items in the scales aided in
the identification and control of response patterns that might reflect careless or biased
responding.
104

3.10 Limitations of the Methodology

Despite the attempt to hold the research to high standards of scientific rigor, there were a few
limitations. As a limitation to generalizability to other institutional contexts, however, the
geographical scope of the study consists of three prominent Central Universities. All in all,
the sample is substantial in size, and is also carefully stratified, it may, however, not be
complete as far as the diversity of the undergraduate students in different regions of India is
recognized. This limitation becomes particularly important when the potential effect of
regional, cultural and socioeconomic factors on the variables studied is taken into account.

Corollary, the reliance on self report measures for estimating psychological constructs is
equally important however vulnerability exists in form of response bias and accuracy of self
perception. Participants’ responses could be influenced by their current emotional state or
their current experience, or simply could be a reflection of their desire to present themselves
as they wish to be perceived. While attempts were made to control for these influences, the
limitations of self report methodology were accepted, given that. The cross sectional study
design further limits the ability to establish causal relations between variables and to monitor
how these relations develop over time.

Due to resource constraints, a certain degree of the scope and depth of data collection was
limited. Due to the limitation in conducting follow up assessments or involving qualitative
data collection methods this study is unable to provide a more nuanced understanding of the
complicated connections between variables. Furthermore, the emphasis on students from
different academic streams tends to constrain generalizability of findings to students in other
programs, or levels of education.

3.11 Summary of the Methodology

This chapter describes the systematic approach to study the research methodology utilized in
the current study on the relationships between academic stress and its predictive variables,
among undergraduate students. An appropriate research design was a combination of
descriptive and correlational research, this research design gives an appropriate framework to
investigate these relationships and at the same time observing methodological rigor. To
105

assure the quality and reliability of the data, the sample has been carefully selected and
stratified, and standardized and newly developed instruments have been used.

A methodological contribution is development and validation of the Perceived Social Support

Scale as a culturally relevant, psychometrically sound and valid instrument to measure social
support in Indian undergraduate students. Sophisticated statistical analyses as correlation,
multiple regression and analysis of variance are conducted in order to investigate the research
questions from a statistical rigor point of view. Acknowledgment of methodological
limitations and method controls for extraneous variables in this research is balanced and
transparent.

The methodological framework presented in this chapter provides a robust framework for the
analysis and interpretation of results which are presented in subsequent chapters. Moreover,
the thoroughness with which methodological details are attended, and the extent to which it
engages in data collection and analysis, add credibility and utility to research findings and, in
the latter respect, augment knowledge of academic stress and its correlates in higher
education contexts.

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