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4) Chalcolithic Period (Stone Copper Age):
PREHISTORIC 1800 BCE – 800 BCE
5) Iron Age: 1000 BCE – 600 BCE
Prehistoric India
Introduction Stone Age
History is the study of the past. History that The Stone Age is the prehistoric period, i.e.
the period before the development of the
relates to past events as well as the discovery,
script. Therefore the main source of
collection, organisation, presentation and information for this period is the
interpretation of information about these archaeological excavations.
events. Note: Robert Bruce Foote is the archaeologist
who discovered the first palaeolithic tool in
India, the Pallavaram handaxe.
Division of History
Based on geological age, the type and
Prehistory – Events that occurred before the
technology of stone tools and subsistence
invention of writing are considered
base, the Indian Stone Age is classified
prehistory.
primarily into three types.
• Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age)
Protohistory – It refers to the period between
• Mesolithic Age (Late Stone Age)
prehistory and history, during which a culture
• Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)
or organisation had not developed yet but has
its mention in the written records of
Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age)
contemporary literate civilisation. For
The term ‘Palaeolithic’ is derived from the
example, the scripts of the Harappan
Greek word ‘palaeo’, which means old and
civilisation remains undeciphered.
‘lithic’ meaning stone. Therefore, the term
Palaeolithic Age refers to the Old Stone Age.
History – The study of the past after the
Main Characteristics of the Palaeolithic Age:
invention of writing and the study of literate
• The Paleolithic People were food
societies based on written records and
gatherers, ate wild fruits and vegetables and
archaeological sources constitute history. For
lived on hunting.
example, the Vedic Age.
• There was no knowledge of houses, pottery
and agriculture. It was only in later stages they
Ancient history can be divided into different
discovered fire.
periods according to the tools used by people
• In the Upper Palaeolithic Age, there is
then.
evidence of art in the form of paintings.
1) Palaeolithic Period (Old Stone Age):
500,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE • Humans used unpolished, rough stones like
hand axes, choppers, blades, burins and
2) Mesolithic Period (Late Stone Age): 10,000 scrapers.
BCE – 6000 BCE The Old Stone Age or Palaeolithic Age in India
is divided into three phases according to the
3) Neolithic Period (New Stone Age): 6000 BCE nature of the stone tools used by the people
– 1800 BCE and according to the nature of the change of
climate.

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1) Lower Palaeolithic Age (Early Palaeolithic Major sites of Upper Palaeolithic Age: Belan,
Age) Son, Chota Nagpur plateau (Bihar),
Up to 1,00,000 BC Maharashtra, Orissa.
It covers the greater part of the Ice Age. Note: Bhimbhetka (South of Bhopal) – hand
Humans are hunters and food gatherers; tools axes and cleavers, blades, scrapers and a few
used were hand axes, choppers and cleavers. burins have been found here and bone tools
Tools were rough and heavy. One of the have been found only at cave sites of Kurnool
earliest Lower Palaeolithic sites is Bori in and Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi in Andhra
Maharashtra. Pradesh.

Major sites of Lower Palaeolithic Age: Son Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age)
valley (in present Pakistan), Kashmir, Mewar The term ‘Mesolithic’ is derived from two
plains, Saurashtra, Gujarat, Chotanagpur Greek words — ‘meso’ and ‘lithic’. In Greek
plateau, Belan Valley in Uttar Pradesh, ‘meso’ means middle and ‘lithic’ means stone.
Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh. Hence, the Mesolithic stage of prehistory is
also known as the ‘Middle Stone Age’. It is also
2) Middle Palaeolithic Age known as the Holocene Era. In this era, there
100,000 BC – 40,000 BC was a rise in temperature. The climate
The tools were smaller, lighter and thinner became warm, which resulted in the melting
and they used tools like flakes, blades, of ice and brought changes in flora and fauna.
pointers, scrapers and borers. There was a The people of this age lived on hunting, fishing
decrease in the use of hand axes with respect and food gathering initially, but later they also
to other tools. domesticated animals and cultivated plants,
thereby paving the way for agriculture. The
Major sites of Middle Palaeolithic Age: Belan first animal to be domesticated was the wild
Valley in Uttar Pradesh, Luni Valley ancestor of the dog.
(Rajasthan), Son and Narmada rivers, The Mesolithic people lived in semi-
Bhimbetka, Tungabhadra River valleys, permanent settlements along with occupying
Potwar plateau, Sanghao cave (near caves and open grounds. The miniature stone
Peshawar, Pakistan). tools were usually made of crypto-crystalline
silica, chalcedony or chert, and both were of
3) Upper Palaeolithic Age geometrical and non-geometrical shapes.
40,000 BC – 10,000 BC They were not only used as tools but were also
The Upper Palaeolithic Age coincided with the used to make composite tools, spearheads,
last phase of the Ice Age when the climate arrowheads and sickles after hafting them on
wooden or bone handles.
became comparatively warmer and less
humid. This period is marked by innovation in Important Mesolithic Sites
tools and technology. A lot of bone tools, Bagor in Rajasthan, Adamgarh in Madhya
Pradesh (provides the earliest evidence for
including needles, harpoons, parallel-sided
the domestication of animals), Bhimbetka
blades, fishing tools and burin tools were used caves (Madhya Pradesh), Kharwar, Jaora and
. Kathotia (Madhya Pradesh), Sundargarh and

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Sambalpur (Odisha), Ezhuthu Guha (Kerala), located on the Chambal River and its
Langhnaj (Gujarat) and Biharanpur (West tributaries.
Bengal) are also important Mesolithic sites. Houses had mud-plastered floors. Pre-
Harappan elements in pottery along with
Neolithic Period (New Stone Age) copper objects with sharp cutting edges were
The term Neolithic is derived from the Greek found.
word ‘neo’ meaining new and ‘lithic’ meaning Chirand, Senuar, Sonpur (Bihar), Mahishdal
stone. Thus, the term Neolithic Age refers to (West Bengal).
the ‘New Stone Age’. It introduced a lot of Songaon, Inamgaon and Nasik (Maharashtra)
important changes in man’s social and – Large mud houses with ovens and circular
economic life. The Neolithic Age saw man pit houses have been discovered here.
turning into a food producer from a food
gatherer. Note: Stone blade industry was discovered in
The people used microlithic blades in addition Gilund.
to tools made of polished stones. They also
used tools and weapons made of bones such Iron Age
as needles, scrapers, borers, arrowheads, etc. The Iron Age is the prehistoric period in any
The people of the Neolithic Age cultivated area during which cutting tools and weapons
land and grew fruits and corn like ragi and were mainly made of iron or steel. This age
horsegram (kulati). They also domesticated inlcludes
cattle, sheep and goats. The people of the • Arrival of the Aryans called Vedic Period
Neolithic Age lived in rectangular or circular • Rise of Jainism and Buddhism
houses which were made of mud and reeds. • Mahajanapadas, the first major civilisation
on the banks of the river Ganga after the
Important Neolithic Sites: Koldihwa and Indus Valley.
Mahagara (South of Allahabad), Mehrgarh
(Balochistan, Pakistan), Burzahom (Kashmir),
Gufkral (Kashmir) and Chirand (Bihar).
INDUS VA LLEY

Chalcolithic Age (Stone Copper Age) Harappan Civilisation

The Chalcolithic Age marked the emergence Harappan civilisation is one of the four
of the use of metal along with stone tools. The earliest civilisations of the world along
first metal to be used was copper. The with the civilisations of Mesopotamia
Chalcolithic Age largely applied to the pre- (Tigris and Euphrates), Egypt (Nile)
Harappan phase, but in many parts of the and China (Hwang Ho).
country, it appears after the end of the bronze ● The civilisation forms part of the
Harappan culture. proto-history of India and belongs to the
Bronze age.
Important Chalcolithic Sites: Ahar and Gilund ● In its mature form, the civilisation
(Banas Valley, South-eastern Rajasthan), lasted between 2600-1900 BC.
Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra), Important Features of the Harappan
Malwa and Kayatha (Madya Pradesh) – in The Civilisation
settlements of the Kayatha culture was mostly

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Town Planning and pigs were domesticated. They also kept
• The Harappan Civilisation was an urban asses and camels, which were used as beasts
civilisation. of burden. Cats and dogs were also
• In most cases, the Harappan city had its domesticated. There is evidence of horses as
own citadel or acropolis, which was possibly well, but this animal was not in regular use in
occupied by the members of the ruling class. Harappan times. Elephants and rhinoceros
Below the citadel, in each city lay a lower town were also well known.
with brick houses (burnt brick), which were
inhabited by the common people. Technology and Craft
• The remarkable thing about the • The Harappan people were well
arrangement of the houses in the cities is that acquainted with the manufacture and use of
they followed a grid system, roads cut across bronze (an alloy of copper and tin). The
one another almost at right angles and the city craftsmen used to make artifacts from pure
was divided into many blocks. copper as well as bronze, like spears, knives,
• The drainage system was very impressive axes, etc.
and was covered either with brick slabs or • The goldsmiths made jewellery of silver,
stone slabs. gold and precious stones.
• Houses were often of two or more storeys, • The Harappans were also experts in bead
though varied in size but quite monotonous. making. Bead-making shops have been
The houses had bathrooms and some even excavated at Chanhudaro and Lothal.
had their own wells, but no window faced the • A well-known piece of art of the Harappan
streets. They used burned brick. period is the stone sculpture of a bearded man
and a dancing statue made up of bronze
Agriculture discovered at Mohenjo-Daro.
• Agriculture was the important source of • The potter’s wheel was in full use and the
subsistence in the Harappan Civilisation. The Harappans produced their own characteristic
Harappans produced wheat, barley, peas, pottery, which was made glossy and shining.
sesame, mustard, millets and rice (Lothal). The redware pottery painted with black
• The surplus grains were stored in granaries, designs was popular. Jars, plates, bowls and
pots of different shapes and sizes were made
as is evident from the discovery of granaries at
as utility items.
the sites of Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and
Lothal. Economy
• The Harappan people were the earliest to • Trade: There was no metallic money in
produce cotton. circulation and they carried on all exchanges
• The Harappans probably used the wooden through barter.
ploughshare to plough the fields. • Seals: The greatest artistic creation of the
• The Harappan people consumed milk and Harappan culture is the seals. About 2000
curd. They were fond of non-vegetarian food. seals have been found and most of these carry
short inscriptions with pictures of one-horned
Domestication of Animals bull, the buffalo, the tiger, the rhinoceros, the
goat and the elephant.
• Domestication of animals was practised on
a large scale. Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep

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• Weights and Measures: The Harappan ceremonial bathing. The Great Bath is an
people used weights and measures for trade important public place of Mohenjo-Daro.
and other transactions. Numerous articles
used for weights have been found. They show Script
that in weighing mostly 16 or its multiples The Harappan script was not alphabetical but
were used, for instance, 16, 64, 160, 320 and mainly pictographic and logosyllabic (each
640. The Harappan also knew the art of symbol stood for a word/a syllable). The
measurements. Measures of length were Harappan people used graphic symbols or
based on the decimal system. characters to convey the idea. The Harappan
writing is believed to be boustrophedon, i.e.
Society right to left and left to right in alternate lines.
• The Harappan society was an urban society
and appeared to have been divided into three
Indus Valley Sites
sections — an elite class associated with the
citadel, a well-to-do middle class (rich
1. Harappa
merchants) and a relatively weaker section
Two rows of six granaries, evidence of direct
occupying the lower towns (labourers).
trade interaction with Mesopotamia,
• The Harappan society is believed to be
evidence of coffin burial, post-cremation
matriarchal in nature as many terracotta (fire-
burial more numerous, seals out of stones
baked earthen clay) female figurines have
been excavated, which are representations of
2. Mohenjo-Daro
the Great Mother Goddess. The terracotta
Great bath, assembly hall, great granary, piece
figurines and the stone sculptures indicate the
of woven cotton cloth, bronze dancing girl,
dressing style of the people.
seals representing Mother Goddess,
Pasupathi, bearded man & a woman to be
Religion
sacrificed.
• They worshipped the Mother Goddess.
The term ‘Mohenjo-Daro’ means ‘Mount of
Many terracotta figurines have been
the dead’ on the bank of river Indus.
excavated, which were representations of the
Mother Goddess.
3. Chanhudaro
• The seal of Pashupati Mahadeva is
Bank of river Indus, the only city without a
surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhino, a
citadel, bead factory site as lots of beads, seals
buffalo and a deer and it is likely that these
and ornaments unearthed.
animals were also worshipped.
• Another peculiarity of the Harappan
4. Kalibangan
religious belief was the worship of stones in
Remains of camel bones, fire altars, no
the form of linga (phallus) and yoni (fertility).
One terracotta piece from Kalibangan shows drainage system, the only site where
pictures of ling and yoni together. decorative bricks are used in flooring. At
• Sacred ritual spots included the Great Bath Rajasthan on the banks of river Ghaggar,
at Mohenjo-Daro, where the elite likely
bones of camel, evidence of furrows, known
undertook ritual activity that included
as the third capital of the Indus Empire.

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Vedic Age (1500–600 BCE). It should be noted
5. Lothal here that after the decline of Indus Valley
Dockyard, double burial, sea trade centre, Civilisation by 1500 BCE, the next wave of
bead-making factory, terracotta model of a civilisation began to take shape in the form of
ship found here, remains of rice husk, ivory the Aryan occupation of the Indo-Gangetic
scale found here. plain.
Typically, the age of Aryans is known as the
6. Rakhigarhi Vedic Age because the four major Vedas were
Largest Indus Valley site and town in the created in this time. The word Aryan is derived
world. All the three phases of the Harappan from the Sanskrit word “Arya”, which means
culture. noble. They arrived from Central Asia, as is
believed and agreed to by the majority of
7. Banawali historians. But various scholars voice different
At Haryana on banks of the lost river opinions about their origin. Bal Gangadhar
Saraswathi, barley cultivation, clay model of Tilak argued that Aryans came from the Arctic
plough. region.
It is generally agreed that they spoke the Indo-
8. Dholavira Aryan language, Sanskrit. They were semi-
It is located in Khadir Beyt, Rann of Kutch, nomadic, pastoral people, who led a rural life
Gujarat. as compared to the urban Harappans.

End of Indus Valley Civilization Vedic Literature

The Harappan civilization suddenly seems to The term Veda means “superior knowledge”
have started to end around 3900 years ago. in Sanskrit. Four major Vedas constitute the
People stopped living in many cities. Writing Vedic literature. They are — Rig Veda, Yajur
seals and weights became extinct. Raw Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda.
materials were now rarely imported.
1. Rig Veda: It is the earliest Veda. It has 10
Some scholar says that it is due to the drying
Mandal and 1028 hymns in praise of Gods. The
of rivers while some have explained it to the
four varnas have been discussed in the
cause of deforestation. In some areas, there
Purusha sukta of the tenth mandala of the Rig
were floods that have been the main reason Veda. These four varnas are Brahman,
due to which the rulers have lost control. The Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra.
people have consequently abandoned Sind
and Punjab and had moved to the newer 2. Yajur Veda: It has the details of rules to be
smaller settlements to the east and the south. followed during sacrifices. The Yajurveda has
two parts. (i) Krishna Yajur Veda and (ii) Shukla
Yajur Veda.
V EDIC AGE
3. Sama Veda: It has a collection of songs. The
The Vedic Civilisation and Culture origins of Indian music are traced to it.
The Vedic Civilisation was the culture and
traditions of the society prevalent during the

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4. Atharva Veda: It has a collection of spells Monogamy was practiced while polygamy
and charms. among royal and noble families was observed.
Women had equal opportunities as men for
Besides these Vedas, there were: their spiritual and intellectual development.
Brahmanas which were prose about Vedic Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra were
hymns, rituals and philosophies. women poets. Women could attend the
Aryankas that deal with mysticism, rites and popular assemblies.
rituals. No child marriage and sati practice were
Upanishads that contain philosophical texts found.
dealing with the soul and mysteries of nature. Social divisions were not rigid.

Ramayana was authored by Valmiki. Economic Conditions in Vedic Civilisation

Mahabharata was written by Ved Vyasa. The Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral, cattle-
rearing people and after they permanently
Classification of the Vedic Period settled in North India, they began agriculture.
The period of Vedic Civilisation (1500–600 Carpenters produced chariots and ploughs. A
BCE) is divided into two broad parts: variety of articles with copper, bronze and
• Early Vedic Period (1500–1000 BC), also iron were made by workers. Spinning was an
known as the Rig Vedic Period important occupation — cotton and woollen
• Later Vedic Period (1000–600 BC) fabrics.
Goldsmiths made ornaments.
Early Vedic Age (1500–1000 BCE) Trade was conducted by barter system in the
Political Organisation beginning but later shifted to use of gold coins
‘Kula‘ was the basic unit of political called ‘Nishka‘ for large transactions.
organisation.
Multiple families together of kinship formed a Religion in the Vedic Period
‘grama ‘and leader of the ‘grama’ was Rig Vedic Aryans worshiped natural forces like
‘Gramani‘. earth, fire, wind, rain and thunder by
Group of villages were called ‘Vishay’, headed personifying them into many gods.
by ‘Vishaypati‘ and the highest political and Some important Rig Vedic Gods – Prithvi
administrative unit was ‘Jana‘ or tribe. The (Earth), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varun (Rain)
head of the kingdom was ‘Rajan‘ or king. The and Indra (Thunder). ‘Indra’ was the most
Rig Vedic polity was hereditary monarchy popular and next came ‘Agni’.
normally. Female Gods – ‘Aditi’ and ‘Ushas’ but there
There were several such tribal kingdoms — are no temples and no idol worship.
Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus. Later Vedic Period (1000–600 BC)
There were two bodies — Sabha (council of Political Organisation
elders) and Samiti (general assembly of Larger kingdoms by integration formed
people). ‘Mahajanapadas or Rashtras‘.
Therefore, the power of the king increased
Society in Vedic Civilisation
and he performed various rituals and
The Rig Vedic society was basically patriarchal.
sacrifices to make his position strong like

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Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Other gods like Prajapathi (the creator),
Asvamedha (horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya Vishnu (the protector) and Rudra (the
(chariot race). destroyer) became important.
The kings assumed titles of Rajavisvajanan,
Sacrifices and rituals became more elaborate.
Ahilabhuvanapathi (lord of all earth), Ekrat
Priesthood became a hereditary profession.
and Samrat (sole ruler) and the importance of
the Samiti and the Sabha diminished. Names and Regions of Different Rivers
Rivers in the Present
Region
Vedic Age Name
Society in Vedic Civilisation
The Varna system became prevalent — four Sindhu Indus Punjab
divisions of society: Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Bitsta Jhelam Punjab
Vaisyas and Sudras.
Brahmins and Kshatriyas occupied a higher
Ashikani Chenab Punjab
position than the others and various sub-
castes based on occupation emerged. Bipasha Beas Punjab
Women were considered inferior and
subordinate to men now and lost their Purushani Ravi Punjab
political rights of attending assemblies.
Satadru Sutlej Punjab
Child marriages became common.

Drishavati Gharghar Rajasthan

Economic Conditions in Vedic Civilisation
More land was put under cultivation by Kuva/Kubha Kabul Afghanistan
clearing forests. Hence, agriculture became
Krumu Kurram Afghanistan
the chief occupation of people growing barley,
rice and wheat. Gomoti Gomal Afghanistan
Industrial activity became specialised with
metalwork, leatherwork, carpentry and Saraswati Sarsuti Rajasthan
pottery advancement.
Internal trade, as well as, foreign trade also
MA HA JA NAPADA AND
became extensive (they traded with Babylon
through sea). MA GA DHA
Coins: Beesides ‘nishka’, ‘satamana’ (gold
coins) and ‘krishnala‘ (silver coins) were also The Mahajanapadas
Angutara Nikaya, a Buddhist scripture,
used as a medium of exchange.
mentions 16 great kingdoms or
Mahajanapadas at the beginning of the 6th
Religion in Vedic Period
century BC in India.
Indra and Agni lost their importance.

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They emerged during the Vedic Age. Socio- by the stronger rulers. In the 6th century, only
economic developments chiefly due to the four powerful kingdoms remained.
use of iron tools in agriculture and military, 1. Magadha
along with religious and political 2. Avanti
developments, led to the rise of the 3. Kosala
Mahajanapadas from small kingdoms or 4. Vatsa
Janapadas. Later, all of them were annexed to or became
By the 6th century BC, the political centre part of Magadha.
shifted from the west of the Indo-Gangetic
plains to the eastern side of it. Magadha
This was due to better fertility of the land Magadha emerged victorious and was able to
because of more rainfall and rivers and this gain sovereignty. It became the most powerful
region was closer to the iron production state in ancient India. Magadha is situated in
centres. modern Bihar. Jarasandha, who was a
descendant of Brihadratha, founded the
Sixteen Mahajanapadas
empire in Magadha.
[Link] Mahajanapadas Capitals
1 Vajji Vaishali Haryanka Dynasty
It is the first important and powerful dynasty
2 Malla Kusinara
in Magadha.
3 Asmaka Potali or Podana
4 Kamboja Rajapura Bimbisara
Bimbisara ruled over Magadha from 544 BC to
5 Gandhara Taxila
493 BC.
6 Chedi Sothivati He is a contemporary and follower of the
7 Avanti Ujjain Buddha. He had his capital at Giriraja (Rajgir).
He was the first king to have a standing army.
8 Matsya Virat
He started the practice of using matrimonial
9 Kuru Indraprastha alliances to strengthen his political position.
10 Panchala Ahichchatra and He followed a policy of conquest and
Kampilya expansion. The most notable conquest by
11 Saurasena Mathura Bimbisara was that of Anga.
He had three wives: Kosala Devi (King of
12 Kosala Shravasti
Kosala’s daughter and the sister of Prasenjit),
13 Vatsa Kausambi Chellana (daughter of the Lichchavi chief of
14 Kasi Varanasi Vaisali) and Khema/Chema (daughter of the
King of Modra, Punjab).
15 Magadha Giriraja/Rajagriha
16 Anga Champa Ajatasatru
Ajatasatru was the son of Bimbisara. He killed
his father and became the ruler.
In the course of time, smaller or weak
kingdoms and the republics were eliminated

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He embraced Buddhism. He convened the He is famous as the ‘first historical emperor of
First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha just after India’.
the death of Buddha in 483 BC. He murdered Kalasoka to become the king.
He won wars against Kosala and Vaishali. His origins are not clear. As per the Puranas,
he was the son of the last Sisunaga king from
Udayin a Sudra woman.
Udayin was the son of Ajatasatru. He killed his He assumed the title of ‘Sarva Kashtriyantaka’
father and became ruler. (destroyer of all the kshatriyas) and ‘Ekrat’.
He shifted the capital to Pataliputra. He conquered many kingdoms, including
He was the last of the major Haryanka rulers. Kalinga.
He was succeeded by three kings —
Aniruddha, Manda and Nagadasaka. Dhana Nanda
The last king of the Haryanka Dynasty was He was the last ruler of the Nanda Dynasty.
Nagadasaka. He is referred to as Xandrames in Greek texts.
Alexander invaded North-western India
Sisunaga Dynasty during Dhana Nanda’s reign, but he could not
The people of Magadha revolted during the proceed towards the Gangetic plains because
reign of Nagadasaka and placed an amatya of his army’s refusal.
(minister) named Sisunaga as the king. Dhana Nanda inherited a huge empire from
his father. He possessed a standing army of
Sisunaga 2,00,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 3000
Sisunaga was the viceroy of Kasi before elephants and 2000 chariots. He became a
becoming the king of Magadha. His capital powerful ruler because of this army.
was at Giriraja. He became unpopular with his subjects owing
He annexed Avanti and brought an end to the to an oppressive way of extorting taxes. Also,
long rivalry between Magadha and Avanti.
his Sudra origins and anti-kshatriya policy led
He later shifted the capital to Vaishali.
to many enemies.
Kalasoka Finally, he was overthrown by Chandragupta
Kalasoka was the son of Sisunaga. Kalasoka Maurya along with Chanakya, which led to the
shifted the capital to Pataliputra. He foundations of the Maurya Empire in
conducted the Second Buddhist Council at Magadha.
Vaishali.
He was killed in a palace revolution that
brought the Nanda Dynasty to the throne. HISTORY

Nanda Dynasty Religious Revolutions – Jainism and

This was the first non-Kshatriya dynasty. The Buddhism
first ruler of the Nanda Dynasty was
Mahapadma Nanda, who usurped the throne The Vedic age ended with rise of new
of Kalasoka. religions. There were several reasons for the
rise of the new intellectual awakening.
Mahapadma Nanda

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Some of the exploitative practices that paved Wishing Tree
10. Sheetalnath
the way for new faiths include: (Srivasta)
• The complex rituals and sacrifices
11. Shreyansanath Rhinoceros
advocated in the later Vedic period
• Expensive sacrificial ceremonies 12. Vasupujya Buffalo
• Superstitious beliefs and practices that
troubled the common man 13. Vimalnatha Boar
• Upanishads taught as an alternative to
14. Anantnatha Bear (Falcon)
sacrificial rites were too philosophical, which
a layperson could not understand 15. Dharmanath Spike-headed Club
Slavery, caste system and gender
discrimination also contributed to the new 16. Santinath Deer
awakening.
17. Kunthunath He-Goat
Jainism
18. Aranath Fish
Jainism is one of the world’s oldest living
religions. Jainism grounds itself in 24 19. Mallinath Waterpot
Tirthankaras. A ‘Tirthankara’ is the one who
revealed religious truth at different times. The 20. Munisuvrata Tortoise
first Tirthankara was Rishabha and the last
one was Mahavira. Jainism gained 21. Naminatha Blue-Lotus
prominence under the aegis of Mahavira
22. Neminatha Conch
during the sixth century BC.
The word ‘Jain’ is derived from the Sanskrit [Link] Serpent
word Jina, which means conquering self and
the external world. 24. Mahavira Lion

Name of Tirthankara Symbol

Mahavira (The Great Hero)
1. Lord Rishabha Ox Vardhamana, meaning ‘prosperous’, was a
Kshatriya prince. However, at the age of 30, he
2. Ajitanath Elephant
renounced his princely status to adopt an
3. Sambhavanatha Horse ascetic life. He undertook intense meditation.
After twelve and a half years of rigorous
4. Abhinandananatha Monkey penance, Vardhamana attained omniscience
or supreme knowledge, known as Kevala.
5. Sumatinatha Goose Thereafter, he became ‘Jina’ meaning ‘one
who conquered worldly pleasure and
6. Padmaprabha Lotus
attachment’. His followers are called Jains.
7. Suparshvanath Swastika Mahavira reviewed the ancient Sramanic
traditions and came up with new doctrines.
8. Chandraprabha Moon Therefore, he is believed to be the real
9. Suvidhinath Swami founder of Jainism.
Crocodile (Makara)
or Puspadanta
Unique Teachings of Jainism

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▪ Jainism denies God as the creator of the
universe. The basic philosophy of Jainism is Svetambaras
Ahimsa or ‘non-violence’. The Svetambaras are considered progressive.
▪ The ultimate aim of Jainism is attaining Monks of the Svetambaras sect wear white
moksha or ending the cycle of birth – death – robes. They are permitted to have Rajoharana
rebirth. (broom with woolen threads), begging bowls
▪ Jains reject the belief in the last and books. Svetambaras believe that women
are equally capable of achieving liberation as
judgement, where God, a supreme being,
men.
decides who goes to heaven or hell.
▪ Jainism advocates that the goodness or Reasons for the Spread of Jainism
quality of one’s life is determined by one’s The following are the main reasons for the
karma. wide acceptance of Jainism in India:
▪ Use of people’s language
Tri-rathnas or Three Jewels
▪ Intelligible teachings
Mahavira exhorted the three-fold path for the ▪ Support from rulers and traders
attainment of moksha and for the liberation ▪ Perseverance of Jain monks
from karma.
They are: Jain Councils
1. Right faith First Jain Council
2. Right knowledge
• Held at Patliputra in 3rd Century B.C. and
3. Right action
was presided by Sthulbhadra.
Jain Code of Conduct
Second Jain Council
Mahavira asked his followers to live a virtuous
• Held at Vallabhi in 512 A.D. and was
life. In order to live a life filled with sound
presided by Devardhi Kshmasramana.
morals, he preached five major principles to
• Final Compilations of 12 Angas and 12
follow. They are:
Upangas.
1. Ahimsa – not to injure any living beings
2. Satya – to speak truth Buddhism
3. Asteya – not to steal Founded by Gautama Buddha (also called
4. Aparigraha – not to own property Sakyamuni or Tathagata) known originally as
5. Brahmacharya – celibacy Siddhartha.
Jainism split into two sects — Digambaras and
Gautama Buddha
Svetambaras.
Gautama Buddha was the founder of
Digambaras Buddhism. His real name was Siddhartha. Like
The Digambaras are orthodox and Mahavira, he was also a Kshatriya prince
conservative followers of Jainism. belonging to the ruling Sakya clan. When
Monks of the Digambara sect do not wear any Siddhartha was only seven days old, his
clothing and live naked. They are forbidden to mother died. So he was raised by his
have any kind of possessions. stepmother Gautami.
Digambaras believe that women cannot
Buddha’s Four Noble Truths (Arya Satyas)
achieve nirvana or liberation directly.

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1. The world is full of sorrows Hinayana
• The members of this sect did not worship
2. The cause of sorrow is desire (Dwadash idols or images of Buddha. They practiced
Nidan/Pratitya Samutpada). austerity.
3. If desires are conquered, all sorrows can be • They believed in the salvation of the
removed (Nirvana). individual as their goal.
• They used the Prakrit language.
4. This can be achieved by following the 8-fold • Hinayana is also known as Theravada.
path (Ashtangika Marga).
Mahayana
Eight Fold Path • The members of this sect worshipped
1. Right view images of Buddha.
2. Right thought • They observed elaborate rituals.
3. Right speech • They believed in the salvation of all beings
4. Right action as their objective.
5. Right livelihood • They used the Sanskrit language.
6. Right effort • Mahayana Buddhism spread to Central
7. Right knowledge Asia, Ceylon, Burma, Nepal, Tibet, China and
8. Right meditation Japan, where the middle path was accepted.

The teachings of Lord Buddha were simple Causes for the Spread of Buddhism
and taught in a language that people used for • The simplicity of the teachings of Buddha
communication. Since the teachings in the local language appealed to people.
addressed the everyday concern of the • Buddhism rejected elaborate religious
people, they could relate to them. He was customs whereas the practice of orthodox
opposed to rituals and sacrifices. Vedic religion insisted on expensive rituals
The wheel of life — represents the Buddhist and sacrifices.
view of the world. • Buddha’s emphasis was on observance of
Dhamma.
• Buddhist Sanghas played an important
Buddhist Sangha
role in spreading the messages of Buddha.
Buddha laid the foundation for a missionary
• Royal patronage under Ashoka, Kanishka
organisation called Sangha, meaning
and Harsha also helped the causes of
‘association’ for the propagation of his faith.
Buddhism.
The members were called bhikshus (monks).
They led a life of austerity.
Viharas or the Buddhist monasteries became
Chaitya is a Buddhist shrine or a meditation
great centres of education. One such centre
hall. Viharas are monasteries/living quarters
was Nalanda. Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese
for monks.
pilgrim, studied in Nalanda for many years.
Stupas were built over the remains of
Buddha’s body. They are monuments of great
Jainism and Buddhism – Similarities and
artistic value.
Dissimilarities
Buddhist Sects

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Similarities Mogglip
250
• Both Mahavira and Buddha hailed from Patliputra Ashoka utta

3
BC
royal families. Yet, they renounced royal Tissa
privileges and chose to adopt an ascetic life. First
• They denied the authority of Vedas. Kundala
Cent Kanish Vasumitr
• They taught in the language of the wana

4
ury ka a
(Kashmir)
common people. AD
• They admitted disciples from all the
castes and from both genders.
• They opposed blood sacrifices. They MA URYAN EMPIRE
believed in the doctrine of karma and
emphasised on right conduct and right
After the invasion by Alexander, the
knowledge instead of performing religious
Northwestern region in India faced various
ceremonials and rituals as the means to
achieve salvation. foreign attacks, which caused unrest in these
Indian states. The Nandas who were ruling at
Dissimilarities
that time were not popular due their severe
Jainism taxation regimes imposed on agriculture by

• It followed the extreme path. Dhanananda. Conditions like these gave

• It remained in India only. opportunities to other authorities to take over
• It does not believe in the existence of God the rule.
but believes life in every living being. Mauryan Empire was one of the greatest
empires recorded in Indian history. The rule of
Buddism Mauryas lasted from 322–185 BC, where the

• It followed the middle path. majority of India was united as a single state
• It spread across many parts of the world. by the great founder emperor Chandragupta
• It emphasises on Anatma (no eternal soul) Maurya. With the help of Kautilya or
and Anitya (Impermanence). Chanakya, Chandragupta Maurya laid the
foundation of this vast empire.
Buddist Councils
Chandragupta Maurya: 322 BC–298 BC
Council

Year Place King President

• Chandragupta Maurya dethroned the last
Nanda ruler Dhanananda and occupied
Patliputra in 322 BC with the help of Kautilya
483 Ajatas Mahakas
Rajgir or Chanakya.
1

BC atru sapa
• Chandragupta Maurya defeated Selecus
Nikator in 305 BC, who surrendered a vast
383 Kalash territory including Herat, Kandhar,
Vaishali Sabakami
2

BC oka Baluchistan and Kabul, in return for 500

elephants.

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• After the treaty between Chandragupta favour of Cultural Conquest (Dhamma

and Selecus, the Hindukush became the Ghosha)
boundary between their states. • He embraced Buddhism under Upagupta.
• Selecus Nikator sent Megasthenese to the • He sent his son Mahendra and daughter
court of Chandragupta Maurya. Sanghamitra to Ceylon as Buddhist
• Under Chandragupta Maurya, for the first Missionaries.
time, the whole of Northern India was united.
Mauryan Administration
• Trade flourished, agriculture was
Chanakya’s or Kautilya’s Arthashastra explains
regulated, weights and measures were
the kind of administration system followed in
standardised and money came into use.
the Maurya Empire. The book has 15 sub-
• Taxation, sanitation and famine relief
parts which contain 180 chapters. This book
became the concerns of the state.
provides the most important literary source
Bindusara: 298 BC–273 BC for the study of the Mauryan administration.

• Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by The Central Government in Mauryan Empire

his son Bindusara.
• The King was the supreme source of all
• Bindusara was known to the Greeks as
power and the authorities with judicial and
Amitrochates (derived from the Sanskrit word
administrative powers.
Amitraghata).
• Mauryan administration was a
• Bindusara patronised Ajivikas.
very centralized system.
• The King had a Council of Ministers
Ashoka: 273 BC–232 BC
to assist him. These ministers were known as
• It appears from the available evidence
‘Mantri’, and the Council of Ministers was
(mainly Buddhist literature) that there was a
called ‘Mantriparishad’. There was a
struggle for the throne among the princes
‘mantriparishad-adhyakshya’ to head the
after the death of Bindusara.
Council. This is similar to our present Prime
• According to Buddhist tradition, Ashoka Minister.
usurped the throne after killing his 99 Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’ mentions the duties
brothers and spared Tissa, the youngest one. of government superintendents (Adyakshas).
Radhagupta helped him in the fratricidal These Adhyakshas formed a secretariat,
struggle. which was divided into several departments.
• This war of succession accounts for These departments and their superintendents
interregnum for 273–269 BC and only after are mentioned below:
securing his position on the throne, Ashoka
had himself formally crowned in 269 BC. Intelligence
• Under Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire • The espionage system in the Mauryan
reached its climax. The whole of the sub- administration was developed and well-
continent was under imperial control. spread.
• He fought Kalinga war (261 BC). The • According to the Arthashastra, there are
miseries of war caused deep remorse to two types of spies, namely, ‘Sansthana’ (the
Ashoka and therefore he abandoned the stationary) and ‘Sanchari’ (the wandering
policy of physical conquest (Bherighosha) in one).

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• These spies acted as eyes and ears for the travelling people were constructed near the
King. These kept the King well-informed about roads. Care was taken to provide drinking
the whereabouts of the bureaucracy of the water to travelers by means of wells and
state. canals.
• The detectives in the Mauryan
administration were known as Revenue Department
‘Gudhapurusha’. • The chief of the revenue department was
• These agents included people from known as ‘Samharta’. He was in charge of
various segments of society, like, all revenue collection.
householders, merchants, ascetics, disciples, • The revenues were collected from land,
etc. irrigation, customs, shop tax, ferry tax, forests,
• There were special agents who acted as mines and pastures, license fees from
poisonous girls called as ‘Vishkanyas’. craftsmen, and fines collected in the law
courts.
Army • The value of land revenue demanded
• Commander-in-chief was the overall in- fixed at ‘one-sixth’ of the produce.
charge of the Mauryan army. His position was • The majority of this revenue went to
immediately junior to the King. This expenditure related to the household of the
Commander-in-chief was known as ‘Senapati’. King, army, the government servants, poor
• The Senapati was appointed by the King. relief, public works, etc.
• The salaries in the Mauryan army were
paid in cash. Agriculture
• Their army included six lakh infantry, • The chief of the agriculture department
about 30,000 cavalries, nine thousand war was known as ‘Sitadhyaksha’.
elephants and eight thousand chariots. • There was a separate irrigation
• The Mauryans had a War Council divided department as well, which looked after a
into six sub-councils which formulated policy network of canals. These canals provided
five sectors of the army — the infantry, the water for irrigation according to land
cavalry, the elephant forces, the chariots, the requirements.
navy and the commiserate.
• The Mauryans made innovations in the Major Rock Edicts
field of navy, transport and supply wings. Prohibition of animal
Major Rock
sacrifice, especially during
Transport Edict I
festive seasons.
• Transport was handled by a separate
Medical treatment of
Department of Road.
humans and animals,
• The department decided the width of
planting of fruits, medicinal
cattle tracks, chariots and pedestrians. Major Rock
herbs and the digging of
• There were also trunk roads managed by Edict II
wells. Mentions the Pandyas,
the Department of Roads.
Satyapuras and Keralaputras
• Facilities for travellers were created along
of South India.
the roads. Trees on both sides of the road
were planted. Inns or restrooms for the

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Generosity to Brahmins.
It mentions Mahamattas in
About Yuktas, Pradeshikas charge of women’s
Major Rock
and Rajukas who would go welfare, Ithijika Mahamatta
Major Rock Edict XII
and tolerance towards the
Edict III every five years to different
dhamma of others.
parts of his empire to spread
Mentions victory over
Dhamma.
Kalinga. Mentions Ashoka’s
Dhammaghosha (sound of
Dhamma victory over Greek
Dhamma/righteousness)
Kings Antiochus of Syria
Major Rock over Bherighosha (sound of
(Amtiyoko), Ptolemy of Egypt
Edict IV war). The King Ashoka Major Rock (Turamaye), Magas of Cyrene
attached greatest value to Edict XIII
(Maka), Antigonus of
his duty.
Macedon (Amtikini),
About Dhammamahamatras.
Alexander of Epirus
Talks about treating slaves
right. A special cadre of (Alikasudaro). Also mentions
Major Rock officials, Dhamma Gosha Pandyas, Cholas, etc.
Edict V were appointed and
entrusted with the duty of
spreading Dhamma within
the kingdom. SANGA M AGE
Tolerance towards religions
among all sects and welfare Civilisation was not alien in the southern part
Major Rock of India. The famous kingdoms of South India
measures for the public in his
Edict VII were depicted in the rock edict of Ashoka [II
as well as his neighbouring
kingdoms. and XII]. The story of Sangam, .i.e. the
assembly of scholars is one of the great
Ashoka’s first visit to Bodh
occasions mentioned in the pages of our
Gaya and the Bodhi tree (his
Major Rock history.
first Dhamma Yatra). Gave
Edict VIII • The period roughly between the 3rd
importance to Dhamma
century BC and the 3rd century AD in South
tours.
India (the area lying to the south of river
Condemns popular Krishna and river Tungabhadra) is known as
Major Rock
ceremonies. Stresses on the Sangam Period. The Sangam Age
Edict IX
moral conduct. flourished under the Pandyas of Madurai.
• It must be remembered that the Imperial
Cholas and Cheras were contemporaries of
the Pandyas during the Sangam Age.

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Cheras Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai,
The Cheras controlled the central and Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppatu.
northern parts of Kerala and the Kongu region Sangam Polity and Administration
of Tamil Nadu. Vanji was their capital and the
▪ During the Sangam period, the hereditary
ports of the west coast, Musiri and Tondi,
monarchy was the form of government.
were under their control. The emblem of the
▪ Each of the dynasties of the Sangam Age
Cheras was ‘bow and arrow’.
had a royal emblem — tiger for the Cholas,
The greatest ruler of the Cheras was
carp/fish for the Pandyas, and bow and arrow
Senguttuvan. His military achievements have
for the Cheras.
been chronicled in epic Silapathikaram, with
The king was assisted by a wide body of
details about his expedition to the Himalayas,
officials who were categorised into five
where he defeated many North Indian rulers.
councils. They were ministers (amaichar),
Senguttuvan introduced the Pattini cult or the
priests (anthanar), envoys (thuthar), military
worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife in Tamil
commanders (senapathi) and spies (orrar).
Nadu.
▪ The military administration was
Imperial Cholas efficiently organised and a regular army was
The reign of the Cholas extended from the associated with each ruler.
modern Tiruchi district to southern Andhra ▪ The chief source of the state’s income
Pradesh. Their capital was at Puhar. In the was land revenue, while a custom duty was
‘Battle of Venni’, Karikala Chola defeated the also imposed on foreign trade.
Cheras and the Pandyas. The famous Kallanai ▪ The major source of fulfilling the royal
dam across Kaveri River was built by Karikala treasury was the booty captured in wars.
Chola. ▪ The roads and highways were maintained
and guarded to prevent robbery and
Pandyas
smuggling.
• Their capital was at Madurai. One of the
Pandya kings was responsible for the Sangam Society
execution of Kovalan, husband of Kannaki. ▪ Tolkappiyam refers to the five-fold
‘Maduraikanji’ written by Mangudi Maruthnar division of lands — Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai
describes the socio-economic condition of the (pastoral), Marudam (agricultural), Neydal
Pandyan country. (coastal) and Palai (desert).
▪ Tolkappiyam also refers to four
Sangam Literature
castes, namely arasar(Ruling Class),
The Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, anthanar(Priests), vanigar (carried on trade
Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and commerce) and Vellalar (agriculturists).
and two epics named — Silappathikaram and ▪ Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas,
Manimegalai. Tolkappiyam was authored by Irulas, Nagas and Vedars lived in this period.
Tolkappiyar and is considered the earliest of
Tamil literary work. Though it is a work on Position of Women during the Sangam Age
Tamil grammar, it also provides insights on the ▪ A lot of information is available in the
political and socio-economic conditions of the Sangam literature to understand the position
time. Ettutogai (Eight Anthologies) consists of of women during the Sangam Age.
eight works — Aingurunooru, Natrinai, ▪ Women had respect and were allowed
intellectual pursuits. There were women

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poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar and ▪ The port city of Puhar became an
Kakkaipadiniyar, who flourished and important place of foreign trade, as big ships
contributed to Tamil literature. entered this port containing precious goods.
▪ Women were allowed to choose their life ▪ Other significant ports of commercial
partners. But the life of widows was activity were Tondi, Musiri, Korkai,
miserable. Arikkamedu and Marakkanam.
▪ There is also a mention about the practice ▪ Many gold and silver coins that were
of Sati being prevalent in the higher strata of issued by the Roman Emperors like Augustus,
society. Tiberius and Nero have been found in all parts
of Tamil Nadu, indicating flourishing trade.
Religion
▪ Major exports of the Sangam Age were
▪ The primary deity of the Sangam period
cotton fabrics and spices like pepper, ginger,
was Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God.
cardamom, cinnamon and turmeric, along
▪ The worship of Murugan had an ancient
with ivory products, pearls and precious
origin and the festivals relating to God
stones.
Murugan were mentioned in the Sangam
▪ Major imports for the traders
literature.
were horses, gold and sweet wine.
▪ Murugan was honoured with six abodes
known as Arupadai Veedu. End of the Sangam Age
▪ Other gods worshipped during the ▪ The Sangam period slowly witnessed its
Sangam period were Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan decline towards the end of the 3rd century AD.
(Indiran), Varunan and Korravai. ▪ The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country
▪ The Hero Stone or Nadu Kal worship was post-Sangam period between 300 AD to 600
significant in the Sangam period and was AD, whose period was called an interregnum
erected in memory of the bravery shown by or 'dark age' by earlier historians.
the warriors in the battle.

Economy of the Sangam Age HISTORY- GUPTAS

▪ Agriculture was the chief
occupation where rice was the most common The Gupta empire rose in Magadha around
crop.
the 4th century AD and covered the greater
▪ The handicraft included weaving, metal
works and carpentry, shipbuilding and the part of Northern India (though smaller than
making of ornaments using beads, stones and the Mauryan empire). It is worth noting, the
ivory.
Gupta Dynasty ruled for more than 200 years.
▪ These were in great demand in the
internal and external trade that was at its peak The Gupta period is popularly known as the
during the Sangam period. ‘Golden Age of India’.
▪ High expertise was attained in the
spinning and weaving of cotton and silk Sources for the study of Gupta Period
clothes. These were in great demand in the There are typically three types of sources for
western world, especially for the cotton reconstructing the history of the Gupta
clothes woven at Uraiyur. period.

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A) Literary Sources • He is also known as the the “Indian
Vishakadutta had written Devichandraguptam Napoleon”. He was the greatest of the rulers
and Mudrarakshasam, which provides details of the Gupta dynasty.
about the rise of Guptas. Social, economic and • The Allahabad pillar inscription contains
religious accounts were left by the Chinese details of his military conquest in stages. It is a
traveller Fa-hien, who had visited India during little ironic that these military achievements
the reign of Chandragupta II. are engraved on the same pillar which
contains the inscriptions of the peace-loving
B) Epigraphical Sources Ashoka. He also performed Ashwamedha
Mehrauli iron pillar inscription tells about the sacrifices after his military victories.
achievements of Chandragupta I. Samudragupta was called by different names,
Allahabad Pillar inscription about the reign of one of them was ‘Kaviraja’, because of his
Samundragupta describing his personality and ability to compose verses.
achievements. It is engraved on Ashokan • Certain coins show him with a Veena. He
pillar, written in Sanskrit in the Nagari script patronised poets and scholars like Harisena,
composed of 33 lines written by Harisena. and hence played a part in promoting Sanskrit
literature(which is a characterstic feature of
C) Numismatic Sources the Gupta dynasty). Samudragupta was a
The coins issued by Gupta kings contain follower of Vaishnavism. However, he also
legends and figures. These gold coins give patronist the great Buddhist scholar
insights into the titles and sacrifices that were Vasubandhu.
performed by the Guptas.
Chandragupta II –Vikramaditya of the Gupta
The Gupta Dynasty Dynasty (380 –415 AD)
The Gupta empire was founded by Sri Gupta.
• He is also known as Vikramaditya.
He was then succeeded by Ghatotkacha. Not
Chandragupta II extended the limits of this
much information is available about the rule
empire by conquest and matrimonial
of these two Maharajas. Thereafter, the
alliances. His capital city was Pataliputra.
following significant rulers from the Gupta
• In his reign, the Chinese pilgrim Fa-hien
dynasty ruled during this period
visited India. His accounts tell of a flourishing
Chandragupta I (320 – 330 AD) Buddhist religion in Chandragupta II’s reign.
• Chandragupta II also patronised art and
• Chandragupta was a powerful Gupta ruler
literature. He has poets like Kalidasa in his
who had waged many battles to attain his title
court.
‘Maharajadiraja’ (king of kings).
• He also issued silver coins, the first Gupta
• He married a Licchavi princess Kumardevi,
ruler to do so.
which began the eminence of the Gupta
empire. Kumaragupta (415 – 455 AD)
• The Mehrauli iron pillar inscription has
He succeeded Chandragupta II. Kumargupta I
mentioned about his extensive conquests.
was a worshipper of Kartikeya. The coins of his
• He is considered the founder of the Gupta time tell that he took titles like:
era (began with his accession). Mahendraditya and Ashwamedha Mahendra.
Samudragupta (330 – 380 AD)

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Nalanda University Vishnusharma of Panchatantra fame lived
He laid the foundation of Nalanda University, during this era. Amarasimha (grammarian and
which later grew to become an international poet) composed a lexicon of Sanskrit,
centre of learning. Amarakosha.
Vishakhadatta composed Mudrarakshasa.
Skandagupta (455 – 467 AD) Other grammarians who contributed to the
He was the last great ruler of Gupta dynasty. Sanskrit language include Vararuchi and
He saved the empire from the Hun invasion, Bhartrihari.
coming from Central Asia. But these invasions Kalidas has written the best works in poetry,
weakened the empire. Details about him are drama as well as in prose. His kavyas such as
mentioned on the Bhitari pillar inscription, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsa and
proclaiming him the title of ‘Vikramaditya’. Kumarasambhava and dramas such as
Abhijnashakuntalam are the best literary
The Later Guptas works of this time. Kalidas adorned the court
After the death of Skandagupta, there were of Chandragupta II, the king of Ujjayini, who
other rulers of the Gupta dynasty like was popular as Vikramaditya.
Purugupta, Narasimhagupta and Fahien came to India through land route via
Buddhagupta. They were not able to save the central Asia and Kashmir and travelled across
empire from Hun invasions. With the rise of north India.
Malwa and continuous Hun invasions, the
Science
Gupta dynasty totally disappeared.
• Aryabhatta, the great Indian
Achievements of the Gupta Dynasty mathematician and astronomer wrote Surya
The Gupta age in ancient India has been called
Siddhanta and Aryabhattiya. Aryabhatta is
the ‘Golden Age of India’ because of the many
believed to have conceptualised ‘zero’. He
achievements in the field of arts, science and
literature that Indians made under the also gave the value of Pi(𝜋). He postulated
Guptas. The prosperity under the Guptas that the earth is not flat and it rotates on its
initiated a period of splendid accomplishment own axis and also that it revolved around the
in arts and sciences. The Gupta Empire lasted sun. He also gave the distance between the
from 320 AD to 550 AD.
earth and the sun which is remarkably close to
Literature the actual value. He wrote on geometry,
Sanskrit literature flourished under the astronomy, mathematics and trigonometry.
Guptas. Kalidasa, the great poet and • The Indian number system with a base of
playwright was in the court of Chandragupta 10, which is the present numeral system
Vikramaditya. He composed great epics such
evolved from scholars of this era.
as Abhijnanashaakuntalam, Kumara
• Varahamihira wrote Brihatsamhita. He
sambhavam, Malavikagnimitram, Ritu
samharam, Meghadootam, Vikram was an astronomer and an astrologer.
orvashiyam and Raghuvamsham. • Dhanvantari, the great physician is
Poet Harisena also adorned the court of supposed to have lived during this time.
Chandragupta Vikramaditya. He wrote the
Allahabad prashasti (inscription).

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• Sushruta composed the Sushrutasamhita Harshavardhana is considered one of the most

around 600 AD. He has detailed surgical prominent Indian emperors in the 7th century
AD. He built a huge empire that extended
procedures in this work.
from north and northwestern India till
• The Nalanda university, a centre for
Narmada in the South. His capital was
Buddhist and other learning attracted Kannauj.
students from abroad. The Guptas patronised
King Harshavardhana’s Ascension
this ancient seat of learning.
• After Prabhakaravardhana died, his elder
Art and architecture son Rajyavardhana ascended the throne of
Thanesar.
• Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh, UP is
• Harsha had a sister Rajyashri, who was
one of the earliest surviving Hindu temples. It married to king Grahavarman of Kannauj.
is a fine example of Gupta architecture. Sasanka the Gauda king killed Grahavarman
Mural paintings of Ajanta depicting the life of and kept Rajyashri prisoner. This prompted
Buddha as told in the Jataka tales were Rajyavardhana to fight against Sasanka. But
Sasanka killed Rajyavardhana.
created during this period. Places like Ajanta,
• This led the 16-year old Harshavardhana
Ellora, Mathura, Sarnath; Anuradhapura and
to ascend the throne of Thanesar in 606 AD.
Sigiriya in Sri Lanka bear examples of Gupta • He vowed to avenge his brother’s murder
art and architecture. and also rescue his sister.
• For this, he forged an alliance with
The decline of the Gupta Empire Bhaskaravarman, the Kamarupa king. Harsha
The Gupta decline started during the reign of and Bhaskaravarman marched against
Sasanka. Ultimately, Sasanka left for Bengal
Skandagupta, the grandson of Chandragupta
and Harsha became the king of Kannauj.
II. He was successful in retaliating against the
Huns and the Pushyamitras, but his empire Empire of King Harshavardhana
was drained of finances and resources • On acquiring Kannauj, Harsha united the
two kingdoms of Thanesar and Kannauj.
because of this.
• He moved his capital to Kannauj.
The last recognised king of the Gupta line was • After the fall of the Guptas, North India
Vishnugupta who reigned from 540 to 550 AD. was divided into many small kingdoms.
Internal fighting and dissensions among the • Harsha was able to unite many of them
royal family led to its weakening. under his command. He had under his control
Punjab and central India. After Sasanka’s
death, he annexed Bengal, Bihar and Odisha.
V ARDHANA DYNASTY OR • He also defeated the Vallabhi king in
HARSHA VA RDHANA Gujarat. (The Vallabhi king and Harsha came
to a truce by a marriage between Harsha’s
daughter and the Vallabhi king Dhruvabhata.)
King Harshavardhana was also known as
• However, Harsha’s plans to conquer lands
Harsha. He was the son of Prabhakar
to the south were hampered when the
Vardhana, the founder of the Pushyabhuti
Chalukya king, Pulakesin II defeated Harsha in
dynasty or the Vardhana dynasty.

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618-619 AD. This sealed Harsha’s southern
territorial limit as the Narmada River. RA JPUTS
• There were two types of territories under
Harsha. One was directly under him and the • A Rajput (derived from the Sanskrit word
other type was those that were feudatories. raja-putra meaning the ‘son of a king’) is a
Direct territories: Central Provinces, Bengal, member of one of the patrilineal clans of
Kalinga, Rajputana and Gujarat western, central, northern India and some
Feudatories: Jalandhar, Kashmir, Kamarupa, parts of Pakistan. Rajputs rose to prominence
Sind and Nepal during the sixth to twelfth centuries. The
• Even the feudatories were under the tight Rajput kingdom proved to be a very big
command of Harsha. Harsha’s reign marked difficulty to the whole Muslim conquest of
the beginning of feudalism in India. India during the period of Islamic invasions
• Hiuen Tsang visited India during Harsha’s from the eleventh to sixteenth centuries.
reign. He has given a very favourable account During the reign of Mughal Emperor Akbar
of king Harsha and his empire. He praises his (1556–1605 CE), Mughal authority was
generosity and justice. accepted by Rajputs and they were allowed
• Harsha was a great patron of the arts. He into the Emperor’s court. They were given
himself was an accomplished writer. He is status in the Emperor’s administration and
forces. They also formed marital and marital
credited with the Sanskrit works Ratnavali,
associations with the Emperor.
Priyadarshika and Nagananda. • Royal Rajputs of Rajasthan ruled
• Banabhatta was his court poet and he successfully over Rajasthan and Gujarat for a
period of 500 years. The Rajputs were skillful
composed Harshacharita, which gives an
warriors and followed a strict code of conduct
account of Harsha’s life and deeds. when it came to waging a battle and driving
• Harsha generously supported Nalanda away an enemy. There are many tales and
university. folklores about the bravery of the Rajputs. The
Rajputs were God-fearing people and were
• He had a good tax structure. 1/4th of all devoted to Vishnu, Rama and the Sun God.
the taxes collected were used for charity and • The well-known among these Rajput
for cultural purposes. kingdoms were the Gurjara Pratiharas, the
Chauhans and the Chandelas.
• Harsha was a competent military
Rana Kumbha
conqueror and an able administrator.
Rana Kumbha, also popular as Maharana
• Harsha was the last king to rule over a
Kumbha Karna, was the ruler of Mewar
vast empire in India before the invasions of
between 1433–1468 AD. He belonged to the
the Muslims.
Sisodia clan and was a son of Rana Mokal of
Harsha’s death Mewar by his wife Sobhagya Devi. He was
• Harsha died in 647 AD after ruling for 41 given the title of Hindu-suratrana by the rulers
years. of Delhi and Gujarat.
• Since he died without any heirs, his
empire disintegrated very soon after his Prithivi Raj Chauhan
death. Prithviraj Chauhan ( 1168–1192) was a ruler

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of the Chauhan Dynasty. He ruled a kingdom
in the northern part of India during the Maharana Pratap
twelfth century. He was reportedly the
He was one of the bravest and legendary
second last Hindu king to sit upon the throne
Rajput kings. He died in 1597 and after his
of Delhi. When he succeeded to the throne in
1179, he was still a minor. During that period, death, his son Amar Singh faced continuous
he ruled from the twin capitals of Ajmer and attacks from Mughals, but he fought. He
Delhi. fought about 17–18 wars with the Mughals.
• From the city of cities, the Qila Rai Pithora
in Delhi was named after him. He was really a
The Rajputs were great patrons of art and
brave soldier. But on the other part, his
elopement with Sanyukta (daughter of architecture. The Rajputs were followers of
Kannauj king Jai Chandra) was there Hinduism. They built many temples of Shiva
mentioned in every possible book and is and Vishnu. The Khajuraho temple at Madhya
considered as one of the most romantic tales Pradesh is well known for its intricate
of India.
carvings.
Major ones being First Battle of Tarain (1191)
in which Prithviraj Chauhan won against Jainism also flourished during this period. The
Muhammad Ghori. splendid marble carvings of the Dilwara
Second Battle of Terain (1192) in which temples at Mt. Abu is the best example of this.
Muhammad Ghori won against Prithviraj • The Rajputs built many magnificent forts
Chauhan.
such as Gwalior fort and Chittor fort. They also

Rao Maldeo Rathore built beautiful palaces like the Hawamahal

One of the most popular rulers of Rajputs, Rao and the Udaipur palaces. These are
Maldeo Rathore, belonged from the Rathore masterpieces of architecture.
Dynasty. During the time of Sher Shah, in
Marwar, the Rathores were a big name and in
power. Rao Maldeo had extended his territory
to a few hundred kilometres of Delhi even.
DELHI SULTANA TE
Rana Sanga
Also known as Sangram Singh, Rana Sanga was Muhammad Bin Qasim Invasion (712 AD)
the king of Mewar during the period between
Muhammad Bin Qasim of Iraq was the first
1509 to 1527. He emerged as a big power Muslim to invade India. He defeated the ruler
after the power collapse in Delhi and his of Sind, Bahir, and the province was given to
battles with the Muslim kings of Gujarat and Omayyad Khilafat.
Malwa are legendary. The battles between
Turkish Invasions
Lodhis and Rana Sanga hold utter importance.
• He loved his kingdom very much and he Mahmud of Ghazni
brought Mewar to the peak of prominence
and prosperity.

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• Towards the close of the ninth century AD, The Ghaznavi state was no longer a powerful
the vast empire of Arab broke up and the state after Mahmud Ghazni. His successors
Turks who got the upper hand over the were weak, resulted into existence of a
Khalifats of Baghdad established many powerful empire called ‘Seljuk Empire’. But
independent principalities. towards the middle of 12th century another
• One of such Turk state was founded by group of Turkish tribeman shattered the
Alapigin with Ghazni as his capital in about power of Seljuk Turk.
AD 933.
• In 1173, Muizzudin Muhammed
• For India, Mahmud memory is only that of
(Muhammad Ghori) ascended the throne
a plunderer and destroyer of temples.
at Ghazni while his elder brother was
Mahmud Ghazni is said to have made 17
ruling at Ghur.
raids into India.
• In 1178, he attempted to penetrate into
• The initial raids were directed against the
Gujarat by marching across the Rajputana
Hindustani ruler.
desert but was completely rooted out by
• Mahmud is considered as a hero of Islam
Gujarat ruler.
by medieval Muslim historians because of
• At that period the Chauhan power had
his stout defence against the central Asian
been steadily growing. Chauhans had
Turkish tribal invaders.
captured Delhi from the Tomars around
• Secondly, because he was closely
the middle of the century.
associated with the renaissance of the
Iranian spirit. Battle of Tarain
• A high water mark in the Iranian
renaissance was reached with Firdausi’s • Both prithiviraj Chauhan and Mohammad
Shah Namah. Ghori’s attention towards the Punjab and
• Mahmud Ghazni patronized three Ganga valley brought the two ambitious
persons, contemporary to him: Firdausi ruler into conflict.
(court poet), Alberuni (scholar) and Utbi • In the first battle of Tarain (1191) the
(Court historian). Ghori forces were completely rooted out
• Alberuni wrote ‘Kitab-ul-Hind’.
by Pritiviraj Chauhan.
• In other expeditions, Mahmud plundered
Nagarkot, Thaneshwar, Kannauj, Mathura • The second battle of Tarain (1192) is
and Somnath. regarded as one of the turning point in
• Mahmud Ghazni plundered Somnath Indian history. The better orgainsed and
temple in AD 1025 (16th raid). well prepared Turkish force defeated the
• In AD 1026, Mahmud defeated Jats. He Indian.
died in AD 1030. The objective of • Prithiviraj was defeated by Mohammad
Mahmud’s expeditions was to plunder and Ghori. Prithiviraj was allowed to rule over
loot, he was not interested in expanding Ajmer for some time but was executed on
his empire to India. a charge of conspiracy after some time.
• Later on in 1194, Jaichand of Kannauj was
Muhammed Ghori also defeated at the Battle of Chandawar.

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• Muhammad Ghori died in 1206 AD, Aibak, who ascended the throne in Delhi with
leaving the charge with Qutub-ud-din his father-in-law Yildiz remaining a threat to
Aibak. him for the next ten years. The three
important rulers of this dynasty are Qutb-ud-
Prithviraj Chauhan
din Aibak, Iltutmish and Balban. The Slave
Ghori attacked the fortress of Tabarhinda
Dynasty is also known as the Mamluk Dynasty.
(Bhatinda), a strategic point for the Chauhans
Mamluk means property. It is also the term for
of Ajmer. The ruler of Ajmer, Prithviraj
the Arabic designation of a slave.
Chauhan, marched to Tabarhinda and faced
the invader in the First Battle of Tarain (1191). Qutb-ud-din-Aibak (1206–1210)
Prithviraj scored a brilliant victory in this • Qutub-ud-din Aibak was a slave of
battle but failed to consolidate his position Muhammed Ghori and he founded the
believing this battle to be a frontier fight and Slave Dynasty in 1206 AD.
did not expect the Ghurids to make regular
attacks. Ghori was wounded and carried away • Qutb-ud-din-Aibak began his rule by
by a horseman to safety. Contrary to the establishing Lahore as the capital of his
expectations of Prithviraj Chauhan,
kingdom. Later, he shifted his capital to Delhi.
Muhammad Ghori marched into India in the
following year (1192). Prithviraj • He personally led military campaigns to
underestimated the potential danger of the the central and western Indo-Gangetic plains
enemy. (north India) and left the conquest of the
In the Second Battle of Tarain, one of the eastern Gangetic plains (Bihar and Bengal) to
turning points in Indian history, Prithviraj the care of Bakhtiar Khalji.
suffered a crushing defeat and was eventually • Aibak built the Quwwat-ul Islam Masjid
captured. by Ghori. Ghori restored him to his (mosque) in Delhi. This mosque is considered
throne in Ajmer. But on charges of treason, he to be the oldest in India.
was later executed, and Ghori’s trusted • He was known as ‘Lakh Baksh’ or ‘giver of
general Qutb-ud-din Aibak was appointed as lakhs’ or ‘giver of favours’ for his
his deputy in India. Soon, Ghori was back in magnanimity.
India to fight against the Kanauj ruler Jaya • Hasan Nizami was a famous historian in
Chandra. When all Rajput chiefs had stood by the court of the Aibak.
Prithviraj in his battles against Muhammad • Qutub-ud-din Aibak started the
Ghori, Jaya Chandra stood apart, as there was construction of Qutub Minar in 1199 in Delhi
enmity between Prithviraj and Jai Chandra, on in memory of the Sufi saint Quaja Qutub - ud-
account of Prithviraj’s abduction of Jaya din Bhaktiar Kaki. Its construction was
Chandra’s daughter Samyukta. So Ghori easily completed by Ithumish.
defeated Jaya Chandra and returned to • Aibak died of injuries received during an
Ghazni with enormous booty. On the way, accidental fall from a horse, while playing polo
while camping on the banks of Indus, he was in 1210.
killed by some unidentified assassins.
Iltutmish (1210–1236)
Slave Dynasty
• Aibak’s son Aram Shah proved
After the death of Ghori, there were many
incompetent and so the Turkish nobles chose
contenders for power. One was Qutb-ud-din
Iltutmish, the son-in-law of Aibak. as the

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Sultan. He served as a the military commander revolt of the Turkish nobles who conspired
of Aibak. against her and got her murdered in 1240.
• It was during his reign that the threat of
Mongols under Chengiz Khan loomed large Balban (1266–1287)
over the frontiers of India. He averted the • After Razia, three weak rulers in
impending danger by refusing to provide succession ascended the throne. After them
shelter to the Kwarezm Shah Jalalud-din, who came Ghiyasud-din-Balban.
had been driven out by Chengiz Khan. • Ghiasuddin Balban ‘a slave water carreer,
• He organised Turkish nobility into a select huntsman, noble, statesman became the
group of 40 nobles known as Chahalgani or Sulthan of Delhi in 1266 and continued in
the Forty. power till 1686 AD.
• He granted iqtas (land) to members of his • Balban is considered as the founder of
Second Ilbary Dynasty.
army. Iqta is the land granted to army officials
• Balban described himself as ‘shadow of
in lieu of a regular wage. The iqta holder is
God’ or the ‘viceregent of God on Earth’ (Zil-i-
called the iqtadar or muqti, who had to illahi)
provide the Sultan with military assistance in • He abolished the Forty as it was hostile to
him.
times of war. The iqtadar collected revenue
• He established a department of spies to
from his iqta to meet the cost of maintaining gather intelligence about the conspirators and
his troops and horses. the troublemakers against his rule. He dealt
with insubordination and defiance of royal
• He introduced two coins which became
authority sternly.
the basic coins of Sultanate that is Copper
• Tughril Khan, a provincial governor in
Jittal and Silver Tanka.
Bengal, who raised a banner of revolt against
• He completed the construction of the
Balban, was captured and beheaded. He was
Qutb-Minar, which had been started by Aibak. ruthless in dealing with enemies like Meos of
Iltutmish died in April 1236 after ruling for 26 Mewat (a Muslim Rajput community from
years. north-western India).
• He maintained cordial relationship with
Razia (1236–1240) the Mongols. He obtained from Hulagu Khan,
a grandson of Chengiz Khan and the Mongol
As the most capable son of Iltutmish, Rukn-
viceroy in Iran, the assurance that Mongols
uddin-Firuz was dead, Iltutmish nominated his
would not advance beyond Sutlej.
daughter Razia Sultana as his successor to the
• He patronised the famous Persian poet
throne of Delhi.
Amir Khusru.
Razia was an able and brave fighter. But she
• Balban died in 1287. Balban’s son
had a tough time with Turkish nobles as she
Kaiqubad turned out to be weak. In 1290,
favoured non-Turkish nobles.
Malik Jalal-ud-din Khalji, the commander of
She also faced the situation of the ferocious
the army, assumed the office of Naib (a
Mongols raiding Punjab during her reign.
deputy to the Sultan) and ruled the kingdom
Razia made an Ethiopian slave named Jalal-ud-
in the name of Kaiqubad. Then one day, Jalal-
din Yakut as her personal attendant and
started trusting him completely. This led to a

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ud-din sent one of his officers and had task of collecting the revenue to the military
Kaiqubad murdered. officers.
• Jalal-ud-din then formally ascended the
• In 1303 Alauddin Khilji attacked Chittor,
throne. With him began the rule of the Khalji
the capital of Mewar, to marry Padmini
Dynasty.
the wife of Chittor king Ratna Singh.
Khalji Dynasty (1290–1320) • But Padmini and other Rajput women
committed Juhar (Juhar is a mass suicide
Jalal-ud-din Khalji (1290–1296) by Jumping into fire, committed by Rajput
• Khilji dynasty was founded by Malik Firoz women to escape from being polluted by
in 1290 and assumed the title Jalaluddin others)
Khilji (1290- 96) • Padmavat is a historical kavya about
• In 1292 the Mongols under Abdulla Padmini episode written by Malik
accepted defeat from Jalaluddin Khilji. Muhammed Jayasi.
• There were many military campaigns • Malik Muhammed Jayasi was the court
during the reign of Jalal-ud-din. But they were poet of Shersha Suri.
mostly organised and led by his nephew, Ala- • Alauddin had a dream of a World
uddin, the governor of Kara. Conquest so he assumed the title
• Ala-ud-din, after defeating the Yadava ‘Sikhandar-i-sani’ or Second Alexander.
king Ramachandra of Devagiri, plundered the • Alauddin constructed Alai Darwaza the
city and returned with huge wealth. gate way of Qutub Minar.
• Ala-ud-din treacherously killed Jalal-ud- • He built the city of Siri, the second of the
din after buying off the prominent nobles and seven cities of Delhi, near Qutub Minar.
important commanders with the wealth he • The first marriage between a muslim ruler
had brought from the Deccan and declared and a Hindu princess was between
himself as the Sultan of Delhi in 1296. Alauddin and Kamala Devi, the widow of
the ruler of Gujarat.
Ala-ud-din Khalji (1296–1316) • Amir Khusru was the court poet of
• Ala-ud-din Khalji consolidated the Delhi Alauddin, Amir Khusru is known as the
Sultanate. ‘Parrot of India’ He is considered as the
• Alauddin Khilji’s early name was Ali father of Urdu language and the inventor
Gurushap. of Sitar. Laila Majnu and Tughlaq Nama are
• He became the Sulthan in 1296 AD and the famous works of Amir Khusru.
ruled till 1316 AD. • Alauddin khilji was the first Sulthan to
• He conquered Punjab, Gujarat and maintain a permanent standing army.
Rajasthan. • Alauddin Khilji was responsible for the
• He sent his chief lieutenant Malik Kafur introduction of postal system in medieval
into the southern parts, who took even the India
distant Madurai in 1310. • He employed spies to report to him
• He undertook a survey of the agrarian directly regarding the happenings of the state.
resources around his capital and fixed a • Ala-ud-din died in 1316. The failure of his
successors to retain power led to the seizure
standard revenue demand. He entrusted the

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of power by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq, who Governors of Awadh, Multan and Sind
founded the Tughluq Dynasty. revolted and declared themselves
independent. In South India, several states
Tughluq Dynasty
arose. The new Daulatabad and the
Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq (1320 –1324) conquered territories around them were
declared an independent sultanate called
• Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq sent his son Jauna
Bahmani. Its founder, after whom it was
Khan to fight against Warangal. Jauna Khan
named, was a soldier formerly in the service
defeated Pratabarudra of Warangal and
of Tughluq. Madurai was proclaimed a
returned with rich booty.
separate sultanate in 1334. Bengal became
• With this looted wealth, Ghiyas-ud-din is
independent in 1346.
said to have laid the foundation of the city
• Tughluq died on 23 March 1351.
Tughluqabad near Delhi.
• However, Jauna Khan was said to have Firoz Shah Tughluq (1351–1388)
killed his father and ascended the throne with • Firoz, the son of Ghiyas-ud-din’s younger
the title Muhammad-bin-Tughluq in 1325. brother, succeeded Muhammad-bin-Tughluq.
He could neither suppress revolts nor win
Muhammad-bin-Tughluq (1325–1351)
back the provinces that had broken away.
• Muhammad-bin-Tughluq was a learned
• He showed no interest in re-conquering
man. Yet, he was a person of cruelty.
the southern provinces. He refused to accept
• He shifted his capital from Delhi to the
an invitation (1365) from a Bahmani prince to
centre of the kingdom, namely Devagiri. He
intervene in the affairs of the Deccan.
also changed its name to Daulatabad. When
• He rewarded Sufis and other religious
Muhammad himself decided that the move
leaders generously and listened to their
was a mistake, he ordered a return to Delhi as
advice. He also created charities to aid poor
the capital again.
people, built colleges, mosques and hospitals.
• He revenue collections in grain to
• He adopted many humanitarian
revenue collection in money. He issued a
measures. He banned inhuman punishments
token currency in copper. Counterfeiting soon
and abolished taxes not recognised by the
became the order of the day and as a result,
Muslim law.
the entire revenue system collapsed.
• He promoted agriculture by waiving off
• Trade suffered as foreign merchants
the debts of the agriculturalists and
stopped business. This forced Sultan to
constructing many canals for irrigation.
withdraw the token currency and pay gold and
• He laid out 1200 new gardens and
silver coins in exchange. This move led the
restored 30 old gardens of Ala-ud-din Khalji.
state to become bankrupt.
He had built new towns such as Firozabad,
• Tughluq increased land tax in the Doab
Jaunpur, Hissar and Firozpur.
region, which triggered peasant revolts. As
• He died in September 1388, at the age of
the revolts were cruelly dealt with, peasants
83.
abandoned cultivation, which resulted in the
outbreak of frequent famines. Timur’s Invasion (1398)
• Tughluq ruled as Sultan for 25 years. The sacking and massacre by Tamerlane or
During his long reign, he had to face many Timur of Delhi came a decade after Firuz Shah
revolts of the provincial governors. The Tughluq died. As a ruler of the region around

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Samarkand in Central Asia, Timur had The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate was
occupied some parts in the northwest of India. accompanied by some important economic
Taking advantage of India’s weakness, he changes. One such change was the payment
entered India in December 1398 and of land tax to the level of rent in cash. Because
plundered Delhi. Timur, apart from carrying of this, food grains and other rural products
huge wealth in the form of gold, silver and were drawn to the towns, thereby leading to
jewels, also took along Indian artisans like a new phase of urban growth. In the
carpenters and masons to work on fourteenth century, Delhi and Daulatabad
monuments in Samarkand. (Devagiri) emerged as great cities of the
world. There were other large towns such as
Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451) Multan, Kara, Awadh, Gaur, Cambay
Though the Sultanate fragmented into a (Khambayat) and Gulbarga. The Delhi Sultans
number of independent kingdoms, it endured began their gold and silver mintage alongside
for 114 years more, till the Mughal invasion. copper from early in the thirteenth century
Before leaving Delhi, Timur had left behind his and that indicated brisk commerce. Despite
representative Khizr Khan as the governor of the Mongol conquests of the western
the territories he had conquered (Delhi, borderlands, in Irfan Habib’s view, India’s
Meerut and Punjab). He founded the Sayyid external trade, both overland and oceanic,
Dynasty in 1414, which lasted till 1451. grew considerably during this period.
The last ruler of this dynasty, Ala-ud-din Alam
Shah, abdicated the throne in 1451. This gave Trade and Urbanisation
Bahlol Lodi, then the governor of Sirhind The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate
(Punjab), the opportunity to become the new revived internal trade, stimulated by the
Sultan of Delhi, leading to the establishment insatiable demand for luxury goods by the
of the Lodi Dynasty. sultans and nobles. Gold coins, rarely issued in
India after the collapse of the Gupta Empire,
Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526) began to appear once again, indicating the
• It was founded by Bahlol Lodi. revival of the Indian economy. However, there
• In 1489, Bahlol Lodi was succeeded by his is no evidence of the existence of trade guilds,
son Sikandar Lodi. which had played a crucial role in the
• Sikandar was a patron of arts and economy in the classical age. The Sultanate
learning. He founded the city of Agra and was driven by an urban economy
made it his capital. encompassing many important towns and
• He died in 1517 and was succeeded by his cities. Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Kara, Lakhnauti,
son, Ibrahim Lodi, who was defeated by Babur Anhilwara, Cambay and Daulatabad were the
in 1526 in the First Battle of Panipat. important cities that thrived on the mercantile
• Thus, the Lodi Dynasty and the Delhi activities of Jain Marwaris, Hindu Multanis
Sultanate were ended by Babur, who went on and Muslim Bohras, Khurasanis, Afghans and
to establish the Mughal Empire in India. Iranians.
The import–export trade flourished well both
Delhi Sultanate Rule
overland and overseas. While the Gujaratis
Economy and Tamils dominated the sea trade, the
Hindu Multanis and Muslim Khurasanis,

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Afghans and Iranians dominated the overland
trade with Central Asia. HISTORY
V IJA YA NA GARA EMPIRE
Industrial Expertise
Paper-making technology evolved by the
The Vijayanagar Empire was a South Indian
Chinese and learnt by the Arabs was
dynasty based in the Deccan. Perhaps the last
introduced in India during the rule of the Delhi
magnificent chapter in the history of
Sultans. The spinning wheel invented by the
Chinese came to India through Iran in the independent India is the history of
fourteenth century and enabled the spinner Vijayanagar. It was founded by Harihara I and
to increase her output some sixfold and his sibling Bukka Raya in 1336, the empire
enlarged yarn production greatly. The ruled untill 1646.
subsequent introduction of treadles in the The ruling dynasty declined in the 1565 after a
loom similarly helped speed up weaving. key military defeat by the Deccan Sultanates.
Sericulture was established in Bengal by the The empire is named after its capital city of
fifteenth century. Building activity attained a Vijayanagar, the remarkable ruins of which
new scale by the large use of brick and mortar
surround modern World Heritage site Hampi
and by the adoption of vaulting techniques.
is in modern Karnataka, India, till today.
Education Several theories have been projected claiming
Certain traditions of education were now the basis of the Vijayanagar Empire. A few
implanted from the Islamic world. At the base assert that Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, the
was the maktab, where a schoolmaster taught originators of the kingdom, were the ones
children to read and write. At a higher level, primarily allied to the Kakatiya. Prior to the
important texts in various subjects were read premature 14th century augment of the
by individual pupils with scholars who gave Vijayanagara empire, the Hindu realms of the
instruction (dars) in them. A more Deccan, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the
institutionalised form of higher education, the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal, the Pandya
madrasa, became widely established in
Kingdom of Madurai, and the insignificant
Central Asia and Iran in the eleventh century
kingdom of Kampili were continually marched
and from there it spread to other Islamic
into by Muslims from the north, and by 1336
countries. Usually, the madrasa had a
building, where instruction was given by had been overpowered by Alla-ud-din Khilji
individual teachers. Often there was a and Muhammad bin Tughluq, the Sultans of
provision of some cells for resident students, Delhi.
a library and a mosque. Firoz Tugluq built a The Hoysala Empire was the solitary enduring
large madrasa in Delhi, whose splendid Hindu kingdom in the path of the Muslim
building still stands. It is said that Sikander invasion. After the demise of Hoysala Veera
Lodi (1489–1517) appointed teachers in Ballala III during a skirmish in opposition to the
maktabs and madrasas in various cities Sultan of Madurai in 1343, the Hoysala Empire
throughout his dominions, presumably
compound with the mounting Vijayanagar
making provision for them through land or
Empire.
cash grants.

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Travelers such as Domingo Paes, Fernao Nuniz created an era where Hinduism was a unifying
and Niccolò Da Conti endow with significant factor and went beyond all boundaries of
information regarding the region`s history. language and beliefs.
Archaeological excavations at Vijayanagara The Vijayanagar Empire was famous for its
have exposed the kingdom`s riches and rich heritage and beautifully constructed
authority. Several tombstones fanned out monuments that were spread over Southern
across South India, the finest known- the India. The rich cultural heritage of South India
assemblage at Hampi are the realm`s was the main inspiration for temple
inheritance. During this period only the architectural styles. The construction style of
temple construction ethnicity in South India Hindu temples was inspired from the blending
was founded by the Architecture manner. The of different faiths and languages. Local granite
blend of all convictions and dialects enthused was used in building temples first in the
architectural advance of Hindu temple Deccan region and then in the Dravidian
creation, foremost in the Deccan and shortly regions. The rulers of the Vijayanagar Empire
in the Dravidian expressions using the local were admirers of fine arts and encouraged
granite. The Secular royal structures show the people to indulge themselves in music, dance
influence of the Northern Deccan Sultanate and handicrafts. Vijayanagara rulers
architecture and competent management celebrated the Dussehra festival with much
along with dynamic overseas trade introduced devotion when the king sat on his bejeweled
innovative expertise like water management throne in the center of Mahanavami Dibba, a
systems for irrigation. decorated platform, and watched a colourful
The Vijayanagara Empire`s support facilitated procession pass by. The place is worth a visit
fine arts and literature in order to attain new- as the sides of the platform still retain the
fangled pinnacles in the languages of beautiful sculptures depicting many soldiers,
Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit, while dancers and an array on animals. Water tanks
Carnatic Music advanced into its existing and channels abound in Hampi. The most
structure. The Vijayanagar Empire shaped an ornate of them all is the Queen's bath located
era in South Indian history thereby surpassing in the citadel area, south of the
regionalism with the promotion of Hinduism Ramachandran temple. The temple itself is in
as a coalescing feature. Trade and commerce the royal enclosure of the capital. It was
were carried vigorously which brought about perhaps the king's private shrine and contains
new ideas and a multitude of changes in the some exceptional carvings and murals both
kingdom. Irrigation and water management within and on the outer walls. The outer
systems were enhanced and developed during friezes shown horses, elephants, dancing girls
the Vijayanagara dynasty. Languages like and infantry in procession, while the inner
Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Sanskrit panels depict individual deities or scenes from
developed and literature reached new the Ramayana. For 200 years the Vijayanagar
heights. Carnatic music, South Indian classical Empire emerged as one of the most powerful
music were developed tremendously and kingdoms in the Peninsular India. The empire
achieved its current form. The kingdom was so strong that four Muslim kingdoms had

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to come together to destroy this strong god and man is through love and
kingdom. The ruins of this great kingdom can worship rather than through performing
be seen even today at Hampi which has been any ritual or religious ceremonies.
declared a protected site by the UNESCO. • The origin of Bhakti is traced in Vedas, but
its real development took place after the
7th
B HA KTI MOVEMENT • It was initiated by Shaiva Nayanars &
Vaishnavite Alwars in south India, later
• It was a religious reform spread to all regions.
movement during medieval times which • Emotional Side of Vaishnavism
emphasized single-minded intense represented by: Alvars through collective
devotion to God. songs – “Prabhandas”.
• Bhakti movement was based on the • Intellectual side of Vaishnavism
doctrine that the relationship between represented by: “Acharyas”

NAYANARS ALVARS
Devotees of Shiva Devotees of Vishnu
Tirumarai – Compilation of hymns of Nayanars by the
highest priest of Raja RajaCholaI, Nambiyandar
Divya Prabandha– Compilation of the
Nambi.
hymns
The details of the lives and of the saints are described
of the Alvars saints – poets.
in the work ‘Tevaram’ which is also called the Dravida
Veda.
Imp saints –
Imp saints – • Andal (only female Alwar saint who
• Tiru Neelakanta, is referred to as the ‘Meera of the
• Meiporul, South’)
• Viralminda, • Thirumazhisai Alvar
• Amaraneedi, • Thiruppaan Alvar
• Karaikkal Ammaiyar (woman) • Nammalwar
• Kulasekara

The Bhakti saints were divided into two schools depending on the way they imagined God:
• Believe invisible formless god, without attributes.
• Nirguna bhakta’s poetry was Jnana-shrayi or had roots in knowledge.
• Nirgun Saints:
Nirgun
1. Guru Nanak
2. Ravidas
3. Kabir

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• Believe God with form & attributes.

• Saguna bhakta’s poetry was Prema-shrayi, or with roots in love.[
• Saguna Saints:
Sagun
1. Tulsidas
2. Surdas
3. Meerabai

Features of Bhakti Movement

• Unity of God or one God though known by different names.
• Condemnation of rituals, ceremonies and blind faith.
• Rejection of idol worship.
• Surrender of oneself to God.
• Emphasized both Nirguna and Saguna bhakti.
• Salvation through Bhakti.
• Open-mindedness about religious matters.
• Rejected castes distinctions & believed in equality of all humans.
• Rebelled against the upper caste’s domination and the Sanskrit language.
• Use of local or regional languages for Preaching.
• Creation of literature in local language.

Causes for the emergence of Bhakti Movement:

• Influence of Vaishnavism
• Evil practices of the Hindus
• Fear of spread of Islam
• Influence of Sufi sects
• The emergence of great reformers.

vedanta saints CONTRIBUTION

• Birth- Kelara, Death- Uttarakhanda (Kedarnath)

• Guru – Govidhabhagavath pada

Shan • Integrated the essence of Buddhism in Hindu thought and interpreted the
ancient Vedic religion
kararcharya • Consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedant (Non-Dualism) - God &

(788 – 820 AD created world is one and The individual soul is not different from Brahman.
• Organizer of the Dashanami monastic order and unified the Shanmata
tradition of worship.
• Brhat-Sankara-Vijaya by Citsukha is the oldest biography of Adiushankara

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• Birth – Tamilandu
• Guru – yadavapreksha
• Propagator of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta or qualified monism – There exists

Rama a plurality and distinction between Ātman (soul) & Brahman (metaphysical,
nujarcharya ultimate reality) .

(1017-1137 A.D) • Exponents of the Sri Vaishnavism tradition within Hinduism

• Literary works: Vedartha Sangraham, Sri Bhashyam, Gita Bhashyam
• He was contemporary of Ramanuja.
• He propounded the philosophy of ‘bheda-bheda’ -the God, the soul and
Nimbarka
the world were identical yet distinct

• Was critic of Adi Shankara’s Advaita

Madhva Vedanta and Ramanuja’s Vishishtadvaita Vedanta teachings.
• He preached “Dvaita” or dualism, where the divinity was separate from
rchaya (1238-
the human conscience/soul.
1319 AD)
• Liberation- only through the grace of God
• Book – Anuvyakhyana.

• Criticised the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion and the
social order, using simple, logical arguments.
• They advocated renunciation of the world.
Nathpanthis,
Siddhas, and • To them, the path to salvation lay in meditation on the formless god.
Yogis • To achieve this they advocated intense training of the mind and body
through practices like yogasanas, breathing exercises and meditation.
These groups became particularly popular among “low” castes.

VIRASHAIVISM/ SHARANA MOVEMENT

• The Virashaiva movement began in Karnataka in the mid-twelfth century.
• It was initiated by Basavanna and other virshaivas like Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi.
• They fought for the equality of all human beings and against the Brahmanical
ideas of caste and poor treatment of women.
• They were also against religious rituals and idol worship.
• Challanged caste system, questioned the theory of rebirth
• Encouraged post puberty marriage & widow remarriage.
• Basavanna spread social awareness through his poetry, popularly known as Vachanaas.
• He established Anubhava Mantapa– academy of mystics, saints and philosophers of the
‘Lingayath’s’ faith.

SAINTS THEIR CONTRIBUTION

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• He was a follower of Ramanuja.

• Founder of Sant-parampara (literally, the tradition of bhakti
saints) in north India.
Ramanada • Substitute the worship of Rama in place of Krishna.

(14-15th century] • He has 12 disciples – “Avadutas”.

• Disciple(s) : Kabir, Ravidas, Bhagat Pipa, Sukhanand, sena
&sudhana.
• Literary works: Gyan-lila and Yog-cintamani (Hindi) , Vaisnava
Mata Bhajabhaskara and Ramarcanapaddhati (Sanskrit) .
• His verse mentioned in Guru Granth Sahib.
• Disciple of Ramananda
• He was the first to reconcile Hinduism and Islam.
• He was a Nirguna saint and openly criticised the orthodox ideas of
Kabir Das major religions like Hinduism and Islam.
• Denounced idol-worship, fastings, pilgrimages and religious
(1440-1510 AD)
superstitious beliefs, bathing in holy rivers, formal worship like nama.
• His poems are called “Banis” (utterances) or ‘Dohe’. His works are
compiled in the famous book “Bijak”.
• Kabir says: “Ram Rahim are same”.
• Birth – Talvandi Viilage & Death Kartarpur ( Both are in Pakistan)
• Founder of Sikh religion & the first Guru of ten Sikh Gurus. Intially
worked as Accountant.
• Preached middle path & need of Guru for liberation.
• He composed hymnes and sang along with the help of instrument
called ”Rabab” played by his attendant “Mardana”.
Guru Nanak Dev
• Travelled across the Asia including Mecca & Baghdad and spread
(1469-1538 AD) the message of “Ik Onkar” – One God.
• Opposes idol worship, pilgrimage and caste system, and
emphasized purity of character and conduct.
• Called God as “Waheguru” that is shapeless, timeless,
omnipresent & invisible ( Nirgun Bhakti )
• He started Guru-Ka-langer (Community Kitchen)
• He promoted “Tauhid-e-wazidi”

Purandar Das • One of the chief founding-proponents of the South Indian classical
music (Carnatic Music) .
(1483-1564)
• He is often quoted as Karnataka Sangeeta Pitamaha

Dadu Dayal • Disciple of Kabir

• He was a supporter of Hindu-Muslim unity
(1544-1603 AD)
• His followers were called Dadu Panthis

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• Founder of modern Vaishnavism in Bengal.

• He was a Saguna and popularized “Kirtans” (religious songs) as a
form of worshipping God.
• Popularized the chanting of “Hare Rama, Hare Krishna”.
• He made famous the practice of worshipping Radha and Krishna
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
together. He gave the “Achintaya Bheda-Abheda” philosophy.
(1486-1533 AD) • Didn’t reject scriptures or idol worship called god as Hari.
• He wrote “Siksastakam”, a text in Sanskrit, where he elaborated
his philosophy.
• He is the inspiration behind the world
renowned ISKCON (International Society for Krishna Consciousness)
that was founded in the 20th century.

• Spread the Bhakti cult in Assam

• Translated Ramayana & Mahabharat into Assamese
• He started the Ekasarana movement (Neo-Vaishnavite
movement) . He believed in the worship of ‘Ekasarana’ (One God) in
Shankaradeva the form of Krishna.
• He also called Krishna by different names like Hari, Narayan and
(1499-1569 AD)
Rama.
• His most famous work is “Kirtana Ghosha”, written in a simple
language understood by the masses.
• He wrote in Assamese and Brajavali (mixture of Maithili and
Assamese) .

• Exponent of Krishna cult

Vallabhacharya • Founded philosophy of “Suddhadvaita” (Pure Non dualism) and his
philosophy is known as ‘Pushti Marg’.
(1479-1531 AD) • He worshipped Krishna under the title “Srinathji“

• He was a famous saint from Chhattisgarh and he established

Guru Ghasidas the “Satnami Community” there.
• He strongly believed in equality and criticized the oppressive caste
(1756-1836 AD)
system.
• He was a monotheist and was against idol worship.
• Disciple of Vallabhacharya
Surdas
• He wrote “Sursagar” and “Sursurvali”.
(1483-1563 AD) • Showed intense devotion to Radha and Krishna
• Regarded as the outstanding devotional poet in Brajbhasha
• Staunch devotee of Lord Krishna
Mirabai
• Composed number of songs and poems in honour of Krishna.
(1498-1546 AD) • She composed ‘bhajans’ (short religious songs) which are sung
even today.

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Haridas
• A great musician saint who sang the glories of Lord Vishnu
(1478-1573 AD)

Tulsidas • Depicted Rama as the incarnation

• Wrote “Ramcharitmanas”
(1532-1623 AD)
• He was Varkari

• Disciple of Vishoba Khechar

Namdeva • He was a devotee of Vittoba (Vishnu)
• Opposed Caste system
(1270-1350AD)
• Only Nirguna saint in Maharasthra.
• He belongs to Varkari tradition.

• He was founder of the Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra in the

13th century.
• Wrote “Dnyaneswari“, a commentary on the Bhagavad-Gita.
Dnyanesvar
• His other work is “Amrutanubhav “ on Yoga and philosophy.
(1275-1296 AD) • He was a worshipper of Vithoba (Vitthala) who is considered a
manifestation of Vishnu.
• He was a follower of Nath Yogi Tradition. He also drew inspiration
from the Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita.
Eknath
• Wrote commentary on verses of the Bhagavad-Gita
(1533-1599) • Devotee of Vithoba. He criticized the Caste distinctions.

• Contemporary of Maratha king Shivaji

Tukaram
• Devotee of Vithal
(1598-1650) • He founded the Varkau sect
• His teachings are contained in Abhangas.

Ram Das • Author of “Dasabodh”

• His teachings inspired Shivaji to establish an independent kingdom
(1608-1681)
in Maharashtra.

Vernacular Literature

Hindi Kabir, Surdas, Tulsidas, etc.

Marathi Jnandeva, Namdev, Eknath, etc.

Bengali Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and Chandidas

Rajasthani (Braj) Meerabai, Bihari, etc.

Punjabi Guru Nanak

Assamese Shankaradeva

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IMPACT OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT: • Sufism(tasawwuf) is the name given

• The Bhakti saints were social to mysticism in Islam.
reformers The evil practice of Sati and • Sufi means wool: People who wear long
caste rigidities received some set back. woolen clothes were called as sufis.
• Women were encouraged to join kirtans. • It was a liberal reform movement within
Mirabai, Laila (Kashmir) and Andal Islam. It stressed the elements of love and
composed verses that are popular even devotion as an effective means of the
today. realization of God.
• In place of Sanskrit, Bhakti saints preached • It is based on Pir-Murid (Teacher-
through the medium of local student)
languages which could be understood • Sufism sprang from the doctrine
very easily. Surdas used ‘Brij’ Tulsi of Wahadut-ul-wajud (unity of being)
Das composed his works propounded by Ibn-ul-Arabi [1165-1240
in ‘Awadhi’. Shankaradeva popularizing A AD].
ssamese, Chaitanya spreading their • Early Sufi saints – Rabia, Mansur bin
message in Bengali, Mirabai in Hindi and hallal.
Rajasthani. • Sufi orders are broadly divided in two : Ba-
• Kirtan at a Hindu Temple, Qawaali at a sara– Those followed Islamic law & Be-
Dargah (by Muslims) , and shara– who did followed Islamic law.
singing of Gurbani at a Gurdwara are all • In Sufism, self-discipline was considered
derived from the Bhakti movement of an essential condition to gain knowledge
medieval India (800-1700) . of God. While orthodox Muslims
• It popularized idea of equality & emphasise external conduct, the Sufis lay
brotherhood. stress on inner purity.
• Preached inclusive path to spiritual • Sufism entered in India between 11thand
salvation. 12th Al-Hujwari was first Sufis who settled
• Rulers adopted liberal religious policies in India and died in 1089 AD who is
under the impact of the Bhakti movement. popularly known as Data Ganj
SUFISM Naksh (Distributor of unlimited treasure) .
• In beginning of 12 AD, some religious • Multan and Punjab were the early centre
people in Persia turned to asceticism due and later on, it spread to Kashmir, Bihar,
to the increasing materialism of the Bengal and the Deccan.
Caliphate. They came to be called the Characteristics of Sufism
‘Sufis’.
• Fana: Spiritual merger of devotee with
• In India, Sufi movement began in 1300 A.D
Allah
& came to South India in 15th century.
• Insan-e-kamil: Perfect human with all
• Sufism is the mystical arm of Islam. Sufis
good virtues,
represent the inner side of the Islam
• Zikr-tauba: remembrance of god all the
creed (tasawwuf) .
time(zikr) ,

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• Wahadatul-wazudi: one god for entire Khusrow is regarded as the “Father of
universe; unity of god and being. Qawwali”.
• Sama: spiritual dance and music to
IMPORTANT FEATURES:
promote their concepts, though music is
• The Sufis rejected the elaborate rituals
un-Islamic.
and codes of behaviour demanded by
Stages of Sufisim Muslim religious scholars.
STAGE PERIOD CHARACTER • They believed that God is ‘Mashuq‘ and
Sufis are the ‘Ashiqs’.
1st 10th Also called the age of
• Sufism was divided into 12 orders (Silsila)
Stage: century Golden Mysticism
Khanqah and each under a mystic Sufi saint of
which 4 most popular ones were Chistis,
2nd 11-14th When Sufism was
Stage: century being Suhrawardis, Qadiriyahs and
Tariqa institutionalised and Naqshbandis.
traditions
• Silsila is continuous link
and symbols started between Murshid (teacher) and Murid
being attached to it. (student) . They lived in Khanqah -hospice
of worship.
3rd 15th The stage when
• Names of Silsila were based on name of
Stage: century Sufism became a
founding figure E.g. – Qadri Silsila based
Tarifa onwards popular movement.
on name of Shaikh Abdul Qadri & Place of
origin E.g. – Chishti (place in Afghanistan)
.
SUFISM AND MUSIC:
• Sufism took roots in both rural and
• Sufism encourages music as a way of
urban areas and exercised a deep social,
deepening one’s relation with God,
political and cultural influence on the
remembering God by zikr (reciting name)
masses.
sama or performance of mystical music.
• Sufism believes that devotionis more
• Sufis too composed poems and a rich
important than fast (Roza)
literature in prose, including anecdotes
or prayer (Namaz) .
and fables, The most notable writer of this
• Sufism discards caste system.
period was Amir Khusrau the follower
• Sufism has adapted extensively from the
of Nizamuddin Auliya.
Vedanta school of the Hindu philosophy.
• Sufi saints are credited with invention of
• The cardinal doctrines of the Sufism
sitar and tabla.
include: Complete surrender to the will of
• It contributed to evolution of classical
God; Annihilation of the self; Becoming a
music. Khayal style owes a lot to sufism.
perfect person
• Amir Khusro was disciple of Nizamuddin
• These three cardinal principles altogether
Auliya. He give unique form to sama.
make the Doctrine of Fana which means
• Khusrow is sometimes referred to as
annihilation of human attributes through
the “Parrot of India”. His songs are sung in
Union with God.
several dargahs across the country.

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• In Sufism, a perfect being is also called Shahdud, wrote ‘Red-i-
a Wali (saint) , a word that literally means Khafid’ arrested by Jhangir
‘sincere friend’.
IMPORTANT
SILISILA/ORDERS OF SUFIS:

•Founder -Kwaja Abdul

Chisti. HISTORY
• Originated in Persia and
THE MUGHA L DYNA STY
Central Asia.
• Moinuddin
Chishti introduced Chisti The Mughals were descendants of two great
order in India. lineages of rulers. From their mother’s side
• Baba Farid (Farīduddīn they were descendants of Genghis Khan (died
Ganjshakar) was disciple of 1227), the Mongol ruler who ruled over parts
Chisti
Moinuddin & his poems of China and Central Asia. From their father’s
included in Guru side they were the successors of Timur (died
granthsahib. 1404), the ruler of Iran, Iraq and modern-day
• Nizamuddin Auliya was Turkey.
called sidh/perfect due to
Babur (1526–1530)
yogi breathing exercises.
• Sama was mostly First Battle of Panipat (1526)
associated with Chisti. The First Battle of Panipat was fought
• Belong to Ba sharia. between the invading forces of Babur and the
• Founder – Shaikh Lodi Empire, which took place on 21 April
Shihabuddin Surhavardi. 1526 in North India. It marked the beginning
• Main centre was Multan. of the Mughal Empire. This was one of the
• Saints of this order were earliest battles involving gun powder, firearms
also rich and held important and field artillery. Babur was the first ruler in
Suhravardi government positions.
India to use artillery in battle.
• Associated with Delhi He was invited to attack Ibrahim Lodi by
Sultanate. Daulat Khan Lodi and and Alam Khan Lodi.
• A famous saint is The battle was fought on 21 April near the
Bahauddin Zachariah. small village of Panipat, in the present-day
• Belong to Ba-sharia Indian state of Haryana.
• Founder – Baha-ud-Din
Naqshband Bukhari Battle of Khanwa (1527)
• Khwaja pir On 16 March 1527, the armies of Mughals
mohammad introduced and Rajputs met. The attack was launched by
Nakshabadi Nakshabadi order in India Rana Sanga. A combined Rajput confederacy
during Akbar reign. fought the Mughal in the Battle of Khanwa
• Orthodox Sect. but the Mughal army won the war.
• Mujaddid opposed Shia,
philosophy of Wahadat-ul-

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The battle of Khanwa was a decisive battle • At the Battle of Chausa in 1539, Humayun
that established Mughal rule in India. Babur was defeated for the first time by
assumed the title ‘Ghazi’ after this battle. Shershah Suri.
• At the Battle of Kanauj in 1540, Shershah
Battle of Chanderi (1528)
completely defeated Humayunand and
Babur marched against Chanderi which was a
founded the Sur Dynasty.
stronghold of the Rajputs under Medini Rai.
• At the Battle of Sirhindh in July 1555,
Babur reached Chanderi on 20 January 1528.
Humayun recaptured the empire by
The Mughal ruler established himself and was
defeating the last Sur ruler Sikhandar Shah
winning the war against the Rajputs.
Suri.
The Rajputs were determined to fight to the
• Death: He fell from his library building
finish and their women burnt themselves by
stairs (Sher Mandal, Delhi).
performing Jauhar. Almost all the Rajputs lost
• Biography: ‘Humayun-nama’ was written
their lives. On 29 January 1528, the fort of
by Gulbadan Begum (Half-sister of
Chanderi was captured. After this, no other
Humayun).
Rajput chief could challenge the authority of
Babur. Akbar
Akbar was born to Hamida Banu begum at
Battle of Ghagra (1529) Amarkot in Rana Veersal’s palace in AD 1542.
The Battle of Ghagra was fought on 6 May ● Akbar was 14 years old when he was
1529 and the Afghans under the leadership of crowned at Kalanaur in 1556.
Mahmud Lodi were completely defeated. ● Bairam Khan represented him in the Second
The battle of Ghaghra was the Ist battle which Battle of Panipat in AD 1556 against
was fought on land and water simultaneously Muhammad Adil Shah Sur’s Wazir(Prime
in medieval India. Minister), Hemu. Akbar defeated Hemu and
Note: reoccupied Delhi and Agra.
● Babur was the first ruler to entitle himself ● Between 1556-1560, Akbar ruled under
‘Badshah’. Bairam Khan’s regency. Later, Akbar asked
● He wrote Tuzuk-i-Babari or Babarnama in Bairam Khan to proceed to Mecca. On the way
Turkish. It was translated into Persian by near Patna, Bairam Khan was murdered.
Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan and in English by ● He also ended the interference from the
Madam Bebridge. Petticoat Government, (1560-62) represented
by Maham Anaga and Adham Khan’s Junta.
Humayun (1507 – 1556)
● Akbar conquered Malwa in AD 1561,
• Father: Babur
defeating Baz Bahadur. He was later made the
• Mother: Mahim Begum
Mansabdar, to honour his skill as a musician.
• He divided his empire among his three ● Akbar followed the policy of reconcilation
brothers Kamran, Hindal and Askari.
with the Rajputs. In AD 1562, he married the
• He built Dinpanah (world refuge) at Delhi eldest daughter of Raja Bharmal of Jaipur,
as his second capital. Harakha Bai.
• He was an accomplished mathematician ● In 1570, he married princesses of Bikaner
and astronomer. and Jaisalmer, 1584. Prince Salim was married
to the daughter of Raja Bhagwan Das.

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● He won Gujarat in 1572. In order to • Akbar established the painting karkhana,
commemorate his victory of Gujarat, Akbar headed by Abdus Samad.
build Buland Darwaja at Fatehpur Sikri. • He established a religion called Din – i –
● Battle of Haldighati was fought on 18th ilahi .
June, 1576, in which Maharana Pratap was • His land revenue system was known as
defeated by Akbar’s army, led by Raja Man Todarmal Bandobast or Zabti system.
Singh. • Mansabdari System was another feature
● In 1586, Akbar conquered Kashmir and in of administration during Akbar’s reign to
1593, he conquered Sindh. ● At the time of organise the nobility as well as the army.
Akbar’s death in AD 1605, his empire included • He was the first Mughal ruler to separate
Kashmir, Sindh, Kandahar and extended as far religion from politics.
as the Godavari in the Deccan. • Ralph Fitch was the first Englishman to
● He was buried at Sikandara near Agra. visit Akbar’s court in 1585.
• Persian language was made official
Nine Gems of Akbar’s Court (Navratnas) language of Mughal Court.
1. Birbal (Mahesh Das) - Courtier in Akbar’s
Court Jahangir (31 Aug 1569 – 28 Oct 1627)
2. Tansen (Tanna Mishra) – Musician • Father: Akbar
• Mother: Jodha Bai
3. Faizi Abul – Historian
• Spouse: He married Mehrunnisa, an
4. Maharaja Man Singh – Mansabdar and
Afghan widow, in 1611. Later, he gave her
trusted General of Akbar. He assisted
the titles Noor Mahal (light of the palace),
Akbar in Battle of Haldighati.
Noor Jahan (light of the world) and
5. Fakir Aziao din – Chief Advisor Padusha Begum.
6. Todar Mal – Finance Minister. His revenue • He assassinated the fifth Sikh guru, Guru
collection method was called Bandobast. Arjun Dev in 1606 because he helped
7. Abdur Rahim Khan-i-khanaa – Hindi Poet Jahangir’s son Prince Khusru to rebel
and Son of Bairam Khan against him.
8. Abul Fazl – Wazir( Prime Minister) of • He was given a proper education by his
Akbar. He wrote Akbarnama. tutor Rahim Khankhana.
• Note: There is ambiguity on whether • Jahangir’s military general, Mahabat Khan
Mullah-do-Pyaza was one of the nine revolted and abducted him but he was
gems of Akbar. Some sources state that it
saved by the effort of Nurjahan.
was the fictional character and some say it
was the advisor of Akbar. • He was justice loving ruler therefore a
huge bell with a chain of 30 yards was
Important features of Akbar’s Administration placed at the gate of royal palace in Agra
• He abolished Jaziya tax on Non – Muslims. and anyone can strike the bell if they
He also abolished the use of beef. wanted justice. This bell was called Zanzir-
• He believed in Sulh-i-kul, that is peace for i-Adil.
all. • Paintings: The period of Jahangir is
• He built an Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri considered as the Golden Age of Mughal
to discuss religious matters. Painting.

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• Ustad Mansur and Abul Hassan were • He had Peacock Throne. It was taken away
famous painters in the court of Jahangir. by Nadir Shah in 1739.
• In 1609, Jahangir received William • In 1658, Shah Jahan was imprisoned by his
Hawkins, an envoy of King James I of son Aurangzeb and he died in 1666, after
England, who reached India to obtain eight years.
trade concession. • French travellers Bernier and Tavernier
• In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe reached the court and Italian traveler Manucci visited India
of Jahangir as the first ambassador of during Shah Jahan’s period.
James I of England in the court of Jahangir.
• Pietxa Valle, the famous traveller, came Aurangzeb (31 July 1658–3 March 1707)
during his reign. • Father: Shah Jahan
• He was buried at Lahore. • Mother: Mumtaz Mahal
• He wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk- • He assassinated the ninth Sikh guru Tej
iJahangiri in Persian. Bahadur at Chandni Chauk. ‘Alamgir’ was
• As a result of his efforts, the first English the name adopted by Aurangzeb when he
factory was established at Surat in became the Padusha.
Gujarat. • Aurangzeb is known as ‘ZindaPir’ or the
• Jahangir prohibited the smoking use of living saint because of his simple life.
tobacco (brought by the Portugese to • He imposed Jizya tax in 1679, which was
India) in 1617. abolished by Akbar.
• Under him, the Mughal empire reached its
Shah Jahan (5 Jan 1592–1666) greatest extent.
• Father: Jahangir • He forbaded the inscription of Kalma on
• Mother: Jagat Gosain the coins, also forbaded Sati and Jharokha-
• Shah Jahan’s childhood name was darshan.
Khurram. Shah Jahan was a famous • He ended the celebration of Nauroz
lyricist. (singing in the court).
• In AD 1612, he got married to Arjamand • Muhtasib (regulation of moral conduct)
Bano Begum (known as Mumtaz Mahal), were appointed. He ended the use of
daughter of Asaf Khan. almanacs and weighing of the emperor.
• His reign was known as Golden Age of Aurangzeb compiled the Fatwa-i- Alamgiri.
Mughal Empire. • Aurangzeb was the only Mughal Emperor
• He was known as the Prince of Builders who didn’t drink.
and Engineer King. • In 1660, he entrusted Shaistha Khan to
• He built a new capital called defeat Shivaji.
Shahajahanabad. • Later in 1665, the Treaty of Purandar was
• He built Red Fort in Delhi, which consists signed between Maharaja Jaisingh of
of Rang Mahal, Moti Mahal, Diwan-i-Kham Amber and Shivaji. Jaisingh was deputed
and Diwan-i-Khas. by Aurangzeb.
• He also built Jama Masjid and Taj Mahal. • Aurangzeb died in AD 1707 and was buried
• He built Moti Masjid and Tomb of at Khuldabad (Daulatabad) near
Jahangir. Aurangabad.

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• He built ‘Bibi ka Maqbara’, similar to Taj • As a consequence of Nadir Shah’s attack,

Mahal in Aurangabad. the Mughal empire disintegrated fast and
independent kingdoms of Bengal, Awadh
and Hyderabad broke away from the
LA TER MUGHALS
empire.
• After Muhammad Shah, Ahmad Shah
Aurangzeb was the last able King of the Bahadur (1748–1754), Alamgir II (1754–
Mughal empire. The Mughal emperors who 1759), Shah Alam II (1759–1806), Akbar II
succeeded him were known as later Mughals. (1806–1837) and Bahdur Shah II (1837–
Their list is given below. 1858) ascended the Mughal throne who
were just nominal rulers of Mughal
Bahadur Shah I (1707– 1712 AD)
empire.
Aurangzeb died in 1707 AD and he was
• By 1857, a considerable part of former
succeeded by his son with the title, Bahadur
Mughal India was under the East India
Shah I. He tried to reverse the orthodox
Company's control. After a crushing defeat
policies of his father, Aurangzeb. Pursued
in the Sepoy revolt of 1857–1858 which he
pacifist policy and was therefore, known as
nominally led, the last Mughal, Bahadur
Shah [Link] also tried to have friendly
Shah Zafar, was deposed by the British
relations with Sikhs and Marthas. He died in
East India Company and exiled in 1858.
1712.
Through the Government of India Act
Jahandar Shah (1712–1713) 1858 the British Crown assumed direct
Bahadur Shah was succeeded by his son control of East India Company-held
Jahandar Shah. He was a spendthrift. He lived territories in India in the form of the new
a luxurious life. He was attacked and killed by British Raj.
his nephew and son-in-law Farrukhsiyar.

Farrukhsiyar (1713–1719)
THE MARATHAS
• He became the king of the Mughal
kingdom with the help of Sayyid brothers, The Marathas played a major role in the
the two Mughal Vazirs named Syed decline of Mughal power. Under the dynamic
Abdullah Khan Barha and Syed Hassan Ali
leadership of Shivaji, they posed a strong
Khan Barha.
• Farrukhsiyar behaved like a mere puppet challenge to Mughal power during the 1670s.
in the hands of Sayyid brothers and when By the middle of the 18th century, they had
he resisted their control on him, he was
succeeded in displacing Mughal power in
deposed and executed by the latter.
central India. Nayak rule ended in 1674 in
Muhammad Shah Rangile (1719–1748) Thanjavur, when the Maratha General Venkoji
• After Rafi ud- Darajat, Muhammad Shah
(half-brother of Shivaji) leading the Bijapur
Rangile sat on the Mughal throne. During
his rule, Nadir Shah attacked and forces invaded Thanjavur and succeeded in
plundered Delhi. He also took the Peacock establishing Maratha rule in the Tamil region.
Throne with himself.
Maratha rule in Thanjavur which started in

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1674 continued until the death of Serfoji II in ▪ Madhav Rao I (1761–1772)
1832.
Peshwas
Chatrapathi Shivaji (1627-1680)
• Baji Rao popularised the idea of Hindu
• Belongs to: Bhonsle clan of the Marathas
Padpadshahi or the Hindu Empire.
• Father: Shaji Bhonsle
• Balaji Baji Rao’s period witnessed the
• Mother:Jija Bai
Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.
• Guardian: Dadaji Kondadev
• Madhava Rao was the last great Peshwa.
• Shivaji received the help of the Malavi
• Last Peshwa was Baji Rao II.
tribes to capture the territories of Bijapur
• Madhava Rao’s period witnessed the
Sultan.
disintegration of the Maratha power.
• Torna was the first place captured by
• Chaudh and SardeshMukhi were two
Shivaji in 1646.
special taxes collected by the Marathas.
• Shivaji’s Council of Ministers was known
• The first Maratha war(1775–1782)
as Ashtapradhan. They were Peshwa,
happened between Madhav Rao and
Pandit Rao, Sumant, Sachiva, Senapathi,
Raghunath Rao with the English support.
Amatya, Mantri and Nyayadhyaksha.
• Second Maratha war(1803–1805)
• Shivaji came to conflict with the Mughals
• Third Maratha war (1816–1819)
for the first time in 1657, during the period
• The last great soldier and statesman of
of Shah Jahan.
Maratha was Nana Phadavnis (1800).
• In 1665, Shivaji signed the treaty of
Purandar with Raja Jai Singh of Amber,
Adminstration of Shivaji
who was deputed by Aurangzeb.
• Shivaji divided the territories under his
• In 1666, Shivaji visited Aurangazeb in his
rule into three provinces (prants), each
court at Agra. But he and his son Sambaji
under a Viceroy.
were imprisoned by Aurangazeb in the
• Provinces were divided into Prants, which
Jaipur Bhavan.
were subdivided into Parganas or Tarafs.
• He was crowned in 16 June, 1674 at
• The lowest unit was village, headed by a
Raigarh and assumed the title of
headman or patel.
Haindava Dharmodharak (protector of
• Shivaji was helped by Ashtapradhan (eight
Hinduism) and Chhatrapati. He became
ministers)
the sovereign ruler of Maharashtra.
• His administrative reforms were guided by
• He died in 1680.
Malik Amber of Ahmednagar.
• Shivaji’s successor was Shahu. Shahu
• Shivaji collected 2 taxes – Chauth and
became the Chatrapathi in 1708.
Sardeshmukhi.
• His period witnessed the rise of
• Chauth was one-fourth of the land
Peshwaship.
revenue paid to the Marathas so as not to
• Peshwa was the Maratha Chief Minister.
be subjected to Maratha’s raid.
• Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10
The following are the Maratha Peshwas,
per cent (1/10th) on those lands of
▪ Balaji Vishwanath (1712–1720)
Maharashtra, over which the Marathas
▪ Baji Rao (1720–1740) claimed hereditary right, but which
▪ Balaji Baji RaoI (1740 –1761) formed part of the Mughal empire.

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• In 1661, the Portuguese king gave Bombay

HISTORY to Charles II of England as dowry, for
marrying his sister.
Europeans in India
English East India Company (1600)
Sequence of Establishment of European • The English East India Company was
Companies formed by a group of merchants in 1599
• The Portuguese (1498) known as Merchant Adventures.
• English East India Company (1600) • The company received a royal charter in
• Dutch East India Company (1602) 1600 for the monopoly of trade in eastern
• The Danish countries.
• First factory was built at Surat (1608).
• French East India Company (1664)
• Jahangir issued a farman to Captain
Why Europeans came to India? Hawkins (1609) permitting him to
The trade in agro-based products like cotton establish a factory at Surat.
and handicrafts was the major reason which • Sir Thomas Roe visited Jahangir’s court
led to the advent of Europeans. (1615) as an ambassador of king James I to
India was the major source of spices. Some seek permission to trade in India.
spices have antibiotic properties and they • In 1625, the English East India Company's
were also used to preserve the food. authorities at Surat made an attempt to
Sea routes were discovered in order to reduce fortify their factory, but the chiefs of the
conflicts, taxation, etc,. which were generally English factory were immediately
faced during land-based journeys. imprisoned and put in irons by the local
authorities of the Mughal Empire.
The Portuguese (1498) • The conditions in South India were more
• On 17th May, 1498, Vasco da Gama of favorable to the English, as they did not
Portugal discovered a new and all-sea have to face a strong Indian Government
route from Europe to India. He sailed there.
around Africa via the Cape of Good Hope • The English opened their first factory in
(South Africa) and reached Calicut. the South at Masulipatam in 1611. But
• He was received by the Hindu ruler of they soon shifted the centre of their
Calicut, Zamorin. activity to Madras, the lease of which was
• Cochin was the initial capital of granted to them by the local king in 1639.
Portuguese. • The English built a small fort around their
• The first Governor of Portuguese in India factory called Fort St. George in Madras.
was Francisco Almeida (1505-09). He • In Eastern India, the English Company had
introduced ‘The Policy of Blue Water’. opened its first factories in Orissa in 1633.
• Alfonso d’ Albuquerque became Governor • Hostilities between the English and the
of the Portuguese in India in 1509 and Goa Mughal Emperor broke out in 1686 and
from the ruler of Bijapur in 1310. the east India Company Suffered heavy
• Nino-da-Cunha (1529-1538) transferred losses.
the capital from Cochin to Goa in 1530. • In 1698, the English Company acquired the
zamindari of the three villages — Sutanati,
Kalikata and Govindpur, where the English

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built Fort William around its factory. These • In 1668, the French established their first
villages soon grew into a city, which came factory at Surat and in 1669 established
to be known as Calcutta. another French factory at Masaulipatam.
• The factory at Sutanati was fortified and • In 1673, the Mughal Subedar of Bengal
named Fort William in 1700. allowed the French to set up a township at
• In 1717, John Surman obtained royal Chandernagore.
farman from Mughal emperor • In 1673, the French obtained a village
Farrukhsiyar. This farman is also called the called Pondicherry from the Sultan of
Magna Carta of the British rule in India as Bijapur and founded a thriving city on it.
it gave large concessions to the company. • The French East India Company took hold
Dutch East India Company (1602) of Yanam in 1723, Mahe on Malabar Coast
in 1725 and Karaikal in 1739.
History and Growth of the Dutch East India • The appointment of Joseph Francois
Company Dupleix as the Governor of the French East
• By 1598, the Dutch were sending out India Company in 1741 was the first step
numerous trading ships and in March towards colonization.
1599, Jacob van Neck's fleet became the • Dupleix was extremely talented, took
first to reach the Spice Islands (the advantage of the rivalries among local
Moluccas of Indonesia). rulers and saw it as a godsend opportunity
• In 1602, the Dutch Government to establish the French empire in India.
sponsored the creation of the United East • Robert Clive — a British officer — arrived
Indies Company (known later as the in India in 1744 and decisively defeated
Dutch East India Company) in an effort to Dupleix. After this defeat, Dupleix was
stabilise profits in the Dutch spice trade recalled to France in 1754.
and form a monopoly.
The Danish
• The first permanent Dutch trading post
• Besides the presence of the Portuguese,
was established in 1603 in Banten, West
the Dutch, the British and the French in
Java, Indonesia.
1616, the East India Company of Denmark
The Dutch East India Company established reached Indian coasts and established
factories in India at Masulipatnam in 1605, settlements in Tranquebar in Tamil Nadu
Pulicat (1610), Surat (1616), Bimlipatam (1620) and Serampore in Bengal (1676).
• (1641), Karaikal (1645), Chinsura, • Danish entrepreneurs established
Kasimbazar, Patna, Balasore, Nagapatam themselves at several ports on the
and Cochin. Malabar and Coromandel coasts, in the
• The Dutch conceded to British after their vicinity of Kolkata and inland at Patna,
defeat in the Battle of Bedera in 1759. between 1695 and 1740.
• They were forced to sell their settlements
French East India Company (1664)
to the British in 1854.
• The last European people to arrive in India
were the French. The French East India
Company was formed in 1664 during the
reign of King Louis XIV to trade with India.
Important Wars in the Consolidation of British Rule

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War Year War Details

Siraj-ud-daulah with the French and the British East India
Battle of 23 June
Company
Plassey 1757
Won by the British East India Company
East India Company and the Alliance of Mir Qasim, Shah
Battle of 22 October Alam II and Shuja-ud-daulla
Buxar 1764 Won by the British East India Company
Treaty of Allahabad was signed
Battle The Portuguese and the Dutch
1638 –1639
of Goa Won by the Portuguese
Battle of 26 Jan The British East India Company & the French
Wandiwash 1760 Won by the British
Mughal Emperor Humayun
Battle of 26 June
and Sher Shah Suri
Chausa 1539
Won by Sher Shah Suri

Carnatic Wars
Fought
War Year Treaties
Between
First Carnatic The English Treaty of
1746–1748
War and the French Aix-La-Chapelle
Second Carnatic The English Treaty of
1749–1754
War and the French Pondicherry
Third Carnatic The English Treaty
1758–1763
War and the French of Paris

Anglo-Maratha Wars
War Year Fought Between Won By Treaties
British East
First Anglo India Company
Maratha 1775–1782 and Marathas Treaty of Salbai
War the Martha
Empire
British East India British Treaty of Deogaon,
Second Anglo
Company and East Treaty of Surjianjangaon,
Maratha 1803–1805
the Maratha India Treaty of Rajghat, Treaty
War
Empire Company of Bassien
British East
Third Anglo British East
India Company
Maratha 1817–1818 India Treaty of Mandasor
and the
War Company
Maratha Empire

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Anglo Mysore War
War Year Fought Between Treaties
Mysore and the British
First Anglo Treaty of
1766–1769 East
Mysore War Madras
India Company
Mysore and the British
Second Anglo Treaty of
1780–1784 East
Mysore War Mangalore
India Company
Mysore and the British
Third Anglo Treaty of
1790-1792 East
Mysore War Sriranghapatam
India Company
Mysore and the British British
Fourth Anglo
1799 East subjugated
Mysore War
India Company Mysore

Anglo-Sikh Wars
Fought
War Year Won By Treaties
Between

First
Sikh Empire and the British British East Treaty of
Anglo-Sikh 1845–1846
East India Company India Company Lahore
War

Second
Sikh Empire and the British British East
Anglo-Sikh 1848–1849 –
East India Company India Company
War

Anglo-Afghan Wars

War Year Fought Between Won By Treaties

First Anglo- British East India Tripartite Treaty between
Afghan 1839– Company Afghans Ranjit Singh, Shah Shuja and
War 1842 and the Afghans Lord Auckland
The British British
Second Anglo-
1878– East India East Treaty of Peshawar, Treaty of
Afghan
1880 Company India Gandamak
War
and the Afghans Company
The British
Third Anglo-
East India
Afghan 1919 Afghans Treaty of Rawalpindi
Company
War
and the Afghans

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Socio-Religious Reforms signify modernity brought a change in the

outlook of a select group of Indians.
Background and Causes of the Reform
Movement • The introduction of western education
and ideas had the far-reaching impact on
Indian Society in the 19th century the Indian Society. Through the glasses of
• The Indian Society was caught in a vicious utility, reason, justice and progress, a
web created by religious superstitions and select group of individuals began to
dogmas. The priests exercised an explore the nature of their own society.
overwhelming and unhealthy influence on
the mind of people. The faithful lived-in • There was a gradual emergence of public
submission, not only to God, the powerful opinion. The debates between the
and unseen, but even to the whims, Orientalists, scholars of Eastern societies
fancies and wishes of the priests. Social like India on one side and the Utilitarians,
conditions were equally depressing. Liberals and Missionaries on the other also
enabled the penetration of ideas, at least
• The most distressing was the position of amongst the upper section of society. The
women. The birth of a girl was resultant cultural change led to
unwelcome, her marriage a burden and introspection about Indian traditions,
her widowhood inauspicious. institution and culture. The socio-
intellectual revolution that took place in
• Caste system was another problem. It
the nineteenth century in the fields of
sought to maintain a system of
philosophy, literature, science, politics
segregation, hierarchically ordained based
and social reforms is often known as
on ritual status, hampering social mobility
Indian Renaissance.
and fostered social divisions. There were
innumerable other practices marked by • An important part of this renaissance was
constraint, status, authority, bigotry and reforming Hinduism from within based on
blind fatalism. post enlightenment rationalism. The
renaissance was especially focused in
Rise of Socio-Religious Reform Movements
Bengal and is popularly known as the
• The conquest of India by the British during
Bengal Renaissance. However, the use of
the 18th and 19th century exposed some
‘renaissance’ is slightly problematic as in
serious weaknesses and drawbacks of
European history it is used to refer to the
Indian social institutions. The response,
‘rebirth’ or revival of Greco-Roman
indeed, was varied but the need to reform
learning in the fifteen and sixteenth
social and religious life was a commonly
centuries after the long winter of the dark
shared conviction. It also brought in
medieval period. But in Indian context, it
completely new sets of ideas and social
implied rediscovering rationalism from
world. The exposure to post-
within India’s past.
enlightenment rationalism that came to

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Important Socio-Religious Movements in Deoband Mahmud-
India 1866 Deoband
Movement ul-Hasan
Movemen
Dr.
t Prathna Bomba
Founder Year Place Atmaram 1867
/Organisat Samaj y
ion Pandurang
Raja Ram Mahatma
Atmiya Satyashod
Mohan 1815 Bengal Jyotirao 1873 Pune
Sabha hak Samaj
Roy Phule
Farazis Shariat Thakur
1819 Delhi
Movement Ullah Singh
Singh Amritsa
Young Henry Sandhawali 1873
Sabha r
Bengal Vivian 1826 Bengal a and Giani
Movement Derozio
Gian Singh
Raja Ram
Brahmo Swami Punjab
Mohan 1828 Bengal Arya Samaj 1875
Samaj Dayanand & Sind
Roy
Dharma Radhakant H. P.
1830 Bengal New
Sabha Dev Theosophi Blavatsky
1875 York/M
cal Society and Col.
Tatvabodhi Debendran adras
1839 Bengal Olcott
ni Sabha ath Tagore
Sadharan Anand
Nirankari Baba Dayal
1851 Punjab Brahmo Mohan 1878 Bengal
Movement Das
Samaj Bose
Paramhans Dadoba Bomba Deccan
1849 G. G.
a Mandali Pandurang y
Education 1884 Pune
Rahanuma Agarkar
Society
i Naoroji Bomba
1851 Sir Syed
Mazdyasa Furdunji y Aligarh
Ahmed 1875 Aligarh
n Sabha Movement
Parsi Khan
Furdunji Indian
Religious
Naoroji Bomba
Reform 1851 National
and S. S. y M. G.
Associatio Social 1887 India
Bengalee Ranade
n Conferenc
Namdhari Baba Ram e
1857 Punjab
Movement Singh Shivnaraya
Dev Samaj 1887 Lahore
Brahmo Keshav n Agnihotri
Samaj of Chandra 1866 Bengal
India Sen

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Sri Self E. V.
Ezhava Tamil
Narayan 1903 Kerala Respect Ramaswa 1925
Movement Nadu
Guru Movement my
Mirza Rashtriya
Ahmediya
Ghulam 1889 Punjab Swayam Dr. Baliram
Movement 1925 Nagpur
Ahmad Sevak Hedgewar
Ram Swami Sangh
Krishna Vivekanand 1897 Belur
Math a
HISTORY
Servants of
Gopal K. Bomba
India 1905 Revolt of 1857
Gokhale y
Society The early uprisings did not succeed in
Ramabai threatening the British in India. It took the
Pune Seva Ranade Revolt of 1857 to make the British understand
1909 Pune
Sadan and G. K. that their rule was not accepted by a large
Deodhar section of the population.
The Revolt of 1857 was a product of the
Maulana
character and the policies of colonial rule. The
Muhamma Uttar cumulative effect of the British expansionist
Ahrar
d Ali and 1910 Prades policies, economic exploitation and
Movement administrative innovations over the years had
Hakim h
adversely affected the positions of all rulers of
Ajmal Khan Indian states.
Social
Bomba Causes of the Revolt
Service N. M. Joshi 1911
y • The most important cause of the Revolt of
League 1857 was a popular discontent of the
C. N. British policy of economically exploiting
India. This hurt all sections of society. The
Mudaliar,
peasants suffered due to high revenue
Justice T. M. Nair demands and the strict revenue collection
1917 Madras
Movement and P. policy.
• Policies of the doctrine of lapse, subsidiary
Tyagaraja
alliance and policy of effective control
Chetti created discontentment among people.
Gurudwar Annexation of Oudh proved that even the
grovelling loyalty couldn’t satisfy the
a Reform SGPC 1920 Punjab
British greed for territories.
Movement • The conversion activities of Christian
Mahar Babasaheb Bomba missionaries were looked upon with
1920 suspicion and fear. The priests and the
Movement Ambedkar y
maulavis showed their discontent against
British rule.
• Abolition of practices like sati, female
infanticide, support to widow remarriage

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and female education was seen by many was arrested, tried and executed. When
as interference in their Indian culture by this news spread, many sepoys revolted.
the Europeans. The Revolt of 1857 is an important
• The Indian sepoys were looked upon as landmark in the history of India, which
inferior beings and treated with contempt
occurred during the governor generalship
by their British officers. They were paid
much less than the British soldiers. All of Lord canning.
avenues of the promotion were closed to
them as all the higher army posts were Course of the Revolt
reserved for the British. • On 10 May 1857, the sepoys of the third
cavalry at Meerut openly revolted by
Immediate Cause of the Revolt swarming the prisons and releasing their
• The immediate cause was the introduction comrades. They were immediately joined
of new Enfield Riffles in the army. The top by the men of the 11th and 20th Native
of the cartridge of this rifle was to be Infantries and they murdered some
removed by the mouth before loading it in English officers and then marched to
the rifle. The cartridges were greased by Delhi. The arrival of Meerut sepoys at
the fat of the pig and the cow. The Indian Delhi happened on 11 May and they
sepoys believed that the British were declared Bahadur Shah II as the Emperor
deliberately attempting to spoil the of India. Delhi became the centre of the
religion of both the Hindus and the great revolt and Bahadur Shah, its symbol.
Muslims because the Hindus revered the • The revolt spread quickly. There were
cow while the Muslims hated the pig. The mutinies at Lucknow, Kanpur, Jhansi,
soldiers, therefore, determined to refuse Bareilly, Bihar, Faizabad and many other
their service and ultimately revolted. places in north India. Many of them found
Thus, the primary and the immediate that it was a good opportunity to burn the
cause of the revolt was the use of the papers of their landlords. Many others
greased cartridges. The outbreak of the whose titles and pensions were abolished
revolt happened on 29 March 1857 at by the British participated in it in order to
Barrackpur (near Kolkata). Mangal take revenge. The Muslim leaders and
Pandey, a young Sepoy from Bengal maulvis sought the opportunity of
Regiment, refused to use the greased establishing Muslim rule in India after
cartridge and shot down his sergeant. He turning out the British.

Centers of Revolt and Their Leaders

Beginning Indian
Centre Ending Date British Suppressor
Date Leader
Bahadur Shah II ‘Zafar’ and
11 May 20 Sep
Delhi General Bakht Khan John Nicholson
1857 1857
(commanding-general)
4 June 6 Dec Nana Saheb and his loyal
Kanpur Colin Campbell
1857 1857 commander Tantiya Tope
Lucknow 4 June 1857 21 Mar 1858 Begum Hazart Mahal Colin Campbell
Jhansi 4 June 18 June Rani Laxmibai (Manikarnika) Huge Rose

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1857 1858
Allahabad 5 June, 1857 March 1858 Liyahat Ali Colonel Neil
William Taylor
Bihar Aug 1857 Dec 1858 Kunwar Singh and Amar Singh
and Vincent Eyre

RISE OF INDIAN NATIONALISM Reasons for the Growth of Indian National

Movements
Factors for the Rise of Nationalism
• The unification of administration, modern Spread of Western Education and Thought
education system, the revolt of 1857 and • English language was made the medium
other factors grew the nationalism in of instruction in schools and colleges in
Indian people. The following were the 1835 and it became the language of the
main causes of national consciousness. educated people of India.
• The introduction of the modern system of
Administrative Unification of India
education afforded opportunities for
• Modernisation was essential for the
assimilation of modern western ideas and
colonial scheme of administration and this
made the Indians realise the evil effects of
modernisation in one sense gave birth to
foreign rule, which in turn gave a new
Indian nationalism.
direction to Indian political thinking.
• Common subjection, common institutions
The liberal and radical thoughts of European
and common laws began to shape India in
writers like Milton, Bentham, Rosseau and
a common mould.
Voltaire, etc., inspired the Indians in general
• The establishment of political unity and intelligentsia in particular with the ideals
fostered the spirit of one-mindedness. of liberty, nationality and self-government.
Economic Causes Development of the Means of
• The economic policies of the British Communication
adversely affected the interests of almost • The development of railways, the modern
all sections of Indian society, viz. the postal system and the introduction of the
peasants, middle classes, workers, electric telegraph during the reign of
industrialists, etc. The huge economic Dalhousie unified the country and
drain on India’s resources, facilitated the growth of nationalism.
commercialisation of agriculture, the
• Railways led to an increase in passenger
policy of land settlements accompanied
traffic, which in turn increased interaction
with periodic famines were disastrous.
between the people and maintained
• Discriminatory British economic and fiscal regular contact between them.
policies gave rise to economic nationalism
in India. People came to realise that Emergence of Modern Press
colonial rule was the real cause of India’s • The rapid growth of the press helped the
economic backwardness. nationalist Indians in spreading the
• Thus, the spirit of nationalism received a message of patriotism and modern liberal
powerful stimulus in the process. ideas and to create a strong public opinion

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against the excesses and inequities of the gave rise to a new urban middle-class in
colonial administration. towns. This class had close ties with the
ruling class and was aware of the
Rediscovery of India’s Past imperialistic policies of the British, came
• Historical researches by European to the forefront.
scholars, such as Max Muller, Monier
Williams, Sassoon and Roth and by Indian Impact of Contemporary Global Movements
scholars such as R. G. Bhandarkar, R. L. • Some contemporary national movements
Mitra and Swami Vivekananda, opened in the European nations like German
new vistas of India’s rich socio-political, Unification, Italian Unification, nationalist
economic and cultural heritage. This gave movements against the Turkish Empire,
a new sense of self-respect and Liberation Movement of Greece and Italy
confidence among the nationalists. in general and of Ireland, in particular,
• Bankim Chandra wrote Anand Math to helped Indian nationalism.
expose the true character of British rule.
Lord Lytton’s Reactionary Policies
• Dina Bandhu Mitra wrote Neel Darpan to
• The highly expensive Second
expose the exploitation by indigo planters
Afghan War, which was financed out of
and Bharatendu Harishchandra put
Indian revenues, the abolition of import
forward the idea for the use of swadeshi
duties on British textile and the Arms Act
things.
of 1878, which was an attempt to disarm
Socio-Religious Movements the Indian people, created widespread
• Various socio-religious reform movements discontent against the British Empire.
like Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj and the • Another anti-Indian move of Lytton’s
Ramakrishna Mission were launched to regime was the lowering of the age limit
reform the society. (from 21 to 19) for appearing in the Indian
• In the religious sphere, the reform Civil Service Examination that was held
movements criticised religious only in London. Against this, the Indian
superstition, idolatry, polytheism and Association started a massive agitation
hereditary priesthood. These movements under the leadership of S. N. Bannerjee
criticised the caste system, untouchability and Lal Mohan Ghose Vernacular Press Act
and other social and legal inequalities. • The Vernacular Press Act (1878) that
• They played a vital role in arousing curbed the liberty of the Indian Press
(later, the Act was repealed by Lord Ripon)
nationalist feelings, like Swami Dayanand,
was popularly known as the Gagging Act.
for instance, was the first to use the word To bypass the restrictions imposed by
Swaraj. Many Arya Samaji’s were at the Vernacular Press Act, Amrita Bazaar
forefront of the national movement and Patrika was immediately converted to an
were primarily responsible for the rise of English paper. The founding of the
extremism in the Indian National Congress newspaper Hindu in Madras was also in
reaction to Lytton’s Press Act.
(INC).
Pre-Congress Political Associations
Rise of Urban Middle-class Intelligentsia
• During the course of the 19th century,
• Western education and British
various organisations started emerging at
administrative and economic innovations the regional level to represent the

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interests of various sections of Indian the forerunner of the Indian National
society. These organisations prepared the Congress.
foundation for the emergence of a pan- • He served as the General Secretary of INC
Indian nationalist organisation.
from 1885 to 1906.
Indian National Movement (1885–1905) • A. O. Hume published a pamphlet, an old
man’s hope in the Madras Session of the
Birth of the Indian National Congress
INC in 1887.
• Indian National Congress (INC) was the
natural and inevitable product of various Formation of INC
forces of the 19th century. • Indian National Congress was finally
• The credit for the birth of the Indian formed on 28 December 1885.
National Congress is often given to A. O. • The first session of the Indian National
Hume, who, with the blessings of the Congress was held on 28 December 1885
Viceroy Lord Dufferin, successfully at Tejpal Sanskrit Pathshala, Bombay,
organised the prominent political leaders under the presidentship of W. C.
and founded the Indian National Congress. Bannerjee, only 72 delegates had
participated and most of them belonged
Background of INC
to lawyers, and there weren’t any women
• Indian Association decided to hold its first
in that session.
Indian conference in Calcutta at the same
• In 1886, the number of delegates to
time so that it can reach the masses, but
Congress became 436. Moderate leaders
the plan failed.
dominated the Congress in its early phase.
• In 1884, at the annual convention of the
The moderate belief in the essential sense
Theosophical Society at Adyar in Madras,
of justice and goodness of the British
A. O. Hume proposed the formation of a
nation was strong.
committee so as to make necessary
• In 1889, a British Committee of the Indian
preparations for a session at Pune to be
National Congress was founded under the
held in 1885.
Chairmanship of W. Wedderburn
• The members of the committee included
(biographer of A. O. Hume) in London and
A. O. Hume, S. N. Bannerjee, Narendra
a journal named India was also started.
Nath Sen, Subramanya Aiyar, P. Ananda
Charlu, Sardar Dayal Singh, Lala Sriram, K. Moderate Nationalism
T. Telang and V. N. Mandalik. • The leading figures during the first phase
• Before the formation of the Indian were W. C. Banerjee, Surendra Nath
National Congress, two sessions of the Banerjee, Dadabhai Naoroji, Pheroze Shah
Indian National Conference had been held Mehta, Gopalakrishna Gokhale,
in 1883 and 1885 under the guidance of S. • Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya,
N. Bannerjee and Anand Mohan Bose. Badruddin Tyabji, G. Subramanya Aiyar, A.
• A. O. Hume was a retired British member O. Hume, M. G. Ranade, C. Shankaran
of the Indian Civil Service. He played an Naiyar, V. S. Shrinivas Shastri, Tej Bahadur
important role in the foundation of the Sapru, Anand Mohan Bose, Ras Bihari
Indian National Congress in 1885. Ghosh, Mohanlal Ghosh, P. Anand Charlu,
• Earlier, he founded the Indian National C. Y. Chintamani, R. C. Dutt, K. T. Tailang,
Union in 1884, which is considered to be

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Madhusudan Das and Rahimtulla M. Methods of Moderates
Sayani. • The Moderates had total faith in the
• Surendra Nath Banerjee was called the British sense of justice and fair play. They
Indian Burke. He firmly opposed the
were loyal to the British. They looked to
Partition of Bengal. He founded the Indian
Association (1876) to agitate for political England for inspiration and guidance.
reforms. He had convened the Indian • The Moderates used petitions,
National Conference (1883), which resolutions, meetings, leaflets and
merged with the Indian National Congress pamphlets, memorandum and
in 1886. G. Subramanya Aiyar preached delegations to present their demands.
nationalism through the Madras • They confined their political activities to
Mahajana Sabha. He also founded The the educated classes only. Their aim was
Hindu and Swadesamitran. Dadabhai to attain political rights and self-
Naoroji was known as the Grand Old Man government stage by stage.
of India is regarded as India’s unofficial
Ambassador in England. He was the first Achievements of Moderates
Indian to become a Member of the British • The Moderates were able to create a wide
House of Commons. Gopal Krishna national awakening among the people.
Gokhale was regarded as the political guru • They popularised the ideas of democracy,
of Gandhi. In 1905, he founded the civil liberties and representative
Servants of India Society to train Indians institutions.
to dedicate their lives to the cause of the 1. They explained how the British were
country. exploiting Indians. Particularly, Dadabhai
Naoroji, in his famous book Poverty and
Main Demands of Moderates
Un British Rule in India, wrote his Drain
• Expansion and reform of legislative Theory. He showed how India’s wealth
councils. was going away to England in the form of:
• Greater opportunities for Indians in higher a) salaries,
posts by holding the ICS examination b) savings,
simultaneously in England and in India. c) pensions,
d) payments to British troops in India and
• Separation of the judiciary from the e) profits of the British companies.
executive. In fact, the British Government was forced
• More powers for the local bodies. to appoint the Welby Commission, with
Dadabhai as the first Indian as its member,
• Reduction of land revenue and protection to enquire into the matter.
of peasants from unjust landlords.
2. Some Moderates like Ranade and Gokhale
• Abolition of salt tax and sugar duty.
favoured social reforms. They protested
• Reduction of spending on the army. against child marriage and widowhood.
• Freedom of speech and expression and 3. The Moderates had succeeded in getting
the expansion of the legislative councils by
freedom to form associations.
the Indian Councils Act of 1892, which

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allowed some members to be indirectly
elected by Indians but kept the official
majority intact.
Indian National Congress Sessions
Year Location President Importance
The first session was attended by 72
1885 Bombay W. C. Bannerjee
delegates.
National Congress and National
1886 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji
Conference were merged.
An appeal was made to Muslims to join
1887 Madras Syed Badruddin Tyabji
hands with other national leaders.
1888 Allahabad George Yule He was the first English President of INC.

1889 Bombay Sir William Wedderburn –

1890 Calcutta Feroz Shah Mehta –

1891 Nagpur P. Ananda Charlu –

1892 Allahabad W. C. Bonnerjee –

1893 Lahore Dadabhai Naoroji –

1894 Madras Alfred Webb –

1895 Poona Surendranath Banerjee –

National song ‘Vande Mataram’ was
1896 Calcutta Rahimtullah M. Sayani
sung for the first time.
1901 Calcutta Dinshaw E. Wacha –

1902 Ahmedabad Surendra Nath Banerjee –

1903 Madras Lal Mohan Ghosh –

1904 Bombay Sir Henry Cotton –

He expressed resentment against the
1905 Benares Gopal Krishna Gokhale
Partition of Bengal.
The word ‘Swaraj’ was mentioned for
1906 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji
the first time.
1907 Surat Rash Behari Ghosh INC split into extremists and moderates.
1908 Madras Rash Behari Ghosh The previous session continued.
1909 Lahore Madan Mohan Malaviya Indian Councils Act, 1909

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M. A. Jinnah decried the separate

1910 Allahabad Sir William Wedderburn electorate system introduced by the Act
of 1909.
‘Jana Gana Mana’ was sung for the first
1911 Calcutta Bishan Narayan Dhar
time.
Bankipore Raghunath Narasinha
1912 –
(Patna) Mudholkar
1913 Karachi Syed Mohammed –
1914 Madras Bhupendra Nath Basu –
1915 Bombay Satyendra Prasanna Sinha –
Lucknow Pact – joint session with the
1916 Lucknow Ambica Charan Mazumdar
Muslim League.
She was the first woman President of
1917 Calcutta Annie Besant
the INC.
Syed Hasan Imam (Bombay) Two sessions were held. The first in
Bombay and
1918 and Madan Mohan Bombay in August/September and the
Delhi
Malaviya (Delhi) second in Delhi in December.
Jallianwala Bagh massacre was strongly
1919 Amritsar Motilal Nehru
condemned.
The reconstitution of the working
committees of the INC on a linguistic
1920 Nagpur C. Vijayaraghavachariar basis.
M. A. Jinnah left the Indian National
Congress.
Hakim Ajmal Khan (Acting
1921 Ahmedabad –
President for C. R. Das)
C. R. Das and other leaders broke away
1922 Gaya C. R. Das from the INC
for the formation of the Swaraj Party.
1923 Kakinada Maulana Mohammad Ali –
It was the only session presided by M. K.
1924 Belgaum M. K. Gandhi
Gandhi.
She was the first Indian woman
1925 Kanpur Sarojini Naidu
President.
1926 Guwahati S. Srinivasa Iyengar –
This session passed a resolution against
1927 Madras M. A. Ansari
the boycott of the Simon Commission.
1928 Calcutta Motilal Nehru All India Youth Congress was formed.
The resolution of ‘Poorna Swaraj’ was
1929 Lahore Jawaharlal Nehru
passed. Civil Disobedience Movement

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for complete independence to be

launched.
26 January to be observed as
‘Independence Day’.
1930 No Session – –
Resolution on fundamental rights and
national economic progress. Gandhi-
1931 Karachi Vallabhbhai Patel Irwin Pact was endorsed. Gandhi was
nominated to represent INC in the
second-round table conference.
Malaviya was elected but
1933 Calcutta –
Nellie Sengupta presided
An amendment in the Constitution of
1934 Bombay Rajendra Prasad
Congress was made.
1936 Lucknow Jawaharlal Nehru
This was the first session to be held in a
1937 Faizpur Jawaharlal Nehru village.
It was also the 50th session of the INC.
National Planning Committee was set up
1938 Haripura Subhas Chandra Bose
under Nehru.
Bose was elected but had to resign since
Subhas Chandra Bose
Gandhi supported Pattabhi Sitaramayya.
1939 Tripuri
Instead, Rajendra Prasad was appointed.
Rajendra Prasaad
Bose started the Forward Bloc.
1940 Ramgarh Abul Kalam Azad –
1941–
– – No session was held because of arrests.
1945
This was the last session before
1947 Meerut J. B. Kripalani
independence.
This was the first session after
1948 Jaipur Pattabhi Sitaramayya
independence.
He resigned in 1951. Nehru became the
1950 Nashik Purushottam Das Tandon
President.

Indian National Movement (1905-1917)

HISTORY
Causes for the Rise of Extremism
• Dissatisfaction with the methods and
achievements of the moderates.

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• The failure of the Moderates to win any • Through a royal proclamation, Lord
notable success other than the expansion Curzon (Partition of Bengal), on creating
of the legislative councils by the Indian the East Bengaland Assam out of rest of
Councils Act (1892). Bengal on 16 October 1905. The objective
was to set up a communal gulf between
• Growing consciousness about the
the Hindus and Muslims.
exploitative character of the British rule.
• The Indian National Movement, entered
• The economic conditions of the people
its second phase after the Partition of
became worse.
Bengal.
• The ill-treatment of the Indians in South
Africa on the basis of the colour of their • The British said that the existing province
skin. of Bengal was too big to be efficiently
administered by a single Provincial
• The Russo-Japanese war of 1904-1905 in Government.
which Japan defeated the European power • The Indian National Congress and the
Russia. This encouraged Indians to fight nationalists of Bengal firmly opposed the
against the European nation, Britain. Partition.
• The immediate cause for the rise of • The nationalists could see that it was a
extremism was the reactionary rule of Lord deliberate attempt to divide the Bengal’s
Curzon:Calcutta Corporation Act (1899), territory on religious grounds as far
The Universities Act (1904), the Sedition Eastern part Muslims will be in majority
Act and the Official Secrets Act (1904) and and for the Western part, the Hindus.
Partition of Bengal • Rabindranath Tagore composed the
National song ‘Amar Sonar Bangla’ for the
Main Objective of Extremists occasion. This song was adopted as the
Their main objective was to attain Swaraj or National Anthem by the Bangladesh in
complete independence and not just self- 1971, after its liberation from the
government. Pakistan.
Leaders of the Extremists The Anti-Partition Movement
• Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin The Anti-Partition movement was initiated on
Chandra Pal, Sir Aurobindo Ghosh, 7 August 1905. On that day, a massive
Chakravarti Bose, T. Prakasham and demonstration against the partition, was
Chidambaram Pillai were the few organised in the Town Hall in Calcutta. The
extremists. partition took effect on 16 October 1905
• There were 3 groups of extremists the
The Swadeshi and Boycott
Maharashtrian group (headed by Bal
• It had its origin in the Anti-Partition
Gangadhar Tilak), the Bengal group
movement of Bengal. Mass meetings were
(represented by BC Pal and Aurobindo)
held all over Bengal, where Swadeshi or
and the Punjab group (led by Lala Lajpat
the use of the Indian goods and the
Rai).
boycott of the British goods were
proclaimed and pledged. Public burning of
Partition of Bengal

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foreign clothes were organised and the Sikh peasants and ex-soldiers, who
shops selling foreign cloths were picketed. migrated.
• Acharya PC Roy organised his famous • The party was built around the weekly
Bengal Chemical Swadeshi stores. paper , ‘The Ghadar’, which carried the
• Nationalist Educational Institutions were caption ‘Angrezi raj ka Dushman’.
founded, e.g. Bengal Technical Institute, Headquarters were in San Francisco.
Bengal National College. • The outbreak of the First World War
• B. C. Pal and Chidambram Pillai provided the Ghadarites with an
Vandemataram Movement Madras. opportunity to free India from a
• LalaLajpat Rai and Ajit Singh led the government, which was indifferent to
movement in Punjab. their cause.
Formation of Muslim League (1906) • They began to return to India in thousands
• Set-up in 1906, under the leadership of for a co-oridinated revolt, but
Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka and unfortunately, the authorities came to
Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk. know about their plans and took
• It supported the partition of Bengal, immediate action. The rebellions
opposed the Swadeshi Movement, regiments were disbanded and their
demanded special safe guards for its leader were either imprisoned or hanged.
community and a separate electorate for • Some of the prominent Ghadar leaders
Muslims. were — Baba GurumukhSingh, Kartar
• Calcutta Session of INC (1906) Dadabhai Singh Saraba, Sohan Singh, Bakhna,
Naoroji the President of the session, Rahmat Ali Shah, Bhai Paramanand and
declared that the Self-Government of Mohammad Barkatullah.
Swaraj, like that of United Kingdom was • To carry out the other revolutionary
the goal of the Indian people. activities, 'Swadesh Sevak Home’ at
Vancouver and ‘United India House’ at
Surat Split (1907) Seattle was set-up.
• The INC split into two groups during the
session at Surat in 1907. Komagata Maru Incident (1914)
• Extremists were led by Lal, Bal, Pal, while • Komagata Maru was a Japanese steamship
the Moderates were led by G. K. Gokhale. that carried Sikh and Muslim immigrants
• Moderates demanded mild constitutional from Punjab to Vancouver, Canada. But
reforms, economic relief, administrative the ship was forced to return back to India
reorganisation and protection of the civil by the Canadian authorities.
rights. • The ship docked at Budge in Calcutta.
• The Britishers considered the passengers
Ghadar party (1913) as dangerous political agitators and tried
• Formed by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das to arrest Baba Gurdit Singh from among
and Sohan Singh Bakhna. them. Police opened fire on them and 19
• Indian revolutionary in the United States passengers died in the incident.
of America and Canada had established
the Ghadar (Rebellion) party in 1913. Most Indian National Movement (1916 – 1947)
of the members of the party were Punjabi

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Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born in to launch a movement and he combined it
the coastal town of Porbandar in 1869. When with Khilafat Issue.

he returned form South Africa to India in 1915 Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre

by the activities and ideas of Gopala Krishna On 13 April 1919, in Amritsar town, in the
Jallianwala more than two thousand people
Gokhale, he acknowledged him as his political
had assembled at the venue to peacefully
Guru. He established his Sabarmati Ashram in protest against the arrest of their leaders,
Ahmedabad but did not take an active part in Satyapal and Saifuddi Kitchlew.
Michael O’Dwyer was the Lt. Governor of
the political movements including the Home
Punjab and the military commander was
Rule movement.
General Reginald Dyer.
Gandhi’s Experiments of Satyagraha Dyer ordered firing on the trapped crowd with
a) Champaran Movement (1917) machine guns and rifles till the ammunition
It was aganst the European Planters, who had was exhausted. While the official figures of
bound the peasants to compulsorily grow the dead was only about 379 the real number
indigo on lease on 3/20th of their fields and was over a thousand. Martial law was
sell it. It was called as tinkathia system. imposed all over Punjab and people were
This was the first Civil Disobedience subject to untold indignities.
Movement. Rabindranath Tagore returned his knighthood
in protest.
b) Mill Workers’ strike and Gandhi’s fast at
Hunter Commission was established to look
Ahmedabad (1918)
into the matter.
It was the to solve the problem between mill
workers and mill owners. Gandhiji demanded
Khilafat movement (1920)
increase in the salary of the mill workers and
During the first World War, Turkey allied with
went on wth hunger strike. This was the first
Germany and Austria against British. The
hunger strike by Gandhiji in India.
Indian Muslim regarded the Sultan of Turkey
c) The Kheda Struggle (1918) as their spiritual leader, Khalifa.
The peasants of The Kheda district, due to the After the war, the British removed the Khalifa
failure of the monsoon, were in distress. from his power and fragmented Turkey.
Hence Gandhiji asked the peasants to Hence, the Muslim started the Khilafat
withhold the tax payment. This was the first Movement in India, for the restoration of
Non – Cooperation Movement. Khalifa’s position.
Gandhi and the Congress, who were bent
Rowlatt Act (1919) upon Hindu-Muslim unity, now stood by their
It was a part of the British policy of ‘rally the Muslim compatriots who felt betrayed by the
moderates and isolate the extremists’ that the British regime. The Ali brothers – Shukha and
Indian Councils Act 1919 and the Rowlatt Act Muhammed – and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
of the same year were promulgated. This Act were the prime movers in the Khilafat
empowered the government to imprison any movement.
person without trial. This act made everyone
including Gandhi infuriated. Hence he planned

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Non-Cooperation Movement electoral politics and demonstrate that the
The Khilafat Conference at the instance of nationalists were capable of obstructing the
Gandhi, decided to launch the non- working of the reformed legislature by
cooperation movement from 31 August 1920. capturing them and arousing the nationalist
Earlier an all-party meet at Allahabad had spirit. This group came to be called the
decided on a programme of the boycott of ‘Swarajists and pro-changers’.
government educational institutions and their The Swaraj party did reasonably well in the
law courts. elections to the Central Assembly by winning
The Congress met in a special session at 42 of the 101 seats open for election. With the
Calcutta in September 1920 and resolved to cooperation of other members they were able
accept Gandhi’s proposal on non-cooperation to stall many anti-people legislations of the
with the colonial state till such time as Khilafat colonial regime, and were successful in
and Punjab grievances were redressed and exposing the inadequacy of the Act of 1919.
self-government established.
Non-cooperation movement included boycott Simon Go Back Demonstration
of schools, colleges, courts, government
• The simon Commisssion was established
offices, legislatures, foreign goods, return of
in 1927 to go into the question of further
government conferred titles and awards.
Constitutional Reform and review of
Alternatively, national schools, panchayats
Montagu – Chemsford Reform of 1919.
were to be set up and swadeshi goods • The Indians protested, against the Simon
manufactured and used. The struggle at a Commission, because of the exclusion of
Indians from the Commission and
later stage was to include no tax campaign and
foreigners will be deciding the future of
mass civil Non-Cooperators with Gandhi India.
• The National Congress decided to boycott
Chauri Chaura (1922) incident the commission in its Madras Session in
Chauri-Chaura, a village in Gorakhpur district 1927, presided over by Dr Ansari. Muslim
of UP had an organised volunteer group that league and Hindu Mahasabha supported
was participating and leading the picketing of Congress, but Justice Party welcomed the
liquor shops and local bazaar against high Commission.
prices. On 5 February 1922, a Congress • On 3rd February, 1928, the Commission
procession, 3000 strong, was fired upon by was greeted with Hartals and black flag
police. Enraged by the firing, the mob demonstrations, under the slogan Simon
attacked and burnt down the police station. Go Back.
22 policemen lost their lives. It was this
• To overrule the Simon Commission report
incident that made Gandhi announce the
the Congress Tabled an Alteranative
suspension of the non-cooperation
report prepared by Moti Lal Nehru called
movement.
as Nehru Report in 1928. But it was
rejected due to problems between
Swaraj Party (1923)
Congress and Muslim League.
Chittaranjan Das and Motilal Nehru proposed
• Jinnah, the leader of Muslim League did
a new line of activity. They wanted to return
not accept the Nehru Report and drew up
to active politics which included entry into
a list of fourteen demands on 9th March

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1929, which became famous as 14 points It took place on 12th November, 1930. It was
of Jinnah. boycotted by the congress. The government
now made attempts to negotiate an
Lahore Congress Session-Poorna Swaraj agreement with the Congress, so that it could
• It was at the Lahore session that the attend the Round Table Conference. The
Congress declared that the objective of result of which was Gandhi Irwin Pact.
the Congress was the attainment of
complete independence. It was presided Gandhi – Irwin Pact
by Jawaharlal Nehru. It was signed between Gandhi and the then
• On 31 December 1929, the tricolour flag of viceroy of India Irwin on 5th March 1931.
freedom was hoisted at Lahore. It was also
Under this, the government agreed to release
decided that 26 January would be
all those political prisoners, who were non-
celebrated as the Independence day every
violent. The Right to make salt for
year.
consumption was agreed to.
• It was also announced that civil
disobedience, would be started under the The Congress was to suspend Civil
leadership of Gandhi. Disobedience Movement and take part in
• Boycott of First Round Table conference Second Round Table Conference.
was also decided in this session. The pact was endorsed in th Karachi Session of
Indian National Congress in 1931. It was
Dandi March (1930) presided by Sardar Vallabhai Patel.
Gandhi announced the ‘Dandi March’. It was a
protest against the unjust tax on salt, which is Second Round Table Confrence
used by all. But the colonial government was Gandhiji went to England in September, 1931,
taxing it and had a near-monopoly over it. He along with Sarojini Naidu, Mahadev Desai, GD
started the March from 12th March 1930. The Birla and Madan Mohan Malviya to attend the
Dandi March was to cover 375 kms from Second Round Table Conference.
Gandhi’s Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi on the But the conference didn’t yield any results and
Gujarat coast. He reached Dandi on the 25th Gandhiji came bck and resumed the Civil
Day i.e. 6 April 1930. He broke the salt law by Disobedience Movement.
picking up a fist full of salt. It was symbolic of
the refusal of Indians to be under the Communal Award
repressive colonial government and its unjust A meeting between Gandhi and Ambedkar on
laws. this issue of the separate electorates before
they went to London to attend the Second
The Round Table Conferences Round Table Conference ended in failure.
The round table conferences were called for There was an encounter between the two,
the discussion of the Simon Commission again in the RTC about the same issue. It
report. There were 3 round table conference ended in a deadlock and finally the issue was
in total. [Link] is the only one person left to be arbitrated by the British Prime
to attend all the 3 conferences. Minister, Ramsay McDonald, who announced
First Round Table Conference Communal Award/ Separate electorate for
depressed classes in 1932.

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Poona Pact expressed his wish to see a consolidated
• Gandhi was deeply upset with the North-West Indian Muslim State.
Communal Award. He went on a fast unto Chaudhary Rehmat Ali coined the term
death in the Yerwada jail where he was ‘Pakistan’ .
imprisoned. There was enormous
pressure on Ambedkar to save Gandhi’s August Offer – 1940
life. It was a failure mission as the congress
rejected the proposals under August Offer.
• Therefore a new agreement, between
Muslim accepted it.
Ambedkar and Gandhians, called the
‘Poona Pact’ was signed on 25th Individual Satyagraha
September, 1932. • Congress rejected the August offer
• 147 seats were to be alloted to the because Congress was convinced that the
depressed classes in the provincial British would not modify their policy in
legislature as against 71 provided by the India. Gandhi decided to start the
Communal Award. Individual Satyagraha in September 1940.
Third Round Table Conference • Vinoba Bhave was the first to offer
It was held in 1932. Congress didn’t individual Satyagraha, followed by
participate. The result of round table Jawaharlal Nehru and Brahma Dutt.
conference was the Government of India Act • With this the Dilli Chalo Movement Began.
1935. Cripps Mission
The Cripps Mission arrived in March 1942 to
Observation of Day of Deliverance
assuage the nationalists. But its proposals
The Second World War broke out in 1939 and
bore no fruit.
the Viceroy of India Linlithgow immediately
Gandhi termed this proposal as a post dated
announced that India was also at war. Since
cheque in a crashing bank
the declaration was made without any
consultation with the Congress, it was greatly
resented by it. The Congress Ministry resigned
Quit India Movement
in the wake of the war. Congress agreed to
The futility that marked the Cripps mission
support Britain only in return of independence
had turned both Gandhi and Nehru sour with
being granted.
the British than any time in the past.
The Muslim League celebrated the end of the The Mahatma called upon the people to ‘Do
Congress rule as a day of deliverance on 22 or Die’ and called the movement he launched
December 1939. It was in this atmosphere from there as a ‘fight to the finish’.
that the League passed its resolution on 26 The All India Congress Committee met at
March 1940 in Lahore, demanding a separate Bombay on 8th August, 1942. It passed the
nation for Muslims. famous Quit India resolution and proposed to
start off a non-violent mass struggle under
Though the idea of Pakistan came from the Gandhi’s leadership
Muslim League platform in 1940 it had been The colonial government did not wait. All the
conceived ten years earlier by the poet– leaders of the Indian National Congress
scholar Mohammad Iqbal. At the League’s including Gandhi, were arrested early in the
annual conference at Allahabad (1930), Iqbal morning on 9 August 1942.

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The Indian people too did not wait. The daughter of freedom fighter Ammu
immediate response to the pre-dawn arrests, Swaminathan from Madras, Dr Lakshmi.
was hartals in almost all the towns where the On 6 July 1944, Subhas Bose addressed a
people clashed, often violentlywith the police. message to Gandhi over the Azad Hind Radio
Industrial workers across India went on strike. from Rangoon. Calling him the ‘Father of the
Prominent feature of the Quit India Nation’, Bose appealed to Gandhi for his
movement was the use of Radio by the rebels. blessing in what he described as ‘India’s last
Usha Mehta was the force behind the war of independence.’
clandestine radio operations and its broadcast
was heard as far away as Madras. INA with Axis Powers in War
A battalion of the INA commanded by Shah
Release of Gandhi Nawaz accompanied the Japanese army, in its
Gandhi’s release from prison on health march on Imphal. This was in late 1944 and
grounds, on 6 May 1944, led to the revival of the Axis powers, including the Japanese
the Constructive Programme. The colonial forces, had fallen into bad times all over. The
state meanwhile, put forward a plan for a Imphal campaign did not succeed and the
negotiation. Lord Archibald Wavell, who had Japanese retreated before the final surrender
replaced Linlithgow as Viceroy in October to the British command in mid-1945. Shah
1943, had begun to work towards another Nawaz and his soldiers of the INA were taken
round of negotiation. The negotiation prisoners and charged with treason.
resulted in the Cabinet mission.
INA Trial
Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose and the INA
The INA trials were held at the Red Fort in New
Bose with INA
Delhi. The Indian National Congress fielded its
The idea of Indian National Army (INA) was
best lawyers in defence of the INA soldiers.
first conceived in Malaya by Mohan Singh, an
The press in India reported the trials with all
Indian officer of the British Indian Army
empathy and editorials sought the soldiers
The Indian Prisoners of Wars with the
freed immediately.
Japanese were left under Mohan Singh’s
The INA week was marked by processions,
command. The fall of Singapore to the
hartals and even general strikes across the
Japanese forces added to the strength of the
nation demanding the release of the soldiers.
POWs and Mohan Singh now had 45,000
The Muslim League, the ShiromaniAkali Dal
POWs under his command. Of these, Mohan
and the Hindu MahaSabha, all those who had
Singh had drafted about 40,000 men in the
stayed clear of the Quit India campaign, joined
Indian National Army by the end of 1942.
the protests and raised funds for their
Bose came to Singapore and set up the
defence. Although the trial court found
Provisional Government of Free India on 21
Sehgal, Dhillon and Shah Nawaz Khan guilty of
October [Link] Provisional Government
treason, the commander in chief remitted the
declared war against Britain and the other
sentences and set them free on 6 January
allied nations. The Axis powers recognised
1946.
Bose’s Provisional Government as its ally.
The Rani of Jhansi regiment of the INA was Demand for a Separate Nation
commanded by a medical doctor and Meanwhile, the communal challenge
persisted and the Muslim League pressed with

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its demand for a separate nation. The Lahore Muslims in the Central Legislative Assembly
resolution of the Muslim League in March and most of the reserved provincial seats as
1940 had altered the discourse from the well.
Muslims being a ‘minority’ to the Muslims In 1946 the Secretary of State Pethick-
constituting a ‘nation’. Mohammed Ali Jinnah Lawrence led a three-member Cabinet
was asserting this right as the sole
Mission to New Delhi with the hope of
spokesperson of the community.
resolving the Congress–Muslim League
Rajaji’s Proposals/Plan deadlock and thus, of transferring British
In April 1944, when the Congress leaders were power to a single Indian administration.
in jail, [Link] put out a proposal to Jinnah accepted the Cabinet Mission’s
resolve the issue. The Muslim league rejected proposal, as did the Congress leaders.
the proposal. But on 29 July 1946, the Muslim League
adopted a resolution rejecting the Cabinet
Wavell Plan
Mission Plan and called upon the Muslims
In June 1945 Lord Wavell moved to negotiate
throughout India to observe a ‘Direct Action
and called for the Simla conference.
Day’ in protest on August 16.
His proposal was an Executive Council,
Atlee Statement
exclusively with Indians along with himself
British Prime Minister Atlee’s statement in
and the commander-in-chief; an equal
Parliament on 20 February 1947, that the
number of representatives in the council for
British were firm on their intention to leave
the caste Hindus and the Muslims and
India by June 1948, set the pace for another
separate representation for the Scheduled
stage. Lord Wavell was replaced as Viceroy by
Castes and the start of discussions for a new
Lord Mountbatten on 22 March 1947.
constitution. The proposal displeased
everyone. The Simla Conference held Mountbatten Plan
between 25 June 1945 and 14 July 1945, Mount batten came up with a definite plan for
ended without a resolution. partition. It involved splitting up Punjab into
The years between the Lahore resolution of West and East (where the west would go to
1940 and the Simla Conference in 1945, Pakistan) and a similar division of Bengal,
marked the consolidation of a Muslim wherein the Western parts will remain in India
national identity and the emergence of Jinnah and the East become Pakistan.
as its sole spokesperson. It was at a It was also called 3rd June Plan In case of
convention of Muslim League Legislators in partition, two dominions and two Constituent
Delhi in April 1946, that Pakistan was defined Assemblies would be created. The plan
as a ‘sovereign independent state’. declared that power would be handed over by
15th August, 1947.
Cabinet Mission and Direct Action Day
The Congress Working Committee on 1 May
Muslim League openly boycotted the Quit
1947, conveyed its acceptance of the idea of
India movement of 1942. In the elections held
partition to Mountbatten.
in 1946 to the Constituent Assembly, Muslim
League won all 30 seats reserved for the

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India Independence Act Amending Act of 1781, also known as the Act
On 18 July, 1947, British Parliament ratified of Settlement. This act was named after
the Mountbatten Plan as the Independence of ‘William Pitt’ (PM of British) who enforced it.
India Act, 1947.
Features of the Act
The act provided for the creation of two
This Act distinguished between the
independent dominions of India and Pakistan. commercial and political functions of the
Each dominion was to have a Governor– company.
General to be responsible for effective It allowed the Court of Directors to manage
operation of the act. the commercial affairs but created a new body
called the Board of Control to manage the
political affairs.
HISTORICA L BACKGROUND Thus, it established a system of double
OF CONSTITUTION government, i.e. Dyarchy. The British
Government got supreme control over the
The British came to India in 1600 as traders, in company’s affairs.
the form of East India Company, which had
the exclusive right of trading in India under a Charter Act, 1793
Charter granted by Queen Elizabeth I. In 1765, Salaries for the staff and members of the
the company got rights over revenue and civil Board of Control to be paid from Indian
justice, i.e. Diwani Rights over Bengal, Bihar revenue.
and Orissa. In 1858, in the wake of the 'Sepoy
Mutiny', the British Crown assumed direct Charter Act, 1813
responsibility for the governance of India. In Ended East India Company’s monopoly of
1934, the Constituent Assembly was formed trade with India and provided 1 lakh grant for
at the suggestion of M. N. Roy. education in India.

Company Rule (1773–1858) 3. Charter Act of 1833

This Act was the final step towards
1. Regulating Act Of 1773 centralisation in British India.
It designated the Governor of Bengal as the
'Governor-General of Bengal'. The first such Features of the Act
Governor-General of Bengal was Lord Warren This Act made the Governor-General of Bengal
Hastings. as the Governor-General of India and vested
Features of the Act in him all civil and military powers. Lord
This Act provided for the establishment of a William Bentinck was the first Governor-
Supreme Court at Calcutta (1774) comprising General of India.
one chief justice and three other judges. All legislative, administrative and financial
It prohibited the servants of the company powers were handed over to Governor-
from accepting presents. General in council. It deprived the governor of
Bombay and Madras presidencies of their
2. Pitt's India Act of 1784 legislative powers.
In a bid to rectify the defects of the Regulating A Law Commission under Lord Macaulay was
Act of 1773, the British Parliament passed the constituted for codification of laws.

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The company was now no more a trading body • It ended the system of double government
but had become political and administrative by abolishing the Board of Control and
body. Court of Directors.
• It created a new office, Secretary of State
4. Charter Act of 1853
for India, vested with complete authority
This Act was the last of the series of Charter
and control over Indian administration.
Acts passed by the British Parliament between
• It established a 15-member council to
1793 and 1853.
assist the Secretary of State for India. This
Features of the Act council was an advisory body.
It separated, for the first time, the legislative
2. Indian Councils Act of 1861, 1892 and 1909
and executive functions of the Governor-
Features of the Act of 1861
General's council. It provided for the addition
• This Act made a beginning of
of six members called legislative councillors to
representative institutions by associating
the council.
Indians with the law-making process.
Out of the six members, four members were
• In 1862, Lord Canning nominated three
selected from the local government of
Indians to his council — the Raja of
Madras, Bombay Bengal and Agra.
Benaras, Maharaja of Patiala and Sir
It introduced an open competition system of
Dinakar Rao.
selection and recruitment of civil servants.
• It also provided for the establishment of
The covenanted civil service was thus thrown
new legislative councils for Bengal, North-
open to the Indians also. Accordingly, the
Western Frontier Province (NWFP) and
Macaulay Committee (the Committee on the
Punjab, which were established in 1862,
Indian Civil Service) was appointed in 1854.
1866 and 1897, respectively.
The Crown Rule (1858–1947) • Decentralisation process started. It
empowered the Viceroy to make rules and
1. Government of India Act of 1858 orders for the more convenient
• This significant Act was enacted in the transaction of business in the council. It
wake of the Revolt of 1857 — also known also gave recognition to the 'portfolio'
as the First War of Independence or the system, introduced by Lord Canning in
'Sepoy Mutiny'. 1859.
• This Act known as the Act for the Good • It empowered the Viceroy to issue
Government of India, abolished the East ordinances, without the concurrence of
India Company rule and transferred the the legislative council, during an
powers of government, territories and emergency. The life of such an ordinance
revenues to the British Crown. was six months.
Features of the Act Features of the Act of 1892
• It changed the designation of the • It increased the number of members (non-
Governor-General of India to that of official) in the central and provincial
Viceroy of India. Viceroy was the direct legislative councils but maintained the
representative of the British Crown in official majority in them.
India. Lord Canning thus became the first
Viceroy of India.

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• It increased the functions of legislative Under this, the Muslim members were to
councils and gave them the power of be elected only by Muslim voters. Thus,
discussing the budget and addressing the Act 'legalised communalism' and Lord
questions to the executive. Minto came to be known as the Father of
• Indirect provision for election was used. Communal Electorate.
• Though it was insignificant, but it brought • It provided separate representation for
an element of representation for the first Presidency, Corporations, Chambers of
time by allowing discussion of budget. Commerce, University and Zamindars.
• This act also introduced the element of
election in India. 3. Government of India Act of 1919
• Samuel Montagu, the Secretary of State
Features of the Act of 1909 for India and Lord Chelmsford, Viceroy of
• This Act is also known as Morley Minto India prepared report to introduce self-
Reforms (Lord Morley was the Secretary of governing institutions in India.
State for India and Lord Minto was the
Viceroy of India). Features of the Act
• It considerably increased the size of the • The central and provincial legislatures
legislative councils, both central and were authorised to make laws on their
provincial. respective list of subjects. However, the
• The number of members in the Central structure of government continued to be
Legislative Council was raised from 16 to centralised and unitary.
• It further divided the provincial subjects
60.
into two parts — transferred and
• It retained the official majority in the reserved. The transferred subjects were to
Central Legislative Council but allowed the be administered by the Governor with the
provincial legislative councils to have a aid of ministers responsible to the
non- official majority. legislative council. The reserved subjects,
on the other hand, were to be
• It enlarged the deliberative functions of administered by the Governor and his
the legislative councils at both levels. For executive council without being
example, members could ask responsible to the legislative council. This
supplementary questions, move dual scheme of governance was known as
'dyarchy'.
resolutions on the budget and so on.
• It introduced, for the first time,
• It provided (for the first time) for the
bicameralism and direct elections in the
association of Indians with the executive country.
councils of the Viceroy and Governors. • It created a new office of the High
• Satyendra Prasad Sinha became the first Commissioner for India in London.
Indian to join the Viceroy's Executive • It provided for the appointment of a
Council. He was appointed as a law statutory commission to inquire into and
member. report on its working after ten years of its
• It introduced a system of communal coming into force.
representation for Muslims by accepting
the concept of 'separate electorate'.

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Simon Commission It was a lengthy and detailed document having
• In November 1927 itself, i.e. two years 321 Sections and 10 Schedules.
before the schedule, the British
Government announced the appointment Features of the Act
of a seven-member statutory commission • It provided for the establishment of an All-
under the chairmanship of Sir John Simon India Federation consisting of provinces
to report on the condition of India under
and princely states as units. The Act
its new Constitution.
divided the powers between the Centre
• All the members of this commission were
and units in terms of three lists — Federal
British; hence all parties boycotted the
List for Centre with 59 items, Provincial
commission.
List for provinces with 54 items and the
• On 3 February 1928, the Commission was
Concurrent List for both with 36 items.
greeted with Hartals and black flag
• Residuary powers were given to the
demonstrations, under the slogan Simon
Viceroy. However, the federation never
Go Back.
came into being as the princely states did
• At Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was severely
beaten in a Lathi charge and he not join it.
succumbed to his injuries on 17 November • It abolished dyarchy in the provinces and
1929. introduced ‘provincial autonomy’ in its
place. It provided for the adoption of
Communal Award in August 1932
diarchy at the Centre.
• Ramsay MacDonald, the British Prime
• It introduced bicameralism in six out of
Minister, announced a scheme of
eleven provinces.
representation of the minorities, which
• It further extended the principle of
came to be known as the Communal
communal representation by providing
Award. The award not only continued
separate electorates for depressed classes
separate electorates for the Muslims,
(scheduled castes), women and labour
Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians and
(workers).
Europeans but also extended it to the
depressed classes (scheduled castes). • It abolished the Council of India,
• Gandhiji was distressed over this established by the Government of India
extension of the principle of communal Act of 1858.
representation to the depressed classes • It provided for the establishment of a
and undertook fast unto death in Reserve Bank of India to control the
Yeravada Jail (Poona) to get the award currency and credit of the country.
modified. At last, there was an agreement • It provided for the establishment of not
between the leaders of the Congress and only a Federal Public Service Commission
the depressed classes. The agreement, but also a Provincial Public Service
known as Poona Pact, retained the Hindu Commission and Joint Public Service
joint electorate and have reserved seats Commission for two or more provinces.
for the depressed classes. • It provided for the establishment of a
Federal Court, which was set up in 1937.
4. Government of India Act of 1935
This Act marked a second milestone towards a
completely responsible government in India.

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5. Indian Independence Act of 1947 • Lord Mountbatten became the first
• On 20 February 1947, the British Prime Governor-General of the new Dominion
Minister Clement Atlee declared that the India. Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Prime
British rule in India would end by 30 June Minister of independent India. The
1948; after which the power would be Constituent Assembly of India formed in
transferred to responsible Indian hands. 1946 became the Parliament of the Indian
Thus ended the British rule in India and Dominion.
India was declared as an independent and
Making of the Indian Constitution
sovereign state from 15 August 1947.
Constitution is a legally sanctified document
• It provided for the partition of India and
of people’s faith and aspirations. It was the
the creation of two independent
fundamental law of a country and all other
dominions of India and Pakistan with the laws and customs of the country in order to be
right to secede from the British valid must conform to it.
Commonwealth. The Constitution of India was framed and
• It abolished the office of the Ciceroy and adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India.
provided, for each dominion, a Governor- The task of framing a constitution of a
General, who was to be appointed by the sovereign democratic nation is performed by
British King on the advice of the Dominion a representative body of its people. Such a
body elected by the people for the purpose of
Cabinet.
considering and adopting a constitution may
• It empowered the Constituent Assemblies
be known as the constituent assembly.
of the two dominions to frame and adopt
In 1938, Jawaharlal Nehru declared that the
constitutions for their respective nations constitution of free India must be framed
and to repeal any act of the British without outside interference. In 1934, Indian
Parliament, including the independence National Congress (INC) officially demanded
itself. for the constitution of a constituent assembly
• It granted permission to princely states to for the making of the constitution. The British
join India or Pakistan or remain accepted the demand in 1940, known as
independent. ‘August Offer’.
• No Act of the British Parliament passed In 1942, Sir Stafford Cripps came to India with
a proposal to frame the constitution after
after 15 August 1947 was to extend to
World War. The Cabinet Mission was sent to
either of the new dominions unless it was
India consisted of three members:
extended thereto by a law of the
1. Lord Pethick Lawrence
legislature of the dominion. 2. Sir Stafford Cripps
• It abolished the office of the Secretary of 3. A. V. Alexander
the State for India and transferred his This commission arrived in India on 24 March
functions to the Secretary of State for 1946.
Commonwealth Affairs.
Composition of the Constituent Assembly
• It dropped the title of Emperor of India
• The total strength of the assembly was
from the royal titles of the King of England.
389, out of these, 296 were elected to

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represent the British India and 93 seats as the President and the Vice-President of
were alloted to the princely states. Out of the Constituent Assembly.
296 members, 292 members were to be • Sir. B. N. Rau acted as the constitutional
elected by the provincial legislatures while advisor.
4 members were to represent the four • On 13 December 1946, Jawaharlal Nehru
Chief Commissioner’s provinces of Delhi, moved the historic ‘Objectives Resolution’
Ajmer-Merwara, Coorg and British in the Constituent Assembly. It envisaged
Baluchistan. 93 seats were reserved for the constitutional structure.
princely states remained which unfilled as • After the partition of 1947 (due to the
they stayed away from the Constituent withdrawal of the Muslim League), the
Assembly. members of the Constituent Assembly
• Seats are allocated in proportion to their were reduced to 299 (90 Muslim
respective population. members).
• 296 British Indian representatives of each
Facts About the Constituent Assembly
community were elected and that of
princely states were nominated. Seats Constituent Assembly has two functions:
were allocated to three communities — 1. Formulation of the Constitution – Chaired
Muslims, Sikhs and general —in
by Dr. Rajendra Prasad
proportion to their population. (1
representative for 10 lakh members). 2. Law-making Body – Chaired by G. V.
• The method of proportional Mavlankar
representation by means of a single
transferable vote was followed. Total sessions: Eleven (11)
• The elections were held in August 1946. 1. 9 December 1946 to 23 December 1946 –
The INC won 209 seats, Muslim League
First Session
won 73 seats and the independents won
15 seats. 2. 14 November 1946 to 26 November 1949 –
• Princely states stayed away from the Final Session (11th Session)
Constituent Assembly.
• Mahatma Gandhi didn’t participate in the
The Constituent Assembly took 2 years, 11
Constituent Assembly.
months and 18 days to frame the Indian
Constitution.
Working of the Constituent Assembly
The Constituent Assembly of India was
• On 9 December 1946, the Constituent
converted into the Provisional Parliament of
Assembly held its first meeting with Dr.
India on 26 November 1949.
Sachchidanand Sinha as its temporary
The ‘Objective Resolution’ was adopted by the
president. The meeting was attended by
Constituent Assembly on 22 January 1947.
211 members.
• Muslim League boycotted the meeting, Other Functions Performed by the
insisting on a separate state of Pakistan. Constituent Assembly
Only 211 members attended the meeting. • It ratified India’s membership of the
• On 11 December 1946, Dr. Rajendra Commonwealth in May 1949.
Prasad and H. C. Mukherjee were elected

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• It adopted the Indian national flag on 22 • 26 January 1950 was the date of
July 1947. commencement of the Indian
• It adopted the Indian national anthem on Constitution.
24 January 1950. • Mahatma Gandhi and Mohammad Ali
• It elected Dr. Rajendra Prasad as the first Jinnah were not members of the
President of India on 24 January 1950. Constituent Assembly.

Drafting Committee
• It was set up on 29 August 1947. INDIA N POLITY
• It was provided with the task of preparing
a draft of the new constitution. Sources of the Indian Constitution
Indian Constitution is an essential and
Members of the Drafting Committee
fundamental document that forms the basis
1. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar (Chairman)
of the Republic of India. It is the origin of the
2. N. Gopalaswamy Ayyangar state, the government, citizenship, rights,
3. Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer liberty and justice. However, it is often
4. Dr. K. M. Munshi criticised for not being original per se because
many of its provisions are borrowed from
5. Syed Mohammed Saadullah
other countries.
6. N. Madhava Rau (Replaced B. L. Mitter due Regardless of criticism, the Indian
to Mitter’s iII health)
Constitution, because of its borrowed
7. T. T. Krishnamachari (Replaced D. P. character, is like a bouquet with the best
Khaitan, who died in 1948). flowers picked up from different gardens.
Indian Constitution was adopted on 26 Different legal systems have evolved
November 1949 and received signatures from differently, giving rise to various legal
284 out of 299 members. principles as the fruit of evolution. The
borrowings have been justified and well
Enactment of the Indian Constitution defended by the constitution-makers. As is
• The Indian Constitution as adopted widely quoted, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar said the
contained a Preamble, 395 articles and 8 following: “Nobody holds any patent rights in
schedules. the fundamental ideas of the Constitution.”
• Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, Law Minister, is Thus, borrowing provisions have helped the
recognised as ‘Father of the Constitution Indian Constitution to build upon the
of India’ and ‘Çhief Architect of the collective learning of humankind. Let us check
Constitution of India’. the provisions which have been sourced from
different legal systems:
Enforcement of the Indian Constitution
• The Government of India Act of 1935: This
• Some parts were in effect from 26
was an Act passed by the Parliament of
November 1949 like citizenship, elections,
Britain. It provided a framework for the
provisional parliament, temporary and
Government of India and was passed in
Transitional provision — immediate
response to the demands of the Indian
effect.
leaders for democracy. The Indian
• A major part of the Indian Constitution
Constitution borrows from it the federal
came into force on 26 January 1950.

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scheme of government, office of Governor, political justice (found in the Preamble of the
the system of the judiciary (establishing a Indian Consitution).
Supreme • French Constitution: Republic character
Court), public service commissions and of Constitution, the ideals of liberty, equality
emergency provisions. and fraternity in the Preamble.
• British Constitution: Parliamentary • South African Constitution: Procedure for
system, Bicameralism, Rule of Law (Article amendment of the Constitution and election
14), Legislative procedure, Single citizenship, of the members of the Rajya Sabha.
Cabinet system and Writs (Article 32 & Article • Japanese Constitution: Procedure
226). established by law.
• The US Constitution: Preamble,
Fundamental rights (Part III), Post of the Vice- These, the above-mentioned provisions, are
President, Judicial review, Impeachment of those which have been sourced from a foreign
the President, Removal of judges of the legal system. These borrowed provisions are
Supreme Court and High Court. very basic provisions or procedural provisions.
• The Irish Constitution: Directive Principles Interpretation has been made in the context
of State Policy (Part IV) (Ireland borrowed it of Indian society. For example, in addition to
from Spain), the nomination of members to “equal protection of law” or affirmative
Rajya Sabha and method of election of the actions, the Indian Constitution provides for
President. reservation in employment. While the
• Canadian Constitution: It is exciting that concept of affirmative action finds its origin in
the same parliament (British), which passed the US constitution, reservations do not exist
the Government of India Act 1935, made in the USA. Thus, the Indian Constitution
constitutional laws for Canada. Thus, presents the best ideas in the world with
borrowing from Canada means taking implementation and interpretation in a total
something from the English Case law. The Indian context.
provisions regarding the federation with a
strong centre, the appointment of governors
POLITY
by the center and advisory jurisdiction of the
Supreme Court (Article 143) and the
residuary powers with the centre (Article Important Articles
248) have been sourced from Canada. Article 1 – India that is Bharat is a Union of
• Australian Constitution: Freedom of trade States.
and commerce, Concurrent List, the joint Article 2 – Admission or establishment of new
sitting of the two Houses of the Parliament. states.
• Weimar Constitution (Constitution of Article 3 – Formation of new states and
Germany): Suspension of Fundamental alteration of areas, boundaries or names of
Rights during Emergency. existing states.
Article 5 – Citizenship at the commencement
• Soviet Constitution (USSR): The Soviet
of the Constitution.
Constitution is known for its socialism. India,
being a welfare state, did borrow the Article 10 – Continuance of the rights of
principles like Fundamental duties, Five-year citizenship.
plan and the ideals of social, economic and

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Article 11 – Parliament to regulate the right of (ii) subjected to a penalty greater than that
citizenship by law. prescribed by the law in force at the time of
Article 12 – Definition of state. the commission of the Act.
Article 13 – Laws inconsistent with or in • No Double Jeopardy: No person shall be
derogation of the fundamental rights. prosecuted and punished for the same
Article 14 – Equality before law. offence more than once.
Article 15 – Prohibition of discrimination on • No Self-Incrimination: No person accused
the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or of any offence shall be compelled to be a
place of birth. witness against himself.
(This right is available only for Indain citizens)
Article 16 – Equality of opportunity in matters Article 21 – Protection of life and personal
of public employment. liberty.
(This right is available only for Indain citizens) The following rights are part of Article 21
Article 19 – Protection of certain rights • Right to live with human dignity
regarding freedom of speech, etc. • Right to decent environment including
(This right is available only for Indain citizens) pollution free water, air and protection
It guarantees to all citizens the six rights. against hazardous industries
• Right to livelihood
They are • Right to privacy
• Right to freedom of speech and • Right to shelter
expression. • Right to health
• Right to assemble peacefully and without • Right to free education upto 14 years of
arms. age
• Right to form associations or unions or co- • Right to free legal aid
operatives. • Right against solitary confinement
• Right to move freely throughout the • Right to speedy trial
territory of India. • Right against handcuffing
• Right to reside and settle in any part of the • Right against inhuman treatment
territory of India.
• Right against delayed execution
• Right to practice any profession or to carry
• Right to travel abroad
on any occupation, trade or business.
• Right against bonded labour
Originally, Article 19 contained seven rights.
• Right against custodial harassment
But, the right to acquire, hold and dispose of
• Right to emergency medical aid
property was deleted by the 44th Amendment
• Right to timely medical treatment in
Act of 1978 and replaced in Article 300A.
government hospital
Article 20 – Protection in respect of conviction
• Right not to be driven out of a state
for offences.
• Right to fair trial
It contains three provisions
• Right of prisoner to have necessities of life
• No Ex-Post-Facto Law: No person shall be • Right of women to be treated with
(i) convicted of any offence except for decency and dignity
violation of a law in force at the time of the • Right against public hanging
commission of the act • Right to hearing

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• Right to information. • Quo-warranto: Which means ‘by what

• Right to reputation authority or warrant’. It is issued to
Article 22 – Protection against arrest and enquire into the legality of claim of a
detention. person to a public office. Hence, it
Article 23 – Prohibition of traffic in human prevents illegal usurpation of public office
beings and forced labour. by a person.
Article 24 – Prohibition of employment of • Prohibition: Which means ‘to forbid’. It is
children below the age of 14 years in factories, issued by a higher court to a lower court
mine, etc. or tribunal to prevent the latter from
Article 25 – Freedom of conscience and exceeding its jurisdiction or usurping a
right to freely profess, practice and jurisdiction that, it does not possess.
propagate religion. • Certiorari: Which means ’to be certified’
Article 26 – Freedom to Manage Religious or ‘to be informed’. It is issued by a higher
Affairs. court to a lower court or tribunal either to
Article 27 – Freedom from taxation for transfer a case pending with the latter to
promotion of a religion. itself or to squash the order of the latter in
Article 28 – Freedom from attending a case. It is issued on the grounds of excess
religious instruction. of jurisdiction or lack of jurisdiction or
Article 29 – Protection of interests of error of law.
minorities. Article 34 – Restriction on Rights conferred by
Article 30 – Right of Minorities to establish this Part while martial law is in force in
and administer educational institutions. any area.
Article 32 – Remedies for enforcement of Article 36 to 51 – Directive Principles of State
rights conferred by this Part. Policy.
(Dr B. R. Ambedkar called Article 32 as ‘heart (Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, called these principles
and soul’ of the Constitution) as ‘novel feature of the Constitution’.)
Under Article 32 – Supreme Court and Article Article 51A – Fundamental Duties.
226 – High Court can issue writs of various it shall be the duty of every citizen of India to
forms in case of violation of Fundamental follow those 11 fundamental duties.
Rights: Article 52 – The President of India.
• Habeas Corpus: which means, ‘to have the Article 58 – Qualifications for election as
body, It is an order issued by the court to President.
a person who has detained another Article 61 – Procedure for impeachment of
person, to produce the body of the latter the President.
before it. Article 63 – There shall be a Vice-President of
(This writ may be addressed to an official India.
or a private person) Article 69 – Oath of office of the Vice-
• Mandamus: Which means ‘we command’. President.
It is a command issued by the court to a Article 72 – Veto power of president.
public official asking him to perform his Article 73 – Extent of executive power of the
official duties that he has failed or refused Union.
to perform. Article 74 – Council of Ministers to aid and
advise the President.

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Article 76 – Attorney-General for India. Article 136 – Special leave to appeal by the
Article 85 – Sessions of Parliament, Supreme Court.
prorogation and dissolution. Article 137 – Review of judgments or orders
Article 89 – The Vice-President is the Ex-officio by the Supreme Court.
Chairman of Rajya Sabha. Article 138 – Enlargement of the jurisdiction
Article 93 – Speaker of Lok Sabha. of the Supreme Court.
Article 101 – Vacation of seats. Article 139 – Conferment on the Supreme
Article 102 – Disqualifications for Court of powers to issue certain writs.
membership. Article 139A – Transfer of certain cases.
Article 105 – Powers, privileges, etc., of the Article 140 – Ancillary powers of the Supreme
Houses of Parliament and of the members and Court.
committees. Article 141 – Law declared by the Supreme
Article 108 – Joint sitting of Lok sabha and Court to be binding on all courts.
Rajya sabha which is presided over by the Article 142 – Enforcement of decrees and
Speaker of the Lok Sabha. orders of the Supreme Court and orders as to
Article 110 – Definition of Money Bills. discovery, etc.
Article 112 – Annual Financial Statement Article 143 – Power of President to consult
Article 117 – Special provisions as to financial the Supreme Court.
bills. Article 148 – Comptroller and Auditor-
Article 123 – Power of President to General of India.
promulgate ordinances during recess of Article 213 – Power of Governor to
Parliament. promulgate ordinances during recess of
Article 124 – Establishment and constitution Legislature.
of the Supreme Court. Article 215 – High Courts to be courts of
Article 129 – Supreme Court to be a court of record.
record. Article 226 – Power of High Courts to issue
Article 130 – Seat of the Supreme Court. certain writs.
Article 131 – Original jurisdiction of the Article 227 – Power of superintendence over
Supreme Court. all courts by the High Court.
Article 132 – Appellate jurisdiction of the Article 245–255 – Legislative relations
Supreme Court in appeals from High Courts in between the Union and the states.
certain cases. Article 280 – Finance Commission.
Article 133 – Appellate jurisdiction of the Article 299 – Contracts.
Supreme Court in appeals from High Courts in Article 300 – Suits and proceedings.
regard to civil matters. Article 320 – Functions of Public Service
Article 134 – Appellate jurisdiction of the Commissions.
Supreme Court in regard to criminal matters. Article 323A – Administrative tribunals.
Article 134A – Certificate for appeal to the Article 324 – Election commission.
Supreme Court. Article 326 – Elections to the House of the
Article 135 – Jurisdiction and powers of the People and to the Legislative Assemblies of
Federal Court under existing law to be States to be on the basis of adult suffrage.
exercisable by the Supreme Court. Article 352 – Proclamation of emergency (
National Emergency).

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Article 356 – State Emergency (President’s the power of Parliament to amend the
Rule) Constitution and procedure thereof.
Article 360 – Financial Emergency • It gets over the Golak Nath ruling and
Article 368 – Power of Parliament to amend asserts the power of Parliament, denied to
the Constitution and procedure thereof. in the Golak Nath ruling, to amend
Article 393 – Short title (This Constitution may Fundamental Rights.
be called the Constitution of India).
The Constitutional (25th) Amendment Act,
1971
Important Amendments
• The 25th Amendment of the Constitution in
The Connstitutional (First) Amendment Act,
1971 added a new clause, Article 31C, to
1951
the Constitution.
• This empowered the state to make special
provisions for the advancement of socially • Article 31C sought to change the
and economically backward classes. relationship between DPSP and
Fundamental Rights conferring primacy on
• It provided for the saving of laws providing
Articles 39(b) and 39(c) over Articles 14, 19
for the acquisition of estates, etc.
and 31.
• It added the Ninth Schedule to protect the
The Constitutional (26th) Amendment Act,
land reforms and other laws included in it
1971
from the judicial review. After Article 31,
• This abolished the privy purses and
Articles 31A and 31B were inserted.
privileges of the former rulers of princely
The Constitutional (Seventh) Amendment states.
Act, 1956
The Constitutional (36th) Amendment Act,
• This amendment was designed to
1975
implement the State Reorganisation Act.
• This made Sikkim a state of the Indian
The Constitutional (10th) Amendment Act, Union.
1961
The Constitutional (42nd) Amendment Act,
• The Tenth Amendment integrates the
1976
areas of free Dadra and Nagar Haveli with
• It is known as the Mini Constitution. The
the Union of India.
major amendments made in the
The Constitutional (13th) Amendment Act, Constitution by the 42nd Constitutional
1962 Amendment Act are:
• This gave the status of a state to Nagaland
▪ Preamble – the characterisation of India as
and made special provisions for it.
‘Sovereign Democratic Republic’ has been
The Constitutional (21th) Amendment Act, changed to ‘Sovereign Socialist Secular
1967 Democratic Republic’.
• It included Sindhi as the 15th regional
▪ The words ‘Unity of the nation’ have been
language in the Eighth Schedule.
changed to ‘Unity and integrity of the
The Constitutional (24th) Amendment Act, nation’.
1971
• It amended Articles 13 and 368 with a view
to removing all possible doubts regarding

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▪ Parliament and State Legislatures: The life • The 61st Amendment Act reduces the
of the Lok Sabha and State Legislative voting age from 21 years to 18 years for the
Assemblies was extended from 5 to 6 years. Lok Sabha and Assembly elections.
▪ Executive: It amended Article 74 to state The Constitutional (65th) Amendment Act,
explicitly that the President shall act in 1990
accordance with the advice of the Council • Article 338 of the Constitution has been
of Ministers in the discharge of his amended for the constitution of a National
functions. Commission for Scheduled Castes and
▪ Fundamental Duties: The 42nd Amendment Scheduled Tribes consisting of a
Act inserted Article 51A to create a new Chairperson, Vice-chairperson and five
part called IV A in the Constitution, which other members who shall be appointed by
prescribed the Fundamental Duties to the the President by warrant under his hand
citizens. and seal.

▪ Emergency: Prior to the 42nd Amendment The Constitutional (69th) Amendment Act,
Act, the President could declare an 1991
emergency under Article 352 throughout • This Amendment Act was to grant
the country and not in a part of the country statehood to Delhi as ‘National Capital
alone. This Amendment Act authorised the Territory of Delhi’.
President to proclaim an emergency in any The Constitutional (71st) Amendment Act,
part of the country. 1992
The Constitutional (44th) Amendment Act, • amended the Eighth Schedule of the
1978 Constitution, so as to include Konkani,
• It reduced the life of Lok Sabha and State Meitei (Manipuri) and Nepali languages,
Legislative Assemblies again to five years thereby raising the total number of
and thus restored the status quo ante. languages to eighteen.

• It has been provided that an emergency The Constitutional (73rd) Amendment Act,
can be proclaimed only on the basis of 1992
written advice tendered to the President • It added Schedule XI in the constitution
by the Cabinet. and it provided the constitutional status to
Panchyati Raj Institutions.
• Right to Property has been taken out from
The Constitutional (74th) Amendment Act,
the list of Fundamental Rights and has been
1992
declared a legal right.
• It added Schedule XII of the constitution in
The Constitutional (52nd) Amendment Act, the constitution. It provided the
1985 constitutional status to Municipality.
• This Act included the 10th Schedule in the The Constitutional (76th) Amendment Act,
constitution. (Anti Defection Law) 1994
The Constitutional (61st) Amendment Act, • This Amendment Act raises the reservation
1989 quota of government jobs and seats for

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admission in the educational institutions in The Constitutional (99th) Amendment Act,
favor of socially and educationally 2014
backward classes to 69 per cent in Tamil • The National Judicial Appointments
Nadu. Commission (NJAC) was established by the
Union Government of India by amending
The Constitutional (86th) Amendment Act,
the Constitution of India through the 99th
2002
Constitutional Amendment Act, 2011.
• With a view to making the right to free and
compulsory education a fundamental right, The Constitutional (100th) Amendment Act,
this Amendment Act inserts a new Article, 2015
namely, Article 21A conferring on all • The Constitutional (100th) Amendment) Act
children in the age group of 6 to 14 years of 2015 ratified the land boundary
the right to free and compulsory education.
agreement between India and Bangladesh.
• This Act also amends in Part III, Part IV and
• This Amendment Act amended the First
Part IV (A) of the Constitution.
Schedule of the Constitution to exchange
The Constitutional (89th) Amendment Act, the disputed territories occupied by both
2003 the nations in accordance with the 1974
• This Amendment Act adds Article 338 and bilateral Land Boundary Agreement.
provides for the creation of National
The Constitutional (101st) Amendment Act,
Commission for Scheduled Tribes.
2017
The Constitutional (91st) Amendment Act, • This introduced the Goods and Services
2003 Tax.
Ths Amendment Act makes provisions for
The Constitutional (102nd) Amendment Act,
limiting the size of the Council of Ministers at
2018
the Centre and in the States at the maximum
• This gave constitutional status to the
15%.
National Commission for Backward Classes.
The Constitutional (92nd) Amendment Act,
The Constitutional (103rd) Amendment Act,
2003
2019
It provided for the Amendment of Eigth
• A maximum of 10% reservation for
Schedule by adding four new regional Economically Weaker Sections (EWSs) of
languages (Bodo, Maithili, Santhali and Dogri) citizens of classes other than the classes
mentioned in clauses (4) and (5) of Article
thus, extending the list to 22 languages. 15, i.e. Classes other than socially and
The Constitutional (97th) Amendment Act, educationally backward classes of citizens
or the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled
2012
Tribes.
• In Part III of the Constitution, after the
words “or unions”, the words “Cooperative • It inserted Clause (6) under Article 15 as
Societies” were added. well as inserted Clause (6) under Article 16.

• In Part IV A, new Article 43B was inserted, The Constitutional (104th) Amendment Act,
2020
• After Part IXA of the Constitution, Part IX B
• This Act ceased the reservation of seats for
was inserted to accommodate state vs Anglo-Indians in the Lok Sabha and State
centre roles. Legislative assemblies and extended

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reservations for SCs and STs for up to ten Sovereignty Resides in the People
years. The amendment came into effect on The introduction of the Constitution declares
25 January 2020.
that the Constitution of India was adopted
The Constitutional (105th) Amendment Act, and enacted by the people of India and they
2021 are the custodians of the republic.
• The 105th Constitutional Amendment Act
Parliamentary Form of Government
amends Article 342A to state that the
power of the President to specify the The Constitution of India establishes a
socially and educationally backward classes parliamentary form of government both at
in the Central List for the purposes of the the centre and the states. In a parliamentary
Central Government. It also adds Clause (3) form of government, the Prime Minister and
to Article 342A, which clarifies that states Council of Ministers are responsible for all
and union territories will have the power to their actions to the government, particularly
identify and specify Socially and to the Lower house, Lok Sabha.
Economically Backward Classes for their Unique Blend of Rigidity and Flexibility
own purposes and that such a list may Though India has a written constitution, the
differ from the Central List. Indian Constitution is not as rigid as the
Salient Features of the Constitution American Constitution. It has also
incorporated a flexible nature in the
Lengthiest Constitution in the World
procedures for amendments.
Indian Constitution adopted by the
Constituent Assembly on 2 November 1949 is Fundamental Rights
the lengthiest constitution originally The Fundamental Rights are guaranteed by
containing 395 Articles, divided into 22 parts the Constitution to all its citizens through Part
and schedules. It is described as ‘elephant III of the Constitution. The Fundamental
size’ constitution. The length of the Rights guarantees the Right to equality, Right
constitution is because of several factors: to freedom, Freedom of religion, Right against
▪ It incorporates the experience of all leading exploitation, Educational and Cultural rights
constitutions. and Right to constitutional remedies.
▪ It prescribes a constitution for the union as
Directive Principles of State Policy
well as for the states.
Part IV of the Constitution deals with rights
▪ It incorporates detailed provisions
other than Fundamental Rights. However,
regarding centre–state relations.
they are not justifiable in the court of law. The
▪ It incorporates special provisions for idea of a ‘welfare state’ envisaged in our
Jammu & Kashmir.
Constitution can only be achieved if the states
▪ It includes justifiable and non-justifiable try to implement them with a high sense of
rights. moral duty.
▪ It contains special provisions to meet
regional problems. Quasi-federal in Nature
The nature of the Indian state is federal, in the
sense that the powers are distributed
between the Union and the state. But in times

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of emergency, the Government assumes a Secular
unitary character. The Constitution of India has created a secular
state. It means:
Adult Suffrage
▪ The state gives equal protection to all
All adult citizens above 18 are given the right
religions.
to vote. There are no separate electorates for
▪ The state does not uphold any particular
people belonging to different communities.
religion as the state religion.
Thus, in India, there is Universal Adult
Franchise without communal representation. ▪ Freedom of Religion is guaranteed in the
constitution.
Independence of Judiciary ▪ Equal respect for all religions.
The Constitution has made judiciary
Single Citizenship
independent from the legislature and the
executive. Judges are free from the The Constitution of India confers single Indian
interference of other organs of the citizenship. This helps in creating a feeling of
government, so that judges can give oneness.
judgement without fear and favour. Uniformity in Basic Administration
Judicial Review There is uniformity in most important matters
It means the power of the courts to declare of administration, e.g. single integrated
any law passed by the legislature and any act judicial system, uniformity in civil and criminal
of executive as void if it violates any provision laws, All India services.
of the Constitution. It emphasises the Revolutionary
supremacy of the judiciary. The Constitution of India has abolished
Fundamental Duties several unjust practices and at the same time,
The Fundamental Duties are incorporated in has provided special opportunities for the
the Constitution through the 42nd Amendment upliftment of the weaker sections.
Act. A set of 11 duties were incorporated as Lawyer’s Paradise
Fundamental Duties under Article 51A. The Constitution of India is very complex for
Sovereignty the common man to understand. The
complexity gives rise to litigation and
India is a free and independent country. India constitutional amendments. Lawyers gain
is no more under the domination of any importance from this.
foreign country and any external force cannot
Mix of Judicial Review and Parliamentary
influence its decisions.
Sovereignty
Democracy The Constitution of India compromises
India has a representative and responsible between the two. It empowers the judiciary to
government. Democracy has been introduced declare any law as null and void if it violates
with a view to realise the political, economic the basic framework of the Indian
and social democracy. Constitution. But the judiciary does not have
the power of judicial review over the wisdom
Republic
of any legislative policy, i.e. important
It means that the head of the state, President,
questions of public policy are to be decided on
will be periodically elected by the people.
the floor of the house. Constitution gives the

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legislature the power to amend the • Written Constitution
Constitution without destroying the basic The constitution must necessarily be a written
structure. document. It will be practically impossible to
maintain the supremacy of the constitution,
unless the terms of the constitution have been
POLITY
reduced into writing.

Federal and Unitary Features of the Indian • Rigidity

Constitution It means that the power of amending the
India is a federal system but with more tilt provisions of the constitution, which regulates
towards a unitary system of government. It is the status and powers of the federal and state
sometimes considered a quasi-federal system governments should not be confined
as it has features of both a federal and a exclusively either to the federal or state
unitary system. Article 1 of the Indian governments but must be a joint act of both.
Constitution states, ‘India, that is Bharat, shall Unitary features
be a union of states’. The word federation is
• Union of States
not mentioned in the Indian Constitution.
Article 1 of the Indian Constitution describes
Elements of federalism were introduced into
India as a ‘Union of States’, which implies two
modern India by the Government of India Act
things — firstly, it is not the result of an
of 1919, which separated powers between the
agreement among the states, as it is there in
centre and the provincial legislatures.
federations and secondly, the states have no
Federal features freedom to secede or separate from the
• Distribution of Powers Union. The Indian federation is a union
An essential feature of a federal constitution because it is indestructible and helps to
is the distribution of powers between the maintain the unity of the country.
central government and the governments of
• Power to Form New States and to Change
the several units (provincial governments)
Existing Boundaries
forming the federation. Federation means the
In the USA, it is not possible for the federal
distribution of the power of the State among
government to unilaterally change the
a number of co-ordinate bodies, each
territorial extent of a state, but in India, the
originating from and controlled by the
Parliament can do so even without the
constitution.
consent of the state concerned. Under Article
• Supremacy of the Constitution 3 of the Indian Constitution, the Centre can
This means that the constitution should be change the boundaries of existing states and
binding on the federal and state governments. can carve out new states.
Neither of the two governments should be in
• Unequal Representation in the
a position to override the provisions of the
constitution relating to the powers and status Legislature
which each is to enjoy. The equality of units in a federation is best
guaranteed by their equal representation in
the Upper House of the federal legislature
(Parliament). In a true federation such as that

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of the United States of America, every state, integrated judicial system for the whole of the
irrespective of its size in terms of area or country. We have a unified judiciary with the
population, sends two representatives to the Supreme Court at the apex. The high courts
Upper House, i.e. Senate. work under its supervision.

• Single Constitution • All India Services

There is a single Constitution for both Union Under Article 312, the All India Services
and the States. There is no provision for officials IAS, IPS and IFS (Forest) are appointed
separate Constitutions for the States. In the by the Centre, but are paid and controlled by
USA and Australia, the States have their own the states. However, in case of any
Constitutions which are equally powerful as irregularities or misconduct committed by the
the federal Constitution. officer, the states cannot initiate any
disciplinary action except suspending
• Single Citizenship him/her.
India follows the principle of uniform and
single citizenship, but in the USA and Preamble of the Indian Constitution
Australia, double citizenship is followed. This “We, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly
means that people are citizens of both the resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN
federal state and their own state, which has its SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC
own constitution. and to secure to all its citizens:
JUSTICE, Social, Economic and Political;
• Power to Make Laws on the Subjects in LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith
the State list and worship;
The Parliament has the exclusive authority to EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to
make laws on the 100 subjects of the Union promote among them all;
List, but the states do not have such exclusive FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the
rights over the State List. Under certain individual and the unity and integrity of the
circumstances, the Parliament can legislate on Nation
subjects of the State List. IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this
twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do
• Emergency Provisions
HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO
The President of India can declare three
OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION”.
different types of emergency rules under
Articles 352, 356 and 360 for an act of foreign Keywords in the Preamble
aggression or internal armed rebellion, failure • Sovereign
of constitutional machinery in a state and The word ‘sovereign’ implies that India is
financial emergency, respectively. neither a dependency nor a dominion of any
other nation but an independent state. There
• Unified Judiciary
is no authority above it and it is free to
The federal principle envisages a dual system
conduct its own affairs (both
of courts. But, in India, there is a single

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internal and external). monarchy, the head of the state (usually king
Though in 1949, India declared the or queen) enjoys a hereditary position, i.e. he
continuation of her full membership of the comes into office through succession, e.g.
Commonwealth. Britain. In a republic, on the other hand, the
head of the state is always elected directly or
• Socialist indirectly for a fixed period, e.g. the USA.
Even before the term was added by the 42nd Therefore, the term ‘republic’ in our Preamble
Constitutional Amendment in 1976, the Indian indicates that India has an elected head called
Constitution had a socialist content in the the President. He is elected indirectly for a
form of certain Directive Principles of State fixed period of five years.
Policy. In other words, what was hitherto A republic also means two more things — one,
implicit in the Indian Constitution has now vesting of political sovereignty in the people
been made explicit. and not in a single individual like a king;
second, the absence of any privileged class
• Secularism
and hence all public offices being opened to
The Indian Constitution embodies the positive
every citizen without any discrimination.
concept of secularism, i.e. all religions in our
country (irrespective of their strength) have
• Justice
the same status and support from the state. The term ‘justice’ in the Preamble embraces
three distinct forms — social, economic and
• Democratic
A democratic polity, as stipulated in the political, secured through various provisions
Preamble, is based on the doctrine of popular of Fundamental Rights and Directive
sovereignty, i.e. possession of supreme power Principles.
by the people. • Social justice denotes the equal treatment
Democracy is of two types — direct and of all citizens without any social distinction
indirect. based on caste, colour, race, religion, sex and
In a direct democracy, the people exercise
so on.
their supreme power directly, as is the case in
• Economic justice denotes the non-
Switzerland. There are four devices of direct
discrimination between people on the basis of
democracy, namely, referendum, initiative,
recall and plebiscite. economic factors. It involves the elimination
In an indirect democracy, on the other hand, of glaring inequalities in wealth, income and
the representatives elected by the people property. A combination of social justice and
exercise the supreme power and thus carry on economic justice denotes what is known as
the government and make the laws. This type ‘distributive justice’.
of democracy is also known as representative • Political justice implies that all citizens
democracy
should have equal political rights, equal access
• Republic to all political offices and equal voice in the
A democratic polity can be classified into two government
categories — monarchy and republic. In a

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• Liberty altering the basic structure of the

The term ‘liberty’ means the absence of Constitution).
restraints on the activities of individuals, and
Amendability of the Preamble
at the same time, providing opportunities for
The Preamble has been amended only once so
the development of individual personalities.
far, in 1976, by the 42nd Constitutional
The Preamble secures to all citizens of India
Amendment Act, which has added three new
liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and
words — Socialist, Secular and Integrity — to
worship, through their Fundamental Rights.
the Preamble. This amendment was held to be
• Equality valid.
The term ‘equality’ means the absence of
Reorganisation of State
special privileges to any section of the society
and the provision of adequate opportunities Dhar Commission and JVP Committee
for all individuals without any discrimination. • SK Dhar – chaired the Dhar Commission –
The Preamble secures all citizens of India Appointed by Jawaharlal Nehru in Dec 1948
equality of status and opportunity. This and recommended the reorganisation of
provision embraces three dimensions of states on the basis of administrative
equality — civic, political and economic. convenience rather than linguistic factors.
• Jawaharlal Nehru – Vallabhai Patel –
• Fraternity
Pattabhi Sittaramaiya – headed the JVP
Fraternity means a sense of brotherhood. The
Committee – This committee also rejected the
Indian Constitution promotes this feeling of
idea of state reorganisation on linguistic basis.
fraternity by the system of single citizenship.
• Potti Sriramalu – A social worker in Andhra
The Preamble declares that fraternity has to
(Former Madras Province) urged for a
assure two things — the dignity of the
separate Telugu speaking area from Madras
individual and the unity and integrity of the
state. This followed a popular agitation and
nation. The word ‘integrity’ has been added to
the death of Potti Sriramalu after a 56-day
the Preamble by the 42nd Constitutional
hunger strike.
Amendment of 1976.

Preamble Related Cases In 1953, Andhra was the first linguistic state
• Berubari Union Case (1960): Supreme created by separating Telugu-speaking areas
Court said “Preamble is not a part of the of Madras.
Constitution”.
Date of Adoption of the Constitution
• Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973):
Indian Constitution stipulates 26 November
“Preamble is a part of the Constitution”
1949 as the date. (Constitution Day)
(without altering the basic structure)
• LIC of India Case (1995)” “Preamble is the
integral part of Constitution”. (without

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Union & its Territory

Explanation

1 India, i.e. Bharat is as Union of States – Name and Territory of States

2 Admission or establishment of new states

3 Formation of new states or alteration of Boundaries

The Constitution (Article 4) itself declares that laws made for admission or
Articles (Under Part I)

establishment of new states (under Article 2) and formation of new states and
alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing states (under Article 3) are
4
not to be considered as amendments of the Constitution under Article 368. This
means that such laws can be passed by a simple majority and by the ordinary
legislative process.

Fazl Ali Commission

• Fazl Ali – headed this Commission in Dec 1953 and submitted its report in Sep 1955 mentioning
that reorganisation of states can be based on language, but the commission rejected the theory
of ‘One language One State’.
• As a result, 14 states and 6 Union Territories were created on 1 Nov 1956 by State Reorganisation
Act.

Year State Comments

1956 14 states, 6 Union Territories 7th Amendment of Constitution

1960

From Portuguese –10th Constitutional

1961 Dadra & Nagar Haveli (U.T)
Amendment Act (1962)

From Portuguese – 12th Constitutional

1962 Goa (U.T) Amendment Act 1962

By police action

From French – 14th Constitutional Amendment

1962 Pondicherry (U.T)
Act 1962

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1963 Assam → Nagaland (16th)

Akali Dal Khalistan protest →

Government the forms ‘Shah’ Commission →

1966
Punjab/Haryana bifurcated

Himachal Pradesh from U.T to State

1971
(18th)

1972

1975 Sikkim (22nd) By 36th Constitutional Amendment Act (1975)

Goa (23rd)

Arunachal Pradesh (24th)

1987
Mizoram (25th)

(All U.T’s are converted into states)

2000 s

2 June
Andhra Pradesh → Telangana
2014

Change of Names

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• United Provinces → Uttar Pradesh in purposes of employment, marriage and

1950 education.
• Madras → Tamil Nadu in 1969 Article 9: People voluntarily acquiring
• citizenship of a foreign country will not be
• Mysore → Karnataka in 1973 citizens of India.
• Laccadive, Minicoy, Amindivi Article 10: Any person who is considered a
→Lakshwadeep in 1973 citizen of India under any of the provisions of
• Union Capital Territory of Delhi → this Part shall continue to be citizen and will
National Capital Territory of Delhi in also be subject to any law made by the
1992 by the 69th Constitutional Parliament.
Amendment Act, 1991. Article 11: Parliament to regulate the right of
• Uttaranchal →Uttarkhand in 2006 citizenship by law.
• Pondicherry → Puducherry in 2006 The Parliament has the right to make any
provision concerning the acquisition and
• Orissa → Odisha in 2011
termination of citizenship and any other
matter relating to citizenship.
POLITY
Citizenship Act, 1955
Citizenship of India can be acquired in the
Citizenship
following ways:
Citizenship is the status of a person
• Citizenship at the commencement of the
recognised under law as being a legal member
of a sovereign state or belonging to a nation. Constitution
In India, Articles 5 – 11 of the Constitution • Citizenship by birth
deals with the concept of citizenship.
The term citizenship entails the enjoyment of • Citizenship by descent
full membership of any State in which a citizen • Citizenship by registration
has civil and political rights.
Article 5: Citizenship at the commencement of • Citizenship by naturalisation
the Constitution. • By incorporation of territory (by the
This article talks about citizenship for people Government of India)
at the commencement of the Constitution, i.e.
Termination of Indian Citizenship
on 26 November 1949.
Article 6: Citizenship of certain persons who Termination of Indian citizenship is possible in
have migrated from Pakistan. three ways according to the Citizenship Act of
Article 7: Citizenship of certain migrants to 1955:
Pakistan. • Renunciation: If any citizen of India who is
This article deals with the rights of people who also a national of another country
had migrated to Pakistan after 1 March 1947, renounces his Indian citizenship through a
but subsequently returned to India. declaration in the prescribed manner, he
Article 8: Citizenship of certain persons of ceases to be an Indian citizen. When a
Indian origin residing outside India male person ceases to be a citizen of India,
This article deals with the rights of people of every minor child of his also ceases to be a
Indian origin residing outside India for citizen of India. However, such a child may,
within one year after attaining full age,

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become an Indian citizen by making a • Right to Equality (Article 14-18)
declaration of his intention to resume
• Right to Freedom (Article 19-22)
Indian citizenship.
• Right against Exploitation (Article 23-24)
• Termination: Indian citizenship can be
terminated if a citizen knowingly or • Right to Freedom of Religion (Article 25-
voluntarily adopts the citizenship of any 28)
foreign country. • Cultural and Educational Rights (Article
• Deprivation: The government of India can 29-30)
deprive a person of his citizenship in some • Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article
cases. But this is not applicable for all 32)
citizens. It is applicable only in the case of
Note: The Right to property is now a legal right
citizens who have acquired the citizenship
and not a fundamental right.
by registration, naturalisation, or only by
Article 5 (c), which is citizenship at Fundamental rights available only to citizens
commencement for a domicile in India and The following is the list of fundamental rights
who has ordinarily been a resident of India that are available only to Indian citizens (and
for not less than 5 years immediately not to foreigners)
preceding the commencement of the • Prohibition of discrimination on the
Constitution. grounds of race, religion, caste, gender or
place of birth (Article 15).
Fundamental Rights • Equality of opportunity in matters of
Articles 12 – 35 of the Indian Constitution deal public employment (Article 16).
with Fundamental Rights. These human rights
• Freedom of speech and expression (Article
are conferred upon the citizens of India, for
19)
the Constitution tells that these rights are
inviolable. Right to Life, Right to Dignity, Right • Protection of the culture, language and
to Education, etc., all come under one of the script of minorities (Article 29)
six main fundamental rights. • Right of minorities to establish and
administer educational institutions
What are the fundamental Rights? (Article 30)
Fundamental rights are the basic human rights • Right to Equality (Articles 14–18)
enshrined in the Constitution of India, which Right to equality guarantees equal rights for
are guaranteed to all citizens. They are applied everyone, irrespective of religion, gender,
without discrimination on the basis of race, caste, race or place of birth. It ensures equal
religion, gender, etc. Significantly, employment opportunities in the government
fundamental rights are enforceable by the and insures against discrimination by the
courts, subject to certain conditions. State in matters of employment on the basis
List of Fundamental Rights of caste, religion, etc. This right also includes
There six fundamental rights of the Indian the abolition of titles as well as untouchability.
Constitution along with their constitutional • Article 14: Equality before law
articles related to them are mentioned below:

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• Article 15: Prohibition of discrimination on children in factories, etc. The Constitution

the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or prohibits the employment of children less
place of birth than 14 years in hazardous conditions.
• Article 23: Prohibition of traffic in human
• Article 16: Equality of opportunity in
beings and forced labour
matters of public employment
• Article 24: Prohibition of employment of
• Article 17: Abolition of untouchability children in factories, etc.
• Article 18: Abolition of titles Right to Freedom of Religion
Right to Freedom (Articles 19–22) (Articles 25 – 28)
Freedom is one of the most important ideals This indicates the secular nature of Indian
cherished by any democratic society. The polity. There is equal respect given to all
Indian Constitution guarantees freedom to religions. There is freedom of conscience,
citizens. profession, practice and propagation of
• Article 19: Freedom of Six Rights religion. The State has no official religion.
a) Right to freedom of speech and Every person has the right to freely practice
expression his or her faith, establish and maintain
b) Right to assemble peacefully and religious and charitable institutions.
without arms • Article 25: Freedom of conscience and
c) Right to form associations or unions free profession, practice and propagation
d) Right to move freely throughout the of religion
territory of India • Article 26: Freedom to manage religious
e) Right to reside and settle in any part of affairs
the territory of India and • Article 27: Freedom as to payment of
f) Right to practice any profession or to taxes for promotion of any particular
carry on any occupation, trade or religion
business • Article 28: Freedom as to attendance at
• Article 20: Protection in respect of religious instruction or religious worship
conviction for offences in certain educational institutions
• Article 21: Protection of life and personal
Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29–
liberty
30)
• Article 21A: The State shall provide free
These rights protect the rights of religious,
and compulsory education to all children
cultural and linguistic minorities by facilitating
of the age of six to fourteen years in such
them to preserve their heritage and culture.
manner as the State may, by law,
Educational rights are for ensuring education
determine (Right to education).
for everyone without any discrimination.
• Article 22: Protection against arrest and
• Article 29: Protection of interests of
detention in certain cases
minorities
Right against Exploitation (Articles 23 – 24) • Article 30: Right of minorities to establish
This right implies the prohibition of traffic in and administer educational institutions
human beings, beggar and other forms of
forced labour. It also implies the prohibition of

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Right to Constitutional Remedies 4. Mandamus (we command) is a writ issued
The Constitution guarantees remedies if by the court, for an officer of the
citizens’ fundamental rights are violated. The government or a corporation or other
government cannot infringe upon or curb institution commanding the performance
anyone’s rights. When these rights are of certain acts or duties.
violated, the aggrieved party can approach 5. Quo-Warranto (by what authority or
the courts. Citizens can even go directly to the warrant) is a writ issued against a person
Supreme Court, which can issue writs for who claims or usurps a public office.
enforcing fundamental rights. Through this writ, the court inquires ‘by
• Article 32: Remedies for enforcement of what authority’ the person supports his or
rights conferred by this part her claim.
• Article 33: Power of Parliament to modify Directive Principles of State Policy
the Fundamental Rights conferred by this
Articles 36 – 51 under Part IV of the Indian
part in their application to armed forces,
Constitution deal with Directive Principles of
paramilitary, police forces, etc.
State Policy (DPSP). They are borrowed from
• Article 34: Restriction on Fundamental the Constitution of Ireland, which had copied
Rights conferred by this part while marital
it from the Spanish Constitution.
law is in force in any area DPSP are ideals which are meant to be kept in
• Article 35: Legislation to give effect to the mind by the state when it formulates policies
provisions of this part shall lie with and enacts laws. They seek to establish
Parliament economic and social democracy in the
country. DPSPs are ideals which are not legally
It is the right of the Supreme Court and High enforceable by the courts for their violation.
Courts to issue writs. It is known as the ‘Heart
and Soul of the Constitution’. Classification of Directive Principles of State
Policy
Types of Writs Indian Constitution has not originally
1. Habeas Corpus (to have the body of) is a classified DPSPs, but on the basis of their
writ that is enforced to protect the content and direction, they are usually
fundamental right to liberty of an classified into three types:
individual against unlawful detention. • Socialistic Principles,
2. Certiorari (to be certified) is a writ issued • Gandhian Principles and,
to a lower court directing that the transfer • Liberal-Intellectual Principles.
of a case for review, usually to overrule Socialistic Principles
the judgment of the lower court.
Definition: They are the principles that aim at
3. Prohibition (to forbid) is a writ issued by a
providing social and economic justice and set
higher court to a lower court to enforce
the path towards the welfare state.
inactivity in the jurisdiction. It happens
only in case the higher court is of the
Promote the welfare of the people by
discretion that the case falls outside the Article securing a social order through
jurisdiction of the lower court. 38 justice — social, economic and
political — and minimise inequalities

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in income, status, facilities and Gandhian Principles

opportunities Definition: These principles are based on
Gandhian ideology used to represent the
Secure citizens:
programme of reconstruction enunciated by
• Right to adequate means of Gandhi during the national movement. Under
livelihood for all citizens various articles, they direct the State to:
• Equitable distribution of material Organise village panchayats and
resources of the community for endow them with necessary
Article
the common good powers and authority to enable
40
Article • Prevention of concentration of them to function as units of self-
39 wealth and means of production government
• Equal pay for equal work for men
Promote cottage industries on an
and women Article
individual or cooperation basis in
• Preservation of the health and 43
rural areas
strength of workers and children
against forcible abuse Promote voluntary formation,
• Opportunities for the healthy autonomous functioning,
development of children Article
democratic control and
43B
Article Promote equal justice and free legal professional management of
39A aid to the poor cooperative societies
In cases of unemployment, old age, Promote the educational and
sickness and disablement, secure economic interests of SCs, STs and
Article
Article citizens: other weaker sections of the
46
41 society and to protect them from
• Right to work
social injustice and exploitation
• Right to education
• Right to public assistance Prohibit the consumption of
Article
Make provision for just and humane intoxicating drinks and drugs
Article 47
conditions of work and maternity which are injurious to health
42
relief
Prohibit the slaughter of cows,
Secure a living wage, a decent Article calves and other milch and
Article
standard of living and social and 48 draught cattle and to improve
43
cultural opportunities for all workers their breeds
Take steps to secure the participation
Article Liberal-intellectual Principles
of workers in the management of
43A Definition: These principles reflect the
industries
ideology of liberalism.
Raise the level of nutrition and the Article Secure for all citizens a uniform
Article
standard of living of people and to 44 civil code throughout the country
47
improve public health

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Provide early childhood care and the management of

Article
education for all children until industries
45
they complete the age of six years
To protect and improve
Organise agriculture and animal Article the environment and to
Article 4
husbandry on modern and 48A safeguard forests and
48
scientific lines wildlife

Protect monuments, places and

Fundamental Duties
objects of artistic or historic
Article The 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 added 10
interest which are declared to be
49 Fundamental Duties to the Indian
of national importance
Constitution. The 86th Amendment Act of
2002 later added 11th Fundamental Duty to
the list. Swaran Singh Committee in 1976
Separate the judiciary from the
Article recommended Fundamental Duties, the
executive in the public services of
50 necessity of which was felt during the internal
the State
emergency of 1975 - 77.
• Promote international peace The list of 11 Fundamental Duties under
and security and maintain just article 51A to be obeyed by every Indian
and honourable relations citizen is given below:
between nations • Abide by the Indian Constitution and
Article • Foster respect for respect its ideals and institutions, the
51 international law and treaty National Flag and the National Anthem
obligations • Cherish and follow the noble ideals that
• Encourage settlement of inspired the national struggle for freedom
international disputes by • Uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity
arbitration and integrity of India
New DPSPs (added by the 42nd Amendment • Defend the country and render national
Act, 1976) service when called upon to do so
The 42nd Amendment Act, 1976, added four • Promote harmony and the spirit of
new Directive Principles to the list: common brotherhood amongst all the
people of India, transcending religious,
[Link] Article New DPSPs
linguistic and regional or sectional
To secure opportunities diversities and to renounce practices
Article
1 for the healthy derogatory to the dignity of women
39
development of children • Value and preserve the rich heritage of the
To promote equal justice country’s composite culture
Article • Protect and improve the natural
2 and to provide free legal
39A environment, including forests, lakes,
aid to the poor
rivers and wildlife and to have compassion
Article To take steps to secure the for living creatures
3
43A participation of workers in • Develop scientific temper, humanism and
the spirit of inquiry and reform

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• Safeguard public property and to abjure without altering the text of Articles 5 to
violence 10.
• Strive towards excellence in all spheres of • Article 124 still refers to the Supreme
individual and collective activity so that Court as consisting of the Chief justice and
the nation constantly rises to higher levels 7 judges.
• But in the exercise of its power, the
of endeavour and achievement
Parliament has increased the strength of
• Provide opportunities for education to his
the judges from 7 to 25.
child or ward between the age of six and
• Where the text of the constitution is
fourteen years (This duty was added by
changed
the 86th Constitutional Amendment Act,
2002) • Formation of new state.
• Creation or abolition of legislative council
Amendment of the Constitution • Creation of council of ministers for Union
Part XX of the Constitution deals with the territories
amendment of the constitution. Under Article • Extending the period of 15 years fixed for
368, Parliament can amend the Constitution the use of English in Article 343
by passing a Bill in each House by a majority of • Defining Parliamentary privileges
the total membership of that House and by a • Salaries and allowances of President, Vice-
majority of not less than two-thirds of the President, Judges, etc.
members of that House present and voting.
Thereafter, the Bill shall be presented to the Special Majority
President who shall give his assent and • Part III, Part IV and those provisions which
thereupon the Constitution shall stand are not amendable by an ordinary
amended. Parliament cannot amend those majority or by states approval, require a
provisions which form the basic structure of special majority for amendment.
the Constitution according to the Supreme • The Amendment Bill must be passed by a
Court ruling in the landmark 1973 majority of two-thirds of the members of
Kesavananda Bharati case. each House present and voting and such
majority must exceed 50% of the total
membership of the House.
Various Procedures for Amendments
Special Majority and Ratification by half of
Simple Majority
the states
A large number of provisions contained in the
Those provisions which relate to the federal
constitution are open to change by a simple
structure of the Constitution require a special
majority. These may be divided into two
majority in Parliament as well as ratification
classes:
by at least half of the state legislatures. This
• Where the text of the Constitution is not
procedure is required in the following
altered but the law is changed
provisions:
• Article 11 confers on the Parliament with
• Manner of election of President
the power to enact a law regarding • Executive power of the Union and the
citizenship. states
• An Act made in pursuance of that power • The Supreme Court and the High Courts
will change the law relating to citizenship • Distribution of legislative power between
the Union and the states

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• Representation of states in Parliament Thus, the nominated members do not

• Article 368 itself participate in the election of the President.

Oath of the President (Article 60)

CENTRA L EXECUTIV E President takes oath in presence of the chief
justice of the Supreme Court, ‘To preserve,
Articles 52 to 78 in Part V of the Constitution, protect and defend the constitution and law’
deal with the Union Executive. The Union
Terms of office of the President (Article 56)
Executive consists of the President, the
• President shall hold the office for terms of
VicePresident, the Prime Minister, the Council
5 years from the date he enters upon his
of Ministers and the Attorney General of
office. Even after the expiry of his terms,
India.
he shall continue in office until his
President successor enters upon his office.
Article 52 talks about the office of the • May resign his office before the expiry of
President of India. The President is the head his normal terms of 5 years, by writing to
of the Indian State. He is the first citizen of the vice president.
India. He is called as the nominal head or de
Article 61 (Impeachment of the President)
jure head of the country.
Under Article 58, a person to be eligible for the Power of impeachment of the president lies in
election as a President should fulfil the the parliament only for violation of the
following qualifications – constitution and can be removed from his
office before the period of 5 years.
• He should be a citizen of India.
Process of Impeachment:
• He should have completed 35 years of age.
• Impeachment resolution can be initiated
• He should be qualified for election as a
in any house of the parliament.
member of the Lok Sabha.
• Resolution initiated must be signed by
• He should not hold any office of profit
1/4th of the candidate of the initiating
under the Union Government or any State
house
Government or any local authority or any
• Before the resolution is passed , a 14 days
other public authority.
notice must be given to the president.
Election of the President (Article 54) • Such a resolution must be passed by a
The President is elected not directly by the majority of not less than 2/3rd of the total
people but by members of the Electoral membership of the initiating house.
College consisting of: Then the other House of parliament
• the elected members of both the
also called investigating house,
Houses of Parliament
investigates the charges by itself.
• the elected members of the Legislative
• President has the right to appear and to be
Assemblies of the states
represented at such, by the investigation
• the elected Members of the Legislative
to defend himself.
Assemblies of the Union Territories of
• If as a result of investigation, other houses
Delhi, Puducherry and Jammu and
also passes a resolution supported by not
Kashmir.
less than 2/3rd of the total membership of
the house, the President stands removed

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from his office from the date, investigating • Chairman and members of the SC and ST
house passed the resolution. of the commission
• Other than impeachment, no other In fact, every appointment of the Union
penalty can be imposed on the president Government is made in the name of the
for the violation of the constitution. president or under his authority.
Vacancy in the President’s office He directly administers the Union territories
• In case, the office of the President falls through the administration appointed by him.
vacant due to the death, resignation or The President can declare any area as
removal of the President. Then the Vice scheduled area and has powers w.r.t
president or in his absence the Chief administration of the schedule areas and
justice of India. tribal areas.
• In the Chief justice of India’s absence the
Legislative Powers
senior most judge of the Supreme Court
• Summons the houses of parliament
becomes the President until the next
atleast twice a year, Prorogue either
elections are held and a new President
house and can dissolve Loksabha
assumes the office.
• Nominates 12 members of the Rajya
• President’s office can remain vacant for a
Sabha
maximum of 6 months.
• May address either house separately or
• If the President is not able to discharge his
jointly or can send messages to them.
duties due to sickness or absence or due
• Every bill passed by the parliament must
to any other reason other than the vice
receive a presidential assent before it can
president, discharges the functions of the
become an act. The President may give his
President (VP is entitled to the same
assent or withhold or return it for the
allowances and privileges of the President
reconsideration along with his own
during this period).
suggestions (Except the money bill and
Executive powers constitutional amendment bill).
• Power by carring out the administration of • But if the bill is passed again with or
affairs of the state, except functions of the without the amendments, the President is
legislature and judiciary. He also has the bound to give his assent to it.
Powers to appoint: President makes certain reports and
• Prime minister of India statements to be laid before the parliament as
• Attorney general of India stated below:
• Comptroller and Auditor general of India • Annual financial statement (Budget) and
• Judges of the Supreme Court and High supplementary statement
court • Recommendations made by the finance
• Governor of the states commission
• Finance commissioner and its members • Report of UPSC, explaining the reasons
• Members of UPSC and the Joint where any advice of the commission has
commissions for group of states not been accepted
• Chief election commissioner and its • Report of the national commission for SC
members and ST.

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• Report of special officers for linguistic mainly when either or both the houses of
minorities parliament are not in session and
Certain bills (Bills for formation of new states immediate action is needed.
or alteration of the boundaries of states, • A Presidential ordinance has the same
money bill, financial) needs presidential force and effect as an act of the
recommendations for introduction in the Parliament. However, it must be laid down
parliament before both the houses of the parliament
and must be approved by both the houses
Veto powers of the President
within 6 weeks from the re-assembly of
• Absolute Veto: Power of president to
houses. Failure to comply with this
withhold his assent to a bill passed in
condition or parliamentary disapproval
parliament. The bill then ends and does
within 6 weeks period will make the
not become an act. If before passing the
ordinance invalid
assent to a bill, the ministry resigns and a
new cabinent of ministers is formed, then Judicial Powers
on its advice the President can use his veto • The Pardoning power is the main judicial
powers against the bill. (In 1954, power of the President. It is used by the
Rajendraprasad withheld his assent to President.
PEPSU appropriation bill) • Where the punishment or sentence is by
• Suspensive Veto: The power of the court-martial
President to return the bill to the • Where the punishment is for the offence
Parliament with or without consideration. against the union law
But if the bill is passed again with or • In all the cases, where the sentence is
without the amendments, the President is death sentence .
bound to give his assent to it.
Types of Pardoning powers
• Pocket Veto: The power of the President
to not act upon the bill (Not for • Pardon: It removes both the sentences
constitutional amendment bill as and the convictions and completely
24th amendment 1971, made it obligatory absolves the offender from all
for the president to give his assent to the punishments and disqualifications.
constitutional amendment bill. • Reprieve: It means a stay of execution of
• Qualified Veto: Sending back of a bill, sentence pending a proceeding for pardon
which can be over-rided by the Legislature or commutation.
with a higher majorty (Indian president • Remission: It is to reduce the amount of
don’t have this power). the sentence without changing its
character (e.g. 6 months for 1 yr)
Ordinance making powers of the President • Respite: It means awarding a lesser
• Ordinances are interim or temporary sentence instead of a prescribed penalty,
legislation laws. President can issue the in view of the special facts (e.g. in case of
ordinances only on subjects, the a pregnant women offender)
parliament can legislate or make laws with • Commutation: It substitutes one form of
the same limitations as of the Parliament. punishment, for another or lighter
• President promulgate ordinances character. E.g. a death sentence may be
(authoritative order) under Article 123 commuted to rigorous imprisonment.

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Emergency Powers • President constitutes the finance
President becomes the most important commission after every five years.
executive in the time of emergency. There are • President controls the contingency fund
three types of emergency envisaged by the for unforeseen expenses like flood,
constitution. These are: drought, war, etc.
• National Emergency (Article 352) • President places report of CAG before the
It is declared on grounds of threat to the parliament and recommendations of the
security of India or any part of it by war, finance commission.
external aggression or armed rebellion.
Military Powers
• Presidential Rule (Article 356)
• President is the supreme commander of
It is the proclamation for taking over the
the armed forces.
administration of a state when the state
• President has the power to declare war
government, can not carry out the
and peace. But, His military powers are
administration in state in accordance with the
subjected to the regulations of law,
provisions of the constitution.
therefore, the parliament has the real
• Financial Emergency (Article 360)
power to regulate or control the exercise
It is declared when the financial stability of the of such powers.
credit of India or any part thereof is
Diplomatic Powers
threatened.
• President sends and receive ambassadors
Financial Powers and other diplomatic representatives
• It is only on the permission of the • All treaties and international agreements
President that the annual financial are negotiated and amended in the name
statement (Budget) is laid down before of the president, though subjected to
the parliament. ratification by the parliament.
• The President recommends the
introduction of money bill and the
financial bill in the parliament.
President of India

Name Office Entering Office Leaving Profile

1. Dr. Rajendra 26 January He was the first President of the republic

13 May 1962
Prasad 1950 India.

2. Dr Sarvepalli
13 May 1962 13 May 1967 He was the second president of India.
Radhakrishnan

3. Dr Zakir
13 May 1967 3 May 1969 He was the third President of India.
Hussain

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4. Varahagiri He was an acting President because of

3 May 1969 20 July 1969
Venkata Giri Hussain’s death.

5. Mohammad He was an acting President till Giri’s

20 July 1969 24 August 1969
Hidayatullah presidency.

6. Varahagiri
24 August 1969 24 August 1974 He was the 4th President of India.
Venkata Giri

7. Fakhruddin Ali 11 February

24 August 1974 He was the 5th President of India.
Ahmed 1977

He was a chief minister of the Mysore but

8. Basappa 11 February
25 July 1977 got elected as the President, after the
Danappa Jatti 1977
death of Ahmed.

9. Neelam Reddy was the 6th President of India

25 July 1977 25 July 1982
Sanjiva Reddy unopposed.

10. Giani Zail He was the 7th President of India and was
25 July 1982 25 July 1987
Singh also a member of the Congress party.

He was the 8th President of India. He was

11. Ramaswamy
25 July 1987 25 July 1992 also a lawyer and a professional
Venkataraman
politician.
He was the 9th President of India and he
12. Shankar
25 July 1992 25 July 1997 was also a member of the National
Dayal Sharma
Congress party of India.
13. Kocheril
He was the 10th President of India and the
Raman 25 July 1997 25 July 2002
best diplomat in India.
Narayanan
He was the 11th President of India and he
14. Dr. A.P.J.
25 July 2002 25 July 2007 was a great scientist. He worked in ISRO
Abdul Kalam
and DRDO organisations.

She was the 12th President of India and

15. Pratibha Patil 25 July 2007 25 July 2012
she was the first woman to Be President.

He was the 13th President of India and he

16. Pranab
25 July 2012 25 July 2017 was also a senior leader of the National
Mukherjee
Congress party.

17. Shri Ram He is the 14th President of India and he is

July 25th, 2017 Working
Nath Kovind also an ex-governor of Bihar.

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Vice President of India Note: Supreme Court decides election

The post of Vice-President of India is modelled disputes related to the office of Vice
on the lines of American Vice-President. In President.
India, Vice-President has a second-highest
office in the country. Article 63 of the Indian PRIME MINISTER AND
Constitution mentions the post of Vice-
President. COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
Electoral college of Vice President (Article 68)
Article 75 of the Indian Constitution mentions
The Vice President is elected by Indirect
that a Prime Minister is one who is appointed
Election. The principle of election used is
by the President. There is no specific
Proportional Representation by means of
procedure for his election or appointment.
Single Transferrable Vote. The electoral
Article 74(1) states that there shall be a
college includes:
Council of Ministers with a Prime Minister at
• Elected members of both Lok Sabha and
the head to aid and advise the President. Thus,
Rajya Sabha.
the Indian Constitution itself recognizes a
• Nominated members of both Lok Sabha Council of Ministers.
and Rajya Sabha.
Appointment of Prime Minister
Qualification of Vice President.
President of India appoints a person as the
An Indian Citizen who has completed 35 years Prime Minister who is either the leader of the
of age is qualified to become the Vice- party which holds a majority of seats in the
President of India given, he is also qualified to Lok Sabha or is a person who is able to win the
be a Rajya Sabha member. confidence of the Lok Sabha by gaining the
Term of office of Vice President (Article 67) support of other political parties. All other
From the date, he enters his office, Vice ministers are appointed by the President on
President holds the position for five years. the advice of the Prime Minister.
However, he can resign before five years by President can also appoint Prime Minister on
handing over his resignation to the President. his own discretion but only when no party has
a clear majority in the Lok Sabha
Impeachment of Vice President
Power and Function of Prime Minister
Unlike President of India who can be
impeached formally; there is no formal Prime Minister of India serves the country by
impeachment for Vice President. Rajya Sabha following various functions. He performs his
simply can pass a resolution with a majority functions taking responsibilities as:
and Lok Sabha can pass it. Also, unlike • The leader of Country: The Prime Minister

President of India who can be impeached on of India is the Head of the Government of
the ground of ‘Violation of Constitution,’ there India. He is the real head of the country or
is no ground mentioned in the constitution for de facto head.
the removal of Vice President of India. • Portfolio allocation: The Prime Minister
has the authority to assign portfolios to
the Ministers.

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• Chairman of the Cabinet: The Prime • Article 75 - President appoints PM and
Minister is the chairman of the cabinet other ministers are appointed by the
and presides the meetings of the Cabinet. President on the advice of the PM.
He can impose his decision if there is a • Article 78 - PM communicates all decisions
crucial opinion difference among the made by the council of members to the
members. President. President can also refer issues
• Official Representative of the for the consideration of the council of
country: Prime minister represents the members.
country for high-level international
Indian Prime Ministers
meetings
Name Service Constituency
• The link between the President and the
Term
Cabinet: The Prime Minister acts as the
link between President and cabinet. He J L Nehru 1947 to Phulpur
communicates all decisions of the Cabinet 1964
to the President which is related to the
Gulzari Lal 1964 to Sabarkantha
administration of the affairs of the Union
Nanda 1964
and proposals for legislation.
• Chief Advisor: Prime Minister acts as the Lal Bahadur 1964 to Allahabad
chief advisor to the President Shastri 1966
Qualification of Prime Minister Gulzari Lal 1966 to Sabarkantha
To become an Indian prime minister one has Nanda 1966
to be
Indira Gandhi 1966 to Rae Bareli
• A citizen of India.
1977
• A member of either Rajya Sabha or Lok
Sabha Morarji Desai 1977 to Surat
• He should have completed his 30 years if 1979
he is a member of the Rajya Sabha or can
Charan Singh 1979 to Baghpat
be 25 years of age if he is a member of the
1980
Lok Sabha
Indira Gandhi 1980 to Medak
Relationship between the Prime Minister
1984
and the President of India
There are a few articles in the Indian Rajiv Gandhi 1984 to Amethi
Constitution that deal with the relationship 1989
both Prime Minister and the President share
V P Singh 1989 to Fatehpur
with each other. The articles are:
1990
• Article 74 - Mentions how the Prime
Minister and President are both Chandrashekhar 1990 to Balia
connected with the council of ministers. 1991
The Council with PM as head advise
P V Narsimha 1991 to Nandyal
President on various issues.
Rao 1996

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Atal Bihari 1996 to Lucknow • The PM who is called Father of Economic

Vajpayee 1996 Reforms of India – P V Narasimha Rao.
• Only three persons belonged to Rajya
H D Devegoda 1996 to MP Rajya
Sabha during their nomination for Prime
1997 Sabha for
Minsiter – 1st Indira Gandhi, 2nd H D
Karnataka
Devegoda and 3rd I K Gujaral.
I K Gujral 1997 to MP Rajya • Atal Bihari Vajpayee was the first
1998 Sabha for parliamentarian to give a speech in hindi
Bihar to the United Nations General Assembly.
• The first Non-Congress Party person to
Atal Bihari 1998 to Lucknow
rule India for full terms of 5 years – Atal
Vajpayee 2004
Bihari Vajpayee.
Mammohan 2004 to MP Rajya • After the general Elections of 1984 (in
Singh 2014 sabha for which Rajiv Gandhi won majority), the first
Assam person to gain majority of seats and
formed government without support of
Narendra Modi 2014 to Varanasi
allies – Narendra Modi.
till date
Council of Ministers
Facts about Indian Prime Ministers Council of ministers contains the following
• Jawaharlal Nehru was the India’s longest types of minister:
serving Prime Minister who served for • Cabinet Ministers.
more than 16 years. He served as Prime • Minister of State
Minister for 4 times : 1st From 1947 to • Deputy Minister
1952, 2nd : 1952 to 1957, 3rd : 1957 to 1962 Article 74 and Article 75 of the Indian
in which he again won the general Constitution deal with the Council of
elections of 1957, 4th : 1962 -1964 but died Ministers. The number of council of ministers
in chair in 1964. He is also called Architect can’t exceed more than 15% of the total
of Modern India. strength of the Lok sabha.
• The only person who worked twice as the The advice of Council of Ministers is binding
Acting Prime Minister for 13 days each – on the President and this provision was
Gulzarilal Nanda. introduced by the 42nd Amendment Act 1976
• Indira Gandhi was the first person who and 44th Amendment Act 1978.
belonged to Rajya Sabha during The principle of collective responsibility finds
nomination as Prime Mnister. She also the a place in Article 75(3) where it is stated that
first women prime minister. the Council of Ministers shall be collectively
• Rajiv Gandhi was the youngest ever Prime responsible to the Lok Sabha. When a Ministry
Minister of India. loses the confidence of the Lok Sabha the
• P V Narsimha Rao was the first Prime whole of the Ministry has to resign including
Minister from non-Hindi belt (South India). those Ministers who are from the Rajya
• The first Congress PM outside of Nehru – Sabha. The Ministers fall and stand together.
Gandhi family – P V Narsimha Rao.

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Comptroller and Auditor General of India • She/he must be a person who is qualified
CAG is an independent authority under the to be appointed a judge of the Supreme
Constitution of India. He is the head of the Court, i.e. she/he must be a citizen of India
Indian audit and account department and and must have been a judge of some high
chief Guardian of Public purse. The Articles court for five years or an advocate of some
related to CAG are: high court for ten years or an eminent
• Article 148 broadly deals with the CAG jurist, in the opinion of the President.
appointment, oath and conditions of • Term of the Office: Not fixed by the
service. Constitution.
• Article 149 deals with Duties and Powers • Removal: Procedures and grounds for the
of the Comptroller and Auditor-General of removal of AG are not stated in the
India. Constitution. She/he holds office during
• Article 150 says that the accounts of the the pleasure of the President it means AG
Union and of the States shall be kept in can be removed from office anytime by
such form as the President may, on the President.
advice of the CAG, prescribe. • Solicitor General of India and Additional
• Article 151 says that the reports of the Solicitor General of India assist the AG in
Comptroller and Auditor-General of India fulfilment of the official responsibilities.

The Qualifications and other details of CAG

• CAG is appointed by the President by PARLIA MENT OF INDIA
warrant under his hand and seal and
provided with tenure of 6 years or 65 years Parliament is the supreme legislative
of age, whichever is earlier. authority of India. Parliament of India consists
• CAG can be removed by the President only of the President and is divided into two
in accordance with the procedure Houses – Lok Sabha (House of the People) and
mentioned in the Constitution that is the Rajya Sabha (Council of States). The President
manner same as removal of a Supreme of India holds the power to summon and
Court Judge. prorogue either House of Parliament or to
• He is ineligible to hold any office, either dissolve Lok Sabha. A Bill becomes an Act only
under the Government of India or of any after it is passed by both Houses of
state, once he retires/ resigns as a CAG. Parliament. Indian Parliament house was
• His salary and other service conditions designed by British architects Sir Edwin
cannot be varied to his disadvantage after Lutyens and Sir Herbert Baker in 1912-1913.
appointment.
The Parliament consists of:
Attorney General of India • President
• Attorney General(AG) is the highest law • Council of states (Rajya Sabha)
officer in the country. • House of the people (Lok Sabha)
• Article 76 of the Constitution deals with ▪ Though President is not the member
Attorney General of either house of the parliament, he is
• AG is appointed by the President on the an integral part of it.
advice of the government.

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▪ COM (council of ministers) as a body is Qualifications to a member of Rajya Sabha
responsible to parliament for general • Must be citizen of India and have attained
affairs of the government. 30 years of age
▪ Lack of parliamentary confidence in • Must be a registered voter in
the government may be expressed by parliamentary constituency in any of the
house of the people by - state
▪ Passing motion of no confidence in • Subscribe before election commission an
COM oath, as prescribed by 3rd schedule
▪ Passing a censure motion
▪ Passing an adjournment motion
▪ Defeating the government on financial Special Powers of Rajya Sabha
measures • A resolution seeking removal of Vice
President can be originated only in Rajya
Rajya Sabha
Sabha
• Vice President is ex-officio chairman of • Under article 249, it can shift an item of
Rajya Sabha state list to union or concurrent list
• Maximum membership is 250 ▪ If RS passes a resolution by majority
▪ 238 members elected as of not less than 2/3rd of members
representative of state and UTs present and voting, then it is
▪ 12 members nominated by president
expedient for parliament to make
(Veterans from art, science, literature laws wrt any matter enumerated in
and social services) state list for whole or any part of
• There is no difference b/w elected and territory of India on that matter for a
nominated members except only elected period of not less than 1 year.
members can participate in elections of • If RS passes a resolution by 2/3rd of
President majority of members present and voting,
• Office term for Rajya Sabha members is 6 then it is expedient in national interest to
years with 1/3rd of members retiring every create one or more all India services
2 years (Article 312)
• RS members are elected by legislative
assembly of states and UTs by means of Limitations of Rajya Sabha
single transferable vote through With respect to Money Bill
proportional representation (Based on • If Rajya Sabha returns the bill to Lok Sabha
population) opposing the bill, then it is deemed to
• Only 4 members are elected from UTs (3 have passed.
from Delhi and 1 from Pondicherry) • Rajya Sabha can send recommendations
• No seat is reserved for SCs and STs to Lok Sabha, but Lok Sabha is not bound
• Retired members of RS are eligible for re- to act on it.
election and re-nomination • Also Rajya Sabha does not have pocket
• Rajya Sabha meets in continuous sessions veto and if it does not passes the bill
and is not subjected to dissolution within 14 days, it is again deemed to have
• Salary and other benefits are same as been passed by the house
Loksabha

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With respect to No confidence Motion of President, regarding continuance in
• Unlike Lok Sabha, it cannot pass motion of force of national emergency. Hence,
no confidence against the government President has to revoke the emergency in
this case.
Lok Sabha
• Also known as lower house of parliament Speaker of Lok Sabha
or house of the people. • The Speaker of the Lok Sabha is the
• Members are directly elected by the presiding officer of the Lok Sabha, the
people for 5 years. lower house of the Parliament of India.
• Lok Sabha can be dissolved by the The speaker is elected in the very first
President meeting of the Lok Sabha following
• Maximum strength is 550 general elections. Serving for a term of five
▪ 530 → Representatives of the state, years, the Speaker chosen from amongst
▪ 20 → Representatives of UT’s the members of the Lok Sabha, and is by
• Parliament has frozen the representation convention a member of the ruling party
of states and UTs at 543 till 2026 by or alliance.
84th amendment in 2001 • Elected by members of LS among
• 42nd amendment 1976, extended the themselves and do remain in office as long
normal life of Loksabha to 6 years but as they are members of the house
44th amendment 1978 again reversed it to • Speaker continues in his office even after
a period of 5 years. LS is dissolved, till newly elected LS is
• Duration of Loksabha can be extended by constituted.
a maximum of 1 year at a time during • In normal situations, Speaker does not
proclamation of national emergency – vote in 1st instance, but exercises his
Article 352, But if proclamation comes to casting vote in case of tie i.e. in case of
end then not more than 6 months after equality of votes.
ending of emergency. • He is representative and spokesperson of
the house in its collective capacity and
Qualifications of the members of Lok Sabha chief custodian of its powers and
• Must be a citizen of India and must have privileges
attained age of 25 years
Removal of Speaker
• Must be a registered voter in
parliamentary constituency of India • Speaker and deputy speaker may resign
• Must subscribe by an oath administered by writing to each other
by Election commission as mentioned in • Can be removed by a resolution passed by
3rd schedule effective majority after giving a 14 days
prior notice
Special Powers for Lok Sabha • When such a notice is in consideration
• Motion of no confidence can only be against the speaker, he/she cannot
initiated and passed in Loksabha preside over the proceedings of the house.
• Money and Financial bill can only be He can, however, participate in
originated in Loksabha proceedings of the house and can even
• Under article 352, Loksabha in special vote in 1st instance, though not when
sitting, can disapprove the proclamation there is an equality of votes

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Powers of Speaker proceedings of the house but without
• Possesses certain powers that do not right to vote
belong to chairman of RS Bills in Parliament
• Presides over joint sitting of 2 houses of
• Government bill/ Public bill
the parliament
Bill introduced by a minister of government is
• When a money bill is transferred from LS
called as Government Bill. Money bill can only
to RS, power to certify it as money bill is
be Government bill. As it is moved by the
given to speaker and his decision whether
government itself, President does not
a bill is money bill or not is final
interfere in introduction of the bill as he is
• His permission is compulsory on question obligatory to advice of Council of Ministers.
of bringing adjournment motion
• Private bill
• Adjournment of business of the house for
A bill introduced by a non-government
purpose of discussing a definite matter of
member. Every member can introduce a bill
urgent public importance) only for 4 times a year. Till now there are 14
• Appointment of primary committees and private bills that have been passed.
himself as ex–officio chairman of certain
committees of the parliament Sessions of Parliament
• Speakers conduct in regulating the A parliament session of the Indian Parliament
procedure of maintaining order in house is is the period during which a House meets
not subjected to jurisdiction of court almost every day to manage the country.
• Under anti deflection act, authority of There are generally 3 sessions in a year. The
speaker if final, though open to judicial process of calling all members of Parliament
review for parliament session is called Summoning of
Parliament. President is the one who
Chairman / Deputy chairman of Rajya Sabha
summons the Parliament.
• Vice President / Chairman of RS presides • Budget session of Parliament (February to
over the proceedings of RS as long as he May)
does not act as President of India • Monsoon session of Parliament (July to
• In absence of chairman, Deputy Chairman September)
presides over the proceedings of RS • Winter session of Parliament (November
• Deputy Chairman is elected by members to December)
of RS among themselves
• Deputy Chairman’s salary is equivalent to
speaker of Lok sabha STA TE EXECUTIV E COUNCIL
• Presiding officer of each house has the
final power to interpret the rules of The state executive council consists of:
procedure of the house • Governor
• Both chairman and deputy chairman • Chief Minister and Council of Minister
cannot preside over a sitting of the house, • Advocate general of state
when resolution of their removal is under Article 153-167 in the Indian Constitution deal
consideration. with the provisions related to the state
• However they can be present, can speak governments of the country.
for themselves and take part in Governor

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Governor is a nominal executive head of the There are two conventions that the
state. He forms an important part of the state government follow before nominating a
executive where he acts as the chief executive person as a Governor:
head. Central Government nominates the • That person is not appointed as the
governor for each state. governor who belongs to the state. He
shall be an outsider having no relation
with the state he is being appointed to.
Appointment of Governor
• Consultation of the Chief Minister is taken
The Indian President appoints Governor for
by the President before appointing a
each state by warrant under his hand and seal.
governor
Central Government is responsible to
nominate the governor for each state. Powers and functions of the Governor
Note: Executive Powers of the Governor
• Unlike elections of President, there is no • Every executive action that the state
government takes, is to be taken in his/her
direct or indirect election for the post of
name.
Governor.
• Chief Ministers and other ministers of the
• The office of a governor is not a part of the
states are appointed by him/her.
union executive and is an independent
• It is his responsibility to appoint Tribal
constitutional office. The governor doesn’t Welfare Minister in the states of:
serve the union government and neither is ▪ Chattisgarh
subordinate to it. ▪ Jharkhand
• The nomination of a governor by the ▪ Madhya Pradesh
Union and his appointment by the ▪ Odisha
President in India is based on the Canadian • He/She appoints the advocate general of
model of government. states and determines their remuneration
• He/She appoints the following people:
Term of the Governor ▪ State Election Commissioner
Since the Governor holds the office under the ▪ Chairman and Members of the State
pleasure of the President, his office has no Public Service Commission
fixed term. President can remove the ▪ Vice-Chancellors of the universities in
Governor and the grounds upon which he may the state
be removed are not laid down in the • He/She seeks information from the state
government
constitution.
• A constitutional emergency in the state is
Governor may also get transferred from one
recommended to the President by
state to another by the President. He also can
him/her.
be reappointed.
• The governor enjoys extensive executive
Qualification Governor? powers as an agent of the President during
the President’s rule in the state.
• He/she should be an Indian Citizen
• He/she should be 35 years old or more Financial Powers of the Governor
• He/She looks over the state budget being
laid in the state legislature

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• His/her recommendation is a prerequisite Judicial Powers of the Governor

for the introduction of money bill in the • He/she has the pardoning powers under
state legislature article 213.
• He/She recommends for the demand for • President consults the Governor while
grants which otherwise cannot be given appointing judges of High Court
• Contingency Fund of State is under • In consultation with the state High Court,
him/her and he/she makes advances out Governor makes appointments, postings,
that to meet unforeseen expenditure and promotions of the district judges
• State Finance Commission is constituted
Important Constitutional Articles related to
every five years by him/her.
the Governor
Legislative Powers of the Governor
Articles Provisions
• He/she has the power to prorogue the
state legislature and dissolve the state 153 Governors of states
legislative assemblies
155 Appointment of Governor
• He/she addresses the state legislature at
the first session of every year 156 Term of office of Governor
• If any bill is pending in the state Qualifications for appointment as
legislature, Governor may/may not send a 157
Governor
bill to the state legislature concerning the 158 Conditions of Governor’s office
same Discharge of the functions of the
• If the speaker of the legislative assembly is 160 Governor in certain
absent and the same is Deputy Speaker, contingencies
then Governor appoints a person to Power of the Governor to grant
preside over the session 161
pardons and others
• Governor appoints 1/6th of the total Right of the Governor to address
members of the legislative council from 175 and send messages to the house
the fields of art, literature and social or houses of the state legislature
service. 176 Special address by the Governor
• He/she can consult Election Commission Bills reserved by the Governor
for the disqualification of members 201 for consideration of the
• With respect to the bill introduced in the President
state legislature, he/she can: Power of Governor to
▪ Give assent 213
promulgate ordinances
▪ Withhold assent Governor is consulted by the
President in the matter of the
▪ Return the bill 217
appointments of the judges of
▪ Reserve the bill for the President’s the High Courts
consideration (In instances where the Appointment of district judges by
233
bill introduced in the state legislature the Governor
Appointments of persons (other
endangers the position of state High 234
than district judges) to the
Court.)

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judicial service of the state by the size and the rank of the ministers as per
the Governor the requirement in the State Legislature.
There are three categories of Council of
Chief Minister and Council of Ministers Ministers:
The Chief Minister is called the head of the • Cabinet Ministers
government. He/she is assisted by his/her • Ministers of State
council of ministers who are a part of state
executive along with Governor and Advocate- • Deputy Ministers
General of State. Similar to Prime Minister
Collective Responsibility
who is the head of the government at the
The provision of collective responsibility is
centre, the Chief Minister is the head of the
dealt with by Article 164. The Article mentions
government at the state level.
that the council of ministers are collectively
Appointment of Chief Minister responsible to the state legislature.
According to Article 164 in the Indian
Constitution, Governor appoints Chief
PANCHA YA TS
Minister. Generally the leader of the party
that has got the majority share of votes in the
assembly elections, is appointed as the Chief • Panchayati Raj Institution (PRI) is a system
Minister of the state. of rural local self-government in India.
Local Self Government is the management
The term of Chief Minister’s office. of local affairs by such local bodies who
The term of Chief Minister is not fixed and have been elected by the local people.
he/she holds his/her office during the • PRI was constitutionalized through the
pleasure of the governor. That is: 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992
• Governor cannot remove him/her any to build democracy at the grass roots level
time. and was entrusted with the task of rural
• Governor cannot even dismiss him/her till development in the country.
the time he enjoys the support of the • The Balwant Rai Mehta Committee,
majority of the house. January 1957, recommended a 3-tier
• When CM loses his/her majority support, Panchayati Raj structure at the village,
he/she has to resign and Governor intermediate and district levels.
dismisses him then. • In 1977, the government appointed the
Ashok Mehta Committee to examine the
State Council of Ministers measures to strengthen PRIs.
State Council of Ministers is similar to Central • The LM Singhvi Committee (1986)
Council of Ministers. The state council is recommended Constitutional Status for
headed by the Chief Minister. The council local bodies.
comprises ministers appointed by the
governor on the recommendation of the CM. The Three Tier System
The three-tier system of Panchayat Raj was
Composition of Council of Ministers
first adopted by Rajasthan (Nagaur district on
The size of the council is not mentioned in the 2 October 1959) followed by Andhra Pradesh.
Indian Constitution. Chief Minister decides

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It contains the following levels: MUNICIPALITIES (Articles 243P-243ZG)
• Village Panchayat • The Constitution of India provides the
• Block and Panchayat Samiti provision of local self government units in
• Zila Parishad urban area by inserting Part IX-A through
Villages Panchayat has to answer Gram Sabha the 74th Amendment Act, 1992.
for all its actions. Gram Sabha comprises the
residing adults of the Panchayat and it • The Constitution provides for three types
supervises the working of Panchayat. Gram of Municipalities. Nagar Panchayat, for
Sabha meets mandatorily on the following areas in transition from rural to urban.
days:
• Municipal Council is for smaller urban
• 26 January
area. Municipal Corporation is for larger
• 1 May
urban area. It is the bigger urban local
• 15 August government.
• 2 October
• The Constitution of Municipalities shall be
determined by a Law of the State
73rd Amendment Act
Legislature. Wards Committees shall be
The Constitution 73rd Amendment Act, 1992
constituted in those Municipalities having
inserted a new part IX into the Constitution.
a population of three lakh or more.
The salient features of Part IX of the
Constitution are as follows • Seats shall be reserved for Scheduled
• The term of the Panchayats is five years Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
unless dissolved earlier.
• One-third of the seats shall be reserved for
• Seats shall be compulsorily reserved for
women.
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
Seats to be reserved for backward classes • The Constitution provides for a State
are left at the discretion of the State Finance Commission to review the
Government. financial position of the Municipalities and
• There is a provision of State Finance recommend measures to augment their
Commission to review the financial funds.
position of Panchayats and recommend
• Under Article 243 ZD, a District Planning
grant-in-aids. Committee shall be constituted to
• One-third of the seats are reserved for consolidate the plans prepared by the
women. Panchayats and Municipalities in the
district.
• A State Election Commission headed by
the State Election Commissioner shall • Under Article 243 ZE, a Metropolitan
conduct elections for the Panchayats. Planning Committee shall be constituted
to prepare a draft development plan for
the metropolitan area as a whole.

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Constitutional Provisions
SUPREME COURT OF INDIA The Indian constitution provides for a
provision of Supreme Court under Part V (The
The Supreme Court of India is the highest Union) and Chapter 6 (The State).
judicial court and the final court of appeal Articles 124 to 147 in Part V of the
under the Constitution of India, the highest Constitution deal with the organisation,
constitutional court, with the power of judicial independence, jurisdiction, powers and
review. procedures of the Supreme Court.

India is a federal State and has a single and Organisation of Supreme Court
unified judicial system with three tier At present, the Supreme Court consists of 34
structure, i.e. Supreme Court, High Courts and judges (one chief justice and 33 other judges).
Subordinate Courts. Supreme Court (Number of Judges) Bill of
2019 has added 3 judges to strength. It
Brief History of the Supreme Court of India increased the judicial strength from 31 to 34,
The promulgation of Regulating Act of 1773 including the Chief Justice of India(CJI).
established the Supreme Court was The Parliament is authorised to regulate the
established at Calcutta as a Court of Record, number of Judges in Supreme Court.
with full power & authority.
Seat of Supreme Court
The India High Courts Act 1861 created High
The Constitution declares Delhi as the seat of
Courts for various provinces and abolished
the Supreme Court. It also authorises the CJI
Supreme Courts at Calcutta, Madras and to appoint other place or places as seat of the
Bombay. Supreme Court.
These High Courts had the distinction of being
Appointment of Judges
the highest Courts for all cases till the creation
The judges of the Supreme Court are
of Federal Court of India under the
appointed by the President. The CJI is
Government of India Act 1935.
appointed by the President after consultation
After India attained independence in 1947,
with such judges of the Supreme Court and
the Constitution of India came into being on high courts as he deems necessary.
26 January 1950. The Supreme Court of India Appointment of Chief Justice From 1950 to
also came into existence and its first sitting 1973: The practice has been to appoint the
was held on 28 January 1950. senior most judge of the Supreme Court as the
The law declared by the Supreme Court is chief justice of India. This established
binding on all Courts within the territory of convention was violated in 1973 when A N Ray
India. was appointed as the Chief Justice of India by
It has the power of judicial review – to strike superseding three senior judges. Again in
down the legislative and executive action 1977, M U Beg was appointed as the chief
justice of India by superseding the then
contrary to the provisions and the scheme of
senior-most judge.
the constitution, the distribution of power
This discretion of the government was
between Union and States or inimical to the
curtailed by the Supreme Court in the Second
fundamental rights guaranteed by the
Judges Case (1993), in which the Supreme
Constitution. Court ruled that the senior most judge of the

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Supreme Court should alone be appointed to Acting Chief Justice
the office of the Chief Justice of India. The President can appoint a judge of the
Supreme Court as an acting Chief Justice of
Qualifications of Judges
India when:
A person to be appointed as a judge of the
• the office of Chief Justice of India is vacant;
Supreme Court should have the following
or
qualifications:
• the Chief Justice of India is temporarily
• He should be a citizen of India.
absent; or
• He should have been a judge of a High
• the Chief Justice of India is unable to
Court (or high courts in succession) for five
perform the duties of his office.
years; or He should have been an advocate
of a High Court (or High Courts in Retired Judges
succession) for ten years; or He should be At any time, the CJI can request a retired judge
a distinguished jurist in the opinion of the of the Supreme Court or a retired judge of a
president. high court (who is duly qualified for
The Constitution has not prescribed a appointment as a judge of the Supreme Court)
minimum age for appointment as a judge of to act as a judge of the Supreme Court for a
the Supreme Court. temporary period.
Tenure of Judges Jurisdiction and Powers of Supreme Court
Original Jurisdiction
• He holds office until he attains the age of
As a Federal court, the Supreme Court decides
65 years. Any question regarding his age is
disputes between different units of the Indian
to be determined by such authority and in
Federation. More elaborately, any dispute
such manner as provided by Parliament.
between:
• He can resign his office by writing to the
• the Centre and one or more states; or
President.
• the Centre and any state or states on one
• He can be removed from his office by the
side and one or more states on the other;
President on the recommendation of the
or
Parliament.
• between two or more states
Removal of Judges
Other Original Jurisdictions
A judge of the Supreme Court can be removed
• A dispute arising out of any pre-
from his office by an order of the President.
Constitution treaty, agreement, covenant,
The President can issue the removal order
• engagement, sanad or other similar
only after an address by Parliament has been
instrument.
presented to him in the same session for such
removal. • A dispute arising out of any treaty,
The address must be supported by a special agreement, etc.,which specifically
majority of each House of Parliament (i.e. a provides that the said jurisdiction does not
majority of the total membership of that extent to such a dispute.
House and a majority of not less than two- • Inter-state water disputes.
thirds of the members of that House present • Matters referred to the Finance
and voting). The grounds of removal are Commission.
two—proved misbehaviour or incapacity.

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• Adjustment of certain expenses and Consequently, they cannot be enforced by the

pensions between the Centre and the Government.
states.
• Ordinary dispute of Commercial nature
HIGH COURT
between the Centre and the states.
• Recovery of damages by a state against
the Centre. Every High Court (whether exclusive or
common) consists of a Chief Justice and such
Writ Jurisdiction other judges as the President may from time
• The Supreme Court is empowered to issue to time deem necessary to appoint. Thus, the
writs, including habeas corpus, Constitution does not specify the strength of a
mandamus, prohibition, quo-warranto High Court and leaves it to the discretion of
and certiorari for the enforcement of the the President.
fundamental rights of an aggrieved citizen. Accordingly, the President determines the
• In this regard, the Supreme Court has strength of a High Court from time to time
original jurisdiction in the sense that an depending upon its workload.
aggrieved citizen can go directly to the The Constitution of India provides a High
Supreme Court, not necessarily by way of Court for each state, but the 7th Amendment
appeal. Act of 1956, authorised the Parliament to
• However, the writ jurisdiction of the establish a common High Court for two or
Supreme Court is not exclusive. The High more states or a state and a union territory.
Courts are also empowered to issue writs The territorial jurisdiction of a High Court is
for the enforcement of the Fundamental co-terminus with the territory of a state.
Rights. As of 2019, there are 25 High Courts in India.
Telangana is the 25th High Court.
Appellate Jurisdiction
The Supreme Court is primarily a court of Appointment of Judges
appeal and hears appeals against the • Under Article 217, The judges of the High
judgements of the lower courts. Court are appointed by the President.
• The Chief Justice of the High Court is
Advisory Jurisdiction
appointed by the President after
The Constitution under Article 143 authorises
consultation with the Chief Justice of
the President to seek the opinion of the
Supreme Court and Governor of the
Supreme Court.
concerned state.
Power of Judicial Review • For the appointment of other Judges, the
Judicial review is the power of the Supreme Chief Justice of concerned High Court is
Court to examine the constitutionality of also consulted.
legislative enactments and executive orders of
Qualification of Judges
both the Central and state governments. On
• He should be a citizen of India.
examination, if they are found to be violative
• He should have held a judicial office in the
of the Constitution (ultra-vires), they can be
territory of India for 10 years or he should
declared as illegal, unconstitutional and
have been an advocate of a High Court (or
invalid (null and void) by the Supreme Court.
High Courts in succession) for 10 years

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Tenure • Chief Ministers of the union territories
The Constitution has not fixed the tenure of having legislative assemblies.
Judge of High Court. He holds office until he • Administrators of the union territories not
attains the age of 62 years. having legislative assemblies.
• 6 Union Cabinet Ministers, including
Removal
Home Minister, to be nominated by the
• He can resign his office by writing to the
Prime Minister.
President.
• Governors of the states being
• He can be removed from his office by the
administered under President's rule.
President on the recommendation of the
Parliament (same as Judge of SC).
• He vacates his office when he is appointed FINA NCE COMMISSION
as a Judge of the Supreme Court or when
he is transferred to another High Court. The Finance Commissions are commissions
periodically constituted by the President of
INTER – STATE COU NCIL India under Article 280 of the Indian
Constitution to define the financial relations
between the central government of India and
The Constitution of India in Article 263, the individual state governments.
provided that an Inter-State Council (ISC) may The First Commission was established in 1951
be established "if at any time it appears to the under The Finance Commission
President that the public interests would be (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act, 1951. Fifteen
served by the establishment of a Council". Finance Commissions have been constituted
It was established on 28 May 1990 by a since the promulgation of Indian Constitution
presidential order on recommendation of in 1950.
Sarkaria Commission. The most recent Finance Commission was
Currently ISC is that of a non-permanent constituted in 2017 and is chaired by N. K.
constitutional body. Singh, a former member of the Planning
Moreover, the Commission on Centre-State Commission.
Relations under the Chairmanship of Justice R.
S. Sarkaria had recommended that a Functions
permanent Inter-State Council called the • Distribution of 'net proceeds' of taxes
Inter-Governmental Council (IGC) should be between Centre and the States, to be
set up under Article 263. divided as per their respective
The objective of the ISC is to discuss or contributions to the taxes.
investigate policies, subjects of common • Determine factors governing Grants-in-
interest, and disputes among states. Aid to the states and the magnitude of the
same.
Composition of Interstate Council
• To make recommendations to the
The Inter-State Council composes of the
President as to the measures needed to
following members
augment the Fund of a State to
• Prime Minister, Chairman.
supplement the resources of the
• Chief Ministers of all states. panchayats and municipalities in the state
on the basis of the recommendations

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made by the finance commission of the • A finance commission is an autonomous
state. body which is governed by the
• Any other matter related to it by the
government of India.
president in the interest of sound finance.

List of Finance Commissions

Year of
Finance Commission Chairman Operational duration
establishment

First 1951 K. C. Neogy 1952–57

Second 1956 K. Santhanam 1957–62

Third 1960 A. K. Chanda 1962–66

Fourth 1964 P. V. Rajamannar 1966–69

Fifth 1968 Mahaveer Tyagi 1969–74

Sixth 1972 K. Brahmananda Reddy 1974–79

Seventh 1977 J. M. Shelat 1979–84

Eighth 1983 Y. B. Chavan 1984–89

Ninth 1987 N. K. P. Salve 1989–95

Tenth 1992 K. C. Pant 1995–00

Eleventh 1998 A. M. Khusro 2000–05

Twelfth 2002 C. Rangarajan 2005–10

Thirteenth 2007 Dr. Vijay L. Kelkar 2010–15

Fourteenth 2013 Dr. Y. V Reddy 2015–20

Fifteenth 2017 N. K. Singh 2020–26

National Development Council (NDC)

NDC is neither a constitutional body nor statutory body. The NDC was constituted on 6 th August,
1952, with Prime Minister as the Ex-officio Chairman and the Secretary of the Planning Commission
as the Ex-officio Secretary of the NDC. Chief Minister of all the states and the members of the
Planning Commission, Lieutenant Governors and Administrator of Union Territories are the
members of the NDC.

Planning Commission
The Planning Commission, formed 15 March 1950 was an institution in the Government of India,
which formulated India's Five-Year Plans, among other functions. In his first Independence Day

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speech in 2014, Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced his intention to dissolve the Planning
Commission. It has since been replaced by a new institution named NITI Aayog.

Deputy Chairpersons of Planning Commission

[Link] Name From To

17.02.53 21.06.60
1. Gulzari Lal Nanda (Minister of Planning )
22.06.60 21.09.63

2. V.T. Krishnamachari 17.02.53 21.06.60

3. C.M. Trivedi 22.09.63 02.12.63

4. Ashok Mehta (Minister of Planning) 03.12.63 01.09.67

5. Dr. D.R. Gadgil 02.09.67 01.05.71

6. C. Subramaniam (Minister of Planning) 02.05.71 22.07.72

D.P. Dhar
7. 23.07.72 31.12.74
(Minister of Planning)

8. P.N. Haksar 04.01.75 31.05.77

9. Dr. D.T. Lakdawala 01.06.77 15.02.80

N.D. Tiwari
10. 09.06.80 08.08.81
(Minister of Planning)

11. S.B. Chavan (Minister of Planning) 09.08.81 19.07.84

P.C. Sethi
12 20.07.84 31.10.84
(Minister of Planning)

13 P.V. Narasimha Rao (Minister of Planning) 01.11.84 14.01.85

14 Dr. Manmohan Singh 15.01.85 31.08.87

15 P. Shiv Shanker (Minister of Planning) 25.07.87 29.06.88

Madhav Singh Solanki (Minister of

16 30.06.88 16.8.89
Planning)

17 R.K. Hegde 05.12.89 06.07.90

Prof. Madhu Dandavate (Also Finance

18 07.07.90 10.12.90
Minister)

19. Mohan Dharia 11.12.90 24.06.91

20. Pranab Mukherjee 24.06.91 15.05.96

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21. Prof. Madhu Dandavate 01.08.96 21.03.98

22. Jaswant Singh 25.03.98 04.02.99

23. K.C. Pant 05.02.99 17.06.2004

24. Montek Singh Ahluwalia 04.07.2004 05.06.2009

25. Montek Singh Ahluwalia 06.06.2009 26.05.2014

The design of the National Flag was adopted

NATIONAL SYMB OLS by the Constituent Assembly of India on 22
July 1947.
India has many national symbols with which it The National flag was designed by Pingali
identifies itself and takes pride in them. These Venkayya from Andhra Pradesh. The first
symbols have been chosen from India’s Indian Flag was woven at Gudiyatham in
unique flora and fauna, and its culture and Vellore district of Tamilnadu.
civilisation. In a nutshell, these symbols say a This flag was hoisted by Pandit Jawaharlal
lot about India. These symbols are intrinsic to Nehru on 15th August 1947 at Red Fort
the Indian identity and heritage. Indians of all (Delhi). This flag is now an exhibit at the
demographics backgrounds across the world [Link]’s Fort Museum, Chennai.
are proud of these National Symbols as they National Bird
instill a sense of pride and patriotism in every The National Bird of India—the Indian
Indian's heart. peacock, Pavo cristatus, commonly known as
the Indian peafowl, was declared the national
National Flag bird of India in 1963 because it was entirely a
part of Indian custom and culture. A peacock
is a symbol of grace and beauty. Another
reason why the peacock is chosen as the
national bird is because of its widespread
presence across the country, so much so that
even common people are familiar with the
bird. Moreover, no other country had the
The tricolour flag is our National fl ag. The peacock as its national bird.
three colours are of the same width and are National Flower
arranged horizontally. The saffron at the top Lotus, Nelumbo Nucifera Gaertn is the
represents valour and sacrifice. The green at National Flower of India. It is a sacred flower
the bottom represents fertility and prosperity. and occupies a unique position in the art and
The white band in between represents mythology of ancient India and has been an
honesty peace and purity. The Ashoka chakra auspicious symbol of Indian culture since time
or the wheel in navy blue represents truth and immemorial. It was adopted as national
peace. Out National Flag’s length and width flower in 1950.
proportion is 3:2 respectively and the
Ashoka’s chakra has 24 spokes in it

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National Tree calendar for the following official purposes of
Indian fig tree, Ficus bengalensis, or Government of India.
commonly known as Banyan tree is the Dates of the National Calendar have a
National Tree of India. It was adopted as the permanent correspondence with dates of the
National Tree in 1950. Gregorian calendar, 1 Chaitra falling on 22
National Anthem March normally and on 21 March in leap year.
‘Jana Gana Mana’ is our National anthem. It It was first started in the reign of Kanishka.
symbolises the sovereignty and intergrity of The famous astronomer Meghnad Saha
our nation. This anthem was written by headed the Calendar Reformation Committee
Rabindranath Tagore in Bengali. This was on 22nd March 1957. It was then accepted by
transcripted in Hindi and was accepted by the the committee as our national calendar.
Constituent Assembly on 24th January 1950. National Animal
On 27th December 1911 this National anthem The Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris) was
was sung for the first time during the Congress declared as the national animal of India in
committee meet held at Kolkata. April 1973, with the initiation of Project Tiger,
to protect tigers in India.
National River
National Song
The Ganga or Ganges is the National River of
The song Vande Mataram, composed in
India. It is the longest river of India, flowing
Sanskrit by Bankimchandra Chatterjee, was a
over 2,510 km of mountains, valleys and
source of inspiration to the people in their
plains. It was declared as the National River in
struggle for freedom. It has an equal status
the year 2008.
with Jana-gana-mana. The first political
National Emblem occasion when it was sung was the 1896
Pillar at Sarnath was chosen to be our National session of the Indian National Congress. It was
emblem. The national emblem was accepted adopted as the National Song on 24th January
on 26th January 1950, The upper part has four 1950.
lions facing the North, South, East and West. National Fruit
This is on a circular pedestal. One can only see Mango or Mangifera indica is the National
three lions at a time. The lower part has an Fruit of India. It is native to India. It was
elephant, a horse, a bull and a lion. The ‘Wheel adopted as the National fruit in 1950.
of righteousness’ is placed between them.
Currency Symbol
This emblem is found at the top of the
The Indian currency is the Indian Rupees. The
government communication, Indian currency
currency released by SherShah Sur in the
and passport. The words Satyameva
sixteenth century was ‘Rupiya’. This ‘rupiya’
Jayate from Mundaka Upanishad, meaning
has been transformed, into ‘Rupees’.
'Truth Alone Triumphs', are inscribed below
The symbol of Indian Rupee typifies India's
the abacus in Devanagari script.
international identity for money transactions
National Calendar and economic strength. The symbol is an
The National Calendar based on the Saka amalgam of Devanagari "Ra" and the Roman
Era with Chaitra as its first month and a Capital "R" with two parallel horizontal stripes
normal year of 365 days was adopted from 22 running at the top representing the national
March 1957 along with the Gregorian flag and also the "equal to" sign. The Indian
Rupee sign was adopted by the Government

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of India on 15th July, [Link] symbol, Hindi, but the Parliament can make any other
conceptualised and designed by Udaya language as official language.
Kumar, a post graduate in Design from Indian Part XVII of the Indian constitution deals with
Institute of Technology Bombay. the official languages in Articles 343 to 351.
National Microorganism Article 344 provides for the constitution of a
Lacto bacillus delbrueckii. This was accepted Commission by the President on expiration of
as our national microorganism in the year five years from the commencement of the
2012. This microorganism makes the milk Constitution. Article 351 provides for the
undergo a chemical reaction and changes the spread of the Hindi language to develop it so
protein content of the milk. that it may serve as a medium of expression
National Pledge for all the elements of the composite culture
“India is my country. All Indians are my of India.
brothers and sisters” is our national pledge. The Eighth Schedule to the Constitution
The pledge was written by Pydimarri Venkata consists of the following 22 languages:
Subba Rao in Telugu in 1962. It was first read
• Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi,
out in a school in Visakhapatnam in 1963
Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Malayalam,
National Aquatic Animal Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya,
The Ministry of Environment and Forests Punjabi,Sanskrit, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu,
notified the Ganges River Dolphin as the Urdu, Bodo, Santhali, Maithili and Dogri.
National Aquatic Animal today. The River ▪ Of these languages, 14 were initially
Dolphin inhabits the Ganges- Brahmaputra- included in the Constitution.
Meghna and Karnaphuli-Sangu river systems • Sindhi language was added by the 21st
of Nepal, India, and Bangladesh. It was Amendment Act of 1967.
declared in the year 2010. • Konkani, Manipuri, and Nepali were
National Reptile included by the 71st Amendment Act of
Ophiophagus hanna, the King Cobra is the 1992.
largest venomous snake in the world. It is the • Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, and Santhali were
National reptile of India. Growing to around added by the 92nd Amendment Act of
3m in length, the King has the ability to inject 2003 which came into force in 2004.
upto 6ml of venom in a single bite.
Classical Languages
National Heritage Animal Currently there are six languages that enjoy
Indian elephant is the national heritage the ‘Classical’ status in India:
animal of India since 22 October 2010. India's • Tamil (declared in 2004), Sanskrit (2005),
Environment Ministry has declared the Kannada (2008), Telugu (2008),
elephant a National Heritage Animal in order Malayalam (2013), and Odia (2014).
to increase protective measures for the • All the Classical Languages are listed in the
country's nearly 29,000 elephants. Eighth Schedule of the Constitution.

OFFICIAL LA NGUAGE S DELIMITATION

COMMISSION
India doesn’t have a National language but
under Article 343 India’s official language is

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Delimitation is redrawing of boundaries of an
assembly or Lok Sabha constituency. It is done EMERGENCY PROV ISIONS
to reflect the demographic changes in a state,
Union Territory or at the national level. The emergency provisions are contained in
Delimitation is also responsible for reserving Part XVIII of the Constitution of India, from
of a designated number of seats in a state Article 352 to 360. These provisions enable
assembly or the Lok Sabha for Scheduled the Central government to meet any
Caste and Scheduled Tribe communities. abnormal situation effectively.
The Delimitation Commissions were set up in
1952, 1963, 1972 and 2002. The number of The Constitution stipulates three types of
Lok Sabha constituencies has not been revised emergencies -
since 1972. In 2002, it was frozen at 543 till 1. National Emergency
2026.
2. Constitutional Emergency
The last delimitation exercise was finished in
2008 when the 2001 Census was taken as the 3. Financial Emergency
basis for readjusting the boundaries of
existing Lok Sabha and assembly National Emergency
constituencies. Under Article 352 National emergency can be
The 84th Amendment to the Constitution in declared on the basis of war, external
2002 had put a freeze on the delimitation of aggression or armed rebellion. The
Lok Sabha and State Assembly constituencies Constitution employs the expression
till the first Census after 2026. While the ‘proclamation of emergency’ to denote an
current boundaries were drawn on the basis emergency of this type.
of the 2001 Census, the number of Lok Sabha The President can declare a national
seats and State Assembly seats remained emergency even before the actual occurrence
frozen on the basis of the 1971 Census. of war or armed rebellion or external
The Delimitation Commission of 1952 was aggression.
created due to the Delimitation of When a national emergency is declared on the
Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies grounds of ‘war’ or ‘external aggression’, it is
Order, [Link] N Chandrasekhara Aiyar, a known as ‘External Emergency’. On the other
retired justice of the Supreme Court, was its hand, when it is declared on the grounds of
chairman in 1953. ‘armed rebellion’, it is known as ‘Internal
The delimitation commission of 1973 was Emergency’.
chaired by Justice J L Kapur, a retired justice of This term ‘armed rebellion’ is inserted from
the Supreme Court. The commission the 44th amendment. Before this term it was
recommended the increase of the seats in the known as internal disturbance.
Lok Sabha from 522 to 542 (later increased to Parliamentary approval and duration
543 with the addition of one more seat for the
The proclamation of emergency must be
new state of Sikkim).
approved by both the houses of parliament
The most recent delimitation commission was
within one month from the date of its issue. If
set up on 12 July 2002 after the 2001 census
with Justice Kuldip Singh, a retired Judge of approved by both the houses, the Emergency
the Supreme Court as its Chairperson. continues for 6 months and can be extended

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to an indefinite period with an approval of the beyond a period of six months after the
Parliament for every six months. Every emergency has ceased to operate.
resolution approving the proclamation of • Similarly, the Parliament may extend the
emergency or its continuance must be passed normal tenure of a state Legislative
by either House of Parliament by a special Assembly by one year each time during a
majority. national emergency, subject to a
maximum period of six months after the
Revocation of proclamation emergency has ceased to operate.
A proclamation of Emergency may be revoked
3. Effect on fundamental rights
by the President at any time by a subsequent
proclamation. Such proclamation does not • Articles 358 and 359 describes the effect
require parliamentary approval. The of a National Emergency on the
emergency must be revoked if the Lok Sabha Fundamental Rights.
passes a resolution by a simple majority • Suspension of Fundamental rights under
disapproving its continuation. Article 19: According to Article 358, when
Effects of national emergency a proclamation of National Emergency is
made, the six fundamental rights under
article 19 are automatically suspended.
1. Effects on the centre-state relations
Article 19 is automatically revived after
• Centre becomes entitled to give executive
the expiry of the emergency.
directions to a state on ‘any’ matter
• The 44th Amendment Act laid out that
• The parliament becomes empowered to
Article 19 can only be suspended when the
make laws on any subject mentioned in
National Emergency is laid on the grounds
the state list, the president can issue
of war or external aggression and not in
ordinances on State subjects also, if the the case of armed rebellion.
parliament is not in session. The laws • Suspension of other Fundamental Rights:
made on state subjects by the parliament Under Article 359, the President is
become inoperative six months after the authorised to suspend, by order, the right
emergency has ceased to be in operation. to move any court for the enforcement of
• The president can modify the Fundamental Rights during a National
constitutional distribution of revenues Emergency. Thus, remedial measures are
between the centre and the states. suspended and not the Fundamental
Rights.
2. Effect on the life of the Lok Sabha and State National Emergency Proclamation
Assembly: • The first proclamation of National
• While a proclamation of National Emergency was issued in October 1962 on
Emergency is in operation, the life of the account of Chinese aggression in the NEFA
Lok Sabha may be extended beyond the and was in force till January 1968.
normal term for one year at a time.
However, this extension cannot continue

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• The second proclamation of National • President can take all other necessary
Emergency was made in December 1971 steps including the suspension of the
in the wake of the attack by Pakistan. constitutional provisions relating to any
• Even when the emergency was in body or authority in the state.
operation, the third proclamation of
Financial Emergency
National Emergency was made in June
Article 360 empowers the president to
1975. Both the second and the third proclaim a Financial Emergency if he is
proclamations were revoked in March satisfied that a situation has arisen due to
1977. which the financial stability or credit of India
or any part of its territory is threatened.
President’s Rule / State Emergency

/ Constitutional Emergency Parliamentary approval and duration

The president’s ruler can be proclaimed under
• A proclamation declaring financial
Article 356 on two grounds. Article 356 emergency must be approved by both the
empowers the President to issue a Houses of Parliament within two months
proclamation if he is satisfied that a situation from the date of its issue.
has arisen in which the government of a state • Once approved by both the houses of
cannot be carried on in accordance with the Parliament, the Financial Emergency
provisions of the constitution. continues indefinitely till it is revoked.
Article 365 says that whenever a state fails to
Effects of Financial Emergency
comply with or to give effect to any direction
from the centre, it will be lawful for the • Extension of the executive authority of the
President to hold that a situation has arisen in Union over the financial matters of the
which the government of the state cannot be States.
carried on in accordance with the provisions • Reduction of salaries and allowances of all
of the constitution. or any class of persons serving in the State.
Parliamentary approval: A proclamation • Reservation of all money bills or other
imposing president’s rule must be approved financial bills for the consideration of the
by both the houses of parliament within two President after they are passed by the
months from the date of its issue. legislature of the State.
• Direction from the President for the
Consequences of the President’s rule:
reduction of salaries and allowances of all
• President can take up the functions of the or any class of persons serving the Union;
state government and powers vested in and the judges of the Supreme Court and
the governor or any other executive the High Courts.
authority in the state.
• President can declare that the powers of
the state legislature are to be exercised by
the parliament.

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For Banking &
D a y - 23
Government Jobs

ELECTIONS

Elections
Elections have today become the most visible symbol of the democratic process. A direct democracy
is one where the citizens directly participate in the day-to-day decision making and in the running
of the government. The ancient city-states in Greece were considered examples of direct
democracy. Many would consider local governments, especially gram sabhas, to be the closest
examples of direct democracy. But this kind of direct democracy cannot be practiced when a
decision has to be taken by lakhs and crores of people. That is why rule by the people usually means
rule by people’s representatives. In such an arrangement citizen choose their representatives who,
in turn, are actively involved in governing and administering the country. The method followed to
choose these representatives is referred to as an election.
Elections in India
The elective element for the natives in legislative bodies in British India found its introduction for
the first time under the Indian Councils Act 1901. This Act was passed by the British Parliament to
give approval to a scheme, known as the Morley–Minto Reforms. The first general election after
independence took place in the year 1951-52.
Types of Elections

On the basis of Periodicity of Elections

•Takes place once in 5 years.

General •Takes place for Lok Sabha and Legislative Assembly.
Elections

•Takes place when the elected government dissolves before 5 years.

Mid Term •Takes place for Lok Sabha and Legislative Assembly.
Election

•Takes place for vacant seats in the Assembly or Lok Sabha.

By- Election •The term of office for the office bearers will be the left over years and not the complete 5 year.

On the basis of voting

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Direct Elections Indirect Elections

People vote directly Examples: Lok Sabha People don’t vote Examples: President,
and select and State Assembly directly rather elected Vice President, Rajya
representatives elections representative vote Sabha elections

Election system in India

India follows follow 2 systems of elections namely First Past The Post System (direct elections) and
Proportional Representation (indirect election).
First Past The Post (FPTP) Proportional Representation (PR)

• The country is divided Large geographical • Large geographical areas into small
areas into small geographical are geographical are demarcated as
demarcated as units called constituencies. The entire country may be a
constituencies. single constituency.
• Every constituency elects one • More than one representative may be elected
representative. from one constituency.
• Voter votes for a candidate • Voter votes for the party
• A party may get more seats than votes in • Every party gets seats in the legislature in
the legislature. proportion to the percentage of votes that it
• Candidate who wins the elections gets gets.
majority of majority (50%+1) votes. • Candidate who wins the election gets majority
• Examples: U.K., India of votes.
• Examples: Israel, Netherlands

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First general election in India
The first general election after
independence took place in the year 1951-
52. It was held between October 25, 1951
and March 27, 1952. About 1874
candidates and 53 parties contested for the
elections. The parties contested for 489
seats. INC won the elections with 364 seats
as the people voted for the party which was
led by Jawaharlal Nehru. CPI is the party
which finished second with 16 seats as they
got about 3.29 per cent votes. The
population of India was 36 crore, out of
which, 17.32 crore population was eligible
to vote. The voter turnout for the elections was 45.7 per cent.
17th General Election
The 17th Lok Sabha was formed by the members elected in the 2019 Indian general election.[1]
Elections, all across India, were conducted in seven phases from 11 April 2019 to 19 May 2019 by
the Election Commission of India.

Om Birla was elected as speaker of the house. No opposition party was able to get the minimum
requirement (10% of seats) to claim the position of Leader of Opposition. The 17th Lok Sabha has
the most women representatives, at 14 percent. 267 members are first-time MPs.

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Chandrani Murmu of BJD from
Keonjhar constituency became the
youngest member at the age of 25
years, 11 months and nine days and
Shafiqur Rahman Barq of SP from
Sambhal constituency became the
oldest member at the age of 86.
As per the data from Election
Commission of India, the total number
of parties registered was 2698, with 8
national parties, 52 state parties and
2638 unrecognised parties.

Constitutional provisions related to elections.

Laws related to the elections in India are contained in Part XV of the Indian Constitution. The
provisions mentioned in the Articles (324 to 329) cover all aspects of conducting elections starting
from inclusion of names in electoral roll to formulation of laws pertaining to elections.

Election Commission of India

Article 324 of Constitution provides Election Commission of India with the power of direction,
superintendence, and control of elections to parliament, state legislatures, the office of president
of India and the office of vice-president of India.

National voters' day is First Chief Election

25th January 1950 – ECI
celebrated on 25th Commissioner –
established
January Sukumar Sen.

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Composition of Election Commission of India
•Single member •3-member body
body with CEC and 2
election
commissioners

26th Jan 16th Oct

1950 1989

Oct Jan
1993 1990
•3-member body •Reverted to
with CEC and 2 original form of
election single member
commissioners body.

The Election Commission of India was converted into multi-member body in 1989 because of
reduction in the age for voting from 21 to 18 years by 61st Amendment Act, 1988.

Other articles related to elections.

• No person to be ineligible for inclusion in, or to claim to be included in a
325 special, electoral roll on grounds of religion, race, caste or sex.

• Elections to the House of the People and to the Legislative Assemblies of

326 States to be on the basis of adult suffrage.

• Power of Parliament to make provision with respect to elections to

327 Legislatures.

• Power of Legislature of a State to make provision with respect to elections to

328 such Legislature.

• Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters.

329

Rajya Sabha Seats for each state. Assam (AS) 7

State No of Seats
Bihar (BR) 16
Andhra Pradesh (AP) 11
Chhattisgarh (CHT) 5
Arunachal Pradesh (AR) 1

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Goa (GOA) 1 Lok Sabha Seats

Gujarat (GJ) 11 States

Name of State No. of Constituencies
Haryana (HR) 5
Andhra Pradesh 24
Himachal Pradesh (HP) 3
Arunachal Pradesh 2
Jammu & Kashmir (J & K ) 4
Assam 14
Jharkhand (JHK) 6
Bihar 40
Karnataka (KAR) 12
Chhattisgarh 11
Kerala (KR) 9
Goa 2
Madhya Pradesh (MP) 11
Gujarat 26
Maharashtra (MH) 19
Haryana 10
Manipur (MN) 1
Himachal Pradesh 3
Meghalaya (MGH) 1
Jharkhand 14
Mizoram (MZ) 1
Karnataka 27
Nagaland (NG) 1
Kerala 19
National Capital Territory of
3
Delhi (DL) Madhya Pradesh 28
Nominated (NOM.) 12 Maharashtra 48
Odisha (OR) 10 Manipur 2
Puducherry (PUD) 1 Meghalaya 2
Punjab (PB) 7 Mizoram 1
Rajasthan (RJ) 10 Nagaland 1
Sikkim (SK) 1 Odisha 21
Tamil Nadu (TN) 18 Punjab 13
Telangana (TG) 7 Rajasthan 25
Tripura (TR) 1 Sikkim 1
Uttar Pradesh (UP) 31 Tamil Nadu 38
Uttarakhand (UTK) 3 Telangana 17
West Bengal (WB) 16 Tripura 2

Uttar Pradesh 80

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Uttarakhand 5 Delhi Legislative

New Delhi 70
Assembly
West Bengal 42
Goa Legislative
Panaji 40
Assembly
Name of State No. of Constituencies
Gujarat
Andaman and 1
Legislative Gandhinagar 182
Nicobar Islands
Assembly
Chandigarh 1
Haryana
Daman and Diu 1 Legislative Chandigarh 90
Assembly
Lakshadweep 1
Himachal Shimla (summ
NCT of Delhi 7
Pradesh er) and
Puducherry 1 68
Legislative Dharamshala (
Jammu and 5 Assembly winter)
Kashmir
Jharkhand
Ladakh 1 Legislative Ranchi 81
Assembly
Number of Seats in the State Legislative
Assembly Bangalore (su
Karnataka mmer)
Number
State Capital Legislative 224
of Seats
Assembly and Belgaum (
Andhra Pradesh winter)
Legislative Amaravati 175
Kerala
Assembly Thiruvanantha
Legislative 140
puram
Arunachal Assembly
Pradesh
Itanagar 60 Madhya
Legislative
Pradesh
Assembly Bhopal 230
Legislative
Assam Assembly
Legislative Dispur 126
Mumbai (sum
Assembly Maharashtra mer)
Legislative 288
Bihar Legislative & Nagpur (win
Patna 243 Assembly
Assembly ter)
Chhattisgarh Manipur
Legislative Naya Raipur 90 Legislative Imphal 60
Assembly Assembly

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Meghalaya Gairsain (sum

Legislative Shillong 60 Uttarakhand mer)
Assembly Legislative 70
Assembly & Dehradun (
Mizoram winter)
Legislative Aizawl 40
West Bengal
Assembly
Legislative Kolkata 294
Nagaland Assembly
Legislative Kohima 60
Assembly

Odisha
Bhubaneshwa PUB LIC SERV ICE
Legislative 147
r COMMISSIONS
Assembly

Puducherry
As per Article 312 of the Indian Constitution,
Legislative Puducherry 33‡
the Parliament is entitled to create one or
Assembly
more All India services common to the Union
Punjab and the States. The recruitment to all these
Legislative Chandigarh 117 services at central level is made by the Union
Assembly Public Service Commission (UPSC). For
administrative services at the state level, the
Rajasthan
recruitment is made by the State Public
Legislative Jaipur 200
Service Commission (SPSC).
Assembly
Union Public Service Commission
Sikkim • Articles 315 to 323 in Part XIV of the
Legislative Gangtok 32 Constitution deals with Union Public
Assembly Service Commission.
• It deals with the composition,
Tamil Nadu
Legislative Chennai 234 appointment and removal of members
Assembly along with the independence, powers and
functions of the UPSC.
Telangana • The UPSC consists of a chairman and other
Legislative Hyderabad 119 members appointed by the President of
Assembly India.
• The President on his discretion decides
Tripura
Legislative Agartala 60 the number of members in the
Assembly Commission.
• The chairman and members of the
Uttar Pradesh Commission hold office for a term of six
Legislative Lucknow 403 years or until they attain the age of 65
Assembly years, whichever is earlier.
• The Constitution visualises the UPSC to be
the ‘watch-dog of merit system’ in India.

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• UPSC is only a central recruiting agency. • Article 320: States the functions of Public
• The role of UPSC is not only limited, but Service Commissions.
also recommendations made by it are only • Article 322: Expenses of Public Service
of advisory nature and hence, not binding Commissions.
on the government. • Article 323: Reports of Public Service
• The same structure exist in the state as Commissions.
well, consisting of same organisational set
up and same kind of functions confined to
that particular state. Although the
SPECIA L PROV ISIONS
chairman and members of a SPSC are RELA TED TO ST A TES
appointed by the Governor, they can be
removed only by the President (and not Part XXI of the Constitution of India consists of
by the Governor). The President can Articles on Temporary, Transitional and
remove them on the same grounds and in Special Provisions. Article 371 of the
the same manner as he can remove a Constitution includes “special provisions” for
chairman or a member of the UPSC. 11 states, including six states of the Northeast.
• The President can remove the chairman Articles 370 and 371 were part of the
or any other member of UPSC from the Constitution at the time of its commencement
office under the following circumstances: on January 26, 1950; Articles 371A through
▪ If he is adjudged an insolvent (that is, 371J were incorporated subsequently.
has gone bankrupt); Article 370 of the Indian Constitution granted
▪ If he engages, during his term of office, special autonomous status to the erstwhile
in any paid employment outside the state of Jammu and Kashmir. It was
duties of his office; or incorporated as a temporary provision, which
▪ If he is, in the opinion of the President, allowed the state have its own Constitution.
unfit to continue in office by reason of Except for defence, foreign affairs finance and
infirmity of mind or body. communications, the Parliament needed the
Constitutional Provisions related to Public state government's concurrence for applying
Service Commissions all other laws. The Jammu and Kashmir
• Article 315: Constitution of Public Service Instrument of Accession is a legal document
Commissions (PSC) for the Union and for executed by Maharaja Hari Singh, ruler of the
the States of India. princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, on 26
• Article 316: Appointment and term of October 1947.
office of members of UPSC as well as SPSC. Article Subject matter
• Article 317: Removal and suspension of a
Special provision with respect to
member of both the UPSC or SPSC.
371 the states of Maharashtra and
• Article 318: Power to make regulations for Gujarat
the conditions of service of members and
staff of the Commission. Special provision with respect to
371A the state of Nagaland (13th
• Article 319: Prohibition of holding the Amendment Act, 1962)
office by members of Commission upon
ceasing to be such members.

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Special provision with respect to planets in our solar system are Mercury,
371B the state of Assam (22nd Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Amendment Act, 1969) Uranusand Neptune. There are also dwarf
Special provision with respect to planets such as Pluto, dozens of moons and
371C the state of Manipur (27th millions of asteroids, comets and meteoroids
Amendment Act, 1971) of all shapes and sizes.

Special provisions with respect

to the state of Andhra Pradesh or The sun
the state of Telangana (32nd The sun is by far the largest object in our solar
371D Amendment Act, 1973; system. It contains 99.8 per cent of the solar
substituted by The Andhra system’s mass and is a hot ball of glowing
Pradesh Reorganisation Act, gases. The gravity of the Sun holds the solar
2014) system together keeping everything in its
orbit.
Establishment of Central • The Sun is approximately 70% hydrogen,
371E
University in Andhra Pradesh 28% helium, 2% carbon and a trace
Special provisions with respect amount of other gases.
371F to the state of Sikkim (36th • The gravity of the surface of the Sun is
Amendment Act, 1975) around 28x as powerful as the gravity of
Earth.
Special provision with respect to
• The surface of the Sun is very hot, and on
371G the state of Mizoram (53rd
average is around 5500°c.
Amendment Act, 1986)
• The Sun has a surface temperature of
Special provision with respect to about 6000°C.
371H the state of Arunachal Pradesh • The Sun is 109 times wider than the Earth.
(55th Amendment Act, 1986) • The distance between the Earth and the
Sun is an Astronomical Unit (AU).
Special provision with respect to
371I • The visible part of the Sun is called the
the state of Goa
photosphere.
Special provisions with respect • Light from the Sun reaches Earth in around
371J to the state of Karnataka (98th 8 minutes.
Amendment Act, 2012)
Planets in the Solar System
Planets are celestial bodies, which revolve
SOLA R SYSTEM around the star. It doesn’t have a light of its
own and reflects the light of the star. There
Our solar system is in the Milky Way galaxy are eight planets in the solar system that
and located in an outer spiral arm. The solar revolve around the Sun in an elliptical orbit.
system is made up of some major and minor Classification of Planets
planets, star, and other matters, all of which 1. Inner Planets/Terrestrial Planets/ Rocky
interact with each other. Planets – Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars
The solar system consists of our sun, which is
a star, and all that its gravity affects. The

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2. Outer Planets/ Gaseous Planets/ Jovian • Mars has two small natural satellites or
Planets – Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and moons.
Neptune • Nix Olympia is a mountain spotted on
Mercury Mars which is 3 times higher than
• It is the nearest planet to the sun. Mountain Everest.
• It is the smallest planet in our solar • The name of the two satellites of Mars are
system. Phobos and Deimos.
• Mercury has no satellite/moon of its own. • One rotation of Mars takes 24.6 hours to
• This planet has the fastest revolution time. [Link] has a revolution period of
• It has extreme weather that ranges from 687 Earth days.
+400°c to –200°c. Jupiter
• One rotation of Mercury takes 59 Earth • Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar
days to [Link] has a system.
revolution period of 88 Earth days. • The mass of Jupiter is about 318 times that
Venus of our Earth.
• It is the brightest planet in the night sky. • It rotates very rapidly on its axis.
• It is the hottest planet our solar system. • It has 75 moons or natural satellites.
• It is often called a morning or an evening One rotation of Jupiter takes 10 hours to
star although it is not a star. [Link] has a revolution period of 12
• Venus is considered as ‘Earth’s Earth years.
twin’because its size and shape are very Saturn
much similar to that of the earth. • Saturn appears yellowish in colour.
• Venus has no moon or satellite of its own. • It is the second-largest planet in the solar
• It rotates from east to west while the Earth system.
rotates from west to east. • It looks beautiful because of the rings. It
• One rotation of Venus takes 243 Earth has 7 main rings.
days to [Link] has a revolution • It has 82 moons or natural satellites.
period of 225 Earth days. • Saturn also has a large number of
Earth satellites.
• The earth is the third nearest planet to the • It is the least dense among all the planets.
sun. • One rotation of Saturn takes 10.7 hours to
• It is the fifth-largest planet. complete.
• It is slightly flattened at the poles. Hence, • Saturn has a revolution period of 29 Earth
its shape is described as a Geoid. years.
• The Earth has only one moon. Uranus
• It is known as the Blue planet. • It is called Green planet because of the
• Earth takes 24 hours to rotate and 365 presence of Methane gas.
days to revolve around the sun. • Like Venus, Uranus also rotates from east
Mars to west.
• It appears slightly reddish due to the • It has a total of 27 moons.
presence of iron oxides andhence, it is also
known as the red planet.

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• It is also known as the ‘sideways planet / • Smallest satellite of the

lopsided planet’ because it is tilted 90 Deimos
solar system
degrees on its axis.
• It is the first planet found using a • Blue planet Earth
[Link] rotation of Uranus takes 17
• Green planet Uranus
hours to complete Uranus has a revolution
period of 84 Earth years. • Morning star Venus
Neptune
• It is the coldest and the windiest planet in • Evening star Venus
our solar [Link] are 14 satellites.
• Sister of Earth/Earth’sTwin Venus
• At least 5 main rings are present in
Neptune. • Only satellite to have an
Titan
• It is an Ice Giant. atmosphere like earth
• One rotation of Neptune takes 16 hours to
• Planets rotating east to Venus and
[Link] has a revolution period
west Uranus
of 165 Earth years.
Dwarf planets
Facts about Planets
Dwarf planets are objects similar to planets in
• Biggest planet Jupiter the solar system, however, they are defined as
not large enough to qualify to be named as a
• Smallest planet Mercury
planet as they didn’t qualify the condition
• Natural Satellite of Earth Moon ‘cleared their orbital region of other objects’
and also not having enough mass and size.
• Nearest planet toSun Mercury There are 5 known dwarf planets in the solar
system namely Pluto, Ceres, Eris, Haumea,
• Farthest planet from Sun Neptune etc.

• Nearest planet to Earth Venus Pluto

Pluto was discovered by Clyde Tombaugh in
• Brightest planet Venus 1930. It lost its status as a planet after the
International Astronomical Union redefined
• Brightest star outside the Dog Star/ the criteria for the planet in 2006.
solar system Sirius
Comets
• Planet having the A comet is a celestial object made up of a head
maximum number of Saturn and a tail. The head of a comet consists of
satellites solid particles held together by ice and the tail
is made of gases. Halley’s Comet is the most
• Coldest planet Neptune
famous comet which comes close to the Earth
• Red planet (seen at night) Mars every 76 years. It last appeared in 1986 and
will next appear in 2061.
• Heaviest planet Jupiter Asteroid belt
The asteroid belt is a region between the
• Biggest satellite of the solar
Ganymede planets Mars and Jupiter. In this region of the
system
asteroid belt, thousands of rocky objects orbit

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around the Sun. They range in size from tiny and Cenozoic. The Earth is the only planet in
dust-like particles to the dwarf planet Ceres. the solar system which is not named after any
They are also known as Planetoids or Minor Greek or Roman deity.
planets. Shape and Inclination of the Earth
Kuiper belt The Earth is spherical in shape. It rotates on its
The Kuiper belt is named after a scientist axis, which is an imaginary line that runs from
named Gerard Kuiper. In 1951, he had the the North pole to the South polepassing
idea that a belt of icy bodies might have through the centre of the Earth. The Earth’s
existed beyond Neptune when the solar axis is always tilted or inclined from the
system was formed. He was trying to explain vertical by an angle of 23½°. It makes an angle
where comets with small orbits came from. of 66½° with the plane of the Earth’s orbit.
The Kuiper belt is a region of thousands of The velocity of the Earth’s rotation varies from
small bodies that exist outside the orbit of the 1670 km per hour at the equator to 845 km
planets. per hour at 60° N and S latitudes and zero at
Moon the poles.
Moon is the only natural satellite of Earth. The Rotation is the spinning movement of the
study of Moon is called Selenology. The Moon Earth on its axis. The Earth rotates from west
has no atmosphere. The size of the Moon is to east (anti-clockwise) and takes 23 hours 56
one-fourth the size of the Earth. The minutes and 4.09 seconds to complete one
gravitational pull of the Moon is one-sixth of rotation. The time taken by the Earth to
the Earth. It revolves around the Earth once complete one rotation is called a day. The
every 27 days and 8 hours. It takes about the rotation of the Earth causes day and night. The
same time for it to complete one rotation line which divides the surface of the Earth into
around its axis. This is the reason that we can a lighted half and a dark half is called the
only see one side of the moon. Terminator Line.
Meteors Revolution is the movement of the Earth
A meteor is a stone-like or metallic body. around the Sun on its elliptical path. The Earth
When entering into the Earth’s atmosphere, takes 365 ¼ days for it to complete one
most of them burn. As they often appear as revolution. For the sake of convenience, we
streaks of light in the sky, they are also known take it as 365 days and call it a year. The
as shooting stars. Meteors that strike the remaining quarter – day is added once every
Earth’s surface are called meteorites. four years in the month of February. It is called
a Leap Year. The inclination of the Earth on its
axis and its revolution around the Sun cause
different seasons.
THE EA RTH The equator faces the Sun directly on 21
March and 23 September. These two days are
Earth is the only known planet where life can called Equinoxes, during which the day and
exist. The age of the Earth is estimated at night are equal throughout the Earth.
about 4.6 billion years. The history of the On 21June, the Tropic of Cancer faces the Sun.
Earth is studied in terms of geological eras, This is known as Summer Solstice. It is the
periods and epochs. The whole history is longest day in the Northern Hemisphere and
divided into three Eras-Palaeozoic, Mesozoic

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the longest night (shortest day) in the • It is also the most populated continent on
Southern Hemisphere. earth. This large population makes it an
On 22 December, the Tropic of Capricorn important part of the world economy.
faces the Sun. It is called as Winter Solstice. It • Asia is located mostly in the northern and
is the longest day in the Southern Hemisphere eastern hemispheres of the earth. It
and the longest night (shortest day) in the covers around 30% of the total land area
Northern Hemisphere. and is known to be home to the earliest
Perihelion is the Earth’s closest position to the human populations.
Sun. Aphelion is the farthest position of the • The boundaries of Asia are not very clearly
Earth from the Sun. defined. There is actually no geographical
When the distance between the Earth and the separation as such between Asia and
Moon is least then, it is called Apogee. When Europe. The two continents form a large
the distance between the Earth and the Moon landmass which is popularly called
is the highest, it is called Perigee. Eurasia.
• On the east of Asia, liesthe Pacific Ocean,
CONTINENTS AND OCEANS Indian Ocean to the south and the Arctic
Ocean to the north.
OF THE WORLD • Borneo in Southeast Asia is also the third –
largest island in the world and the largest
Our earth is made up of large landmasses in Asia.
known as continents and water bodies known • Yangtze River is the longest in the Asian
as oceans. The earth has not been like this continent. It is in China. The Yangtze is the
always as how we see it now. Millions of years third – longest river in the world after
before, there were only one large landmass rivers Amazon and Nile.
and a large ocean surrounding it. Later, the • Mount Everest is a mountain in the
landmass started to split and drift apart Himalayan mountain range and is the
surrounded by ocean on all sides. This process highest peak of Asia.
is still going on. Now we have 7 continents and • Caspian Sea is the biggest lake in Asia.
5 oceans which are home to millions of other • The Arabian Desert is the largest desert in
living organisms. Asia.
The 7 Continents of The World Africa
Asia • Africa is the second – largest continent in
• Asia is the largest continent on earth. the world.
• The Asian continent includes 49 countries. • It is also the second – largest continent in
Asian countries are mainly located in the the world in terms of population.
eastern hemisphere and the northern • Africa is commonly referred to as the dark
hemisphere. continent by many.
• China is the largest country by population. • This large the land mass comprises of 54
• Tokyo is the largest city. countries.
• The Maldives in the Indian ocean is one of • Africa lies in the centre of the earth with
the smallest countries in the world and the equator passing through its centre.
Asia's smallest country. • Africa belongs to all four hemispheres and
the bulk of the continent lies in the tropics.

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• It is the only continent, which is North America

intersected by Tropic of Cancer, Equator • It is the third largest continent in the world
and Tropic of Capricorn. by area and the fourth- largest continent
• It is the only continent that stretches from by population.
the northern temperate to the southern • North America is a continent which lies
temperate zones. The climate of Africa is wholly in the northern hemisphere.
largely tropical in nature. • It is bordered by Arctic Ocean in the north,
• Africa is surrounded by the Mediterranean Atlantic Ocean in the east, Pacific Ocean in
Sea in the north, the Indian Ocean to the the south and west, and South America
southeast, the Suez Canal and the Red Sea and Caribbean Sea in the southeast.
to the northeast all along the Sinai • North America lies almost wholly in the
Peninsula, and the Atlantic Ocean in the western hemisphere.
west. • The continent comprises a total of 23
• Madagascar and many archipelagos are countries, including the United States of
part of the continent. America.
• Africa is the world’s hottest continent and • The largest country in North America is
the second – driest after Australia. Canada.
• Plateau found: Ethiopian Plateau, Tibesti • The longest river in this continent is the
Plateauand the Abyssinia Plateau Mississippi River.
• Mountains found: The Atlas Mountains, • The largest freshwater lake in this
the Drakensberg, the Great Karoo, Mount continent is Lake Superior.
Kilimanjaro (Highest Peak) • The biggest island on the planet
• Lakes found: Lake Victoria (Largest Lake), Greenland, is found [Link] Valley in
Tanganyika, Nyasa or Malawiand Kivu California is the lowest point on the
• Deserts found: Sahara Desert and Kalahari continent. Death Valley also holds the
• Rivers found : the Nile (Longest River), the record for being the hottest and the driest
Congo, the Niger, the Zambezi, Zaireand region on the planet.
the Orange South America
• Waterfalls found : The Victoria Falls and • South America is the fourth - largest
Stanley Falls continent in terms of size and fifth in
• Biggest Country in the continent:Algeria terms of population. It has 13 countries.
• Lake Victoria is the largest lake of Africa, • South America is a continent located in the
which is located between Uganda, Kenya western hemisphere with most of its land
and Tanzania. It is the source of White Nile area lying in the southern hemisphere and
river. The equator passes through it. a relatively small portion in the northern
• The White Nile and the Blue Nile meet at hemisphere.
Khartoum (Sudan) to form river Nile. • It has Pacific Ocean to its western side,
• Congo river cuts the equator [Link] Atlantic Ocean in the north and eastern
highest temperature in the world has been side, and North America and Caribbean
recorded at Al-Aziziyah (Libya) at 58°C Sea in the Northwest side.
making it the hottest place in the world. • The Amazon River, which is the largest
river in the world in terms of volume, is
also in this continent. The Atacama Desert,

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which is the driest non-polar place on • It is the only continent, which is
earth, and the Amazon forest, which is the completely frozen. It is, therefore, known
largest rainforest on earth, is situated in as White Continent.
this continent. Europe
• Brazil is the largest country in South • Europe is the second - smallest continent
America. in the world.
• Lake Titicaca located in Bolivia and Peru is • It comprises the westernmost peninsula of
the highest navigable lake in the world. the giant Eurasian landmass.
• Smallest Country in the • Europe is home to almost 50 countries and
continent:Suriname is the third most populated continent in
• Highest mountain in the the world after Asia and Africa.
continent:Aconcagua in Argentina • Russia is the largest country in Europe and
• The Atacama Desert in Chile, considered Vatican city is the smallest.
the driest place on earth is found in this • Europe is divided from Asia by the
continent. watershed divides of the Ural and
• Longest River in the continent: Amazon Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the
River Caspian Sea, Black sea, and the waterways
• Brazil is the only country through which connecting Black sea and Aegean Sea.
both the equator and one of the tropics • Europe is bordered by Arctic Ocean in the
(Tropic of Capricorn) pass. north side, Atlantic Ocean in the west side,
Antarctica Mediterranean Sea to the south and Black
• Antarctica is the fifth - largest among the sea and connected waterways in the
seven continents. southeast.
• It is actually double the size of the whole • Largest capital city Moscow.
of Australia. • Biggest island: The biggest island on the
• Antarctica is the southernmost continent European continent is Great Britain/UK.
of all. Greenland, the largest island belongs to
• The geographic south pole of the earth is Europe (Denmark).Greenland, however, is
contained in this continent. located on the North American continent.
• It is made of large permanent glaciers that Most populous city found: Istanbul
surround the South pole. • Mount Elbrus in Russia is the highest
• This is one of the most uninhabitable mountain in Europe.
places on earth. • The Volga River in Russia is Europe's
• Antarctica is the least populated continent longest river.
on earth. • Lake Ladoga near Saint Petersburg in
• Antarctica is also the coldest landmass on Russia is Europe's biggest lake and one of
earth and much of this continent is made the world's largest freshwater lakes.
of permanent glaciers. Australia
• It was discovered in 1820. • The continent of Australia is a single
• Roald Amundsen was the first man to country continent.
reach geographical South pole in • It is the sixth - largest country by total area
Antarctica. and is also the smallest of all the seven
continents.

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• Because of its sizeand isolated location, it • The largest island in this ocean is
is also called an island continent. Madagascar.
• Australia lies in the Indo- Australian Plate. • There are only two real coastal seas in this
This continent is surrounded by Indian ocean. They [Link] Red Sea and the
Ocean and Pacific Ocean. Persian Gulf, the Arabian Sea and the Bay
• It lies entirely in the Southern
of Bengal (are also counted in the oceans,
Hemisphere. The Tropic of Capricorn
but they are only the northern extension
divides the continent into 2 halves.
of the Indian Ocean).
• Australia is one of the least populated
continents and is rich in biodiversity. • The Java trench (7725 m- ) is the deepest
• The Great Barrier Reef, which is the largest point in the Indian Ocean.
coral reef in the world, is in Australia. The Arctic Ocean
• The longest river in Australia is the Murray • The Arctic Ocean surrounds the North
River. pole.
• The Great Dividing Range is the longest • It is located inside the arctic circle. In fact,
mountain range in Australia. it is the northern extension of the Atlantic
• The highest mountain of Australia is Ocean. It is connected to the Pacific Ocean
Mount Kosciuszko.
by a narrow section of shallow sea called
• Sydney is Australia's biggest city.
the Bering Strait.
• Australia's largest desert is the Great
• It is bounded by the northern coasts of
Victoria Basin.
Europe, Asia and North America.
5 Oceans of the World
• Most of it is covered by thick layers of
The Indian Ocean
snow throughout the year.
• The Indian Ocean is bounded by the
continent of Asia in the north, the • The Celebes Sea is in this ocean.
continent of Antarctica in the south, the • Note: The largest of the oceans is the
continent of Australia in the east and the Pacific Ocean and the smallest is the Arctic
continent of Africa in the west. Ocean.
• Its shape is similar to the English M-shape. The Atlantic Ocean
• It is a semi-ocean. Its total area is • The Atlantic Ocean is one-sixth of the
7,34,25,500 sq. km. entire world. It is the second - largest
• It is joined by the Pacific Ocean on one side ocean in the world.
and the Atlantic Ocean on the other. • It is almost half of the Pacific Ocean and
• Tropic of Cancer is the northern boundary about 16% of the world's area.
• Its shape is similar to the English S-shape.
of this ocean.
• To its west is both America and to the east
• Lakshadweep and Maldives are examples
is Europe and Africa, to the south is
of coral islands off the southwest coast of
Antarctica. In the north lies Greenland,
India.
Hudson Bay, Baltic Sea andNorth Sea
• Mauritius and Reunion Island are islands Magnet.
formed by volcanic processes. • The most important feature of this ocean
is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, it is about 14,000

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km long and 4000 meters high from • In total, there are more than 2000 islands
Iceland in the north to Bouvet Island in the in this vast ocean.
south. • Most of the coastal area of the Pacific
• It is a submerged ridge, yet many of its Ocean is in the western part. Among them,
peaks have risen above water and have Bering Sea, Akhotsk Sea, Japan Sea, Yellow
taken the form of small islands. Pico Island Sea and East China Sea etc. are important.
of the Azores and Cape Verde Island are To the east, only the Gulf of California is
prime examples. famous.
• Bermuda Atoll and Ascension, Trista de • The Spanish navigator Ferdinand Magellan
Canha, Saint Helena, Gua and Bovet Island named the ocean Pacific, meaning calm or
are volcanic islands in the South Atlantic tranquil.
Ocean. The Southern Ocean
• The Bay of Baffin, the Hudson Bay, the • The Southern Ocean is located in the
North Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Gulf of southern hemisphere.
Mexico, the Mediterranean Sea and the • The Southern Ocean is the fourth-biggest
Caribbean Sea are important seas. (or second-smallest)ocean on earth and
• The coastline of the Atlantic Ocean is very covers only 6% of the earth’s surface.
torn. Due to this, the length of its coastline • The Southern Ocean is home to the
emperor penguins and wandering
is more than the total length of the
albatrosses, blue whales and fur seals.
coastline of Pacific and Indian Ocean. • The Southern Ocean’s proximity to the
• The Atlantic Ocean is the busiest ocean in south pole causes it to experience one of
the world from the point of view of trade. the most extreme weather conditions
• The deepest point is the Milwaukee Deep with the sea temperatures coming just
in the Puerto Rica Trench. above freezing point, ranging between
• The Strait of Gibraltar connects the negative (-) 2 degrees and 10 degrees
Atlantic Ocean with the Mediterranean Celsius.
Sea. • Sandwich Trench is the deepest point of
The Pacific Ocean this ocean.
• It is the largest ocean in the world.
• Its shape is triangular. B IOSPHERE
• It is the deepest ocean among all oceans
(Mariana Trench is the deepest point).
The biosphere is made up of the parts of Earth
• Its top is on the Bering Strait and the base
where life exists.
is on the continent of Antarctica.
Scientists describe the Earth in terms of
• Its length at the equator is more than
spheres. The solid surface layer of the Earth is
16,000 km. It is bounded by the continents
the lithosphere. The atmosphere is the layer
of Asia and Australia in the west, North
of air that stretches above the lithosphere.
and South America in the east and
The Earth’s water—on the surface, in the
Antarctica in the south.
ground, and the air makes up the
• Coral reefs are the main feature of the
hydrosphere.
Pacific Ocean.

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Since life exists on the ground, in the air and aquatic environment for nutrients and
the water, the biosphere overlaps all these shelter. It is broadly classified as freshwater
spheres. Although the biosphere measures biomes and marine biomes.
about 20 Km from top to bottom, almost all
life exists between about 500 m below the
LITHOSPHERE
ocean’s surface to about 6 km above sea level.
All living things, large or small, are grouped
into species. The area in which an animal, The entire outer layer of the Earth, on which
plant or microorganism lives is called its continents and oceans are located, is called
habitat. A wide variety of plants and animals the lithosphere. 29% of the earth is covered by
live in a particular habitat known as land and 71% is water. The ratio of the land
biodiversity. area and water area of the earth is 3:7.
An ecosystem is a community, where all living 61% of the northern hemisphere of the earth
organisms live and interact with one another and 81% of the southern hemisphere are
and also with their non-living environment covered by water.
such as land, soil, air, water etc. Biosphere The maximum height on Earth is that of
harbours all ecosystems on the earth and Mount Everest (8850 m) and the maximum
sustains life forms including mankind. depth is that of the Mariana Trench (11,022
An ecological region that has lost more than m). Thus, there is a difference of about 20 km
70% of its original habitat is considered a between the maximum height and maximum
hotspot. Hotspots in India are the Himalayas, depth of the Earth.
Western Ghats, Indo Burma Region and Lithosphere is thicker (40 km) in continental
Sundaland. There are 34 areas around the regions and relatively thinner (12-20 km) in
world which are qualified as biodiversity oceanic regions.
hotspots. Geomorphic Process
Biomes The Lithosphere of the earth undergoes
A biome is a geographically extensive various processes both internally and
ecosystem where all flora and fauna are found externally to form a wide range of landforms.
collectively. They are classified into two broad The process by which these changes occur is
categories, terrestrial biomes and aquatic called geomorphic process. There are two
biomes. types of geomorphic processes – Exogenetic
Terrestrial biomes are a group of living process and Endogenetic process.
organisms that live and interact with one Endogenetic Process
another on land. They are mainly determined The forces that act from the Earth’s interior
by temperature and rainfall. Some of the towards the Earth’s surface are called internal
major terrestrial biomes of the world are process or Endogenetic processes. These
• Tropical Forest Biomes forces build the landscape and create
• Tropical Savanna Biomes topographic relief. There are various
• Desert Biomes endogenetic process, such as:
• Temperate Grassland Biomes Plate tectonics
• Tundra Biomes • The lithosphere is divided into a number of
Aquatic biome is a group of living organisms
huge slabs of rocks called ‘Tectonic plates.’
that live and interact with one another and its Collisions of these plates produce

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mountain ranges and other irregular • Surface waves (or) L-waves are similar to
surface features, both on land and the P-waves but they travel primarily along
ocean floor. This phenomenon is called the ground surface. These waves travel
‘plate tectonics’. comparatively slower and are the most
• There are 3 types of plate boundaries– destructive waves.
Convergent plate boundary, Divergent • The magnitude or intensity of energy
plate boundary and transforming plate released by an earthquake is measured by
boundary. the Richter scale, whereas the damage
• Convergent Boundary – Here the plate caused is measured by modified Mercalli
moves toward each other and sometimes, Intensity scale.
a plate sinks under another. The location • The instrument which records the
where the sinking of a plate occurs is Earthquake waves is called ‘seismograph’
called a subduction zone. e.g Fold or ‘seismometre’. The science that deals
Mountains–Himalayas with Earthquakes is called ‘seismology’.
• Divergent Boundary – Here the plates pull • Tsunami is a type of Earthquake where the
away from each other as magma pushes epicentre is located on the sea surface
up from the mantle. e.g Mid Atlantic Ridge rather than land. The word ‘Tsunami’ is a
• Conservative/Transform Boundary – Here Japanese term, meaning harbour waves. It
the plates slide horizontally past each causes heavy loss to coastal life.
other, e.g San Andres Fault • There are some specific areas where
earthquake waves do not occur or occur
Earthquakes
rarely. Such areas are termed as shadow
• Earthquakes are generally caused by the
zones. It is located between 105° and 140°
sudden vibrations in the Earth’s crust,
from the epicentre.
which spreads outward in all directions as
waves from the source of disturbance. Volcanoes
• The point of origin of an Earthquake is • A volcano is a vent or an opening on the
called ‘Focus’ (Hypocentre) which surface of the Earth crust, through which
generates a series of elastic waves. hot solid, liquid and gaseous materials
‘Epicentre’ is a point on the Earth’s surface (Magma) erupt out to the surface from the
that lies directly above the focus. The Earth’s interior. Magma rises up and ejects
impact of the Earthquake is felt the most on the surface as Lava.
at the epicentre. • The term ‘volcano’ is derived from the
• Primary or P-waves are the fastest of all Latin term vulcan, which is the name of
the Earthquake waves and the first to Roman ‘God of Fire’.
reach the epicentre. These waves pass • Active volcanoes are those which
through solids, liquids and gases. These constantly eject volcanic lava, gases and
are longitudinal waves. fragmented materials. e.g Mount St.
• Secondary or S-waves travel only through Helens in the United States
solids. These transverse waves shake the • Volcanoes that do not show any sign of
ground perpendicular to the direction in volcanic activity for a long period of time
which they propagate. are known as dormant volcanoes.e.g. Mt.
Fuji , Japan.

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• When a volcano permanently stops its features carved by a river in its upper
volcanic activity, then it is called an extinct course are V - shaped valleys, gorges,
or dead volcano e.g Mt. Kilimanjaro, canyons, rapids, potholes, spurs and
Tanzania. waterfalls.
• A deep gorge with steep sides that runs for
Exogenetic Process hundreds of kilometres is referred to as a
The forces that act on the surface of the Earth canyon e.g Grand Canyon of the river
due to natural agents like running water, Colorado in the USA.
glacier, wind, waves etc. are called external • The river enters the plain in its middle
processes or Exogenetic processes. There are course. The predominant action of a river
various kinds of Endogenetic processes such is transportation. The river in the middle
as, course develops some typical landforms
like flood plains, meanders, ox-bow lakes
Weathering
etc.
• Weathering is the breaking, disintegration • The world's largest oxbow lake is Lake
and decomposition of materials of the Chicot in Arkansas of USA. Lake Kanwar in
earth’s crust by their exposure to Bihar (India) is Asia’s largest freshwater
atmosphere. There are three types of oxbow lake.
weathering viz Physical weathering,
• The main work of the river in lower course
Chemical weathering and Biological
is deposition and it develops typical
weathering.
landforms like delta and estuary.
Gradation • Estuary is formed where the river meets
• Gradation is the process of levelling the the sea. Deposition of silt by the river is
land by means of natural agents like rivers, not possible here in the estuaries like delta
groundwater, wind, glaciers and sea as the waves keep on eroding the
waves. Gradation takes place in two ways: deposits. e.g River Narmada and Tapti
degradation and aggradation. • A triangular-shaped low-lying area formed
• Aggradation is building up of landforms by the river at its mouth is called delta.
due to natural agents. Degradation is Deltas have fine deposits of sediments
eroding of land surface enriched with minerals. e.g Cauvery Delta,
Tamil Nadu.
Landforms produced due to Exogenetic
Process Karst or Underground water Landforms
Generally, there are 2 types of landforms due • Karst topography is formed due to the
to the Gradation process – erosional and dissolution of soluble rocks such as
depositional. These are caused by different limestone, dolomite and gypsum.
agents – • Erosional Landforms of underground
water are Terra rossa, Lappies, sinkholes,
Fluvial or River water landforms
swallow holes, dolines, uvalas, poljes,
• The place where the river originates is caves and caverns.
called the catchment area and where it • Depositional landforms of underground
joins the sea is known as the mouth. water are Stalactite, Stalagmite and
• Erosion is the most dominant action of the Column.
river in the upper course. The land

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Glacial Landforms frozen forms in groundwater, oceans, lakes
• A Glacier is a large mass of ice that moves and streams. Approximately 75% of Earth’s
slowly over the land, from its place of surface, an area of some 361 million square
accumulation. It is also known as ‘River of kilometres is covered by oceans.
ice’. 3/4 of the entire Earth (about 71%) is spread
• The place of accumulation is called over the hydrosphere. 60.7% of the Northern
snowfield. The height above which there is Hemisphere and 80.9% of the Southern
a permanent snow cover in the higher Hemisphere are covered by oceans. 97.5% of
altitude or latitude is called snowline. the total amount of water present on Earth is
• Erosional landforms of Glacier are Cirque, in the oceans, which is saline. Only 2.5% of the
Aretes, Matterhorn, U-shaped valley, water found on earth is clean water or sweet
Hanging valley and Fiords. water.
• Depositional landforms of Glacier are Hydrological cycle:
moraines, drumlins, eskers, kames and The hydrological cycle transfers water from
outwash plains. one state or reservoir to another. Reservoirs
include atmospheric moisture including snow,
Wind Landforms
rain and clouds, streams, oceans, rivers, lakes,
• When air blows horizontally at or near the groundwater, subterranean aquifers, polar
earth’s surface, it is called wind. The icecaps and saturated soil.
erosional, transportational and Solar energy is the source of heat and light and
depositional action of wind is gravity causes the transfer from one state to
predominant in arid regions. This is called another over periods from hours to thousands
as Aeolian process. of years. Most evaporation comes from the
• The erosional landforms of wind are oceans and is returned to the earth as snow or
mushroom rocks, inselbergs and yardangs. rain.
• The depositional landforms are sand
Facts related to Hydrosphere
dunes, barchans and loess.
• The large part of the Hydrosphere which
Wave Landforms does not have any definite boundary is
• A steady up (crest) and down (trough) called Ocean. Geographers have divided
movement of surface water are called the oceanic part of the Earth into five
waves. oceans. Their names are Pacific, Atlantic,
• The erosional landforms of sea waves are Indian, Arctic and the Southern Ocean.
sea cliff, sea cave, arch, stack, beach, bar, • The large part of the ocean hydrosphere,
spit and wave cut platform. which is surrounded by water on three
• The depositional landforms of sea waves sides and is joined by the ocean on one
are beaches, bars and spits. side, is called Sea.
• Gulf is the area of water formed when the
HYDROSPHERE sea enters the terrestrial part.
• Bay is a water body whose two sides are
surrounded by land, on one side there is a
The hydrosphere is the combined mass of
group of islands and on the other side the
water found on, under and above the surface
mouth is joined by the sea.
of the earth. This includes water in liquid and

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• Salinity is a measure of dissolved salts in a shelf to the deep ocean-bed is called

concentration of water. Salts in seawater continental slope.
include not just sodium chloride (table • Continental rise – At the base of the
salt) but other elements such as calcium, continental slope is a gently sloping layer
magnesium and potassium. Salinity is of sediments which merge into the
either expressed in grams of salt per deepsea floor. This underwater feature
kilogram of water, or in parts per thousand found between continental slope and
(ppt, or ‰). For example, if you have 1 abyssal plains is called the continental rise.
gram of salt and 1000 grams of water, your • Deep-sea plain or Abyssal plain – The
salinity is 1 g/kg, or 1 ppt. deep-sea plains or abyssal plains are
• Water table is a level below the ground, underwater plains found on the deep
where water is found collected beneath ocean floor. These plains extend from
the Earth’s surface. Aquifers are porous continental rise to the mid-oceanic ridges.
rock strata filled with water, found below • Oceanic deep/ Trenches – Trenches are
the earth’s surface. the deepest part of the oceans and occupy
• Finland is known as the land of thousand about 7% of the total relief of the ocean
lakes. There are 1,87,888 lakes in Finland. floor. The ocean temperature in the
• The northern hemisphere holds 61% of trench is slightly cooler than the freezing
land whereas the southern hemisphere temperature.
holds 81% of water. It is because of this • Oceanic ridge – Oceanic ridge is a
pattern of land and water distribution, the continuous submarine mountain chain.
northern hemisphere is called the land They are made of young basaltic rock
hemisphere and the southern hemisphere formed when two tectonic plates move
is called the water hemisphere. apart. Two of the most well-known
• Isobath is an imaginary line on a map midocean ridges are the Mid-Atlantic
joining the points of equal depths. Ridge and the East Pacific Ridge. The Mid-
• Isohaline is an imaginary line on a map Atlantic Ridge is the largest unbroken
joining the points of equal salinity in oceanic ridge.
oceans.
Movement of the Ocean Water
Relief of the Ocean Floor • Temperature, salinity, density, external
The ocean basins are characterised by the forces of the sun, moon and the winds
following major relief features: keep the ocean waters in movement, both
• Continental shelf – A shallow and gently horizontally and vertically. Waves and
sloping platform extending out from the currents are in horizontal motion while
adjoining continental landmass into the tides have vertical motion.
sea is called continental shelf. They are • Sea waves are ripples on water caused
found to be of great importance for fishing when winds blow over the sea.
as well as for the purpose of energy • The periodic rise and fall of seawater due
extraction. to the gravitational pull of the sun and
• Continental slope – A steep slope which moon on earth are called tides. They are
descends from the edge of the continental classified broadly into Spring tides and
Neap tides.

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• When the Sun, Moon and the Earth are Florida Current Warm
aligned in the same line, the collective
North Atlantic Current Warm
gravitation pull of the sun and moon on
earth’s water strengthens to form a high South Atlantic Current Cold
tide known as spring tide. Such tides
Ocean Currents in Indian Ocean
always occur on full moon and new moon
days. Agulhas Current Warm
• When the sun and the moon are at right
Leeuwin Current Warm
angles, their gravitational forces work
against each other, causing a low tide Mozambique Current Warm
called neap tide. A neap tide occurs
West Australian Current Cold
between two spring tides i.e., twice a
month, when the first and last quarter Ocean Currents in Pacific Ocean
moon appears.
Alaska Current Warm
• The movement of oceanic water on the
surface and at the depths in a definite Humboldt Current Cold
direction is called ocean current. Ocean
Kamchatka Current Cold
currents are in clockwise motion in the
northern hemisphere and in the anti- Kuroshio Current Warm
clockwise motion in the southern
North Pacific Current Warm
hemisphere. On the basis of temperature,
ocean currents are classified as warm
currents and cold currents.
LA TITUDES A ND
Major Ocean currents are:
Ocean Currents in Arctic Ocean
LONGITUDES
Ocean Current Cold/Warm
• Latitudes and Longitudes are imaginary
Baffin Island Current Cold lines used to determine the location of a
place on earth.
Labrador Current Cold
• The shape of the earth is ‘Geoid’. The
Ocean Currents in Atlantic Ocean location of a place on the earth can be
mentioned in terms of latitudes and
Angola Current Warm
longitudes.
Antilles Current Warm • Ptolemy, a Greco–Roman mathematician,
astronomer and geographer, was the first
Benguela Current Cold
person to draw the lines of latitude and
Brazil Current Cold longitude on a map.

Cape Horn Current Cold Latitude

Carribean Current Warm • Latitude is the angular distance of a point

on the earth’s surface, measured in
Falkland Current Cold degrees from the centre of the earth.
Latitudes are parallel lines.

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• Equator is an imaginary line running on the east or west of the Prime (or First)
globe that divides it into two equal parts. Meridian.
• The equator represents a latitude of 0 • On the globe, longitudes are shown as a
degrees. series of semi-circles that run from pole to
• The equator also known as Great Circle. pole passing through the equator.
• The area of the Earth found between the • The lines of longitude are found as semi-
equator (0°) and the North Pole (90°N) is circles covering 111 km at the equator, 79
called the Northern Hemisphere. km at 45° latitude and no space between
• The area of the Earth from the equator (0°) the lines at the poles.
to the South Pole (90°S) is called the • Unlike the equator, which is centrally
Southern Hemisphere. placed between the poles, any meridian
• The distance between two latitude lines is could have been taken to begin the
111 km. numbering of longitude. It was finally
• Total latitudes in the earth are found to be decided in 1884, by international
181, in which 179 are complete circles and agreement, to choose the zero meridian,
2 are points (North Pole and South Pole). the one which passes through the Royal
• The length of the lines of latitude Astronomical Observatory at Greenwich,
decreases from the equator towards the near London.
South and North Poles. Hence 90° North • This is the Prime Meridian (0°) from which
and South Poles are not found as lines, but all other meridians radiate eastwards and
as points. westwards up to 180°.
• The Prime Meridian and 180° meridian
Important parallels of latitudes
divide the earth into two halves, the
• Besides the equator (0°), the north pole Eastern Hemisphere, and the Western
(90°N) and the south pole (90° S), there Hemisphere.
are four important parallels of latitudes– • The part of the Earth between the 0° line
• Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) in the northern of longitude and the 180° East line of
hemisphere longitude is known as the Eastern
• Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) in the Hemisphere.
southern hemisphere • The part of the Earth from 0° line of
• Arctic circle at 66½° north of the equator longitude to 180° West line of longitude is
• Antarctic circle at 66½° south of the called as Western Hemisphere.
equator
Longitude and Time
• 0°N and S – 23½°N and S lines of latitudes
are called – low latitudes. 23½°N and S – • Since the earth makes one complete
66½°N and S lines of latitudes are called – revolution of 360° in one day or 24 hours,
middle latitudes. it passes through 15° in one hour or 1° in 4
• 66½°N and S – 90°N and S lines of latitudes minutes.
are called – high latitudes • The earth rotates from west to east, so
every 15° we go eastwards and the local
Longitude time is advanced by 1 hour. Conversely, if
• Longitude is an angular distance, we go westwards, the local time is
measured in degrees along the equator retarded by 1 hour.

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• We may thus conclude that places east of • The International Date Line (IDL) passes
Greenwich see the sun earlier and gain through the Pacific Ocean. It is an
time, whereas places west of Greenwich imaginary line, like longitudes.
see the sun later and lose time. • The time difference on either side of this
• If we know the GMT, then to find the local line is 24 hours. So, the date changes as
time,we merely must add or subtract the soon as one crosses this line.
difference in the number of hours from • Some groups of Islands (Polynesia,
the given longitude. Melanesia, Micronesia) fall on either side
of the date-line. So, if the date-lines was
For example,
straight, then two regions of the same
If 2:00 pm is the time in London (GMT), then
Island Country or Island group would fall
find the time of IST (Indian Standard Time).
under different date zones. Thus, to avoid
Solution: any confusion of date, this line is drawn
We know that IST is 82°30' E longitude. through where the sea lies and not land.
We also know that 1 hour = 15° Hence, the IDL is drawn in a zig-zag
75°E longitude means 5 hours. manner.
And if 1° means 4 min, then 7°30’ means 30 Note: The Indian Government has accepted
min. the meridian of 82.5° east for the standard
It means IST is 5:30 hours ahead from GMT time, which is 5 hours 30 mins ahead of
So, if it is 2:00 pm in GMT then 7:30 is the time Greenwich Mean Time. The 82½°E line of
in IST. longitude passes through Mirzapur near
Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh. This is located at
an equal distance from Ghuar Mota in Gujarat
THE INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE
and Kibithu in Arunachal Pradesh.

• A traveller going eastwards gains time

from Greenwich until he reaches the HEA T Z ONES OF THE EARTH
meridian 180°E, when he will be 12 hours
ahead of G.M.T. The Sun’s rays do not fall equally on all parts
• Similarly, in going westwards, he loses 12 of the earth. They fall vertically over the
hours when he reaches 180°W. There is Equator and slanting towards the poles. Thus,
thus a total difference of 24 hours or a all the places on earth do not have the same
whole day between the two sides of the amount of temperature. Based on the amount
180° meridian. of heat received from the Sun, the lines of
• This is the International Date Line where latitude help in dividing the earth into
the date changes by exactly one day when different climatic zones.
it is crossed. A traveller crossing the date
line from east to west loses a day (because • Torrid Zone: The mid-day sun is exactly
of the loss in time he has made); and while overhead at least once a year on all
crossing the dateline from west to east, he latitudes in between the Tropic of Cancer
gains a day (because of the gain in time he and Capricorn. This area, therefore,
encountered). receives the maximum heat and is called
the torrid zone.

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• Temperate Zones: The mid-day sun never we take it as 365 days and call it a year.
shines overhead on any latitude beyond The remaining quarter day is added once
the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of every four years in the month of February.
Capricorn. The angle of the sun’s rays goes It is called a Leap Year. The inclination of
on decreasing towards the poles. As such, the Earth on its axis and its revolution
the areas bounded by the Tropic of Cancer around the Sun cause different seasons.
and the Arctic circle in the northern The revolution of the Earth also results in
hemisphere and the Tropic of Capricorn variation of the length of the days and
and the Antarctic circle in the southern nights at different times of the year.
hemisphere have moderate
temperatures. The equator faces the Sun directly on 21
March and 23 September. These two days are
• Frigid Zones: Areas lying between the called Equinoxes, during which the day and
Arctic circle and the north pole in the night are equal throughout the Earth.
northern hemisphere and the Antarctic On 21 June, the Tropic of Cancer faces the Sun.
circle and the south pole in the southern This is known as Summer Solstice. It is the
hemisphere are very cold. It is because longest day in the Northern Hemisphere and
here the sun does not raise much above the longest night (shortest day) in the
the horizon. Therefore, its rays are always Southern Hemisphere.
slanting. On 22 December, the Tropic of Capricorn
faces the Sun. It is called as Winter Solstice. It
MOV EMENT OF EA RTH is the longest day in the Southern Hemisphere
and the longest night (shortest day) in the
Northern Hemisphere.
Rotation is the spinning movement of the
Perihelion is the Earth’s closest position to the
Earth on its axis. The Earth rotates from west
Sun. Aphelion is the farthest position of the
to east (anti-clockwise)and takes 23 hours 56
Earth from the Sun.
minutes and 4.09 seconds to complete one
When the distance between the Earth and the
rotation. The time taken by the Earth to
Moon is the least then it is called Apogee.
complete one rotation is called a day. The
When the distance between the Earth and
rotation of the Earth causes day and night. The
Moon is the highest then it is called Perigee.
days and the nights are equal at the equator.
Eclipses
The line which divides the surface of the Earth
The earth, along with the other planets,
into a lighted half and a dark half is called the
revolves around the sun in its orbit. In turn,
Terminator Line.
the moon revolves around the earth in the
The rotation of the Earth has some other
moon’s orbit. There comes a time when the
implications such as:
three heavenly bodies get aligned in the same
• Change in the direction of winds and
straight line. This is when an eclipse occurs.
ocean currents
There are two types of eclipses-Solar and
• Rise and fall of tides every dayRevolution
Lunar eclipse. Generally, a total of seven
is the movement of the Earth around the
eclipses including solar and lunar eclipses,
Sun on its elliptical path. The Earth takes
take place in a year.
365 ¼ days for it to complete one
revolution. For the sake of convenience,

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Solar Eclipse Hydrogen (0.00005%). Krypton, Xenon and
A Solar Eclipse happens when the Moon gets Methane are also present in trace
in the way of the Sun’s light and casts its [Link] vapour (0 - 0.4%) is also found
shadow on Earth. That means during the day, in the atmosphere, which plays an important
the Moon moves over the Sun and it gets dark. role in predicting the weather phenomena.
This total eclipse happens about every year Oxygen is most important for living organisms.
and a half somewhere on Earth. A partial CO2 absorbs heat and keeps the atmosphere
eclipse, i.e. when the Moon doesn’t warm by insulation and radiation. Nitrogen
completely cover the Sun, happens at least acts as a diluent and is chemically inactive.
twice a year somewhere on Earth. Ozone helps in protecting the earth from
harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Structure of Atmosphere
The atmosphere is thick near the earth surface
Lunar Eclipse and thins out until it eventually merges with
During a lunar eclipse, Earth gets in the way of space. The five atmospheric layers
the Sun’s light hitting the Moon. That means are,Troposphere, stratosphere, Mesosphere,
that during the night, a full moon fades away Thermosphere and Exosphere.
as Earth’s shadow covers it up.
Troposphere
The Moon can also look reddish because
• The lowest layer of the atmosphere is the
Earth’s atmosphere absorbs other colours
troposphere. The Greek word ‘tropos’
while it bends some sunlight towards the
means ‘turn’ or change. The layer extends
Moon. Sunlight bending through the
up to 8 km at the poles and up to 18 kmat
atmosphere and absorbing other colours is
the Equator.
also the reason whysunsets are orange and
• The temperature decreases with
red.
increasing height. At every 165 m, there is
a drop of 1° C (or 6 4. ° C per km). This is
called Normal Lapse Rate of Temperature.
• Almost all weather phenomena take place
A TMOSPHERE in this layer. Hence it is called weather
making layer. The upper limit of the
Introduction and Composition of troposphere is called tropopause.
Atmosphere Tropopause separates the troposphere
The blanket of air that surrounds the Earth is from the stratosphere.
called the atmosphere. It is held close to the Stratosphere
earth by gravitational attraction. Atmosphere
• Stratosphere lies above the troposphere.
is a mixture of gases, water vapour and dust It extends to a height of about 50 km
particles in different proportions. Nitrogen above the earth [Link] this layer is
(78%) and Oxygen (21%) are permanent gases a concentration of ozone molecules, it is
of the atmosphere. The remaining one also referred as ozonosphere.
percentage is occupied by Argon (0.93%),
• The temperature increases with an
Carbon-dioxide, (0.03%), Neon (0.0018%),
increase in height in this layer. This
Helium (0.0005%), Ozone (0.00006%) and
phenomenon is known as temperature

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inversion. Large jet planes normally fly characterised by aurora Australis and
here. The upper limit of the stratosphere aurora borealis.
is called stratopause; it separates the layer • Auroras are cosmic glowing lights
from Mesosphere. produced by a stream of electrons
discharged from the Sun's surface due to
Mesosphere
magnetic storms that are seen as unique
• Mesosphere extends between 50 km and
multicoloured fireworks hanging in the
80 km. The temperature decreases with
polar sky during midnight.
increasing height. It is considered the
• Magnetosphere lies beyond the
coldest layer of the atmosphere.
exosphere. It is the earth's magnetic belt,
• Most of the meteors nearing the earth get
where protons and electronscoming out
burned here. The uppermost limit of the
from the sun are trapped by the earth. The
mesosphere is the mesopause.
magnetic field extends to around 64,000
Thermosphere km above the Earth.
• Thermosphere exists above the Temperature and Heat Budget
mesosphere. It extends to about 600 km. The surface of the earth is heated by the sun’s
The composition of gases in the lower rays in the form of short wave radiation. The
thermosphere is more or less uniform, heat received by the earth is called ‘Solar
hence it is called ‘Homosphere’ Radiation’ or ‘Insolation’. Heating of
• The upper portion of the thermosphere atmosphere is an indirect process. The
has uneven composition of gases and processes are:
hence it is referred to as the Terrestrial radiation
‘Heterosphere’.Here the temperature
The solar radiation reflected by the earth’s
increases with increasing height.
surface is called ‘Terrestrial radiation’.
Ionosphere Terrestrial radiation supplies more heat
• Ionosphere is located above the energy to the atmosphere due to its long
mesosphere and extends up to about 600 wavelength.
km. Ionosphere is a layer of the Conduction
thermosphere that contains ions and free
The heat energy from the earth’s surface is
electrons.
transferred to the lower atmosphere which is
• Radio waves transmitted from earth are
directly in contact with the surface by the
reflected back to earth from this layer.
process of conduction.
Absorption of solar radiation by ionised
particles causes an increase in Convection and advection
temperature with increasing height in the The movement of air molecules in vertical and
ionosphere. horizontal directions is called ‘convection and
advection’ respectively. This movement
Exosphere
carries heat energy to the various parts of the
• The uppermost layer of the atmosphere is earth and at different altitudes.
called exosphere. This layer is extremely
rarefied with gases and gradually merges Heat budget
with outer space. This zone is The heat energy reflected, absorbed and
radiated back into the space equals the energy

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received by the earth. Incoming radiation and develops; whereas the high temperature
outgoing radiation pass through the along the equator causes the air to expand
atmosphere. The earth maintains its optimum and hence a low pressure develops.
temperature. Isobar is an imaginary line connecting the
When 100% solar radiation reaches the places of uniform atmospheric pressure
earth’s atmosphere, 35% is reflected back to reduced to mean sea level.
space by clouds, water bodies and ice-covered
Atmospheric pressure belts
areas. This heat does not heat either the earth
The atmospheric pressure belts envelope the
or the atmosphere. It is the called albedo
surface of the earth. They are equatorial low –
effect.
pressure belt, sub-tropical high-pressure
Albedo is the amount of solar radiation
belts, sub-polar low-pressure belts and polar
reflected from the surface. The variation is
high-pressure belts.
based on the nature of the earth’s surface.
Snow has higher albedo compared to forests. Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt
Of the remaining 65% of heat, 14% are It is located on either side of the geographical
absorbed by the atmosphere and 51% are equator in a zone extending between 5°N and
absorbed by the earth’s surface (34% of direct 5°S. Its location is not stationary and there is a
solar radiation and 17% from scattered seasonal drift of this belt. It represents the
radiation). zone of convergence of Northeast and
51% received by the earth are radiated back Southeast trade winds. Because of the
to the space directly as terrestrial radiation. In frequent calm conditions, this belt is known as
total, 17% are radiated to space directly and a belt of calm or doldrums.
48% are absorbed by the atmosphere (14%
from insolation and 34% from terrestrial Subtropical High-Pressure Belt
radiation) are radiated back to space It extends between 30° to 35° latitudes in both
gradually. the hemispheres. It is not thermally induced,
Therefore, 65% of heat received from the sun
but dynamically induced as it is formed by the
is balanced by the 65% radiated by the earth.
This balance between the incoming and the rotation of the Earth and sinking and settling
outgoing heat energy is called the global heat down of winds. Here the convergence of
energy balance. winds at a higher altitude above this zone
Atmospheric Pressure results in the subsidence of air, resulting in
The pressure exerted by air due to its weight high pressure. This zone of high pressure is
is called atmospheric pressure on the Earth’s
also called Horse Latitude.
surface. Atmospheric pressure is affected by
various factors such as altitude, temperature
Sub-Polar Low-Pressure Belt
and Earth’s rotation.
It extends between 60° to 65° latitudes in both
Air pressure increases, when altitude
the hemispheres. It is a dynamically induced
increases or air descends. This is due to the
low-pressure belt . It is more developed and
decrease in volume of the air.
regular in the Southern hemisphere than in
The pressure of air riseswhen its temperature
the Northern hemisphere because of the
falls. Low temperature at the poles cause the
air to contract and hence a high pressure

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overdominance of water (ocean) in the the Northeast in the Northern hemisphere
Southern hemisphere. and from Southeast in the Southern
hemisphere.
Polar High-Pressure Belt
High pressure persists at the poles throughout Westerlies
the year because of the prevalence of very low The permanent winds blowing from the sub-
temperature all year around. It is a thermally tropical high-pressure belt to the sub-polar
induced pressure [Link] of Wind Belts low-pressure belt in both hemispheres is
In June, when the Sun is over the Tropic of called Westerlies.
Cancer, all the belts move about 5°− 10 ° The general direction of the westerlies is
North of their average position. In the same Southwest to Northeast in the Northern
manner, when the Sun is overhead at the hemisphere and Northwest to Southeast in
Tropic of Capricorn in December, all the belts the Southern hemisphere. Their velocity
shift 5°−10° South of their average position. increases southward and they become
Wind Systems stormy, so they are called roaring forties
Wind is the horizontal movement of air between 40°-50° South latitudes, furious
molecules from areas of high pressure to fifties at 50° South latitude and screaming
areas of low pressure to maintain the sixties at 60° South latitude.
atmospheric equilibrium. Wind direction is
Polar Winds
identified by an instrument called Wind vane
Polar winds blow from polar high-pressure
and wind speed is measured by Anemometer
belt to sub-polar low-pressure belt. They are
North easterly in the Northern hemisphere
and South easterly in theSouthern
hemisphere.

Secondary Wind Movement

Secondary wind movements include those
wind patterns that are not permanent like the
primary winds. Secondary wind movement
includes seasonal periodic winds. Seasonal
winds are the winds which reverse their
direction completely every 6 months with a
Surface Winds change in season.
Cyclones are the centres of low pressure
Primary Wind Movement (Permanent surrounded by closed isobars having
Winds) increasing pressure outwards due to low
These winds include trade wind, westerlies pressure at the centre, there is a continuous
and polar winds. flow of air towards the centre. Air blows
inward in anti-clockwise direction in the
Trade Winds
Northern hemisphere and clockwise in the
These are steady currents of air blowing from
Southern Hemisphere. Cyclones are mainly of
the sub-tropical high-pressure belt towards
two types (i) Tropical Cyclone (ii) Temperate
the equatorial low- pressure belt. Under the
Cyclone.
influence of the Coriolis forces, they flow from

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Anticyclones are the wind systems, which High Altitude Winds
have the highest air pressure at the centre and Jet Stream
lowest at the outer margins. They are The strong and rapidly moving circumpolar
generally associated with rainless fair weather westerly air circulation in a narrow belt of a
and that’s why they are known as weatherless few hundred kilometres width in the upper
phenomena. limit of troposphere is called Jet Stream. Their
Names of Cyclones in Different places circulation path is wavy and meandering. The
• Typhoons – South China Sea extent of the Jet Streams narrows down
• Tropical Cyclones – Indian Ocean during the summer season because of their
• Hurricanes – Caribbean Sea Northward shifting while these extend up to
• Tornadoes – USA 20° North latitude during winter season.
• Willy Willies – Northern Australia
Humidity
Tertiary/ Local Winds
Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the
Local wind systems influence the weather
atmosphere. Temperature of the air controls
pattern where ever they blow. Some
the capacity of the air to hold moisture. The
important local winds are
maximum amount of moisture that can be
• Bora: North easterly from Eastern Europe
held by the air in a particular temperature is
to north eastern Italy
called Humidity capacity. Humidity capacity
• Chinook: Warm dry westerly off the Rocky
increases with temperature. It is measured as
Mountains
weight of humidity or volume of the air.
• Fohn: Warm dry southerly off the Humidity is measured by an instrument called
northern side of the Alps and Switzerland hygrometer. Another instrument used for the
• Harmattan: Dry northerly wind across same purpose is sling psychrometer. Humidity
central Africa of the air can be expressed in the following
• Karaburan: ‘Black storm’, a spring and ways.
summer katabatic wind of central Asia Absolute Humidity: This measures the total
• Khamsin: South easterly from North Africa amount of water vapour present in the air at
to the eastern Mediterranean a particular time. It is highly variable, based on
• Loo: Hot and dry wind which blows over the surface on which the air moves. It is
plains of India and Pakistan measured as weight of humidity/ volume of
• Mistral: Cold northerly from central the air.
France and the Alps to the Mediterranean b. Relative Humidity (RH %): This is the ratio of
• Nor’easter: Strong winds from northeast absolute humidity and humidity capacity in
in the eastern United States terms of percentage. It reveals the condition
• Pampero: Strong winds in the Pampas of air to get saturated. This is controlled by
region of Argentina both temperature and moisture content of
• Simoom: Strong desert winds in the Arab the air.
regions
Condensation
• Sirocco: Southerly winds from North Africa
Condensation is the change of the physical
to Europe
state of water vapour (gas state) into water

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(liquid state). If air reaches 100% relative sun and moon shine through these clouds
humidity, it means that the air is completely forming a ‘halo’.
filled with moisture content. It indicates that
Middle clouds
both the absolute humidity and the humidity
• Alto (Alt) clouds are found at 2 km to 6 km
capacity of the air are at the same level. This
above the [Link] (Alt-Cu):
condition is called ‘saturation of air’ which can
These are woolly, bumpy clouds arranged
be attained by reducing the temperature of
in layers appearing like waves in the blue
the air or increasing the moisture content.
sky. They indicate fine weather.
The temperature at which the air gets
• Altostratus (Alt-St): These are denser and
saturated is called as ‘dew point’. The RH
have watery look.
crosses 100% when the temperature of the air
drops below its dew point. This condition is Low clouds
called ‘super saturation’ of the air. In this • Stratocumulus (St-Cu): These are rough
condition, the air releases the and bumpy clouds with a wavy structure.
excess moisture out of it in the form of tiny • Stratus (St): This is a very low cloud,
water droplets which floats and form clouds uniformly grey and thick thatappears like
in the atmosphere. If the same process occurs highland fog. It brings dull weather and
on the surface of the earth, it is called ‘fog’ or light drizzle. It reduces visibility and is a
cloud on the ground. hindrance to air transportation.
Smog (Smoke + Fog) is a form of fog that • Nimbostratus (Ni-St): This is a dark dull
occurs in areas, where the air contains a large cloud, clearly layered, as it brings rain,
amount of smoke. Haze is formed by water snow and sleet and it is called arainy cloud.
particles that have condensed in the
atmosphere. Frost is the moisture on the Clouds with vertical extent
ground surface that condenses directly into These are mainly cumulus clouds whose
ice, i.e. when condensation occurs below heights extend from 2 km to 10 km
freezing point. approximately.
Clouds and its Types • Cumulus (Cu): This is a vertical cloud with
Clouds are tiny water droplets suspended in rounded top and horizontal base,
the air, formed due to the condensation. The associated with convectional process in
clouds can be classified based on their form, the tropical region. It is also called as ‘fair
height and appearance as follows: weather cloud’.
• Cumulonimbus (Cu-Ni): This is an
High clouds
overgrown cumulus cloud with a great
• Cirrus (Ci) – This looks fibrous and appears vertical extent, with black and white
as wisps of cotton in the blue sky. It globular mass. The cauliflower top spreads
indicates fair weather and gives a brilliant like an anvil. This is formed due to heavy
sunset. convection in the tropical regions. It is
• Cirro Cumulus (Cc) – This appears as white accompanied by lightning, thunder and
globular masses, forming a mackerel sky. heavy rainfall.
• Cirro Stratus (Cs) – This resembles a thin
white sheet. The sky looks milky and the

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The imaginary line connecting the places Dew:
having an equal amount of cloudiness is called Condensation of water droplets on the objects
Isonephs. at the surface of the earth such as leaves and
grasses is called ‘Dew’.
Precipitation
Precipitation is the product of condensation of Isohyets
atmospheric water vapour. It has various or isohyet line is a line joining points of equal
forms, such as: rainfall on a map in a given period.
A ‘cloud burst’ is a sudden aggressive
Rainfall:
rainstorm falling in a short period of time,
When water droplets of more than 0.5 mm
limited to a small geographical area.
diameter fall from the atmosphere to the
ground, it is called as ‘Rainfall’. If the diameter
is less than 0.5mm, it is called as ‘Drizzle’. INTERIOR OF THE EARTH
Types of Rainfall
The interior of the earth is composed of many
On the basis of its origin, Rainfall may be
minerals both in the solid and liquid state. The
classified into three main types as,
temperature in general increases at the rate
• Convectional Rainfall: occurs due to
of 1 degree Celsius for every 32 metres
thermal convection currents caused due
towards the earth’s interior. Earth’s interior
to insolational heating of the ground
can be divided into the crust, upper mantle,
surface lower mantle, outer core and inner core.
• Orographic Rainfall: occurs due to the
ascent of air forced by a mountain barrier The Crust
• Frontal or Cyclonic Rainfall occurs due to The crust is further divided into upper crust
upward movement of air caused by (continental crust), composed of silica and
aluminum (sial) and the lower crust (oceanic
convergence of cold air masses against
crust) made up of silica and magnesium
warm air masses.
(sima). The boundary between the upper crust
Hail: and the lower crust is termed as ‘Conorod
When precipitation occurs at sub-zero boundary’. The thickness of the crust varies
temperature, the water droplets crystallise from oceanic areas to continental areas.
and fall as ice pellets with the size of 5 to 50 Oceanic crust is thinner when compared to
mm or sometimes more. This is called as ‘Hail’. the continental crust. The mean thickness of
oceanic crust is 5 km while the continental
Sleet: crust is around 30 km. The continental crust is
Precipitation occurs as falling of raindrop thicker in the areas of major mountain
along with ice pellets less than 5 mm diameter systems. It is as much as 70 km thick in the
or snow, called as ‘Sleet’.’ Himalayan region. The density of the crust is
less than 2.7 g/cm3.
Snow:
Precipitation occurs at a temperature below The mantle
freezing point and falls as thin ice flakes or The mantle is composed of silica, magnesium
powdery ice, called ‘Snow’. and iron. It lies between the lower crust and

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the outer core. It extends for about 2900 km. Plate boundaries are the zones where two or
It is divided into upper mantle and lower more plates move about. Plate tectonics
mantle. The mantle is generally in a solid describes the distribution and motion of the
state. The upper part of the mantle is called plates. The earth's surface is composed of
asthenosphere. The word ‘Asthen’ in Greek rigid lithospheric slabs technically called
means weak. It extends up to 400 km and is “plates”. The word tectonic is derived from
the main source of magma. The Mohorovicic the Greek word ‘tekton’ meaning builders.
is the boundary which divides the lower crust Plates move at the rate of 2 to 3 centimetres
and the upper mantle. The density of the per year. Plates are composed of continental
mantle is 3.9 g/cm3 or oceanic landmass. The subduction of the
oceanic plates results in the occurrence of
The core
earthquakes and volcanoes adjacent to
The core forms the centre of the earth. Its
trenches.
density is 13.0 g/cm3 . Its temperature is about
5500 degree C to 6000 degree C. The core has Plate Margins
two parts namely the outer core and the inner Depending upon the type of movement, plate
core. The boundary between the lower margins are of three types
mantle and the outer core is called the • Divergent plate boundary is the margin
Guttenberg margin. The outer core and inner where two plates move apart. A fissure is
core are separated by the Lehmann boundary. created when oceanic lithosphere separates
The outer core is in the liquid state while the along the oceanic plate boundary. The gap is
inner core is in the solid state. Generally, the filled by magma that rises from the
core is composed of Nickel and Ferrous (Iron) asthenosphere. The magma cools and
which is called NiFe (Barysphere). The core is solidifies to create a new oceanic crust. Hence,
extended from 2900 km to 6370 km from the the divergent plate boundary is termed as the
surface of the earth. constructive plate boundary. It is also called as
accreting plate margin. Atlantic ocean’s Mid
Continental Drift Theory
Oceanic Ridge and African Rift Valley are
In 1912 Alfred Wegener (1880-1930)
examples of divergent plate margin.
postulated that all the continents once were
together forming a single continent.
According to him, about 250 million years ago,
the earth was made up of a single landmass
called Pangaea (meaning ‘all lands’)and a
single ocean surrounding it called
Panthalassa. Over a long period of time,
probably 220 million years ago, they drifted
apart and gradually moved to form their
present position. First, Pangaea broke into
two landmasses namely Laurasia in the north
and Gondwana in the south. Laurasia further
split into Eurasia and North America. The
• Convergent plate boundary is the margin
Gondwana land split into Africa, South
where two plates collide with one another.
America, Antarctica, Australia and India.
Collision can occur between two oceanic

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plates, one oceanic and one continental plate
or two continental plates. When collision EARTHQUA KES
occurs between one oceanic and one
continental plate, then the oceanic plate Earthquake is a sudden shaking of the earth’s
being heavier sinks below the continental surface. Focus/Hypocentre is the location
plate. Therefore the volcanic mountains are inside the earth where the earthquake
formed in the corners of the continents. When originates. Epicentre is the point on the
collision occurs between two continental earth's surface vertically above the focus of an
plates, then Fold Mountains are created. earthquake.
Earthquake results from the sudden release of
pressure which has slowly built up within the
earth’s crust. Energy is released in the form of
shockwaves known as seismic waves. The
seismic waves can broadly be classified into
two types namely body waves and surface
waves.
Body Waves are the waves that travel through
the interior of the earth. They are further
divided into the following as:
• P or Primary or Compressional waves :
These are the fastest seismic waves. They pass
• Transform plate boundary is the margin
through all mediums.
where two plates move side by side. The
• S or Secondary or Shear waves: These are
lithosphere is neither destroyed nor created
slower than the primary waves. They pass
by the transform plate boundary. Hence it is
through only solid medium.
called the Conservative or passive plate
Surface waves travelalong the earth's surface.
boundary. The San Andreas Fault, California, is
They are slower than body waves. They cause
a transform boundary that separates the
damage during earthquakes.
North American plate and Pacific plates.
• Love waves shake the ground side to side
like S wave.
• Rayleigh waves displace the ground like
rolling ocean waves. The ground rolls forward
and up and then down and backwards. This is
similar to a P wave but with the extra up-down
motion.
Earthquake magnitude is measured on the
Richter scale (named after the seismologist
who devised it), which rates them on a scale
of 1 to 10. Earthquake intensity is measured
on the Mercalli scale, which ranges from 1 to
12, depending upon the intensity. The
seismograph is an instrument used to detect

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and record seismic waves created by the
earthquakes.
Distribution of earthquakes
Circum-Pacific region: This region includes all
the coastal areas around the Pacific Ocean. It
extends through the coasts of Alaska, Aleutian
Islands, Japan, Philippines, New Zealand, west
coast of North and South America. This zone
accounts for 68% of all earthquakes on the
surface of the earth.
Mediterranean-Himalayan region:This region
extends from Alps mountain to the Himalayan
mountains and Tibet to China. About 31% of
the world's earthquakes occur in this region. Types of Volcanoes
3. Other Areas: These include Northern Africa Based on the frequency of eruption, there are
and Rift Valley areas of the Red Sea and the three types of volcanoes:
Dead Sea. • Active Volcanoes: Volcanoes which erupt
frequently are called active volcanoes.
Generally, their vent remains open. Mount
V OLCA NO Etna of Italy, Cotopaxi in Ecuador are some
examples. Cotopaxi in Ecuador is the world’s
A volcano is an opening in the earth's crust highest active volcano.
through which magma, gases and ash are
released to the earth's surface. The molten • Dormant Volcanoes: These volcanoes may
rock material found in the interior of the earth not have erupted in the recent past but there
is called magma. When magma reaches the is a possibility of eruption at any time.
earth’s surface, it is known as lava. Vent is an Sometimes gases and steam come out of
opening or mouth of a volcano. Fumaroles are them. Mt. Vesuvius of Italy and Mt. Fujiyama
the gushing fumes through the gap in the of Japan are examples.
volcano. Crater is a saucer - shaped • Extinct Volcanoes: These volcanoes have
depression in the mouth of a volcano. When exhausted their energy and have not erupted
the crater is widened, it is called Caldera. during the known geological period. The vent
Volcanic ash consists of fragments of of these volcanoes remains closed with
pulverised rock, minerals and volcanic glass, solidified lava. Popa in Myanmar and Mt.
created during volcanic eruptions. Volcano Kenya in eastern Africa are the examples of
generally erupts either through the vent (e.g. extinct volcanoes.
Mt. Fujiyama, Japan) or fissure (The Deccan On the basis of nature of eruption and form
Plateau, India). The greatest volcanic developed on the surface, they are classified
explosion known to humans is perhaps into following types:
Mt. Krakatau, Indonesia in August 1883. • Shield Volcanoes: These are made up of
basalt, a type of lava that is very fluid when
erupted. They become explosive when water
gets into the vent. They develop into a cinder

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cone. Hawaiian volcano is an example of this Rock is the solid mineral material forming the
category. surface of the earth. Petrology is the science
• Composite cone volcanoes: They are also of rocks.
called 'strato volcanoes'. They are cone-
Rock Types
shaped volcanoes composed of layers of lava,
Based on their origin, the rocks are classified
ash and rock debris. Mount Vesuvius and
as follows:
Mount St. Helens are examples of composite
• Igneous rocks are formed out of magma
volcanoes.
and lava and they are known as primary rocks.
• Cinder Cone Volcano: It forms when
If the magma cools slowly at great depths,
magma is thrown out to the surface, cooled
mineral grains increase in their size. Sudden
into ash and cinders and settled around the
cooling (at the surface) results in small and
mouth of volcano. It is less dangerous than
smooth grains. The igneous rocks are the
other volcanoes.
oldest of all the rocks. Granite, pegmatite,
• Lava Dome: Unlike composite and shield
basalt, etc. are some of the examples of
volcanoes, lava domes are of significantly
igneous rocks. There are two types of igneous
smaller structure. They are formed when the
rocks: intrusive rocks (Granite) and extrusive
lava is too viscous to flow to a great distance.
rocks (Basalt-Deccan Traps). Granite is less
As the lava dome slowly grows, the outer
dense and is lighter in colour than basalt
surface cools and hardens as the lava
rocks.
continues to pile within. Eventually, the
• Sedimentary rocks are also called detrital
internal pressure can shatter the outer
rocks. They are formed as a result of
surface, causing loose fragments to spill down
denudation. These deposits through
its sides.
compaction turn into sedimentary rocks. They
Pacific Ring of Fire occupy only 5 per cent of the earth. They are
Circum-Pacific region, popularly termed the layered or stratified of varying thickness.
‘Pacific Ring of Fire’, has the greatest [Link], shale etc. Ice deposited
concentration of active volcanoes. Volcanic sedimentary rocks are called Till. Wind-
belt and earthquake belt closely overlap along deposited sediments are called Loess.
the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’. It is estimated to • Metamorphic Rocks:The word
include two-thirds of the world’s volcanoes. metamorphic means ‘change of form’. The
metamorphic rocks form under the action of
Volcanoes in India
pressure, volume and temperature (PVT)
There are no volcanoes in the Himalayan
change. Metamorphism is a process by which
region of India. However, Barren Island, lying
the already consolidated rocks undergo
135 km northeast of Port Blair became active
recrystallisation and reorganisation of
in 1991 and 1995. It is the only active volcano
materials within original rocks. Gneiss, slate,
in India.
schist, diamond, marble, quartzite etc. are
some examples of metamorphic rocks. The
ROCKS igneous and metamorphic rocks together
account for 95 per cent of the earth

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Rock Cycle Mountains
Rock cycle is a continuous process through Based on their mode of formation, four main
which old rocks are transformed into new types of mountains can be distinguished.
ones. Igneous rocks can be changed into
Fold Mountains
sedimentary or metamorphic rocks. The
It is formed due to the face – to – face
fragments derived out of igneous and
orogenetic movements generated by
metamorphic rocks form sedimentary rocks.
endogenetic forces. Examples: Himalayas,
Igneous and sedimentary rocks can change
Alps, Andes, Rockies, Atlas etc.
into metamorphic rocks. The crustal rocks
On the basis of age, Fold Mountains are
(igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic) may
grouped into:
be carried down into the mantle (interior of
• Young/New Fold Mountains: These
the earth) through subduction process and
mountains came into existence after the
the same melt and turn into magma, the
continental drift and plate movements, e.g.
original source for igneous rocks. In this way,
Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alps. Himalayas
the rock cycle is a continuous process.
are regarded as the youngest mountains in
the world.

Old Fold Mountains:

These were once young fold mountains. But
now, they have denuded due to erosional
processes, e.g. Pennines (Europe),
Appalachians (the US), Aravallis (India), etc.

Block Mountains
These mountains are formed when a great
block of Earth’s crust may be raised or
lowered due to tectonic activities. The land
between the two parallel faults either rises,
Original Rock – Metamorphic Rock
forming block mountains or horsts or it
• Limestone – Marble
subsides into a depression termed as Rift
• Sandstone – Quartzite
valley or Graben.
• Shale/Clay – Slate, Phyllite, Schist
• Coal – Diamond
• Granite – Gneisse

LA NDFORMS

There are four major landforms formed on

Earth’s surface. These are mountains, hills,
plateaus and plains. Examples of Block mountains: Vindhyan and
Satpura in India, the Vosges in France and the
Black forest in Germany (through which the
Rhine river flows).

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Volcanic Mountains • In India, the Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N
These mountains are formed due to the latitude) passes through 8 states (Gujarat,
accumulation of volcanic material. They are Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
also called ‘Mountains of Accumulation’. Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura and
[Link] Fuji (Japan), Cotopaxi in the Andes, Mizoram).
Vesuvius and Etna in Italy, Mt Mayon • Islands: Andaman and Nicobar Island group
(Philippines), etc. is in the Bay of Bengal; The island groups of
Lakshadweep is in the Arabian Sea.
Residual or Dissected Mountains
• Indian Standard Time (IST): The 82°30’ E
These mountainsare formed as a result of
longitude is taken as the standard meridian of
erosion of plateaus and high planes by various
India, as it passes through the middle of India
agents of erosion.
(from Naini, near Allahabad).
[Link] mountains of New York, Sierras of
• The 82° 30’ E meridian also decides the
Central Spain, Highlands of Scotland,
time in Sri Lanka and Nepal. On the southeast,
Parasnath, Girnar, Deccan Plateau and
the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait
Rajmahal of India.
separate India from Sri Lanka.
Plateaus • The southernmost point of the country is
These are tabular uplands having a relief of the Pygmalion Point or Indira Point (6°45'N
more than 500 [Link] Plateau (5000 m) latitude) located in the Andaman and Nicobar
is the highest plateau in the world. Islands. The southernmost point of the
mainland of India is Cape Comorin
Plains
(Kanyakumari). The northern point is Indira
These are relatively low-lying and flat land Col.
surfaceswith the least difference between its
highest and lowest points. Indian States/Union Territories Situated on
the Border
Seventeen states of India share common land
INDIA : LOCA TION AND borders with the neighbouring countries.
PHYSICA L FEATURES Number
Indian
of States /
States/Union
• India is the seventhlargest country in the Territory
Union
world with an area of 3287263 sq. km, which Country Territories
Having
Having
is 2.42% of the world’s area. Common
Common
• India is the second - most populous country Borders
Borders
in the world, with a population of 1.21 billion Gujarat,
(2011), which is 17.44% of the world’s Rajasthan,
population. Pakistan Punjab and 4
• India shares the longest boundary with Jammu &
Kashmir
Bangladesh (4096 km), followed by China
Jammu and
(3488 km), Pakistan (3323 km), Nepal (1751 Afghanistan 1
Kashmir
km), Myanmar (1643 km), Bhutan (699 km) Uttarakhand,
and Afghanistan (106 km). Nepal Uttar Pradesh, 5
Bihar, Sikkim

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and West the Trans-Himalayas, the Himalayas and

Bengal Purvanchal Hills.
Arunachal
Pradesh, The Trans-Himalayas
Myanmar Nagaland, 4
• It is also known as the Western Himalaya’s.
Manipur and
Mizoram • The Trans-Himalayas is about 40 km wide
Sikkim, West in its eastern and western extremities and
Bengal, about 225 km wide in its central part.
Bhutan Arunachal 4
• The rocks of this region contain fossils
Pradesh and
Assam bearing marine sediments, which are
West Bengal, underlain by tertiary granites.
Meghalaya, • The prominent ranges of the Trans
Bangladesh Mizoram, 5
Himalayas are Zaskar, Ladakh, Kailashand
Tripura and
Assam Karakoram.
Jammu &
The Himalayas
Kashmir,
Uttarakhand, • It constitutes the core part of The Northern
China Himachal 5 mountains. It is a young fold mountain.
Pradesh, Sikkim
• The main divisions of the Himalayas are (i)
and Arunachal
Pradesh Greater Himalayas, (ii) the Lesser Himalayas
and (iii) the Siwaliks.
Physical Features of India
The physical features of India can be grouped The Greater or Inner Himalayas or the
under the following physiographic divisions: Himadri
• The Northern Mountains • The Greater Himalayas are about 25 km
• The Northern Plains wide. Its average height is about 6000 m. The
• The Peninsular Plateau Greater Himalayas receive lesser rainfall as
• The Indian Desert compared to the Lesser Himalayas and the
• The Coastal Plains
Siwaliks.
• The Islands
• The folds of the Greater Himalayas are
The Northern Mountains asymmetrical in nature. The core of this part
The Northern Mountains aregeologically of the Himalayas is composed of granites
young and structurally fold mountains that • Almost all the lofty peaks of the Himalayas
stretch over the northern borders of India. It are located in this range. The notable ones are
stretches for a distance of 2400 km from the Mt. Everest (8848 m) and Kanchenjunga (8586
Indus gorge in the west to the Brahmaputra m). [Link] is located in Nepal and
gorge in the east. The width of the Northern Kanchenjunga is located between Nepal and
mountains varies from 400 km in Kashmir to Sikkim.
150 km in Arunachal Pradesh. • It is perennially snowbound
The Northern Mountains that function as a • Gangothri, Yamunothri and Siachen are
great wall is grouped into three divisions — some of the glaciers found in this region.

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The Lesser Himalayas or the Himachal any mountain range in the world. Out of the
• It is the middle range of the Himalayas. The 14 highest peaks in this world, the Himalayas
height of this range varies from 3 700 to 4500 holds nine.
Height (in
m. Its width varies up to 80 km. Peak Country
metres)
• The major rocks of this range are slate,
Mt. Everest Nepal 8848
limestone and Quartzite
Mt. K2 or
• Pir Panjal, Dhauladhar and Mahabharat are
Godwin India 8611
the mountain ranges found in this part.
Austen
• Major hill stations of the Himalayas are
Kanchenjunga India 8598
located in this range. Shimla, Mussourie,
Makalu Nepal 8481
Nainital, Almora, Ranikhet and Darjeeling are
Dhaulagiri Nepal 8172
the familiar ones.
Nanga Parbat India 8126
The Siwaliks or the Outer Himalayas
Annapurna Nepal 8078
• The Siwaliks extend from Jammu and
Nanda Devi India 7817
Kashmir to Assam. It is partly made by the
Kamet India 7756
debris brought by the Himalayan rivers.
Namcha
• The altitude varies between 900-1100 India 7756
Barwa
metres and elevation of this range is 1300 m.
Gurla
The width of the Siwaliks vary from 10 km in Nepal 7728
Mandhata
the east to 50 km in the west.
The Great Northern Plains
• The longitudinal valleys found between the
• This plain is one of the most extensive
Siwaliks and the Lesser Himalayas are called
stretches of alluvium in the world and is
Duns in the west and Duars in the east.
deposited by the rivers Indus, Ganga,
Purvanchal Hills Brahmaputra and their tributaries.
• These are the eastern off-shoot of the • The length of the plain is about 2400
Himalayas. It extended in the north-eastern km and the width varies from 240 to 320 km.
states of India. Its width increases from east to west. It covers
• Most of these hills are located along an area of over 7 lakh [Link].
the border of India and Myanmar, while • The Great Plains of India is remarkably
others are inside India. a homogeneous surface with an imperceptible
• Dafla Hills, Abor Hills, Mishmi Hills, slope. They are formed mostly by the
Patkai Bum Hills, Naga Hills, Manipur Hills, depositional process of the Himalayan and
Mizo Hills, Tripura Hills, Mikir Hills, Garo Hills, Vindhyan rivers. These rivers deposit an
Khasi Hills and Jaintia Hills are the hills which enormous quantity of sediments along the
are collectively known as Purvanchal Hills foothills and flood plains.
• The great northern plains is a rich soil
Highest Peaks in the Himalayas
cover combined with adequate water supply
Himalayas is the home of several high peaks. and favourable climate. Also, it is
However, it holds the record of having the agriculturally a very productive part of
maximum number of highest peaks among [Link] rivers coming from the Northern

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Mountains are involved in depositional work. • The river Narmada divides the plateau
In the lower course, due to the gentle slope, region of India broadly into two parts. The
the velocity of the river decreases, which region lying to the north of the Narmada is
results in the formation of riverine islands. called the Central Highlands and the region
Majuli, in the Brahmaputra river is the largest lying to the south of Narmada is called the
inhabited riverine island in the world. Deccan Plateau.
• Northern plain is composed of
Central Highlands
Bhangar (old alluvium), Khadar (new alluvium)
• The Central Highlands extend between
in the river bed, Bhabhar (plains containing
the river Narmada and the Northern Great
porous gravel and pebbles where the streams
Plains.
disappear) and Terai (damp, thick forest area,
where Bhabhar streams reappear). • The Aravallis forms the west and the
northwestern edge of the Central Highlands.
The Peninsular Plateau These hills extend from Gujarat, through
• The Peninsular plateau is a tableland Rajasthan, to Delhi in the northwesterly
composed of the old crystalline, igneous and direction for a distance of about 700 km.
metamorphic rocks. • Gurushikhar (1722 m) is the highest
• The plateau region lies to the south of peak of the Aravalli [Link] western part of
the Great Northern Plains. This is the largest the Central Highland is known as the Malwa
physiographic division of our country. It plateau. The rivers Chambal, Betwa and Ken
covers an area of about 16 lakh [Link]. drain the Malwa plateau before they join the
• Aravalli hills mark the north-western river Yamuna.
boundary of the plateau region. Its northern • The part of the Central Highlands
and north-eastern boundaries are marked by which extends to the east of Malwa Plateau is
the Bundelkhand upland, Kaimur and known as Bundelkhand and its further
Rajmahal hills. The Western Ghats and the extension is known as [Link]
Eastern Ghats mark the western and eastern eastern part of the Central High lands which
boundaries respectively. lies in the north-eastern part of the Indian
• The altitude of a large portion of the plateau is known as Chhota-Nagpur plateau. It
plateau is more than 600 m from the mean sea covers much of Jharkhand, adjacent parts of
level. Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar and Chhattisgarh.
• The peak of Anaimudi is the highest This region is very rich in mineral resources,
point in the plateau. Its height is 2695 m and particularly iron ore and coal.
is located in Anaimalai.
Deccan Plateau
• All the major rivers (Mahanadi,
• This physiographic division is the
Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri etc.) lying to the
largest part of the plateau region of India. The
south of the Vindhyas flow eastwards and fall
shape of this plateau is roughly triangular. It is
into the Bay of Bengal.
made up of lava flows in the cretaceous era
• Narmada and Tapti ,the two rivers
through the fissure eruptions.
situated to the south of the Vindhyas flow
• The area of this plateau is about 7 lakh
[Link] movement towards the west
square km and the height ranges from 500 to
is due to the presence of a rift valley in the
1000 m above sea level.
region

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• The Western Ghats forms the western • Along the west coast, there are
edge of the Peninsular plateau. It runs parallel numerous shallow lagoons and backwaters
to the Arabian Sea coast. The northern part of called Kayals and Teris. Vembanad is a famous
this range is called as Sahyadris. The height of backwater lake found in this region.
the Sahyadris increases from north to south
The Eastern Coastal Plain
• Eastern Ghats running from southwest
• It lies between the Eastern Ghats and
to northeast form the eastern edge of this
the Bay of Bengal.
Plateau. This range is also called Poorvadri
• The coastal plain between Mahanadi
• The Eastern Ghats join the Western
and Krishna river is known as the Northern
Ghats at the Nilgiri hills, bordering Karnataka
Circars and the southern part lying between
and Tamil Nadu.
Krishna and Kaveri rivers is called the
• The Eastern Ghats are not continuous
Coromandel coast.
like the Western Ghats.
• The Marina beach on this coast is in
The Indian Desert Chennai and it is the second-longest beach in
• The Thar desert, also known as the the world.
Great Indian desert is a large arid region in the • Lake Chilka (Odisha) is the largest lake
north western part of the Indian subcontinent in India, located to the southwest of the
that covers an area of 2,00,000 km2 and forms Mahanadi delta.
a natural boundary between India and • The Chilika Lake is the largest saltwater
[Link] is the7th largest desert in the world lake in India. It lies in the state of Orissa, to the
and world’s 9th largest sub-tropical desert south of the Mahanadi delta.
located in western part of India. • The Kolleru Lake lies between the
• This region receives a very low rainfall deltas of rivers Godavari and Krishna
(below 150 mm per year).Luni is the only large • The Pulicat Lake lies in the border of
river in this region. Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
The Coastal Plains
The Islands
The Indian coastal plains are divided into the
• India has two major island groups
following two divisions:
namely the Andaman and Nicobar and the
• The Western Coastal Plains and The
Lakshadweep
Eastern Coastal Plains
• The Andaman and Nicobar group
The Western Coastal Plain consists of 572 islands and are located in Bay
• It lies between the Western Ghats and of [Link] consists of 27 islands
the Arabian Sea. It extends from Rann of Kutch and is located in Arabian Sea.
in the north to Kanyakumari in the south and
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
its width varies from 10 to 80 km.
• India’s only active volcano is found on
• The northern part of the west coastal
Barren Island in Andaman sea. The Andaman
plain is known as Konkan Plain. The middle
and Nicobar group of Islands is divided into
part of this plain is known as Kanara. The
two. They are Andaman in the north and the
southern part of the plain is known as Malabar
Nicobar in the south.
coast which is about 550 km long and 20-100
• Port Blair is the administrative capital
km wide
of the Andaman and Nicobar islands.

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• There are nearly 325 islands in Distance from the sea does not cause only
Andaman group, whereas the Nicobar group temperature and pressure variations but also
of islands consist of 247 islands. affects the amount of rainfall. Air near the
• Ten degree channel separates the coast has more moisture and greater potential
Andaman group from the Nicobar group. to produce precipitation. Areas of central and
Duncan passage lies between South Andaman north India experience much seasonal
and Little Andaman group. variation in temperature due to the absence
• The southernmost tip, the Indira Point of influence of Seas.
is a part of Nicobar Island. A large area of India, especially the peninsular
region, is not very far from the sea and this
Lakshadweep Islands
entire area has a clear maritime influence on
• This is a small group of coral islands Climate.
located off the west coast of India. It covers an The most dominant factor which affects the
area of 32 sq. km. Kavaratti is its climate of India is the monsoon winds. The
administrative capital. climate of southeast India is also influenced by
• Minicoy is separated from the rest of northeast monsoon. The meteorologists
the Lakshadweep by nine degree channel. recognise the four distinct seasons in India.
• Lakshadweep islands are separated They are,Winter or cold weather season
from the Maldives Islands by the eight degree (January –February)
channel. • Pre - Monsoon or summer or hot
• The uninhabited ‘Pitt Island’ of the weather season (March – May).
Lakshadweep group has a bird sanctuary. • Southwest monsoon or rainy season
(June – September).
CLIMA TE OF INDIA • Northeast monsoon season (October -
December).
Mawsynram, the place which receives the
There are six major controls of the climate of
highest rainfall (1141 cm) in the world, is
any place. They are: latitude, altitude,
located in Meghalaya. The average annual
pressure and wind system, distance from the
rainfall of India is 118 cm.
sea (continentality), ocean currents and relief
features. Monsoons in India
The Tropic of cancer divides the country into There are 2 types of monsoon in India – the
two equal halves. The area located to the Southwest monsoon and the Northeast
south of Tropic of cancer experiences high monsoon. The former brings more rainfall to
temperature and no severe cold season India than the Northeast monsoon.
throughout the year whereas, the areas to the
El Nino and La Nina
north of this parallel enjoys a subtropical
El Nino is a narrow warm current, which
climate.
occasionally appears off the coast of Peru in
When the altitude increases, the
December by temporarily replacing the cold
temperatures decreases. Temperature
decreases at the rate of 6.5 degreeC for every Peru current. The warming of tropical Pacific
waters affects the global pattern of pressure
1000 metres of [Link] is called the lapse
and wind systems including the monsoon
rate of temperature.
winds in the Indian Ocean. It brings less

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rainfall to India. La Nina is the reverse of El- West Bengal and
Nino. It brings more rainfall to India. Bihar

Local Storms in India

• Norwester is a spring storm shower Maharashtra and
thatcauses rainfall in Assam and West Bengal. Malwa plateaus,
• Mango Shower is the thunderstorm Kathiawar
Cotton,
causing rainfall in the Southern plateau that peninsula,
Millets,
helps in the ripening of [Link] Telangana and
Black soil Tobacco
Blossomis the thunderstorm causing rainfall in Rayalaseema
and
Karnataka that helps in the flowering of coffee region of Andhra
Sugarcane
plant. Pradesh and
• Kalbaisakhis are the storms formed in northern part of
West Bengal during summer due to the strong Karnataka
convective movement.
Eastern parts of
Deccan plateau,
SOILS southern states of Wheat,
Kerala, Tamil Rice,
Red soil Cotton,
Soil is the finest particle found on earth Nadu, Karnataka Sugarcane
surface. Soil is the uppermost layer of the land and Chota Nagpur and Pulses
surface, usually composed of minerals, plateau
(Jharkhand)
organic matter, living organisms, air
Assam hills, hill
[Link] soil, black soil, red soil and
summits of Kerala Coffee,
laterite soil are the major types of soils found
Laterite and Karnataka Rubber,
in India. and eastern Cashew
soil
nut and
• Khadar– Newer alluvium soil (found in Ghats and region Tapioca
valleys flooded almost every year) of Odisha
• Bhangar– Older alluvium soil (found 30
Coniferous forest Coffee,
m above flood level)
belts of Jammu Tea, Rice,
Soil Types and Their Distribution in India and Kashmir, Maize,
Crops Forest Himachal Potato,
Soil Type Distribution
grown and Pradesh, Barley,
mountain Uttarakhand and Tropical
Ganga and
soil Sikkim,Eastern fruits and
Brahmaputra
Rice, various
Alluvial river valleys; and Western types
Wheat, of
soil Plains of Uttar Ghats.
Sugarcane Spices
Pradesh,
and
Uttarakhand,
Oilseeds
Punjab, Haryana,

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Rajasthan, Millets, The Himalayan Rivers

Arid and Northern Gujarat Barley, • The major Himalayan rivers are the Indus,
desert and Cotton, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. These rivers
soil Maize and are long and are joined by many large and
Southern Punjab Pulses
important tributaries.
Kottayam and • These are perennial in nature
Alappuzha The Indus River System
districts of Kerala; • The river Indus rises in Tibet, near Lake
and coastal areas Mansarovar. Flowing west, it enters India in
Peaty of Odisha and Ladakh.
and Tamil Nadu, Paddy, Jute • Its length is about 2880 km (Only 709 km is
marshy Sundarbans of in India)
soil West Bengal, in
• In Tibet, it is known as Singi Khamban or
Bihar and Almora
Lion’s mouth.
district of
• Its major tributaries are Jhelum, Chenab
Uttarakhand (largest tributary of the Indus) , Ravi, Beas and
Sutlej. It enters into the Arabian Sea.
• In 1960, Indus river water system was
D R A IN A G E S Y ST E M O F I N D I A signed between India and Pakistan. It was
mediated by the World Bank.
A drainage system is an integrated system of The Ganga River System
tributaries and a trunk stream that collects • The Ganga river system is the largest
and drains surface water into the sea, lake or drainage system of India .Iy extends over an
area of 8,61,404 sq. km in India.
some other body of water.
• The river Ganga originates as Bhagirathi
The drainage system of India is broadly from the Gangotri glacier in Uttar Khasi
divided into two major groups on the basis of District of Uttarkhand state, at an elevation of
their location. They are the Himalayan Rivers 7010 m.
and the peninsular Rivers. • At Dev Prayag, the Bhagirathi meets the
The river system provides irrigation, drinking Alaknanda. Hereafter, it is known as the
wate, and navigation, power as well as grant Ganga. The Alaknanda has its source in the
livelihoods for a large number of population. Satopanth glacier above Badrinath.
Those Himalayan rivers, which originated
• The length of the Ganga River is about 2525
before the formation of the Himalayas, are
km.
known as antecedent rivers, such the Indus,
• Its major tributaries from the north are
the Brahmaputra and the [Link]
Gomti, Gandak, Kosi and Ghaghra and from
rivers are the rivers which flow throughout
south, Yamuna (largest tributary of Ganga) ,
the year and have a permanent source of
Son, and Chambal.
water.
• The Alaknanda consists of the Dhauli and
the Vishnu Ganga, which meet at Joshimath or
Vishnu Prayag.

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• The other tributaries of the Alaknanda such Peninsular Rivers

as the Pindar joins it at Karna Prayag, while • The rivers in South India are called the
Mandakini or Kali Ganga meets it at Rudra peninsular rivers. Most of these rivers
Prayag. originate from the Western Ghats. These are
• The Yamuna River rises from the Yamunotri seasonal rivers (non-perennial) .
glacier in the Himalayas. It flows parallel to the • Based on the direction of flow, the
Ganga and as a right-bank tributary, meets the peninsular rivers are divided into west-flowing
Ganga at Allahabad and east-flowing rivers
• The Ganga flows eastwards till Farakka in • East-flowing rivers form deltas, whereas
West Bengal. This is the northernmost point of the west-flowing rivers form estuaries.
the Ganga delta. The river bifurcates here; the West-flowing Rivers
Bhagirathi-Hooghly (a distributary) flows
southwards through the deltaic plains to the Narmada
Bay of Bengal. • The Narmada rises in the Amarkantak Hills
• Kosi is called Sorrow of Bihar, while in Madhya Pradesh and flows for a distance of
Damodar is called Sorrow of Bengal as these about 1312 km. It flows towards the west in a
cause floods in these regions. Hooghly is a rift valley formed due to faulting.
distributary of the Ganga flowing through • It covers an area of 98,796 sq. km and
Kolkata. forms a 27 km long estuary before falling into
• The Ganga River is known as the Padma the Arabian Sea through the Gulf of Cambay.
River in Bangladesh. • It is the largest among the west-flowing
• The combined river of Ganga and rivers of peninsular India.
Brahmaputra creates the world’s largest delta • Its principal tributaries are Burhner, Halon,
known as the Sundarbans in Bangladesh Heran, Banjar, Dudhi, Shakkar, Tawa, Barna
before joining the Bay of Bengal. and Kolar.

The Brahmaputra River System Tapti

• The Brahmaputra River originates from the • The Tapti is one of the major rivers of
Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash Range peninsular India, with a length of about 724
to the east of Lake Manasarovar in Tibet at an km. It outfalls into the Arabian Sea through
elevation of about 5150 m. the Gulf of Cambay.
• This river is known as Tsangpo (Purifier) in • The Tapti River rises near Multai in the
Tibet. Betul district of Madhya Pradesh at an
• The length of this river is about 2900 km elevation of about 752 m.
(900 km is in India) . • The major tributaries are Vaki, Gomai,
• It enters India through a gorge in Arunachal Arunavati, Aner, Nesu, Buray, Panjhra and
Pradesh, namely Dihang. It has many Bori.
tributaries. Tista, Manas, Barak, Subansiri are East Flowing Rivers
some of them.
The Mahanadi Basin
• This river is called Jamuna in Bangladesh.
• The Mahanadi River originates near Sihawa
After it joins with the Ganga River in
in the Raipur district of Chhattisgarh and flows
Bangladesh, it is called Meghna.
through Odisha. Its length is 860 km.

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• The main stream of Mahanadi gets divided It rises in Tibet,

Arabian
into several distributaries such as Paika, Indus near Lake
Sea
Birupa, Chitartala, Genguti and Nun. Mansarovar.
• The Mahanadi empties its water in the Bay
Jhelum Verinag Spring Chenab
of Bengal.
Yamunotri
The Godavari Basin Yamuna Ganga
(Uttarakhand)
• The Godavari is the largest peninsular river.
It is also known as the ‘Dakshin Ganga’. Maikal Hills,
Gulf of
• It rises from the slopes of the Western Amarkantak
Narmada Khamba
Ghats in the Nasik district of Maharashtra. (Madhya
t
• Its length is about 1500 km. It drains into Pradesh)
the Bay of Bengal. Satpura Range, Gulf of
• Kolleru, a freshwater lake, is located in the Tapti Betul (Madhya Khamba
deltaic region of the Godavari. Pradesh) t
The Krishna Basin Nagri Town Bay of
Mahanadi
• Krishna River rises from a spring near (Chhattisgarh) Bengal
Mahabaleshwar in the Western Ghats of
Brahmaputr Chemayungdun Bay of
Maharashtra. It flows for about 1400 km and
a g (Tibet) Bengal
reaches the Bay of Bengal.
• It is the second-longest peninsular river. Merges
Bhima, Peddavagu, Musi, Koyna and Mt. Kailash with
Sutlej
Thungabhadra are the major tributaries of this (Tibet) Chenab
river. river
The Cauvery Basin Rohtang Pass
• The Cauvery River originates at Talakaveri Beas (Himachal Sutlej
in the Kudagu Hills of Karnataka and it reaches Pradesh)
the Bay of Bengal. Its length is 760 km.
Nasik Bay of
• Its main tributaries are Amravati, Bhavani, Godavari
(Maharashtra) Bengal
Hemavati and Kabini.
Mahabaleshwar Bay of
Krishna
(Maharashtra) Bengal
RIV ERS AND THEIR ORIGINS
Brahmagiri Hills,
Bay of
Cauvery Coorg
Falls Bengal
Rivers Place of Origin (Karnataka)
Into
Udaipur, Aravalli Arabian
Gangotri Bay of Sabarmati
Ganga Hills (Rajasthan) Sea
(Uttarakhand) Bengal
Chamba
Lake Rakshastal
Sutlej Chenab Ravi (Himachal Chenab
in Tibet
Pradesh)

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Krishna Bhagirat
Tungabhadra Koodli Tehri Dam Uttarakhand
River hi
Nandi Hills, Jammu &
Bay of Uri Dam Jhelum
Pennar Chickballapur Kashmir
Bengal
(Karnataka) Indira Sagar
Narmada Madhya Pradesh
Dam
Pushkar, Aravalli Rann of
Luni
Hills (Rajasthan) Kachchh Rihand Dam Rihand Uttar Pradesh
Janapav, Indore,
Vindhyas Ukai Dam Tapi Gujarat
Chambal Yamuna
(Madhya
Pradesh) Himachal
Bhakra Dam Sutlej
Pradesh
Lakhwar
Yamuna Uttarakhand
Dam
IMPORTANT RIV ER Hirakud Mahana
Odisha
PROJECTS Dam di
Rana Pratap
Chambal Rajasthan
Sagar Dam
Dam River State Jawahar
Chambal Rajasthan
Sagar Dam
Sardar
Narmada Gujarat
Sarovar Dam
List of Lakes in India
Srisailam
Krishna Telangana • Largest freshwater lake in Asia & India –
Dam
Wular Lake, Kashmir
Ranjit Sagar • Largest artificial lake in Asia – Govind
Ravi Punjab
Dam Vallabh Pant Sagar (Rihand Dam)
Koteshwar Bhagirat
Uttarakhand • Largest saline water lake in India – Chilika
Dam hi lake, Orissa
Gandhi • Longest lake in India – Vembanad, Kerala
Chambal Madhya Pradesh
Sagar Dam • Highest lake in India – Cholamu Lake,
Omkareshw Sikkim
Narmada Madhya Pradesh • The Sambhar Lake in Rajasthan is a
ar Dam
saltwater lake.
Mullaperiya Kerala (Idukki
Periyar
r Dam district)
Various Lakes in India
Nagarjuna Telangana/Andh
Krishna State/Union
Sagar Dam ra Pradesh Name of the Lake
Territory
Baglihar Jammu & Kolleru Lake
Chenab Andhra Pradesh
Dam Kashmir Pulicat Lake
Jammu & Deepor Beel Lake
Salal Dam Chenab Assam
Kashmir Haflong Lake

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Son Beel Lake Lingambudhi Lake

Bihar Kanwar Lake Pampa Sarovar Lake
Hamirsar Lake Vembanad Lake
Kankaria Lake Kerala Shasthamkotta Lake
Nal Sarovar Lake Vellayani Lake
Narayan Sarovar Thol Moti Lake
Gujarat
Lake Sarang Pani Lake
Madhya Pradesh
Vastrapur Lake Shahpura Lake
Lakhota Lake Tawa Reservoir
Sursagar Lake Gorewada Lake
Badkhal Lake Khindsi Lake
Karna Lake Lonar Lake
Haryana Surajkund Lake Mehrun Lake
Maharashtra
Tilyar Lake Pashan Lake
Blue Bird Lake Powai Lake
Brighu Lake Rankala Lake
Dashir Lake Salim Ali Lake
Dhankar Lake Meghalaya Umiam Lake
Kareri (Kumarwah) Manipur Loktak Lake
Lake Palak Dïl
Mizoram
Khajjiar Lake Tam Dil
Macchial Lake Anshupa Lake
Maharana Pratap Odisha Chilika Lake
Himachal Pradesh Sagar Lake Kanjia Lake
Manimahesh Lake Harike Lake
Nako Lake Punjab Kanjli Lake
Pandoh Lake Ropar Lake
Renuka Lake Talwara Lake
Rewalsar Lake Sambhar Salt Lake
Seruvalsar Lake Fateh Sagar Lake
Manimahesh Lake Rajasthan
Rangsagar Lake
Suraj Taal Lake Uday Sagar Lake
Dal Lake Nakki Lake
Wular Lake Gurudongmar Lake
Jammu and
Manasbal Lake Khecheopalri Lake
Kashmir Sikkim
Mansar Lake Tsongmo Lake
Sheshnag Lake Cholamu Lake
Lalbagh Durgam Cheruvu
Lake Puttenahalli Lake Telangana (Secret Lake)
Madiwala Lake Himayat Sagar Lake
Karnataka
Agara Lake Berijam Lake
Karanji Lake Tamil Nadu Chembarambakkam
Kukkarahalli Lake Lake

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Kaliveli Lake New Delhi Yamuna

Kaveripakkam Lake
Kodaikanal Lake Gujarat
Ooty Lake CITY RIVER
Skeleton Lake
Ahmedabad Sabarmati
(Roopkund Lake)
Bhimtal Lake Bharuch Narmada
Uttarakhand
Dodital Nainital Lake
Surat Tapti
Naukuchiatal
Sat Tal Vadodara Vishwamitri
Santragachhi Lake
West Bengal Senchal Lake Jammu and Kashmir
Rabindra Sarobar CITY RIVER

Srinagar Jhelum
INDIA N CITIES A ND RIVERS
Karnataka
Andhra Pradesh CITY RIVER
CITY RIVER
Bagalkot Ghataprabha
Nellore Pennar
Bangalore Vrishabhavathi
Rajahmundry Godavari
Bhadravathi Bhadra
Vijayawada Krishna
Honnavar Sharavathi

Assam Hospet Tungabhadra

CITY RIVER Karwar Kali
Dibrugarh Brahmaputra Mangalore Netravati,Gurupura
Guwahati Brahmaputra Shimoga Tunga River

Bihar Madhya Pradesh

CITY RIVER CITY RIVER
Patna Ganges Gwalior Chambal

Daman Jabalpur Narmada

CITY RIVER
Maharashtra
Daman Daman Ganga River CITY RIVER

Delhi Karad Krishna, Koyna

CITY RIVER Karjat Ulhas

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Mahad Savitri Uttar Pradesh

Malegaon Girna River CITY RIVER

Nanded Godavari Agra Yamuna

Allahabad Ganges
Nashik Godavari
Auraiya Yamuna
Pune Mula, Mutha
Ayodhya Saryu
Sangli Krishna
Chakeri Ganges
Odisha Etawah Yamuna
CITY RIVER Farrukhaband Ganges
Cuttack Mahanadi Fatehgarh Ganges
Rourkela Brahmani Gorakhpur Rapti

Sambalpur Mahanadi Kanpur Ganges

Kanpur Cantonment Ganges
Punjab
Lucknow Gomti
CITY RIVER
Mathura Yamuna
Ferozpur Sutlej
Shuklaganj Ganges
Rajasthan Varanasi Ganges
CITY RIVER
Uttarakhand
Kota Chambal CITY RIVER

Tamil Nadu Badrinath Ganges

CITY RIVER Haridwar Ganges
Chennai Cooum, Adyar
West Bengal
Coimbatore Noyyal CITY RIVER
Erode Kaveri Kolkata Hooghly
Madurai Vaigai

Thiruchirapalli Kaveri TRA NSPORTATION IN INDIA

Tirunelveli Thamirabarani
Transport is a system in which passengers and
Telangana goods are carried from one place to another.
CITY RIVER The transport system is considered as the
lifeline of a country.
Hyderabad Musi

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Air Transport Indian airports. It also manages the Civil
• J. R. D. Tata was the first person to take Aviation Training College at Allahabad and the
a solo flight from Mumbai to Karachi in 1931. National Institute of Aviation Management
• In 1935, ‘Tata Airlines’ started its and Research at Delhi.
operation between Mumbai and • Pavan-Hans Helicopter Limited has
Thiruvananthapuram and in 1937 between been providing helicopter support services to
Mumbai and Delhi. various state governments in India
• In 1953, all the private airline (particularly northeast India) , inter-island
companies were nationalised and Indian ferry services in Andaman & Nicobar Islands,
Airlines and Air India came into existence. services to Lakshadweep Islands, etc.
• Airports Authority of India (AAI) was
constituted in 1995. It provides security to

List of Indian Airports (Domestic and International)

Name of the Airport Location State/Union Territory

Andaman and Nicobar
Veer Savarkar International Airport Port Blair
Island
Visakhapatnam International Airport Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh

Rajiv Gandhi International Airport Hyderabad Telangana

Lokpriya Gopinath Bardoloi International
Guwahati Assam
Airport
Indira Gandhi International Airport New Delhi Delhi

Goa International Airport Goa Goa

Sardar Vallabhai Patel International Airport Ahmedabad Gujarat

Kempe Gowda International Airport Bengaluru Karnataka

Mangalore International Airport Mangalore Karnataka

Cochin International Airport Kochi Kerala

Calicut International Airport Kozhikode Kerala

Trivandrum International Airport Thiruvananthapuram Kerala

Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport Mumbai Maharashtra

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar International
Nagpur Maharashtra
Airport
Bir Tikendrajit International Airport Imphal Manipur

Biju Patnaik International Airport Bhubaneshwar Odisha

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Sri Guru Ram Dass Jee International Airport Amritsar Punjab

Jaipur International Airport Jaipur Rajasthan

Chennai International Airport The domestic
terminal is known as K. Kamaraj airport and
Chennai Tamil Nadu
the international terminal is known as C.N.
Annadurai airport
Coimbatore International Airport Coimbatore Tamil Nadu

Tiruchirapalli International Airport Tiruchirapalli Tamil Nadu

Chaudhary Charan Singh International Airport Lucknow Uttar Pradesh

Lal Bahadur Shastri Airport Varanasi Uttar Pradesh

Netaji Subash Chandra Bose International
Kolkata West Bengal
Airport
Maharana Pratap Airport/ Dabok Airport Udaipur Rajasthan

Sheikh ul-Alam International Airport Srinagar Jammu & Kashmir

Birsa Munda Airport Ranchi Jharkhand

Swami Vivekananda Airport Raipur Chhattisgarh

Jai Prakash Narayan International Airport Patna Bihar

Mandakalli Airport Mysuru Karnataka

Kushok Bakula Rimpochee Airport Leh Ladakh

Devi Ahilyabai Holkar International Airport Indore Madhya Pradesh

Raja Bhoj Airport Bhopal Madhya Pradesh

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Road Transport in India • Sher Shah Suri built the Shahi

• The Indian road network is the (Royal) Road to strengthen and consolidate
second-largest in the world. his Empire from the Indus Valley to the
• Roads in India have been classified Sonar Valley in Bengal. This road from
as national highways (NH) , state highways Kolkata to Peshawar was renamed as the
(SH) , major district roads and rural roads. Grand Trunk(GT) Road during the British
• The National Highways Authority of period. It is now named as NH 2.
India (NHAI) , which is an autonomous • The North–South corridor aims at
body under the Union Ministry of connecting Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir
Transport. The National Highways with Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu with a
Authority of India (NHAI) was 4076 km long road. The East–West corridor
operationalised in 1995. NHAI is has been planned to connect Silchar in
responsible for the development, Assam with the port town of Porbandar in
maintenance and operation of the national Gujarat with 3640 km of road length. The
highways in India. two corridors intersect at Jhansi.
• NH 44 — 3745 km (2327 mi) from Waterways
Srinagar to Kanyakumari is the longest
The water transport is of two types —
national highway in India.
Inland Waterways and Ocean Waterways
• NH 966B is the second shortest (sea routes) .
highway in the India highway network after
NH 548 and NH 118. Inland National Waterways (NW) of India
• NH 4 is located in the Andaman and Inland Waterways Authority was set up in
Nicobar islands. It is known as Andaman 1986 for the development, maintenance
Trunk Road. and regulation of inland national
• Golden Quadrilateral comprises the waterways in India. The total cargo carried
national highways connecting the four by inland waterways is just about 0.1% of
metro cities— Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and the total inland traffic of India.
Kolkata. It has a total length of 5846 km.
National Length of National
Waterway River System Route Waterway
Number (in kilometres)

NW – 1 Ganga-Bhagirathi- Hooghly Prayagraj – Haldia 1620

NW – 2 Brahmaputra Sadiya-Dhubri 891

West Coast Canal,

NW – 3 Champakara Canal, Kottapuram – Kollam 205
Udyogamandal Canal
Kakinada –
NW – 4 Krishna, Godavari 1095
Marakkanam
Magalgarhi – Pradeep
NW – 5 Mahanadi, Brahmini 623
and Talcher – Dhamra

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Andaman Eastern
Port Blair
and Nicobar Coast
Oceanic Routes
Oceanic routes play an important role in
the transport sector of India’s economy.
Railways
About 95 per cent of India’s foreign trade
by volume and 70 per cent by value moves • India has the second-largest railway
through ocean routes. network in Asia and the fourth largest in
the world after the USA, Russia and China.
India has 13 major ports. • Railways was introduced to India in
Port State Zone 1853. The first railway line in India
between Mumbai to Thane was
Kolkata Eastern
West Bengal constructed during the rule of Lord
(Haldia) Coast
Dalhousie. The headquarters of Indian
Eastern Railways is in New Delhi.
Paradip Odisha
Coast • The first suburban railway was started
in 1925 in Mumbai.
Vishakapatna Andhra Eastern
m Pradesh Coast • Gorakhpur railway station has the
world's longest railway platform.
Eastern • Mumbai is the busiest suburban railway
Ennore Tamil Nadu
Coast network in India.
Eastern • Vivek Express (Dibrugarh to
Chennai Tamil Nadu Kanyakumari ) is the longest train route in
Coast
the Indian subcontinent.
Eastern • Ahmedabad–Mumbai Central Double
Tuticorin Tamil Nadu
Coast Decker Express is India’s first double
Wester decker train.
Kochi Kerala • The first female loco-pilot of the Indian
n Coast
Railways in India is Surekha Shankar Yadav.
Wester • Indian UNESCO World Heritage Sites
Mangalore Karnataka
n Coast from Indian Railways are:
Wester ▪ The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway
Mormugao Goa ▪ The Nilgiri Mountain Railway
n Coast
▪ The Kalka–Shimla Railway
Jawaharlal Maharashtr Wester ▪ The Chatrapati Shivaji Terminus
Nehru Port a n Coast
• India's first private train is Delhi–
Maharashtr Wester Lucknow Tejas Express.
Mumbai
a n Coast • The first Shatabdi Express train was
introduced in 1988 between New Delhi
Wester
Kandla Gujarat and Jhansi junction.
n Coast
• Shatabdi Express trains were introduced
in 1989 to commemorate the 100th birth
anniversary of Jawaharlal Nehru.

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• Indian Railways was nationalised in South Central

Secunderabad
1951. Railway
• Uttar Pradesh has the longest route (in South Eastern
Kolkata
kilometers) of railway line in India. Railway
• National Rail Museum is located in New South East Central
Bilaspur
Delhi. Railway
• Northern Railways is the largest zone in South Western
Hubballi
terms of route (in kilometres) . Railway
• The Maitree Express is running between Western Railway Mumbai
India and Bangladesh. West Central
Jabalpur
• Siliguri station has all the three gauges, Railway
viz. broad, metre and narrow. Kolkata Metro
Kolkata
• The National Rail and Transportation Railway
Institute (NRTI) is India's first and only
Facts About India
transportation university located in
Vadodara. • India never invaded any country in her
• The first metro rail in India was last 1,00,000 years of history.
introduced in Calcutta on 24 October 1984. • When many cultures were only
The two stations connected through this nomadic forest dwellers over 5000 years
metro were Dumdum and Belgachhia. ago, Indians established the Harappan
The railway network in India is divided into
culture in the Sindhu Valley (Indus Valley
17 zones.
Civilisation)
The 17 zones with their respective • The name 'India' is derived from the
headquarters are: Indus River, the valleys around which were
Zonal Railways Headquarters the home of the early settlers. The Aryan
Central Railway Mumbai CST worshippers referred to the Indus River as
Eastern Railway Kolkata the Sindhu.
East Central • The Persian invaders converted the
Hajipur
Railway name of the river into Hindu. The name
East Coast Railway Bhubaneswar 'Hindustan' combines Sindhu and Hindu
Northern Railway New Delhi and thus refers to the land of the Hindus.
North Central • Chess was invented in India.
Prayagraj
Railway • The popular game ‘Snakes and Ladder’
North Eastern originated in India.
Gorakhpur
Railway • India was the first country to mine
North Frontier Maligaon, diamonds.
Railway Guwahati
• Algebra, trigonometry and calculus
North Western
Jaipur originated in India.
Railway
Southern Railway Chennai

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• The 'Place Value System' and the than 10,500 students from all over the
'Decimal System' were developed in India world studied more than 60 subjects. The
in 100 BC. University of Nalanda, built in the
• The world's first granite temple is the fourth century, was one of the greatest
Brihadeswara Temple at Tanjavur, Tamil achievements of ancient India in the field
Nadu. The shikhara of this temple is made of education.
from a single 80-tonne piece of granite. • Ayurveda is the earliest school of
This magnificent temple was built in just medicine known to mankind. The Father of
five years (between 1004 AD and 1009 AD) Medicine, Charaka, consolidated Ayurveda
during the reign of Rajaraja Chola. 2500 years ago.
• India is the largest democracy in the • India was one of the richest countries
world and the seventh-largest country in till the time of the British rule in the early
the world. It is one of the most ancient 17th century. Christopher Columbus,
civilisations. attracted by India's wealth, had come
• Varanasi is the most ancient surviving looking for a sea route to India when he
city in the world. discovered America by mistake.
• The game of Snakes & Ladders was • The art of navigation and navigating
created by the 13th century poet saint was born in the Sindh River over 6000
Gyandev. It was originally called years ago. The very word ‘navigation’ is
'Mokshapat'. The ladders in the game derived from the Sanskrit word 'Navgaith'.
represented virtues and the snakes The word ‘navy’ is also derived from the
indicated vices. The game was played with Sanskrit word 'Nou'.
cowrie shells and dice. In time, the game • Bhaskaracharya rightly calculated the
underwent several modifications, but its time taken by the Earth to orbit the Sun
meaning remained the same, i.e. good hundreds of years before the astronomer
deeds take people to heaven and evil to a Smart. According to his calculation, the
cycle of re-births. time taken by the Earth to orbit the Sun
• The world's highest cricket ground is in was 365.258756484 days.
Chail, Himachal Pradesh. It was built in • The value of ‘pi’ was first calculated by
1893 after levelling a hilltop. This cricket the Indian mathematician Budhayana and
pitch is 2444 metres above sea level. he explained the concept of what is known
• India has the largest number of post as the Pythagorean theorem. He
offices in the world. discovered this in the sixth century, long
• The largest employer in India is the before the European mathematicians.
Indian Railways, employing over a million • Quadratic equations were used by
people. Sridharacharya in the 11th century. The
• The world's first university was largest numbers that the Greeks and the
Romans used were 106, whereas Indians
established in Takshila in 700 BC. More
used numbers as big as 1053 with specific

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names as early as 5000 BC during the Vedic of Cochin. They were built in 1503 and
period. Even today, the largest used 1568, respectively.
number is Terra (1012) . • Jews and Christians have lived
• Until 1896, India was the only source of continuously in India since 200 BC and 52
diamonds in the world (Source: AD, respectively.
Gemological Institute of America) . • The largest religious building in the
• The Baily Bridge is the highest bridge in world is Angkor Wat, a Hindu temple in
the world. It is located in the Ladakh Valley Cambodia built at the end of the
between the Dras and Suru rivers in the 11th century.
Himalayan mountains. It was built by the • The Vishnu Temple in the city of
Indian Army in August 1982. Tirupathi, built in the 10th century, is the
• Sushruta is regarded as the Father of world's largest religious pilgrimage
Surgery. Over 2600 years ago, Sushrata and destination. Larger than either Rome or
his team conducted complicated surgeries Mecca, an average of 30,000 visitors
like cataracts, artificial limbs, cesareans, donate $6 million to this temple every day.
fractures, urinary stones, plastic surgery • Sikhism originated in the holy city of
and brain surgeries. Amritsar in Punjab. Famous for housing the
• The usage of anaesthesia was well Golden Temple, this city was founded in
known in ancient Indian medicine. Detailed 1577.
knowledge of anatomy, embryology, • Varanasi, also known as Benaras, was
digestion, metabolism, physiology, called ‘the Ancient City’ when Lord Buddha
etiology, genetics and immunity is also visited it in 500 BC and is the oldest,
found in many ancient Indian texts. continuously inhabited city in the world
• India exports softwares to over 90 today.
countries. • India provides safety for more than
• The four religions born in India – 3,00,000 refugees originally from Sri Lanka,
Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism Tibet, Bhutan, Afghanistan and
– are followed by 25% of the world's Bangladesh, who escaped to flee religious
population. and political persecution.
• Jainism and Buddhism were founded in • Martial arts were first created in India
India in 600 BC and 500 BC, respectively. and later spread to Asia by Buddhist
• Islam is India's and the world's second- missionaries.
largest religion. • Yoga has its origins in India and has
• There are 3,00,000 active mosques in existed for over 5000 years.
India, more than in any other country, • India was the first country to refine and
including the Muslim world. consume sugar.
• The oldest European church and • Shampoo originated in India.
synagogue in India are present in the city

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• The Northern Lowlands

GENERA L INTRODUCTION • The most extensive lowland in Asia is
TO A SIA the Siberian plain. It extends from the Ural
Mountains in the west to the Verkhoyansk
Asia extends from 10˚11' South to 81˚12' range in the east.
North latitudes and from 26˚2' East to • The central highland stretches from
169˚40' West, longitudes. It spreads for an Turkey to the Bering Strait. There are two
area of 44 million km2. knots found in Asia. They are 1. The Pamir
Asia is surrounded by Arctic Ocean in the Knot 2. The Armenian Knot. ‘Knot' refers to
north, Pacific Ocean in the east, Indian the convergence of mountain ranges. The
Ocean in the south and the Ural Hindukush range, the Sulaiman range, the
Mountains, Caucasus Mountains, Red Sea, Himalayan range and the Tian Shan range
Mediterranean Sea, Caspian Sea and Black radiate from the Pamir Knot.
Sea in the west. • The Hindukush range continues
The Suez Canal separates Asia from Africa. westward as the Elburz, whereas the
The narrow Bering Strait separates Asia Sulaiman range continues southwest as
from North America. the Zagros range. The Elburz and the
There are 12 landlocked countries in Asia. Zagros converge at the Armenian knot. The
Among these, only one is doubly Taurus and the Pontine ranges radiate
landlocked which means it is surrounded from the Armenian knot.
entirely by other landlocked countries. • The lowest point in the world is
Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bhutan, located at Dead Sea in Asia.
Laos, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, • Tibet is called the ‘Roof of the world’
Nepal, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and and it is also known as the third pole
Uzbekistan are landlocked countries. because of its cold weather, largest reserve
Uzbekistan is the only country that is of freshwater and inhospitable
doubly-landlocked. environment.
Asia is the biggest continent. It has • The southern plateaus are relatively
different types of land features such as lower than the northern plateaus. The four
mountain, plateau, plain, valley, bay, island important southern plateaus are the
etc. It also has different climatic conditions Arabian Plateau (Saudi Arabia), Deccan
from the equator to the polar region. Apart Plateau (India), Shan Plateau (Myanmar)
from this, many races, languages, religions and the Yunnan Plateau (China). Among
and cultures are followed by people who these plateaus, the Arabian Plateau is the
live in Asia. So, Asia is called 'the land of largest Plateau.
contrasts'. • The great plains are formed by the
major rivers of Asia. They are the West
Physiography of Asia
Siberian plain (Ob and Yenisey),
• The physiography of Asia can be Manchurian Plain (Amur), Great Plain of
divided into five major groups. They are, 1. China (Yangtze and Sikiang), Indo-Gangetic
The Northern lowlands 2. The Central High Plain (Indus and Ganga), Mesopotamian
Mountains 3. The Southern Plateaus 4. The plain (Tigris and Euphrates) and the
Great Plains and 5. The Island Groups. Irrawaddy plain (Irrawaddy).

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• Numerous islands are found on the Drainage

Pacific coast of Southeast Asia. Kuril, • The rivers of Asia originate mostly
Taiwan, Singapore and Borneo are the from the central highlands. The Ob, Yenise
important island groups. The Philippines, and Lena are the major rivers that flow
Japan islands and Indonesia are the major towards the north and drain into the Arctic
archipelagos in Asia. Smaller archipelagos Ocean. These rivers remain frozen during
are also located in the Indian Ocean such winter. On the other hand, South Asia has
as the islands of Maldives and many perennial rivers, e.g Brahmaputra,
Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea. Bahrain is Indus, Ganga and Irrawaddy which
in the Persian Gulf. Sri Lanka is an island, originate from the snow-covered high
which is located in the Bay of Bengal. A mountains that do not freeze during
group of islands is called an archipelago. winter. Yangtze is the longest river in Asia.
The largest archipelago is Indonesia.
• The cold deserts of Asia are Gobi and
Taklamakan. The largest desert in Asia is
the Arabian desert.
Important rivers of Asia
Name of the Length
S. No. Origin Outflow
River in Km

1 Yangtze Tibetan plateau East China Sea 6,350

2 Huang He Tibetan plateau Gulf of Pohai 5,464

3 Mekong Tibetan plateau South China Sea 4,350

4 Yenisei Tannuala Mountain Arctic Ocean 4,090

5 Ob Altai Mountain Gulf of Ob 3,650

6 Brahmaputra Himalayas Bay of Bengal 2,900

7 Indus Himalayas Arabian Sea 3,610

Confluence of Shika and Argun

8 Amur Tatar Strait 2,824
rivers

9 Ganga Himalayas Bay of Bengal 2,525

10 Irrawaddy Northern Myanmar Bay of Bengal 2,170

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Resources in Asia • The Banaue rice terraces were built

2000 years ago by the Ifugaos people in the
• Asia has the largest deposits of iron
Philippines. It is located approximately
ore in the world. China and India are the
about 1524 m above sea level.
important iron ore deposit countries of
• One-third of the world’s cotton is
Asia.
produced in Asia. The major cotton-
• The largest petroleum reserves are
producing countries are India, China,
found in South West Asia. The important
Russia and Kazakhstan. India, Pakistan,
petroleum-producing countries are Saudi
China and Bangladesh are the leading
Arabia, Kuwait, Iran, Bahrain, Qatar and
producers of jute.
UAE.
• Russia, India, China and Pakistan
• Bauxite is found in India and
are the leading producers of wheat in Asia.
Indonesia. India is the largest producer of
• Dates are produced in west Asia.
Mica in the world. Tin is found in Myanmar,
Among the countries, Iran is the largest
Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia.
producer of dates in the world.
Agriculture • China and Japan are the leading
• Rice and wheat are the staple food fishing nations. In Cambodia, Tonle Sap
crops in Asia. China and India are the lake is one of the world’s richest sources of
leading producers of rice in the world. freshwater fishing.
• Thailand is called the ‘Rice bowl’ of
South East Asia.
Climate and Vegetation of Asia
S. No. Climate Location Flora Fauna
Indonesia, Evergreen trees Rhinoceros, Tiger,
High
Malaysia, – Mahogany, Babirusa,
1 Temperature,
Singapore, Sri Rubber, Orangutan,
High rainfall
Lanka Rosewood, Sal Komodo Dragon
India, Vietnam, Deciduous trees
Summer rainfall, Cambodia, – Teak, Tiger, Elephant,
2
Dry winter Thailand, Southern Sandalwood, Indian Cobra, viper
China Bamboo
Cactus, Dates
Arabian desert, Bactrian Camel, The
Extreme (Oasis), Thorny
3 North, North Sand grouse, desert
temperatures shrubs, Babul
western India oryx
tree
East China, Japan,
Dry winter, Cherry, Apricot, Giant Panda,
4 North and South
Warm summer Plum Japanese macaque
Korea
Warm summer
Israel, Lebanon, Figs, Olives,
5 and winter Lynx, Jackrabbit
Turkey, Syria Citrus fruits
rainfall

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Long and dry

Coniferous trees
winter, short Siberian Tiger,
6 Siberia, Himalayas – Pine, Fir,
and cool Brown bear, Wolf
Spruce
summer
Polar bear,
Permanent snow Beyond the snow Lichen, mosses
7 Lemming,
cover line Grass
Reindeer, Arctic fox

Transport in Asia
• The Asian Highway connects Tokyo in the east to Turkey in the west, Russia in the
north to Indonesia in the south and the total length of the road is 1,41,000 km. It passes
through 32 countries.
• The Asian Highway 1(AH 1) is the longest highway among the Asian Highway Network
(20557 km). It connects Tokyo and Turkey.
• The Asian Highway 43 (AH 43) runs from Agra in India to Matara in Sri Lanka (3024
km).
• The Trans-Siberian Railways (9258 km) is the longest rail route in the world. It is a
transcontinental railway line which connects Leningrad and Vladivostok.

Indian Subcontinent Countries and Capitals

Country Capital Border Length Bordering States and UT

West Bengal, Meghalaya, Mizoram,

Bangladesh Dhaka 4096.7 km
Tripura and Assam
West Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal
Bhutan Thimphu 699 km
Pradesh & Assam
Naypyidaw, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland,
Myanmar 1643 km
Yangon Mizoram and Manipur
Bihar, Uttarakhand, UP, Sikkim and
Nepal Kathmandu 1751 km
West Bengal
Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Punjab,
Pakistan Islamabad 3323 km
Rajasthan and Gujarat
Colombo
(Commercial), Sri It is separated from India by Gulf of
Sri Lanka Sea Border
Jayawardenepura Mannar
Kotte (Legislative)
It lies in the South western part of
Maldives Male Sea Border Indian Ocean below the Lakshadweep
Islands

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Jammu and Kashmir

INDIA N CITIES A ND City River
RIV ERS
Srinagar Jhelum

Andhra Pradesh Karnataka

City River City River
Bagalkot Ghataprabha
Nellore Pennar
Bangalore Vrishabhavathi
Rajahmundry Godavari Bhadravathi Bhadra
Vijayawada Krishna Honnavar Sharavathi
Hospet Tungabhadra
Assam
Karwar Kali
City River
Mangalore Netravati,Gurupura
Dibrugarh Brahmaputra Shimoga Tunga River
Guwahati Brahmaputra
Madhya Pradesh
City River
Bihar
Gwalior Chambal
City River
Jabalpur Narmada
Patna Ganges
Maharashtra

Daman City River

City River Karad Krishna, Koyna

Karjat Ulhas
Daman Daman Ganga River
Mahad Savitri
Delhi Malegaon Girna River
City River Nanded Godavari

New Delhi Yamuna Nashik Godavari

Pune Mula Mutha
Gujarat Sangli Krishna
City River
Odisha
Ahmedabad Sabarmati City River
Bharuch Narmada Cuttack Mahanadi
Surat Tapti Rourkela Brahmani
Vadodara Vishwamitri Sambalpur Mahanadi

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Punjab Uttarakhand
City River City River
Ferozpur Sutlej
Badrinath Ganges
Rajasthan
Haridwar Ganges
City River

Kota Chambal West Bengal

City River
Tamil Nadu
Kolkata Hooghly
City River
Chennai Cooum, Adyar World Cities and Rivers
Coimbatore Noyyal City Country River
Erode Kaveri Alexandria Egypt Nile
Madurai Vaigai
Amsterdam Netherland Amstel
Thiruchirapalli Kaveri
s
Tirunelveli Thamirabarani
Ankara Turkey Kizil
Telangana
Akyab Myanmar Irrawaddy
City River
Baghdad Iraq Tigris
Hyderabad Musi
Bangkok Thailand Chao
Uttar Pradesh Phraya
City River Belgrade Yugoslavia Danube,
Agra Yamuna Sava
Allahabad Ganges
Berlin Germany Spree,
Auraiya Yamuna Havel
Ayodhya Saryu
Bogota Colombia Bogota
Chakeri Ganges
Bristol UK Avon
Etawah Yamuna
Farrukhaband Ganges Budapest Hungary Danube
Fatehgarh Ganges Cairo Egypt Nile
Gorakhpur Rapti
Damascus Syria Barada
Kanpur Ganges
Dublin Ireland Liffey
Kanpur Cantonment Ganges
Lucknow Gomti Glasgow Scotland Clyde
Mathura Yamuna Hamburg Germany Elbe
Shuklaganj Ganges
Varanasi Ganges

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Ho Chi Vietnam Saigon Shanghai China Yangtze

Minh City
Tokyo Japan Sumida
Hong Kong China Pearl
Vienna Austria Danube
Jakarta Indonesia Liwung
Warsaw Poland Vistula
Kabul Afghanistan Kabul
Yangon Myanmar Irrawaddy
Karachi Pakistan Indus
Zagreb Croatia Sava
Kiev Ukraine Dnieper
Zurich Switzerland Limmat
Lisbon Portugal Tagus

London England Thames TOWNS ASSOCIATED WITH SOME

Madrid Spain Manzanare IMPORTANT INDUSTRIES
s
Town – Industry
Melbourne Australia Yarra
Anshan (China) – Iron and Steel
Montreal Canada St. Baku (Azerbaijan) – Petroleum
Lawrence Belfast (Northern Ireland) – Shipbuilding
Birmingham (UK) – Iron and Steel
Moscow Russia Moskva
Chicago (USA) – Meatpacking
New US Mississippi Detroit (USA) – Automobile
Orleans Havana (Cuba) – Cigars
New York US Hudson Hollywood (USA) – Films
Johannesburg (South Africa) – Gold Mining
Paris France Seine
Kansas City (USA) – Meatpacking
Philadelphi US Delaware Kawasaki (Japan) – Manufacturing
a Kimberley (South Africa) – Diamond mining
Krivoi Rog (Ukraine) – Iron and Steel
Prague Czech Vltava
Leeds (UK) – Woollen textiles
Republic
Saint Petersburg (Russia) – Shipbuilding
Quebec Canada St. Los Angeles (USA) – Petroleum
Lawrence Lyon (France) – Silk textiles
Rome Italy Tiber Saint Petersburg (Russia) – Iron and Steel
Manchester (UK) – Cotton textiles
Saint Russia Neva Shipbuilding
Petersburg Milan (Italy) – Automotives
Santiago Chile Mapocho Multan (Pakistan) – Pottery
Munich (Germany) – Lenses
Sao Paulo Brazil Tiete
Nagoya (Japan) – Automobiles
Seoul South Han Philadelphia (USA) – Locomotives
Korea Pittsburg (USA) – Advance Manufacturing

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Plymouth, Massachusets (USA) The Netherlands: Machinery, aircraft,

– Shipbuilding electricals
Rourkela (India) – Iron and Steel Saudi Arabia: Oil, dates
Sheffield (UK) – Cutlery Spain: Lead
Vladivostok (Russia) – Shipbuilding Sweden: Matches, timber
Wellington (New Zealand) – Dairying Switzerland: Watches, chemicals,
Arizona (USA) – Mining electricals
Bhiwandi (India) – Textile Taiwan: Camphor, rice
Bhagalpur (India) – Silk Textiles UK: Textiles, medicines, machinery, cars
USA: Petroleum, wheat, machinery, coal,
automobiles, iron etc.
C O U N T R IE S A N D T H E I R MA IN Russia: Petroleum, wheat, chemicals,
P R O D UC E S /I N D US T R IE S heavy machinery, etc.
Vietnam: Tin, rice, rubber, teak, etc.
Afghanistan: Dry and fresh fruits, Carpets,
Wool WONDERS OF THE WORLD
Australia: Wood, dairy products, wheat,
meat, lead, zinc
The seven wonders of the modern world is
Austria: Machinery, textiles, leather goods
a list established by the New Seven
Brazil: Coffee
Wonders Foundation, a private
Belgium: Glass, textiles
organisation
Chile: Copper nitrate
Photos Names Locations
Canada: Wheat, newsprint, machinery
China: Silk, tea, rice The Great Beijing
Great wall
Congo: Copper, uranium, cobalt, ivory wall (China)
Cuba: Sugar, tobacco, cigar
The city of Petra
Denmark: Textiles, paper Petra
Petra (Jordania)
France: Textile, wine, silk
Germany: Machinery, chemical, iron and Christ the Christ the Rio de Janeiro
steel equipment Redeemer Redeemer (Brazil)
Ghana: Cocoa, gold, coffee
The
India: Jute, textiles, sugar, spices, tobacco, Machu
Machu Cusco (Peru)
tea, cement, mica etc. Picchu
Picchu
Indonesia: Sugar, spices, rubber, rice,
cinchona, petroleum Chichen Chichen Valladolid
Iran: Petroleum, carpets, dry fruits Itza Itza (Mexico)
Iraq: Dates, petroleum
The
Italy: Mercury, textiles Colosseum Rome (Italy)
Colosseum
Japan: Machinery, textiles, toys, silk,
automobiles Taj Mahal Taj Mahal Agra (India)
Kenya: Coffee, tea, meat, sisal, hides
Kuwait: Petroleum
Malaysia: Rubber, tin

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Important Sites in India and World Elephanta Caves Mumbai, India

Name of the Site Country Ephesus Turkey
Abu Simbel Egypt Islamabad,
Faisal Mosque
Pakistan
Acropolis Athens, Greece
Forbidden City Beijing, China
Airavatesvara
Tamil Nadu, India Gangaikonda
Temple
Cholapuram Tamil Nadu, India
Al Aqsa Mosque Jerusalem, Israel
Temple
Amber Fort (or
Jaipur, India Ġgantija Malta
Amer Fort)
Angel Falls Venezuela Gol Gumbaz Bijapur, India
Golden Gate San Francisco,
Angkor Wat Cambodia
Bridge California
Basilica of Bom
Bainguinim, India Golden Temple Amritsar, India
Jesus
Bhimbetka Rock Madhya Pradesh, Gommateshwara Shravanabelagola,
Shelters India Statue India

Big Ben London Gwalior Fort Gwalior, India

Blue Domed Hagia Sophia Istanbul, Turkey

Santorini, Greece
Church
Halebidu Hassan, India
Borobudur Indonesia
Hampi
Transylvania, Hampi, India
Bran Castle Monuments
Romania
Hawa Mahal Jaipur, India
Brandenburg Gate Berlin, Germany
Hoysala Temples Hoysala, India
Brihadeeswarar
Tamil Nadu, India
Temple Humayun’s Tomb Delhi, India
Burj Al Arab Hotel Dubai Located on the
Cape of Good border of
South Africa Iguazu Falls
Hope Argentina and
Brazil
Charminar Hyderabad, India
India Gate Delhi, India
Chhatrapati Shivaji
Mumbai, India
Terminus Inukshuk Canada
Chichen Itza Mexico Jaisalmer Fort Rajasthan, India
Chittor Fort Chittorgarh, India Jama Masjid Delhi, India
Christ the Rio de Janeiro,
Kamakhya Temple Guwahati, India
Redeemer Brazil
Khajuraho
Dilwara Temples Mount Abu, India Khajuraho, India
Temples

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Kilimanjaro Tanzania Red Fort Delhi, India

Konark Sun Sagrada Familia Barcelona, Spain
Konark, India
Temple
Lascaux Cave Sanchi Stupa Madhya Pradesh
France
Paintings St Basil’s Cathedral Moscow, Russia
Loch Ness Scotland St Peter’s
Vatican City
Lotus Temple Delhi, India Cathedral
Statue of Liberty New York, USA
Luxor Temple Egypt
Statue of Unity Gujarat, India
Machu Pichu Peru
Mahabalipuram Stonehenge England
Mahabalipuram,
Group of Cape Town, South
India Table Mountain
Monuments Africa
Mahabodhi Taj Mahal Agra, India
Bodh Gaya, India
Temple
The Blue Mosque Istanbul, Turkey
Mehrangarh Fort Jodhpur, India
The Ciudad
Meenakshi
Madurai, India Mitaddel Mundo Ecuador
Amman Temple
or Middle Earth
Millau Bridge France
The Colosseum Rome, Italy
Mont St Michel France
The Eiffel Tower Paris, France
Mount Eden
New Zealand The Empire State
Crater New York
Building
Mount Fuji Japan The Gateway of
Mumbai, India
Mount Rushmore South Dakota, USA India
The Great Canyon Arizona, USA
Mysore Palace Karnataka, India
The Great Sphinx Giza, Egypt
Nalanda Bihar Sharif, India
The National
Newgrange Tomb Ireland
Chiang Kai-shek Taipei, Taiwan
Pattadakal group Memorial Hall
Pattadakal, India
of monuments
The Sultan Ahmed
Petra Rock-cut Turkey
Jordan Mosque
Architecture
The Wailing Wall Jerusalem
Pompeii Italy
Tilicho Lake Nepal
Potala Palace Lhasa, Tibet
Tower of Pisa Italy
Pyramids of Giza Giza, Egypt
Twelve Apostles Australia
Qutub Minar Delhi, India

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Twyfelfontein Venkateswara
Tirumala, India
(officially known Temple
as ǀUi-ǁAis) – Namibia At the Border
Ancient Rock Between
Victoria Falls
Engravings Zambia and
Zimbabwe
Uluru Sandstone Australia
Victoria Memorial Kolkata, India

C H A N G E D N A M E O F C IT IE S

Old Name/Ancient Name New Name State

Cocanada Kakinada
Andhra Pradesh
Vizagapatnam (Waltair) Visakhapatnam
Pragjyotishpura(Gauhati) Guwahati Assam
Patliputra Patna Bihar
Panjim Panaji Goa
Karnavati Ahmedabad
Cambay Khambhat
Gujarat
Bulsar Valsad
Baroda Vadodara
Gurgaon Gurugram
Haryana
Mewat Nuh
Simla Shimla
Mandav Nagar Mandi Himachal Pradesh

Sakchi Jamshedpur Jharkhand

Bangalore Bengaluru
Bellary Ballari
Belgaum Belagavi
Bijapur Vijayapura Karnataka
Hubli Hubballi
Mangalore Mangaluru
Mysore Mysuru

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Gulbarga (Ahsanabad) Kalaburagi (Gulbarga)

Tumkur Tumakuru
Calicut Kozhikode
Cochin Kochi
Palghat Palakkad
Quilon Kollam
Alwaye Aluva Kerala
Alleppey Alappuzha
Trichur(Thiru Siva Peroor) Thrissur
Trivandrum Thiruvananthapuram
Cranganore Kodungallur
Mhow Dr. Ambedkar Nagar
Indhur Indore
Jubbulpore Jabalpur Madhya Pradesh
Avantika Ujjain
Central Provinces Madhya Pradesh
Bombay Mumbai
Poona Pune Maharashtra
Aurangabad Sambhaji Nagar
Jullundur Jalandhar Punjab
Nawanshahr District Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar
Ajaymeru Ajmer Rajasthan
Madras Chennai
Tuticorin Thoothukudi
Cape Comorin Kanyakumari
Ooty (Ootacamund) Udhagamandalam Tami Nadu
Tanjore Thanjavur
Pondicherry Puducherry
Trichinopoly Tiruchirapalli (Trichy)
Conjeevaram Kanchipuram (Kanchi)
Bhagyanagar Hyderabad Telangana

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Orugallu (Ekasila
Warangal
Nagaram)
Benares Varanasi
Prayagraj Allahabad
Cawnpore Kanpur Uttar Pradesh
Allygurh (Koil) Aligarh
United Provinces Uttar Pradesh
Calcutta Kolkata West Bengal

Dutch East Indies Indonesia

Old
Formosa Taiwan
Name/Ancient New Name
Name Gold Coast Ghana
Siam Thailand Holland Netherlands
Sudanese Republic Mali Ivory Coast Cote D’lvoire
Nyasaland Malawi Kampuchea Cambodia
Northern Rhodesia Zambia Lan Xang Laos
Bechuanaland Botswana Purushapura Peshawar
Basutoland Lesotho Malaya Malaysia
East Pakistan Bangladesh Malagasy Madagascar
Ceylon Sri Lanka Mesopotamia Iraq
Ellice Islands Tuvalu New Spain Mexico
New Hebrides Vanuatu Nippon Japan
Southern Rhodesia Zimbabwe Peking Beijing
Upper Volta Burkina Faso Persia Iran
Burma Myanmar Portuguese East
Mozambique
Africa
South West Africa Namibia
Sandwich Islands Hawaiian Islands
Democratic
Zaire Trust Territory of
Republic of Congo Papua New Guinea
New Guinea
Abyssinia Ethiopia
Rangoon Yangon
Batavia Jakarta
Angora Ankara
British Guinea Guyana
Congo Zaire
Constantinople Istanbul

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Mt
HIGHEST/LOW EST POINTS North Death
McKinley
America Valley (−86)
OF CONTINENTS (6191)
Mt Laguna del
South
Aconcagua Carbon
America
Continent Highest (m) Lowest (m) (6960) (−104 )
Mt Elbrus Caspian Sea
Mt Everest Dead Sea Europe
Asia (5642) (−27)
(8848) (−396)
Kosciusko Lake Eyre
Mt Australia
Lake Assal (2228) (−15)
Africa Kilimanjaro
(−155) Vinson Deep lake,
(5895)
Antarctica Massif Vest fold
(4892) hills (− 50)

DEEPEST POINTS OF OCEANS

Ocean Deepest Point

Pacific Mariana Trench
Atlantic Puerto Rico Trench
Indian Sunda or Java Trench
Arctic Litke Deep in Eurasian Basin

TA LLEST MOUNTA INS IN THE W ORLD

Mountain Metres Range Location

Mount Everest 8,848 Himalayas Nepal/China

K2 8,611 Karakoram India

Kangchenjunga 8,586 Himalayas Nepal/India

Lhotse 8,516 Himalayas Nepal/China

Makalu 8,485 Himalayas Nepal/China

Cho Oyu 8,188 Himalayas Nepal/China

Dhaulagiri 8,167 Himalayas Nepal

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Manaslu 8,163 Himalayas Nepal

Nanga Parbat 8,126 Himalayas India

Annapurna 8,091 Himalayas Nepal

Gasherbrum I India (currently under the

8,080 Karakoram
(Hidden peak; K5) occupation of Pakistan)/China
India (currently under the
Broad Peak 8,051 Karakoram
occupation of Pakistan)/China
India (currently under the
Gasherbrum II (K4) 8,035 Karakoram occupation of Pakistan)/China
Border

Shishapangma 8,027 Himalayas China

B OUNDARY LINES

Name of Lines
Between Features/ Description
/ Boundaries
South
Vietnam and It was demarcated based on the Geneva Accords (1954). It
17th Parallel
North became irrelevant after the unification of Vietnam in 1976.
Vietnam
Libya and It is located at the 20th northern latitude which is used as
20th Parallel
Sudan the border between Sudan and Libya.

Egypt and The 22nd latitude north of the equator marks a major
22nd Parallel
Sudan portion of the Sudan-Egypt border.

Mauritania The northernmost section of the Mali-Mauritania border

25th Parallel
and Mali is marked using this line.

The 31st northern latitude marks the border between Iraq

31st Parallel Iran and Iraq and Iran. It also demarcates the border between the US
states of Louisiana and Mississippi.
South Korea
The 38th parallel is used to demarcate the central part of
38th Parallel and North
the Demilitarised zone between North and South Korea.
Korea

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It is located 490 north of the equator. Demarcated after the

The USA and Anglo-American Convention of 1818 and the Oregon
49th Parallel
Canada Treaty of 1846, it forms the international border between
the northern USA (Excluding Alaska) and Canada.

Pakistan and Delimited by Sir Mortimer Durand with the agreement of

Durand Line
Afghanistan the erstwhile Amir of Afghanistan in 1893.

It was a German defensive line in French territory during

Hindenburg Poland and
World War I. It was declared irrelevant by the treaty of
Line Germany
Versailles in 1919.

McMahon China and It was drawn by Sir Henry McMahon in consultation with
Line India Tibetan representatives in 1914.
It was a defensive line at the French border towards
Germany before World War II. The Maginot line was
Germany and
Maginot Line rendered obsolete following the successful invasion of
France
France by Germany following the outbreak of World War
II.
Mannerheim Russia and Finland built this as a defensive line against the Soviet
Line Finland Union for the Winter War during World War II.

Oder-Neisse Poland and

It runs along the rivers Oder and Lusatian Neisse rivers.
Line Germany
India and
It was demarcated by Sir Cyril Radcliffe for the partition of
Pakistan,
Radcliffe Line India and the formation of East and West Pakistan. It
India and
includes the present-day India, Bangladesh and Pakistan.
Bangladesh
It was built as an extension of the Hidenburg defensive line
France and on the western front of World War I by the Weimar
Siegfried Line
Germany Republic and later the Third Reich of Germany in the
1930s.
A border demarcation between Lebanon and Isreal
Lebanon and published by the United Nations on 7 June 2000 for the
Blue Line
Israel purposes of determining whether Israel had fully
withdrawn from Lebanon.

The Republic A demilitarised zone, patrolled by the United Nations

Green Line /
of Cyprus Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus(UNFICYP), that was
Attila Line /
and Turkish established in 1964 and extended in 1974 after the
UN Buffer
Cyprus ceasefire of 16 August 1974.
Zone

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TRIB ES IN INDIA

State Tribes Found Balti, Garra, Sippi,

Jammu and
Bakarwal, Mon, Gaddi,
Andh and Sadhu Andh, Kashmir
Purigpa, Beda
Bhil, Bhaghata,
Dhulia,rona, Kolam, Gonds, Birhors, Savar,
Gond, Thoti, Goundu, Jharkhand Mundas, Santhals,
Kammara, Savaras, Khaira, Bhumji
Andhra
Dabba Yerukula, Sugalis,
Pradesh Gond, Patelia, Barda,
Nakkala, Pardhan,
Karnataka Yerava, Bhil, Koraga,
Gadabas, Chenchus A.k.a
Adiyan, Iruliga
Chenchawar,
Kattunayakan, Jatapus, Malai, Aarayan, Arandan,
Manna Dhora Kerala Uralis, Kurumbas,
Arandan, Eranvallan
Singpho, Monpa, Abor,
Arunachal
Sherdukpen, Galo, Kharia, Bhils, Murias,
Pradesh
Apatanis Madhya Birhors, Baigas, Katkari,
Pradesh Kol, Bharia, Khond,
Khasis, Chakma, Dimasa,
Gonds
Assam Gangte, Garos, Hajong
Chutiya Warlis, Khond, Bhaina,
Maharashtra Katkari, Bhunjia,
Gond, Birjia, Asur, Savar,
Rathawa, Dhodia
Bihar Parhaiya, Chero, Birhor,
Santhals, Baiga Thadou, Aimol, Maram,
Manipur Paite, Chiru, Purum, Kuki,
Nagasia, Biar, Khond,
Monsang, Angami
Chhattisgarh Agariya, Bhattra,
Mawasi, Bhaina Pawai, Chakma, Raba,
Meghalaya Hajong, Lakher, Garos,
Varli, Dubia, Siddi,
Goa Jaintias Khasis
Dhodia, Naikda
Dimasa, Raba, Chakma,
Patelia, Bhil, Dhodia,
Mizoram Lakher, Khasi, Synteng,
Gujarat Bamcha, Barda, Paradhi,
Kuki, Pawai
Charan, Gamta
Nagas, Angami, Sema,
Swangal, Gujjars, Nagaland
Himachal Garo, Kuki, Kachari, Mikir
Lahaulas, Khas,
Pradesh
Pangwala, Lamba, Gaddis Gadaba, Ghara, Kharia,
Odisha Khond, Matya, Oraons,
Rajuar, Santhals

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Bhils, Damaria, Dhanka, People of mixed Indian and

Rajasthan Meenas(Minas), Patelia, Amerinds European blood in North
Sahariya America

Sikkim Bhutia, Khas, Lepchas Negroes of central and

Bantus
southern Africa
Adiyan, Aranadan,
Tamil Nadu Eravallan, Irular, Kadar, Basque Spain
Kanikar, Kotas, Todas
Nomadic tribe of Arab
Telangana Chenchus Bedouins stock in Africa and
Southwest Asia.
Bhil, Bhutia, Chaimal,
Tripura Chakma, Halam, Khasia, Tribes of Morocco, Algeria
Berbers
Lushai, Mizel, Namte and Tunisia

Bhotias, Buksa, Jannsari, Tribal inhabitants of

Uttarakhand Bushmen
Khas, Raji, Tharu Kalahari desert in Africa

Uttar Bhotia, Buksa, Jaunsari, Natives of Western

Bindibu
Pradesh Kol, Raji, Tharu Australia

Asur, Khond, Hajong, Ho, Inhabitants of southern

Cossacks
West Bengal Parhaiya, Rabha, and eastern parts of Russia
Santhals, Savar
Croats Inhabitants of Croatia
Andaman Oraons, Onges,
Dayak Indonesia
and Nicobar Sentinelese, Shompens
Dinka Sudan
Little
Jarawa
Andaman Natives of the tundra
region (very cold high
Abhors, Chang, Galaong, Eskimos
latitude areas) in Canada
North-East Mishimi, Singpho,
and Greenland
Wancho
Flemish Inhabitants of Belgium

Native people of
TRIB ES OF THE W ORLD Filipinos
Philippines

Tribes Inhabited region/Country People of the European

Finns
Tundra
Northwestern frontier
Afridis Nomads of Pampas in
region of Pakistan Gaucho
Uruguay and Argentina
A racial group of South
Afrikaner Dark-skinned Muslims in
Africa Hamites
Northwest Africa

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Democratic Republic of A group inhabiting parts of

Hema Swahili
Congo Kenya and Tanzania

One of the original races A mixed group of people in

Hottentots Tartar
inhabiting tropical Africa Siberia

Democratic Republic of Veddas The racial stock of Sri Lanka

Lendu
Congo
People in the Tundra
Yakuts
Kaffris South Africa region of Russia

People of the steppe-type People of Bantu family

Kirghiz Zulus
region in Asia inhabiting South Africa

Kikuyu A tribe of East Africa

People of the European E C O N O MY A N D E C O N O M IC S

Lapps
Tundra
Definition of Economics
Magyars Inhabitants of Hungary
The term economics comes from the
The original inhabitants of ancient Greek word ‘oikonomia’ meaning
Maoris
New Zealand management of a household. Generally,
Masai A Negro tribe of East Africa economics means the study of production,
consumption and distribution of goods and
A tribal group inhabiting services. There are 4 major definitions of
Masuds Waziristan region of Economics.
Pakistan
(i) Wealth Definition
People of mixed Indian and Adam Smith defined “Economics as a
Mestizos European blood in South science which inquired into the nature and
America cause of wealth of Nations”.
Papuans Tribes of New Guinea According to this definition,
• Economics is a science of study of
Extremely Short-statured wealth only.
Pygmies people of the Zaire Basin in • It deals with production, distribution
Africa and consumption.
• This wealth- centred definition deals
Red Aborigines of North with the causes behind the creation of
Indians America wealth and It only considers material
wealth.
People of the Asiatic
Samoyeds (ii) Welfare Definition
Tundra (northern Russia)
According to Alfred Marshall ‘Economics is
People of slavic origin
the study of man in the ordinary business
Slovenese inhabiting former
of life’. It examines how a person gets his
Yugoslavia
income and how he invests it. Thus on one
side, it is a study of wealth and on the other
side, it is a study of wellbeing.

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(iii) Scarcity Definition Macroeconomics

This definition was put forward by Robbins. • Macroeconomics deals with the
According to him “Economics is a science functioning of the economy.
which studies human behaviour as a • It is the theory of national income,
relationship between ends and scarce employment, aggregate consumption,
means which have alternative uses”. savings and investment, general price level
and economic growth.
Features
• It is also known as the Income Theory.
• Human wants are unlimited
The Father of Macroeconomics is John
• Alternative use of scarce resources
Maynard Keynes.
• Efficient use of scarce resources
Economy
• Need for optimisation
It represents production, distribution or
(iv) Growth Oriented definition trade and consumption of goods and
This definition was introduced by Paul. A. services in a given geographical area by
Samuelson. According to the definition different agents, which can be individuals,
“Economics is the study of how man and businesses, organisations or governments.
society choose with or without the use of Economy can also be defined as the
money to employ the scarce productive practical application of the concepts of
resources, which have alternative uses, to economics.
produce various commodities over time Open Economy:
and distributing them for consumption, The economy which is open to the
now or in the future among various person international markets is called an open
or groups in society.” It analyses the costs economy. It allows foreign direct
and benefits of improving patterns of investment and all other investments from
international markets. It allows the export
resource allocation.
and import of goods.
Subject Matter of Economics Closed Economy:
The subject matter of economics is The economy which is closed to the
presently divided into two major branches exports and imports from international
— Microeconomics and Macroeconomics. markets is called a closed economy. Such
These two terms have now become of economies focus on self-reliance within
general use in economics. the territory of the country.
Types of Economic Systems
Microeconomics
Capitalist Economy (Capitalism)
• Microeconomics studies the economic
behaviour of individual economic units. • Adam Smith is the ‘Father of
• The study of the economic behaviour of Capitalism’. Capitalistic economy is also
households, firms and industries form the termed as a free economy (Laissez-faire, in
the subject matter of microeconomics. Latin) or market economy where the role
• It is known as the Price Theory. The of the government is minimum and the
Father of Microeconomics is Adam Smith. market determines the economic
• It includes demand, supply, markets, activities.
etc. • The means of production in a capitalistic
economy are privately owned.

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Manufacturers produce goods and services population below the poverty line, poor
with a profit motive. infrastructure, agriculture-based economy
• The USA, West Germany, Australia and and a lower rate of capital formation,
Japan are best examples of capitalist tagged it as a developing economy in the
economies. world. Some features of Indian Economy
are:
Socialist Economy (Socialism)
• India has a mixed economy: This means
• The Father of Socialism is Karl Marx.
both private and public sectors co-exist
Socialism refers to a system of total
and function smoothly. This makes it a
planning, public ownership and state
perfect model for public-private
control on economic activities.
partnerships.
• Socialism is defined as a way of
organising a society in which major • Agriculture plays the key role:
industries are owned and controlled by the Agriculture being the maximum pursued
government. A Socialist economy is also occupation in India, it plays an important
known as ‘Planned Economy’ or ‘Command role in its economy as well. Around 60% of
Economy’. the people in India depend upon
• Public welfare is the main motive agriculture for their livelihood.
behind all economic activities. It aims at • An emerging market: India has emerged
equality in the distribution of income and as a vibrant economy sustaining stable
wealth and equal opportunity for all. GDP growth rate even in the midst of
• Russia, China, Vietnam, Poland and global downtrend. This has attracted
Cuba are examples of socialist economies. significant foreign capital through FDI and
• But now, there are no pure socialist FII.
economies. • Fast-growing Service Sector: The service
sector contributes a lion’s share of GDP in
Mixed Economy (Mixedism) India. There has been a high rise in growth
• In a mixed economy system, both of technical sectors like Information
private and public sectors co-exist and Technology, BPO etc.
work together towards economic • Demographic dividend: The human
development. capital of India is young. This means that
• It is a combination of both capitalism India is a proud owner of the maximum
and socialism. It tends to eliminate the percentage of youth. The young
evils of both capitalism and socialism. population is not only motivated but skilled
• In these economies, resources are and trained enough to maximise the
owned by individuals and the government. growth.
India, England, France and Brazil are • Large Population: India stands second in
examples of mixed economies. terms of size of population next to China
Characteristics and features of Indian and our country is likely to overtake China
Economy in the near future. Population growth rate
of India is very high and this is always a
Indian economy is termed as the
hurdle to the growth rate.
developing economy of the world. Some
• Inequality and poverty: Even after the
features like low per capita income, higher
introduction of many social welfare

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schemes, still a higher percentage of • In 1960, seven districts from seven

individuals are living Below Poverty Line states were selected and the Government
(BPL). As a result of unequal distribution of introduced a pilot project known as
wealth, the rich becomes richer and the Intensive Area Development Programme
poor becomes poorer. (IADP) into those seven districts.
• Inadequate Employment generation: • Later, this programme was extended to
With a growing youth population, there is the remaining states and one district from
a huge need for the employment each state was selected for intensive
opportunities. The growth in production is development. Accordingly, in 1965, 144
not accompanied by the creation of jobs. districts (out of 325) were selected for
The Indian economy is characterised by intensive cultivation and the programme
‘jobless growth’. was renamed as Intensive Agricultural
• Outdated technology: The level of Areas Programme (IAAP).
technology in agriculture and small-scale
Points to note
industries is still outdated and obsolete.
• Norman Ernest Borlaug is the father of
Agriculture and Land Reforms in India: green revolution. He is known as ‘The man
The performance of agricultural sector who saved a billion lives’.
influences the growth of Indian economy. • Dr.M. S. Swaminathan is the father of
Indian economy is based on agriculture. green revolution in India.
Agriculture is the largest livelihood • The Rockefeller Foundation sponsored
provider in India. the green revolution programme. Later
• India is the largest producer of milk, became the ‘The International Maize and
jute, pulses, mango, banana and sapota. Wheat Improvement Centre’ or CIMMYT.
• India is the second-largest producer of • Punjab is the pioneer state in green
wheat, vegetables, fish, onions etc. revolutionit. It is known as Granary of
• India ranks third in tobacco production India.
and sixth in coffee production.
Impact of Green Revolution
• India accounts for 10% of world food
Increase in Agricultural production:The
production. Food grain production rose
production of rice has increased from 35
from 52 million tons in 1951-1952 to 257.4
million tonnes in 1960-1961 to 54 million
million tons in 2011-2012.
tonnes in 1980-1981 and then to 106.5
• However, the share of agriculture in
million tonnes in 2013-2014. The yield per
national income has comedown.
hectare has also improved from 1013 kg in
Green revolution in India 1960 to 1101 kg in 2013-2014.
• This new agricultural strategy was • Again, the production of wheat has also
adopted in India during the 1960s. increased significantly from 11 million
• Green revolution in India is the increase tonnes in 1950-1951 to 36 million tonnes
in agricultural production using High in 1980-1981 and then to 95.9 million
Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds and chemical tonnes in 2013-2014.
fertilisers,i.e. the traditional agricultural • The new agricultural strategy was very
practices were replaced by a new much restricted to the production of food
production strategy. grains, mostly wheat and rice. Thus,

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commercial crops like sugarcane, cotton, • Golden Revolution – Fruits-Apple

jute, oilseeds could not achieve a Production
significant increase in their production. • Grey Revolution – Fertilisers Production
• Increase in productivity: The yield per • Black/Brown Revolution – Non-
unit of farmland has improved by more Conventional Energy Sources Production
than 30 per cent between 1947 and 1979. • Silver Revolution – Egg Production
During the first 10 years of Green • Round Revolution – Potato Production
Revolution, crop area under HYV seeds
Land reforms in India
grew from 7% to 22%.
• Employment Opportunities: Due to the Land reforms refer to an institutional
introduction of multiple cropping, job measure directed towards altering the
opportunities in the rural areas have also existing pattern of ownership, tenancy and
expanded, as the demand for hired management of land.
workers required for farm activities The major objectives of land reforms are:
increased simultaneously. • Restructuring of agrarian relations to
• Increase in Regional Disparities: As achieve an egalitarian structure.
green revolution was very much restricted • Elimination of exploitation in land
to the production of wheat, their benefits relations.
were very much restricted to 20.4 million
• Actualisation of the goal of ‘land to the
hectares of area engaged in wheat
tiller’.
production (only 12 per cent of gross
• Improvement of socio-economic
cropped area). Accordingly, the regions of
conditions of the rural poor by widening
Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar
their land base.
Pradesh derived the benefits of new
• Increasing agricultural production and
agricultural strategy.
productivity.
• But the agriculture activities of the
• Facilitating land-based development of
remaining more than 80 per cent of the
rural poor.
cropped area of the country is still
• Infusion of a great measure of equality
depending on the vagaries of monsoons.
in local institutions.
in the absence of irrigation facilities.

Points to note
E C O N O M IC PL A N N IN G IN
Rainbow revolution/food chain revolution
I N D IA
in India
• Green Revolution – Food Grain
Production Planning means allocation of resources
judiciously for the fulfilment of maximum
• White Revolution – Milk Production
needs of the people of the country. India
• Yellow Revolution – Oil Seeds
followed a plannedmodel of economy. The
Production
first country in the world that adopted the
• Blue Revolution – Fisheries Production
planning model of economy was Soviet
• Red Revolution – Meat/Tomato
Union (in 1928).
Production

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History of Planning in India is to create and formulate 5-year plans in

The Planning Commission was created on India.
15 March 1950and the planning era began First plan (1951–1956)
on 01 April 1951with the launch of the first • The first plan was based on Harrod-
five-year plan ((1951–1956).But before the Domar model.
establishment of the planning • The Plan focussed on agriculture, price
commission,there was progress in the stability, power and transport.
concept of planning. The evolution of • Economist K. N. Raj was the architect of
planning in India is stated below: the plan.
• M. Vishveshwarya (1934): a prominent • It was a successful plan primarily
engineer and politician who made his first because of good harvests in the last two
attempt in laying the foundation for years of the plan.
economic planning in India in 1934 through
• Target Growth: 2.1 %
his book, ‘Planned Economy of India’. It
• Actual Growth: 3.6 %
was a 10-year plan.
• Jawaharlal Nehru (1938): He planned to Second Plan (1956–1961)
set-up a ‘National Planning Commission’ by • The second plan is also known as the
a committee, but due to the changes in the Nehru Mahalanobis Feldman model.
political era and Second World War, it did • The plan focussed on rapid
not materialize. industrialisation, i.e. heavy & basic
• Bombay Plan (1944): The 8 leading Industries.
industrialists of Bombay presented the • The major aim was to create a socialist
‘Bombay Plan’. It was a 15-year investment economy.
plan. • Durgapur (UK), Bhillai (USSR) and
• S. N. Agarwal (1944) gave the ‘Gandhian Rourkela (West Germany) steel plants
Plan’ focussing on the agricultural and rural were set up with foreign help. Atomic
economy. Energy Commission came into being in
• M. N. Roy (1945) drafted the ‘People’s operation and Tata Institute of
Plan’.It was aimed at the mechanisation of Fundamental Research was set up.
agricultural production and distribution by • Target Growth:4.5%
the state only. • Actual Growth: 4.3%
• J. P. Narayan (1950) advocatedthe
Third Plan (1961–1966)
‘Sarvodaya Plan’ which was inspired by
• The third plan is known as John Sandy &
the Gandhian plan and with the idea of
S Chakravarthy model.
Vinoba Bhave. It gave importance not only
• It is also called Gadgil yojana.
for agriculture, but encouraged small and
• It is a service- sector development
cottage industries in the plan.
model.
After considering all the plans, in the same
year, the planning commission was set up • During this plan, Indian economy has
by Jawaharlal Nehru to formulate five-year entered a ‘take-off stage’.
plans in India. He was the first Chairman of • Target Growth: 5.6%
the Planning Commission, Government of • Actual Growth: 2.8%
India. The function of planning commission

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The Plan was a failure in reaching the • Minimum needs programme, food for
targets due to unforeseen events – Chinese work programme were introduced during
aggression (1962), Indo-Pak war(1965), this five-year plan.
severe drought (1965-1966). • This plan was terminated a year earlier.
• Target Growth: 4.4%
Three Annual Plans (1966–1969)
• Actual Growth: 4.8%
• The period from 1966–1969 is known as
plan holiday. Rolling plan/ Annual Plan (1978 –1980)
• During these plans, a whole new Annual Plan (Gunar Myrdal) was brought
agricultural strategy was implemented. It is out by Janata Party Government under
involving the wide-spread distribution of Morarji Desai in 1978. The focus of the plan
high-yielding varieties of seeds, extensive was the enlargement of the employment
use of fertilisers, exploitation of irrigation potential in agriculture and allied activities
potential and soil conservation. to raise the income of the lowest income
• In 1966, the Government of India classes through minimum needs
declared the devaluation of rupee, with a programme.
view to increase the exports of the
Sixth Plan (1980 – 1985)
country.
• This period saw the end of Nehruvian
Fourth Plan (1969 –1974) socialism.
• It is also known as Allen S manne & • This period is also the beginning of
Ashok Rudra model. economic liberalisation.
• Objective: growth with stability and • Objectives: removal of poverty and
progressive achievement of self-reliance modernisation
• Implementation of Family Planning • Target Growth:5.2%
Programmes was one of the main targets. • Actual Growth: 5.7%
• The plan followed Gadgil formula.
Seventh Plan (1985 –1990)
• White revolution took place during this
5-year plan. • This plan focussed on ‘food, work &
productivity’.
• The plan is considered as a big failure
because of the influx of Bangladeshi • The plan was very successful, as the
refugees before and after 1971 Indo-Pak economy recorded a 6% growth rate.
war. • It is a long term fiscal policy plan.
• Target Growth:5.7% • Target Growth: 5.0%
• Actual Growth: 3.3% • Actual Growth: 6.0%

Fifth Plan (1974-1979) Annual plans (1990–1992)

• It is also called the Dhar model. • The annual plans were introduced in
• It proposed to achieve two main India due to economic crisis, political
objectives: 'removal of instability and gulf [Link] was the time
when LPG reforms were introduced in
• poverty' (Garibi Hatao) and ‘attainment
India.
of self-reliance'
Eighth plan (1992–1997)
• It is known as John W Miller model.

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• It is the beginning of liberalisation, • Target Growth: 9 %

privatisation and globalisation (LPG) in • Actual Growth: 8%
India.
Twelfth Plan (2012-2017)
• It is also called the Rao-Manmohan
• This plan focussed on faster, more
model.
inclusive and sustainable growth.
• Its objective was human resource
• Higher priority was given to skill
development.
development.
• Target Growth: 5.6%
• The plan proposed a target of 9%.
• Actual Growth: 6.8%
• Second is a 7 year “Strategy” which lays
Ninth Plan (1997-2002) the roadmap of
• Objective: growth with social justice • The plan proposed a 7-year strategy
and equality which lays the roadmap of development
• It is called the People’s plan. for the next seven years, dividing those
• This plan emphasised on seven Basic goals and objectives into two parts.
Minimum Services (BMSs), which included • The plan also proposed a ‘Three year
safe drinking water, universalisation of action agenda’ which states the tasks and
primary education, streamlining PDS targets to be accomplished in next three
among others. years’ time frame,
• Target Growth: 6.5% The 12th and the last five-year plan of India
• Actual Growth: 5.4% was completed on 31 March [Link]
this, the five-year plans have become a
Tenth Plan (2002 -2007) thing of past. It was already announced
• Objective: attaining 8 % GDP growth that there will be no more five-year plans.
In August 2017, NITI Aayog has come up
rate
with a new idea of planning for future
• The plan focussed on growth with development of India.
emphasis on human development.
NITI Aayog
• The PURA scheme (providing urban
amenities in rural areas) whose strategy • National Institution for transforming
provided by former President Dr. APJ India
• Established on 01 January 2015
Abdul Kalam was introduced during this
• Chairperson: Prime minister
five-year plan.
• Present chairman: Narendra Modi
• India had emerged as one of the fastest- Vice-chairman: Rajiv Kumar
growing economies by the end of the tenth CEO: Amitabh Kant
plan.
• Target Growth: 8 %
• Actual Growth: 7.6 %
UNEMPLOYMENT
Eleventh Plan (2007 -2012)
• Unemployment occurs when a person
• This plan was aimed ‘Towards Faster & who is actively searching for employment
More Inclusive Growth’ is unable to find work. Unemployment is
• Targets: 7 million new jobs, lower IMR, often used as a measure of the health of
CMR, safe drinking water to all, to improve the economy. The most frequent measure
sex ratio of unemployment is the unemployment

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rate, which is the number of unemployed Cyclical Unemployment

people divided by the number of people in • It is result of the business cycle, where
the labour force.
unemployment rises during recessions and
• National Sample Survey Organization
declines with economic growth.
(NSSO) defines employment and
• Cyclical unemployment figures in India
unemployment on the following activity
are negligible. It is a phenomenon that is
statuses of an individual:
mostly found in capitalist economies.
• Working (engaged in an economic
activity),i.e. 'Employed'. Technological Unemployment
• Seeking or available for work, • It is the loss of jobs due to changes in
i.e.'Unemployed'. technology.
• Neither seeking nor available for work. • In 2016, World Bank data predicted that
• The first two constitutes labour force the proportion of jobs threatened by
and unemployment rate is the per cent of automation in India is 69% year-on-year.
the labour force that is without work.
Frictional Unemployment
Unemployment rate = (Unemployed
Workers / Total labour force) × 100 • The Frictional Unemployment also
called as Search Unemployment, refers to
Types of Unemployment in India
the time lag between the jobs when an
Disguised Unemployment individual is searching for a new job or is
• It is a phenomenon wherein more switching between the jobs.
people are employed than actually • In other words, an employee requires
needed. time for searching a new job or shifting
• It is primarily traced in the agricultural from the existing to a new job, this
and the unorganised sectors of India. inevitable time delay causes the frictional
unemployment. It is often considered as a
Seasonal Unemployment
voluntary unemployment because,it is not
• It is a form of unemployment that caused due to the shortage of jobs, but in
occurs during certain seasons of the year. fact, the workers themselves quit their jobs
• Agricultural labourers in India rarely in search of better opportunities.
have work throughout the year.
Vulnerable Employment
Structural Unemployment
• This means, people are working
• It is a category of unemployment arising informally,without proper job contracts
from the mismatch between the jobs and thus sans any legal protection. These
available in the market and the skills of the persons are deemed ‘unemployed’ since
available workers in the market. records of their work are never
• Many people in India do not get jobs maintained.
due to the lack of requisite skills and due to • It is one of the main types of
poor education levels, it becomes difficult unemployment in India.
to train them.

NEW ECONOMIC POLICY:

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Economic Reform Policies and abolishing the license system as a part

• Economic reforms refer to the changes of that liberalisation.
introduced by the Government to bring an • Automatic approval for Foreign Direct
improvement in the economy of the Investment (FDI) was introduced for many
country. The Indian Government has industrial sectors.
introduced many economic reforms in • To make the import-export policy of the
India since 1991. country more liberal and so that the export
of Indian goods may become more easy
Background of economic reforms in India
and the necessary raw materials and
• During 1990–1991, India had to face instruments for both industrial
various economic problems. development and production of
• The massive deficiency in foreign trade exportable commodities may be imported
balance was expanding further. and also to facilitate free trade by reducing
• Since 1987–1988 till 1990–1991, it was the import duty.
increasing in such a rapid scale that by the • To decrease the value of money in
end of 1990 –1991, the amount of this terms of dollars.
deficit balance became 10,644 crores of • To take a huge amount of foreign debt
rupees. (3.2%) from the IMF and the world Bank for
• At the same time, the foreign exchange rejuvenating the economic condition of the
stock was also decreasing. country and to introduce the structural
• India was also suffering from inflation, adjustment in the economic condition of
the rate which was 12% by 1991. the country as a precondition of that debt.
• Fiscal deficit of India was 9.4 % and the • To reform the banking system and the
current account deficit was 3.1%. tax structure of the country.
• On the other hand, the GDP growth rate • To establish market economy by
was merely 1.3%. withdrawing and restricting government
Reform Measures interference on investment.
To get relief from such an economic • For several industries, the monopoly of
problem, the government of India had only public sector came to an end.
two ways before it: • To encourage the private sector to
1. To take foreign debt and to create make investments in large-scale industries.
favourable conditions within the country First Generation Reforms (1991-2000)
for increasing the flow of foreign exchange • Promotion of Private Sector
and also to increase the volume of export.
2. The other was to establish fiscal • Public Sector Reforms
discipline within the country and to make • External Reform Sectors
structural adjustments for the purpose. • Financial Sector Reforms
Hence the government of India had to
introduce a package of reforms which • Tax Reforms
included the following:
Second Generation Reforms (2000-2001
• To liberalise the industrial policy of the
onwards)
government and to invite foreign
• Factor market Reforms
investment by privatisation of industries

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• Legal Sector Reforms Points to note

• Reforms in critical areas • Dutta committee on industrial licensing
policy Inquiry committee recommended
Third Generation Reforms
the MRTP act.
• 10th FYP onwards
Competition act, 2001 replaced the MRTP
• Panchayat Raj Institutions act and Competition Commission of India
• Financial Inclusion replaced the MRTP commission.

Fourth Generation Reforms I N D IA N F IN A N C IA L SY S T E M

• IT enabled Reforms
• Industrial Reforms (New Industrial
Financial system refers to the borrowing
Policy – 1991)
and lending of funds for the demand and
• To convert the distortion and weakness
supply of funds of all individual institutions,
of the sector.
companies and the government. Indian
Focus of New industrial policy, 1991 financial system consists of 2 types of
• Its main focus was on establishing markets – Money Market and Capital
Liberalisation, Globalisation and Market.
Privatisation. Money Market
• De-reservation of the industries:Out of This is a market for borrowing and lending
the 17 industries reserved for the public of short-term funds or known as near
sector under the 1956 industrial policy, the money market. The money market is a key
new policy de-reserved 9 industries and component of the financial system, as it is
thus limited the scope of public sector to the function of monetary operations
only 8 industries. conducted by the Central Bank in its
• At present, only Nuclear Energy sector pursuit of monetary policy objectives.
and Railways are reserved exclusively for Money market is generally there for a
the government. period of less than 365 days.
• De-licensing of the industries: 18
industries were needed Industrial licensing Instruments of Money Market
before. • T-Bills or treasury bills are the
• Now only five industries licensing; government bonds, which are used to raise
Distillation and brewing of alcoholic drinks, funds from the money market.
Cigarettes and manufactured tobacco ▪ 91 days Treasury Bills (T-bills) are used
substitutes, electronic aerospace and by the government to raise funds from the
defence equipment of all types, Industrial market for short periods (short-term
explosives, Hazardous chemicals.
government bond).
• Abolition of the MRTP Limit: As per
MRTP Act 1969-1970, the firms with assets ▪ 182 days T-bills introduced on the
of Rs. 25 crore or more were categorised as recommendation of Vaghul working
MRTP companies. The upper limit of Rs. 25 groups are variable interest bills sold
crore for MRTP companies was later through fortnightly auctions.
relaxed to Rs. 50 crores in 1980, Rs. 100 ▪ 364 days T-bills introduced on the
crore in 1985 and in 1991, this limit was recommendation of Vaghul working group
removed.

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are long-dated bills, whose yields reflect market, a company can acquire funds only
the market conditions. by incurring debt and the lender is
▪ 14 days T-bills were introduced in April guaranteed a fixed Repayment, e.g. bond.
1997 by the RBI at a discount rate In equity markets, funds can be raised
equivalent to the rate of interest on Ways without incurring debt those, who finance
and Means Advance (WMA) to the the enterprise by purchasing equity
Government of India. instrument like shares.
Certificate of Deposits (CoD) It is the SEBI (Securities and Exchange Board of
certificate issued by a bank/financial India) was set up in 1988 and made a
institute to other banks or financial statutory body in 1992, to regulate the
business of the stock market and other
institutes, that give funds on a short-term
securities markets.
basis. Commercial Banks are a saving
certificate entitling the bearer to receive Indian Fiscal System
interest. The maturity of a CoD varies from Fiscal system/Fiscal policy deals with the
3 months to 1 year. revenue and expenditure policy of the
Commercial Papers (CP): It is an government. The word fiscal has been
derived from the word ‘fisk’ which means
instrument to raise short-term funds by
public treasury or Government funds.
the corporate sector. It can be issued by a
listed company with a working capital of
almost 5 crores. The CP is issued in B UDGET
multiples of 25 lakh subject to a minimum
issue of 1 crore. The maturity of CP is • It is an anticipated statement of income
between 3 to 6 months. and expenditure of the government in a
financial year.
Other terms in Money Market
• The word ‘budget’ is not mentioned in
Money Market Index is an index, which
the constitution.
helps investors to decide how much and
• Instead of budget, it uses the term
where to invest in a money market by
annual financial statement in Article 112.
providing information about the prevailing
market ratio. Objectives of budget
Bankers’ Acceptance Rate is the rate at • Reallocation of resources in accordance
which the banker’s acceptance is traded in with the economic (profit maximisation)
the secondary market. and social (public welfare) priorities of the
LIBOR / MIBOR – It stands for London country.
Inter-Bank Offered Rate/Mumbai Inter- • The government aims to reduce such
Bank Offered Rate. It is the interest rate at inequalities of income and wealth, through
which the bank borrows fund from other its budgetary policy. It also aims to
banks. influence distribution of income by
imposing taxes on the rich and spending
Capital Market more on the welfare of the poor.
Capital market is concerned with the • Government budget is used to prevent
provision of raising long-term funds. business fluctuations of inflation or
Capital markets can be classified into debt deflation to achieve the objective of
markets and equity markets. In a debt economic stability.

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• Budget is prepared with the objective of • No amount can be withdrawn from the
making various provisions for managing fund without the authorisation from the
such enterprises and providing for those in Parliament.
need of financial help.
Public Account ( Article 266 (2))
• Budgetary policy aims to mobilise
• Parliamentary authorisation for
sufficient resources for investment in the
payments from the public account is not
public sector.
required.
• The government budget aims to reduce
regional disparities through its taxation Contingency Fund of India ( Article 267 (1))
and expenditure policy for encouraging • This fund was created for meeting
setting up of production units in unforeseen expenditure of the
economically backward regions. Government.
Budgets in India • No money can be withdrawn from this
fund without the
• Separation of Railway budget from
Parliament's approval.
General budget was the recommendation
of Acworth Committee (1924). Components of Fiscal Policy:
• Prior permission of the President is There are three components of the Fiscal
needed for presenting a budget. Policy in India:
• The first Budget in India was presented • Government Receipts
by James Wilson (1860). • Government Expenditure
• The first budget in free India was • Public Debt
presented by R. K. Shanmugam Chetty
(1947). Government Receipts
• Highest number of Budgets were The categorisation of the government
presented by Moraji Desai (10). receipts is given below:
• The budget presented in the year 1973- Revenue Receipt
1974 is known as Black Budget. Tax Revenue
• The budget presented in the year 1997- • Direct Tax
1998 is known as Dream Budget. • Indirect Tax
Non-Tax Revenue
GOV ERNMENT A CCOUNTS • Fees
• License and Permits
Consolidated Fund of India (Article 266 • Fines and Penalties, etc
(1)) Capital Receipt
• It is the chief account of the • Recovery of Loans
Government of India • Disinvestments
• The inflow to this fund is by way of taxes • Borrowing and other liabilities
like income tax, central excise, customs Debt Trap – Situation where the borrower
and also non-tax revenues. has to borrow again for the payment of an
instalment on the previous debt. A
borrower unable to meet debt service

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obligations without borrowing is known to Fiscal Responsibility and Budget

be in a debt trap. Management Act (FRBMA), 2003

Direct Tax Code Bill • The objective of this FRBM Act is to

impose fiscal discipline on the government.
It hasn’t been implemented yet. The bill
• It means fiscal policy should be
seeks to replace the following taxes:
conducted in a disciplined manner or a
• Income Tax Act of 1961
responsible manner, i.e. government
• Wealth Tax Act of 1957
deficits or borrowings should be kept
Disinvestment within reasonable limits and the
• When the government sells or government should plan its expenditure in
liquidates its assets of Central Public Sector accordance with its revenues so that the
Enterprises, State Public Sector borrowing should be within limits.
Enterprises, or other assets; it is referring
Fiscal Federalism
to disinvestment. This approach caters to
• It refers to the distribution of resources
the objective of fiscal burden reduction.
between the centre and the states.
Government Expenditure • The distribution of taxes between the
There are two classifications of public centre and the states is mentioned in the
expenditure: 7th schedule of the Indian constitution.

Revenue Expenditure There are 3 lists where the taxes are

(a recurring expenditure) distributed
• Interest Payments • Union List
• Defence Expenses • State List
• Salaries to Central Government • Concurrent List
employees etc. are examples of revenue Concepts of Deficits
expenditure
• Revenue Deficit: Excess of expenditure
Capital Expenditure on revenue account over receipts on
(a non-recurring expenditure) revenue account
• Loan repayments • Capital Deficit: Excess of capital
• Loans to public enterprises, disbursements over capital receipts
Plan and non-plan expenditure have been • Fiscal Deficit: Total Expenditure –
scrapped with the abolishing of the (Revenue Receipts + Non-debt Capital
Planning Commission of India. Receipts) or
• Fiscal deficit = Total expenditure – Total
Fiscal Consolidation receipts excluding borrowings
The measures that are taken to improve • Primary Deficit: Fiscal deficit minus
the fiscal deficit comes under the process interest payments
of fiscal consolidation. Through fiscal • Budgetary deficit: Total Revenue−Total
consolidation, the government tries for: Expenditure. It is the overall deficit.
• Improvement in revenue receipts • This concept has been discontinued
• Better alignment in the public from 1996.
expenditure

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• Effective Revenue Deficit: Revenue Special Economic Zone

Deficit−Grants for the creation of capital • A Special Economic Zone (SEZ) is a
assets. geographical region that has economic and
It was first introduced in India in the Union other laws that are more free-market
Budget 2011-2012. oriented than a country’s typical national
laws. Asia’s first Export Processing Zone
FOREIGN TRA D E A ND (EPZ) was set upin Kandla, India in 1965.
The SEZ is regulated by the Special
COMMERCE Economic Zone (SEZ) act, 2005.
• As per the provisions of the SEZ Act,
Trade between two or more nations is 2005, 100% FDI is allowed in SEZ through
called foreign trade or international trade. the automatic route.
With the liberalisation of the economy in
1991 and adoption of ‘export promotion’
B ANKING IN INDIA
policy measures has led to substantial
growth in exports and diversification of
exports in India. A bank is a financial institution that accepts
The balance of payments describes the deposits from the public and creates
economic transactions of an economy with credit. Lending activities can be performed
the rest of the world. Balance of Payments either directly or indirectly through capital
comprises of current account and capital markets.
account. The first bank of India was the ‘Bank of
Current account transactions are classified Hindustan’established in 1770 and it was
into merchandise (exports and imports) located in the then Indian capital, Calcutta.
and invisibles. Invisibles Invisible However, this bank failed to work and
transactions include services and transfers. ceased operations in 1832. Other
The capital account includes foreign banksthat were established are:
investment, loans and banking capital. • The General Bank of India (1786-1791)
Balance of Trade (BoT) • Oudh Commercial Bank (1881-1958)
Balance of Trade means the difference
• Bank of Bengal (1809)
between exports and importsof a country.
There are 3 types of Balance of Trade: • Bank of Bombay (1840)
• Balanced BOT, i.e. Exports = Imports • Bank of Madras (1843)
• Adverse BOT, [Link] < Imports
Bank of Bengal, Bank of Bombay and Bank
• Favourable BOT, [Link] > Imports
of Madras were called as the Presidential
FERA (Foreign Exchange Regulation Act) Banks. These three banks were later
It wasenacted in 1973, to consolidate and merged into one single bank in 1921, which
regulate dealings in foreign exchange, so as was called the ‘Imperial Bank of India’.
to conserve foreign exchange and utilise it The Imperial Bank of India was later
to promote economic development. nationalised in 1955 and was named the
State Bank of India, which is currently the
largest public sector bank.

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Reserve Bank of India reduces the volume of credit leading to

• Reserve Bank of India is the central bank control of inflation.
of our country. It was established on 01 Commercial Banks
April 1935,under the RBI Act of 1934.
• A commercial bank is an institution that
• It holds the apex position in the banking
accepts deposits, makes business loans
structure. RBI performs various
and offers related services like accepting
developmental and promotional functions.
deposits, lending loans and advances to
• RBI is the central bankof the country.
general customers and businessman.
RBI was set up based on the
• These institutions run to make a
recommendations of Hilton Young
[Link] cater to the financial
[Link] first Governor was Sir
requirements of industries and various
Osborne Smith.
sectors like agriculture, rural development,
• RBI was nationalised in 1949 and its first
etc. It is a profit-making institution owned
Indian Governor was C. D Deshmukh.
by government or private bodies or both.
• The headquarters of the RBI is in
• A commercial bank includespublic
Mumbai. It was initially situated in Calcutta
sector, private sector, foreign banks and
and then shifted to Mumbai in 1937.
regional rural banks.
The Monetary policy tools used by RBI
Public Sector Banks
Bank Rate –It is the rate at which the RBI • Currently, there are 12 nationalised
gives finance to commercial banks. banks in [Link] public sector accounts
Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) –It specifies the for 75 per centof total banking business in
fraction of the total deposits of banks that India and the StateBank of India is the
they are obliged to keep with the RBI. largest commercial bank in terms of
Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) – It is the volume of all commercial banks.
ratio of liquid assets, which all commercial Nationalised Banks in India
banks have to keep in the form of cash,
• Bank of India
gold or government- approved securities
• Bank of Baroda
before providing credit to their customers.
• Bank of Maharashtra
Repo Rate –It was introduced in December
• Canara Bank
1992. It is the rate at which RBI lends short- • Central Bank of India
term money to the banks against • Indian Bank
securities. • Indian Overseas Bank
• Punjab & Sindh Bank
Reverse Repo Rate – It is the rate at which
• Punjab National Bank
banks lend to the RBI. Reverse Repo Rate
• State Bank of India
withdraws liquidity from the market.
• UCO Bank
Open Market Operations –Buying and
selling of Government securities by RBI are • Union Bank of India
called open market operations. When the Private Sector Banks
RBI sells G-secs in the market, it withdraws • The private-sector banks are banks
money liquidity from the market and thus, where greater parts of stake or equity are

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held by the private shareholders and not small and marginal farmers, agricultural
by the government. labourers and small entrepreneurs.
List of Private Sector Banks Co-operative Bank
• Axis Bank (1993) (as UTI Bank)
• Co-operative banks were set up by
• Bank of Punjab (actually an old
passing a co-operative act in 1904. They
generation private bank, since it was not
founded under post-1993 new bank are organised and managed on the
licensing regime) principle of co-operation and mutual help.
• Centurion Bank Ltd.( 1994) (Merged The main objective of a co-operative bank
with the Bank of Punjab in late 2005 to
is to provide rural credit.
become Centurion Bank of Punjab,
acquired by HDFC Bank Ltd. in 2008 Three-tier structures existing in
• Development Credit Bank(1995) cooperative banking:
(Converted from Co-operative Bank, now
• State cooperative bank at the apex level
DCB Bank Ltd.)
• Central cooperative banks at the district
• ICICI Bank (1996) (previously ICICI and
level
then both merged; total merger
• Primary cooperative banks at the base
ofSCICI+ICICI+ICICI Bank Ltd)
or local level
• IndusInd Bank (1994)
• Kotak Mahindra Bank (2003) Scheduled and Non-Scheduled Banks
• Yes Bank (2005) • The scheduled banks are those which
• Balaji Corporation Bank Limited (2010) are enshrined in the second schedule of
• HDFC bank (1994)
the RBI Act, 1934.
• Bandhan bank (2015)
• IDFC Bank (2015) • These banks have a paid-up capital and
reserves of an aggregate value of not less
Foreign Banks
than Rs. 5 lakhs, they must satisfy the RBI
• Foreign banks are those banks for which
the ownership resides with some other that their affairs are carried out in the
country. A foreign bank has the obligation interest of their depositors.
of following the regulations of both its • All commercial banks (Indian and
home and host countries.
foreign), regional rural banks and state
• CITI bank, HSBC, Standard Chartered
etcare examples of foreign bank in India. cooperative banks are scheduled banks.
• Non- scheduled banks are those which
Regional Rural Bank (RRB)
are not included in the second schedule of
• The government of India set up Regional
Rural Banks (RRBs) on 2 October 1975. The the RBI Act, 1934. At present, there are
banks provide credit to the weaker only three such banks in the country.
sections of the rural areas, particularly the

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industries would be developed by the State

INDUSTRY Governments.
▪ Schedule B, consisting of 12 industries
An industry is a group of organisations would be open to both the private and
involved in producing/manufacturing or public sectors; however, such industries
handling the same type of product and would be progressively State-owned.
service. ▪ All the other industries not included in
these two Schedules constituted the third
Industrial policies in India
category which was left open to the private
Industrial policy means government action sector. However, the State reserved the
to influence the ownership and structure right to undertake any type of industrial
of the industry and its performance. Also, production.
it takes the form of paying subsidies or
• The IPR 1956 stressed the importance of
providing finance in other ways, or of cottage and small-scale industries for
regulation.
expanding employment opportunities and
Industrial Policy Resolution of 1948 for wider decentralisation of economic
• It was announced on 06 April 1948 by power and activity.
the Union industry minister M. Shyama Industrial Policy of 1991
Prasad Mukherjee.
• It is known as liberalised industrial
• It envisaged a mixed economy. policy.
• It also envisages active role for the • It was announced by the Government of
state. Basic and strategic industries such as India on 24 July 1991.
arms and ammunition, atomic energy,
• It deregulated the Indian industry.
railways, etc. shall be the exclusive
• Industrial licensing will be abolished for
monopoly of the State.
all projects except for a shortlist of
Industrial Policy of 1956 industries (18 selected sectors).
• It was announced on 30 April 1956. • The policy provides for automatic
• It has been known as‘The Economic clearance for the import of capital goods in
Constitution of India’ or ‘The Bible of State cases where the foreign exchange
Capitalism’. availability is ensured through foreign
• The Resolution classified industries into equity.
three categories having regard to the role • The policy envisages disinvestment of
which the State would play in each of government equity in public sector to
them: mutual funds, financial institutions,
▪ Schedule A consisting of 17 industries general public and workers.
would be the exclusive responsibility of the Disinvestment Policy
State. Out of these 17 industries, four
• The Industrial Policy Statement of 24
industries namely arms and ammunition,
July 1991 outlined the disinvestment of
atomic energy, railways and air transport
selected PSEs. Disinvestment is a process,
would be Central Government
through which privatisation could take
monopolies; new units in the remaining
place.

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• The objective of pursuing disinvestment There are 2 types of taxes:

in India was unlocking resources trapped in • Direct Tax – The tax where the
non-strategic PSEs; reducing public debt responsibility of paying tax and burden lies
and transferring commercial risk to the in the same place.
private sector. • Indirect Tax – The tax where the
Points to note responsibility of paying tax and burden lies
in different places.
• The first steel industry at Kulti, West
Bengal Iron Works Company was Various taxes in India
established in 1870. • Income Tax - In India, income tax was
• The first large- scale steel plant (TISCO) introduced in 1860 by Sir James Wilson.
was established at Jamshedpur (1907). It The Income Tax Act, 1961, is the basis of
was followed by IISCO at Burnpur (1919). Income Tax in India.
• The first public-owned steel plant was • Corporation Tax − A corporation tax is
Rourkela Integrated Steel Plant set up in a tax on the net income of business
1954 with the help of German Kmpp- corporations or companies.
Demag. • Expenditure Tax − Expenditure tax is a
• The first Indian modernised cotton cloth tax on expenditure. It is levied when the
mill was established in 1818 at fort Gloster income is spent. It was first imposed in
near Kolkata, but this was unsuccessful. 1958 following the recommendations of
The second mill was established in 1854 at Professor. Nicholas Kaldor.
Bombay by KGN Daber. • Wealth Tax – it is levied on the net
wealth of an individual. It is also known as
TA X SYSTEM IN INDIA a tax on capital or property taxation. This
tax was imposed on the recommendation
of Professor Nicholas Kaldor in 1957. The
Tax is a compulsory payment by the wealth tax was abolished in 2015.
citizens to the government to meet the
• Gift Tax – The Gift tax was introduced in
public expenditure. It is legally imposed by
April 1958 on the recommendation of
the government on the taxpayer and in no
Professor Nicholas Kaldor. The Gift tax was
case taxpayer can deny paying taxes to the
also abolished in October 1998.
government.
• Securities Transactions Tax (STT) − This
The process of collecting tax is called as
tax was introduced in [Link] is
taxation. There are 3 types of taxation:
levied on the sale and purchase of
• Progressive Taxation: The percentage
securities at the dealing/ strike price.
of tax increases with the increase in
• Banking Cash Transaction Tax − This
income
tax was imposed for the first time in India
• Proportional Taxation: The percentage
during [Link] was levied on
of tax remains the same irrespective of the
withdrawals of cash from a current
income of the people
account in a bank more than a specified
• Regressive Taxation: The percentage of amount on any single day. The objective of
tax decreases with the increase in income. this tax is to track black money
transactions.

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• Union Excise Duty − The Constitution of • GST in India was made on the
India under Articles 269 and 270 has made recommendation of the Vijay Kelkar
a provision for levying Union Excise Duties Committee.
on all commodities produced anywhere in • GST in India was implemented on 01
India except alcoholic liquors,and opium, July 2017.
narcotics and narcotic drugs (these are • The first state which implemented the
within the jurisdiction of the State GST was Assam.
governments) • Amitabh Bachchan has been made the
• Value Added Tax (VAT) – VAT is a multi- brand ambassador of GST
point tax levied at each stage of value • GST has been implemented under
addition. VAT was first proposed by Article 279 of the Indian constitution.
Germany but first implemented by France • GST Council was formed by the
in 1954. In India ‘The Indirect Taxation President of India in September 2016.
Enquiry Committee’ (L. K. Jha Committee), • At present, Finance Minister Arun
1976 suggested adopting VAT applied to Jaitley is the Chairman of the GST Council.
the manufacturing stage combined with a • At present, the GST Council has 31
reformed system of sales taxation. members.
Modified system of Value Added or • GST has been implemented by the 101st
MODVAT was introduced in the budget Constitution Amendment Act, 2016.
year 1986-1987. It came into force with • The GST was the 122nd constitutional
effect from 01 March 1986. Central Value amendment bill to be
Added Tax (CENVAT) scheme replaced the • introduced in the Parliament of India.
MODVAT scheme with effect from 01 April,
• The President of India approved the GST
2000.
bill on 08 September 2016.
Goods and Services Tax (GST) • When GST bill was passed in the
• Goods and Services Tax (GST) is an parliament, 336 votes were casted in
indirect tax which has been implemented favour of GST bill and 11 votes were
in India on ) 1 July 2017. against it.
• The main objective behind the • There is a provision of 5 years
implementation of this tax is to make a imprisonment for those who do not pay
uniform tax system in the country. GST.
• Due to the implementation of the GST, • It is a one nation one tax
incidence of tax evasion will come down in • It is also a destination based tax.
the country. So, GST will increase the total • There are 5 rates of taxes in GST, i.e. 0%,
tax collection of the government. 5%, 12%, 18% and 28%.
• GST is an indirect tax.
Key facts related to the Goods and
• After the implementation of GST, sales
Services Tax (GST)
tax, service tax, customs duty, excise duty,
• The Goods and Services Tax (GST) was VAT etc. will not exist.
first implemented in France. • The biggest reason behind the
• India's GST is based on the Canadian implementation of the GST is to bring
model. uniformity in the tax system of the country.

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• After the implementation of GST, regarding the levy and collection of

tradition of 'Tax upon Tax' will be customs, central excise duties and service
eliminated. tax.
CBIC: Post GST implementation, the CBEC
GST has three components:
has been renamed as the Central Board of
• CGST: Stands for Central Goods and Indirect Taxes & Customs (CBIC). The main
Services Act. The central government role of CBIC is assisting the government in
collects this tax on an intrastate supply of policy-making matters related to GST.
goods or services.
• SGST: Stands for State Goods and
Services Tax. The state government UNITS & MEASUREMENTS
collects this tax on an intrastate supply of
goods or services. Physical Quantities
• IGST: Stands for Integrated Goods and Anything which can be expressed in
Services Tax. The central government numbers is called quantity. Different
collects this for inter-state sale of goods or
events in nature take place in accordance
services.
with some basic laws. We need some
Chelliah Committee on Tax Reforms quantities known as physical quantities for
(1991) revealing these laws of nature from the
• He is known as the father of Indian Tax observed events.e.g., length, mass,
Reforms. temperature, time, force, speed, distance,
• The committee recommended that for acceleration, velocity, momentum,
computing the capital gains tax from an current, etc.
asset, the value of asset should be indexed
Types of Physical Quantities
for inflation. The committee also
suggested conversion of existing MODVAT 1. On the basis of units and their
into a full-fledged VAT system Service measurement
Tax(1994)
Fundamental or Base Quantities
Important Bodies related to taxes The physical quantities which do not
The revenue authorities are bodies depend on other physical quantities are
dedicated for the smooth implementation known as fundamental (or base) physical
of the Indian tax system. quantities,[Link], mass, electric
CBDT: The Central Board of Direct Taxes is
current, time, temperature, luminous
a part of the revenue department under
intensity, amount of substance,etc.
the Ministry of Finance. It has a two-fold
role. One, it provides important ideas and Derived Quantities
inputs for planning and policy about direct All the physical quantities which are not
tax in India. Second, it assists the Income the fundamental physical quantities but
Tax department in the administration of are derived from it are known as derived
direct taxes.
physical quantities. [Link], force,
CBEC: The Central Board of Excise and
pressure, area, volume, energy, etc.
Customs deals with policy formulation

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Supplementary Quantities physical quantity and are independent of

Physical quantities which ar neither each other.
fundamental nor derived are called
Derived Units
supplementary quantities. These are plane
The units of all other physical quantities
angles and solid angles.
except fundamental physical quantities
2. On the basis of direction and their which are obtained with the help of
magnitude fundamental units are called derived units.
[Link] of area, volume, density, speed,
Scalar Quantity
power, work, force, energy, acceleration,
A physical quantity which has only its
momentum, etc.
magnitude, but no direction is called a
scalar quantity. e.g., distance, energy, Supplementary Units
power, time, speed, volume, density The units used for the supplementary
pressure, work, charge, electric current, quantities are known as supplementary
temperature, specific heat, frequency units. [Link] of plane angle and solid
mass, etc. angle

Vector Quantity System of Units

A physical quantity which has both A complete set of units having both the
magnitude as well as direction is called a base units and derived units is known as
vector quantity. e.g. displacement, the system of units. The common systems
velocity, torque, position, of units are
acceleration,force, weight, momentum,
MKS System (Metre- Kilogram-Second)
impulse, electric field, magnetic field,
In this system, the units of length, mass
current density angular velocity, etc.
and time are respectively metre, kilogram
Units and second.
To measure a physical quantity, a standard
CGS System (Centimetre-Gram-Second)
value of the same physical quantity is used,
In this system, the units of length, mass
which indicates that, how many times the
and time are respectively centimetre, gram
standard physical quantity is used to
and second. It is also called Gaussian
measure the whole physical quantity. This
system.
standard value of the physical quantity is
The MKS and CGS system are called metric
known as its unit and when any given
or decimal systems.
quantity is measured in the term of this
unit, the process is called measurement. FPS System (Foot-Pound-Second)
Fundamental Units or Base Units In this system, the units of length are
respectively foot, pound and second. It is
The units of fundamental physical
also called the British system.
quantities are called fundamental units.
There are seven fundamental units, SI System (International System of Units)
[Link], kilogram, second, ampere, The SI system was adopted and accepted in
kelvin, candela and [Link] units are the International Conference of Weights
used as standards for the concerned and Measures held at Geneva in 1960, on

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basis of comprehensive consensus. The SI Newton

system is an extended and modified form Viscosity second per N.s.m-2
of MKS system. square metre
Watt per
Thermal metre per Wm-1c-
S . I . UN IT S O F PH Y SI C A L conductivity degree 1

Q UA N T IT Y Celsius
Joule per
Specific heat
kilogram per Jkg-1K-1
capacity
Quantity SI Unit symbol Kelvin
Length Metre M Electric
Coulomb C
charge
Mass Kilogram Kg
Potential
Time Second s Volt V
difference
Work and Electric
Joule J Ohm Ω
energy resistance
Electric Electrical
Ampere A Farad F
current capacity
Temperature Kelvin K Magnetic
Henry H
Intensity of induction
Candela Cd
flame Magnetic flux Weber Wb
Angle Radian Rad Luminous flux
Solid angle Steradian Sr or
Lumen Lm
photometric
Force Newton N power
Area Square metre m2 Intensity of
Lux Cd
illumination
Volume Cubic metre m3
Wavelength Angstrom Å
Metre per
Speed ms-1 Astronomical
second Light year Au
Radian per distance
Angle velocity rad s-1
second
Frequency Hertz Hz MOTION
Moment of Kilogram
Kgm-2
inertia square metre
Kilogram The state of an object or a person when it
Momentum metre per Kgms-1 changes its position with respect to its
second surroundings in a given time is called
Newton motion. This change in motion can be
Impulse Ns
second unidirectional, multidirectional, a circular
Kilogram trajectory or any random zig -zag path.
Angular Kgm2s-
square metre 1
momentum
per second Motion
Pressure Pascal Pa If an object changes its position with
Power Watt W respect to its in a given time, then it is said
Surface Newton per to be in motion. e.g. a fish swimming in
Nm-1
tension metre water, a car or a bus moving on a road, a

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train moving on the track, a bird flying in Some Basic Terms Related to Motion
air, etc. The various terms required to describe
Rest and motion are relative terms, i.e. an motion are,
object in one situation can be at rest but in
Reference Point
other situation, the same object can be in
motion. e.g. if two cars are going side by A fixed point or a fixed object with respect
side with the same velocity, then with to which the given body changes its
respect to each other, they are in a state of position is known as a reference point or
rest, but with respect to the trees and origin.
persons going on the road, they are in a An object is said to be in motion, if its
state of motion. position changes continuously with respect
Types of Motion of a Body to a fixed reference.
Generally, the motion of a body can be of Position
the following three types: It is the point in space where an object is
Rectilinear and Translatory Motion present with respect to the reference
The motion in which a particle moves along point.
a straight line is called rectilinear motion. If
Distance
a body (or a particle) moves along a
The distance travelled by a body is the
straight line, then the motion is called
translatory motion. e.g. Motion of a sliding actual length of the path covered by a
body on an inclined plane. moving body irrespective of the direction
in which the body travels. It is a scalar
Circular and Rotatory Motion
quantity. Its SI unit is metre.
The motion in which a particle moves along
Odometer is a device used to measure the
a circular path is called circular motion. e.g.
distance travelled by the vehicle.
A string whirled in a circular loop. If a body
Distance can never be negative.
rotates about a line (axis) passing through
it, then the motion is called rotatory Path Length
motion or rotational motion. e.g. Motion It is the length of the curve joining the
of a fan. initial and final positions along which the
Oscillatory and Vibratory Motion particle has actually moved.
The motion in which a body moves to-and- Its SI unit is metre.
fro or back and forth repeatedly about a
Speed
fixed point is called oscillatory motion (the
The time rate of change of position of the
extent to which the body moves on either
object in any direction is called the speed
side of the fixed point is called the
amplitude). If in oscillatory motion, the of the object.
amplitude is very small, then the motion is Speed = Distance Travelled/Time Taken
said to be vibratory motion. e.g. Simple It is a scalar quantity.
pendulum Its SI unit is m/s and its dimensional
formula is [LT-1].

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For a moving body, speed is always positive Displacement = AC

and can never be negative or zero.
Types of speed Velocity
Uniform speed or constant speed The rate of change of displacement of an
Equal distance is covered in equal intervals object/person per unit time is called
of time. velocity.
Its unit is m/sec.
Non uniform speed or variable speed It is a vector quantity.
Unequal distance is covered in equal Its dimensional formula is LT-1.
intervals of time. Velocity of any object can be positive,
Average speed negative or zero.

Average speed = Total distance covered/ Types of velocity

Total time taken to cover that distance Uniform velocity or constant velocity
Instantaneous speed Equal displacement covered in equal
Speed of an object at any instant of time. intervals of time.

Displacement Non uniform velocity or variable velocity

The shortest distance covered by an object Unequal displacement covered in equal

intervals of time.
is called displacement.
Average velocity
It is a vector quantity.
Average velocity = Total
Its SI unit is metre. displacement/Total time
Magnitude of displacement for a course of If the velocity of an object changes at a
motion may be zero when the uniform rate, then
corresponding distance covered is not 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
zero. 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 + 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
=
Displacement of an object can be positive 2
or negative. Relative Velocity
Displacement ≤ Distance The relative velocity of one object with
respect to another object is the velocity
e.g. 5 m north or 7 m south
with which one object moves with respect
to another object. Hence, relative velocity
is defined as the rate of change of relative
position of one object with respect to
another.
Vab= Va – Vb (If objects are
moving in the same direction)
Vab = Va + Vb (If objects are
moving in opposite direction)

Distance = AB + BC

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Acceleration Displacement - time graphs under various

The rate of change of velocity per unit of conditions:
time is called as acceleration. Case 1: Object at rest
Its unit is m/sec2.
It is a vector quantity.
Types of acceleration

Uniform Acceleration or Constant

Acceleration
If the velocity changes uniformly at equal
intervals of time, then the acceleration is
said to be uniform.
Case 2: Object moving with uniform
Non uniform Acceleration or Variable
positive acceleration
Acceleration
If the velocity of the in particle does not
change equally in equal intervals of time,
then the acceleration is said to be non
uniform acceleration.

Average Acceleration
When an object is moving with a variable
acceleration, then the average
Case 3: Object moving with negative
acceleration of the object for the given
acceleration
motion is defined as the ratio of the total
change in velocity of the object during that
motion to the total time.
The average acceleration can be positive or
negative depending upon the sign of
change of velocity.

Instantaneous acceleration
Acceleration of an object at any instant of
time during motion is called instantaneous Velocity - time graphs under various
acceleration. conditions:

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Case 1: Object moving with constant Free Falling Objects

velocity (zero acceleration) The objects falling towards the earth under
the influence of gravitational force are
called freely falling objects and such fall is
called a free fall.
Three equations of free fall of an object
near the surface of earth are,
v = u + gt
v2 = u2 + 2gh
𝟏
h = ut + 𝟐 gt2
Case 2: Object moving with constant
positive acceleration Projectile Motion
When an object is thrown obliquely near
the earth’s surface, its motion on a
parabolic path is known as peojectile
motion and path followed by the object is
called trajectory.
A projectile is any object that once
projected or dropped continues in motion
by its own inertia and is influenced only by
the downward force of gravity.
Case 3: Object moving with negative
acceleration

Total Time of Flight(t) = (2u sin𝜃)/g

Horizontal Range R = (u2sin2𝜃)/g
Maximum Height Hmax = (u2sin2𝜃)/2g
Equations of motion
When an object moves on a straight line Circular Motion
with uniform acceleration, three equations The motion in which a particle moves along
of motion are observed which establishes a circular path is called circular motion.
the relation between velocity, When a particle moves on a circular path
acceleration, distance covered and time with a constant speed, then its motion is
taken. said to be a uniform circular motion in a
v= u + at plane.
v2 = u2 + 2as In this motion, velocity of the particle
𝟏
s= ut + 𝟐 at2 changes continuously (due to change in
direction of the particle ). That is, there is
an acceleration in circular motion whose

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magnitude remains constant, but direction It always acts on the particle along the
changes continuously. radius.

Time Period Inertia

The time taken by the particle to complete The property of an object to resist any
one revolution on a circular path is called change in its state of motion along a
time period.
straight line or rest is called inertia. There
It is denoted by ‘T’ and its unit is second.
are three types of inertia:
Frequency
The frequency is defined as the number of • Inertia of Rest
revolutions completed by the object on its If an object resists the change in its state of
circular path in a unit time. rest, its inertia is called inertia of rest.
It is denoted by ‘n’ and its unit is s-1 or • Inertia of Motion
Hertz. If an object resists the change in its state of
motion, its inertia is called inertia of
Angular Displacement motion.
The angular displacement of the object in a • Inertia of Direction
given time, moving around a circular path If an object resists the change in direction
is defined as the angle swept by the radius of its motion, its inertia is called inertia of
of the circular path in the given time. direction.
It is denoted by 𝜃 and its unit is radian.
Arc Newton's Laws of Motion
Angular Displacement = Radius
Laws of motion were propounded by Sir
Angular Velocity Isaac Newton in 1687, in his book The
The angular velocity of an object moving Principia: Mathematical Principles of
around a circular path is defined as the rate Natural Philosophy. There are three laws of
of time of change of its angular motion,
displacement. Its direction is normal to the Newton’s First law of motion
plane of the circle. Every object retains its state of rest or
It is denoted by ω and its unit is motion along a straight line until an
radian/second. external force is applied on it. This law is
also known as law of inertia.
Angular Acceleration
The angular acceleration of an object is Momentum
defined as the time rate of change of its Momentum can be defined as the ‘mass in
angular velocity. motion’. All objects have mass, so if an
It is denoted by α and its unit is radian/sec2. object is moving, then it has momentum.
i.e. it has its mass in motion. The amount
Centripetal Acceleration of momentum that an object possess is
Acceleration acting on the particle dependent upon two variables: how much
undergoing a uniform circular motion stuff is moving and how fast the stuff is
towards the centre of the circle is called moving. Momentum depends upon the
centripetal acceleration. variables mass and velocity. In terms of an
equation, the momentum of an object is

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equal to the product of mass and velocity Case I : When the lift is at rest
of the object. When the left or elevator is at rest, then
P = m×v the apparent weight of the person is equal
Its SI unit is kg.m/sec. to the actual weight of the person.
It is a vector quantity. Case II : When the lift is moving uniformly
in the upward/downward direction
Law of conservation of momentum
In uniform motion, the apparent weight of
If no external force acts upon a system of
the person is equal to the actual weight of
two or more bodies, then the total
the person.
momentum of the system remains
Case III : When the lift is accelerating
constant. This is called the law of
upwards
conservation of momentum.
If the lift is accelerating upwards, then the
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
apparent weight of the person is more
Newton’s Second law of motion
than the actual weight of the person.
Rate of change of momentum of an object
Case IV : When the lift is accelerating
is proportional to the applied unbalanced downwards
force in the direction of the force. If the lift is accelerating downwards, then
the apparent weight of the person is less
This law gives the relation between force,
than the actual weight of the person.
mass and acceleration as,
Case V : When the lift is in a free fall
F = ma
If the chord of the lift breaks, then it is said
Newton’s Third law of motion
to be in a state of free fall. In this case, the
For every action, there is an equal and
apparent weight of the person becomes
opposite reaction, and both act on two
zero, i.e. the person feels the condition of
different bodies.
weightlessness.
Impulse
Friction
If a large force is acting on a body for a very
When a body slides or rolls over another
short period of time, then the product of
body or on a surface, then a force opposing
this large force and time is known as
the motion acts between those surfaces of
impulse and the large force itself is called
the body which are in contact and this
an impulsive force.
force is called frictional force.
Impulse = change in momentum = Force ×
time Work

Apparent Weight of a Person in a lift • Work is said to be done when a force

produces displacement of a body.
Suppose a person of mass ‘m’ is in a lift,
then the actual weight of the person is • The amount of work done by a force is
‘mg’, which acts on the lift floor in the equal to the product of the force and the
downward direction, due to which the displacement of the point of application of
floor offers the reaction (R). This reaction is the force in the direction of force.
called apparent weight of the person. Work = force × displacement
Relation between R and mg in different • If there is no motion produced in the
situations is discussed below in different body even if a force acts on it, then the
cases:

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work done is said to be zero, i.e. no work is dyne displaces a body through 1 cm in its
done. own direction.
• If a force ‘F’ is acting on a body and it Power
displaces the body such that the • Power is the rate of doing work. It is
displacement is at an angle θ to the measured as the amount of work done in
direction of force, then one second.
Work done (W)= F × d × cos θ Power (P) = work done / time taken
If the displacement is in the direction of • Power is a scalar quantity.
force, i.e. θ = 0°, then cos 0° = 1.
Work done W= F × d • The SI unit of power is watt (W). If 1
In this case, the work done is maximum joule of work is done in 1 second, the
and positive. power is said to be 1 watt, i.e.
If the displacement is normal to the 1W = 1 Js-1
direction of force, i.e θ = 90°, then cos 90° • The MKS unit of power is kg m2sec-1 and
=0 its CGS unit is erg-1.
Work done = 0
• Horsepower is another unit of power
If the force and the displacement are in the
which is largely used in mechanical
opposite direction, then the angle
engineering.
between the force and the displacement is
180°. 1 Horse Power = 746 Watt and 1 Donkey
Cosθ = cos180° = −1 power = 250 Watt
In this case, the work done is negative. Energy
• Work done by the force of gravity is W = • The energy of a body is its capacity to do
mgh, where m = mass of the body, g = work. It is a scalar quantity.
acceleration due to gravity and h = height • The SI unit of energy is joule and its CGS
of the body from the earth’s surface unit is erg. The bigger units of energy are
• The work done by the force of gravity is watthour (Wh) and kilowatt-hour (kW).
the same whether a person comes down • Heat energy is usually measured in
from a certain height using a staircase or calorie (cal) or kilocalorie (kcal). 1 calorie is
he comes down from the same height the energy required for raising the
using a lift. temperature of 1 g of water through 1°C.
• Work is a scalar quantity. • The energy of atomic particles being
• The SI unit of work is joule (J). 1 joule of very small is measured in electron volt (eV)
work is said to be done when a force of 1 1eV = 1.6 × 10-19 J
newton displaces a body through 1 metre
in its own direction. • The energy possessed by a body due to
its state of rest or of uniform motion is
• The MKS unit of work is kg m2 s2. called mechanical energy. Potential energy
• The CGS unit of work is erg. 1 erg of and kinetic energy are the two types of
work is said to be done when a force of 1 mechanical energy.

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• The energy possessed by a body by Or, v = sqrt(2gh)

virtue of its state of motion is called kinetic • When we stretch a spring or a rubber
energy. band, the stretched spring or the rubber
1
Kinetic Energy = 2mv2 band, possesses a kind of potential energy
called elastic potential energy.
• Relationship between kinetic energy
and momentum • Heat energy is that type of energy which
is released when something is burnt.
p2
K= 2m The energy possessed by fuels like gas, oil,
etc. is called chemical energy.
Depending upon the type of motion,
• Electromagnetic radiations coming from
kinetic energy is of three types:
light in the visible spectrum is called light
• The energy possessed by a body moving energy.
in a straight line is called translational
• The energy possessed by a vibrating
kinetic energy.
body is called sound energy.
• The energy possessed by a body due to
• The energy possessed by a magnet is
its rotation about an axis is called
called magnetic energy.
rotational kinetic energy.
• The energy produced when two dry
• The energy possessed by a body due to
objects are rubbed together is called
its vibrations or motion, is called
electrical energy.
vibrational kinetic energy.
• The energy stored in the nucleus of an
• Work-energy theorem states that the
atom is called nuclear energy.
work done by a force is equal to the
increase in its kinetic energy, i.e. • The energy released in nuclear
Work done = Increase in kinetic energy disintegrations in the interior of earth gets
stored deep inside the earth and is called
• The energy possessed by a body by geothermal energy.
virtue of its position or configuration is
called potential energy. • Energy generated from flowing water is
called hydroelectricity.
• Gravitational potential energy is the
amount of work done in lifting a body to a • The energy produced by tides, i.e.
height against the force of gravity. If a periodic rise or fall of ocean water is called
given mass ‘m’ is raised to a specific height tidal energy.
‘h’, its gravitational potential energy is • Law of conservation of energy states
given by that energy can neither be created nor
U = mgh destroyed. It only changes from one form
to another.
• The gravitational potential energy of a
body on the surface of earth is zero.
G RAVIT AT ION
According to law of conservation of
mechanical energy,
Every massive body attracts each other by
• Potential energy = Kinetic Energy virtue of their masses. This phenomenon is

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called gravitation. and its SI unit is kg.

Mass of a body does not change from place
Newton’s law of Gravitation
to place.
The gravitational force of attraction
The weight of the body is the force with
between two bodies is directly
which it is attracted towards the centre of
proportional to the product of their
the earth and it is given by w = mg.
masses and inversely proportional to the
Weight of the body is a vector quantity and
square of distance between them.
its unit is Newton.
Gravitational force (F) =Gm1m2/ r 2 The centre of gravity of a body is that point
Where G is the gravitational constant at which the wholeweight of the body
whose value is 6.67×10-11 Nm2kg-2. appears to act.
m1, m2 are the masses of two bodies and r The weight of the body is a variable
is the distance between them. quantity and it changes from place to
Gravitational force is a central as well as place.
conservative force. The weight of a body in a lift
Acceleration Due to Gravity of Earth When the lift is at rest or in uniform
• The acceleration produced in a body motion,then the apparent weight is equal
due to the gravitational pull of the earth to the real weight of the body, w=mg.
is called acceleration due to gravity. When the lift is accelerating upwards, then
the apparent weight is greater than the
g =GM/R2
real weight of the body, i.e.
where M is the mass of earth and R is the w = m(g+a)
radius of the earth. When the lift is accelerating downwards,
• The value of ‘g’ changes slightly from then the apparent weight of the body is
place to place but its value near the earth’s less than the real weight of the body. i.e. w
surface is [Link] force is the = m(g-a).
weakest force in nature. When the lift is falling freely under gravity,
the apparent weight of the body is zero. i.e.
Conditions affecting the value of g: w = m(g-g) as a = g, w = 0.
a) Rotation of earth on its axis The weight of the body on the moon is
lesser than the weight of the body on earth
g decreases if the angular speed of earth
as the acceleration due to gravity at the
decreases.
moon is less than the acceleration due to
Effect of Altitude gravity on earth.
The value of g decreases with increase in Note: Acceleration due to gravity on earth
height is 6 times that of the moon.

Effect of depth Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

The value of g decreases with depth and Kepler gives three laws which are as
becomes zero at the centre of earth. follows:
• All planets revolve around the sun in
Mass and Weight
elliptical orbits with the sun at its focus.
The mass of a body is the quantity of
matter contained in it. It is a scalar quantity

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• The real speed of planets around the Period of revolution of a satellite depends
sun is constant. upon the height of the satellite from the
surface of the earth. Greater its height
• The square of the time period of
from the earth’s surface, more will be its
revolution of a planet around the sun is
period of revolution
directly proportional to the cube of the
Period of revolution is independent of its
semi-major axis of its elliptical orbit.
mass.

Escape velocity
SATELLITE
The minimum velocity with which when an
object is thrown vertically upwards from
An object (natural/artificial) revolving
the earth’s surface just crosses the earth’s
around a planet in an orbit is called a
gravitational field and never returns.
satellite. Moon is the natural satellite of
It can be expressed as escape velocity
the earth.
= ( 2gr)1/2
There are two types of artificial satellites:
When orbital speed is increased by 41% i.e.
Geosynchronous Satellite √2, then it will escape from its orbit.
A geosynchronous satellite is a satellite in Its value on earth surface is 11.2 km/sec.
geosynchronous orbit, with an orbital Escape velocity at the moon’s surface is 2.4
period the same as the Earth's rotation km/sec.
period. Orbital or Critical velocity
A special case of the geosynchronous
It is the velocity required to place the
satellite is the geostationary satellite,
satellite into a circular orbit around the
which has a geostationary orbit – a circular
earth.
geosynchronous orbit directly above the
Orbital velocity of a satellite, when it is
Earth's equator. revolving around the earth of mass M,
They revolve around the earth at the radius R, at a height h is
height of 36000 km. 𝑔𝑚
𝑉𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 = √
Their period of rotation is the same as the 𝑟
earth’s time period of rotation around its Time Period of a satellite
own axis,i.e. 24 hours.
Time taken by a satellite to complete one
These satellites appear to be stationary.
revolution around the earth is called time
The geostationary satellite is used to
period of a satellite.
telecast TV programs, weather forecasting,
Physical Re1ation
predict floods and droughts. Variation
quantities with r
Polar Satellite
Orbital
These satellites revolve around the earth in Decreases V ∝ r-1/2
velocity
polar orbits at a height of around 800 km.
Period Increases T ∝ r3/2
The time period of rotation of these
Linear
satellites is 84 minutes. Decreases P ∝ r1/2
momentum
Period of revolution of a satellite Angular
Increases L ∝ r1/2
Period of revolution = circumference of momentum
orbit/ orbital speed Kinetic energy Decreases KE ∝ r-1

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Potential object on its resting surface is

Increases PE ∝- r-1
energy called gram force. It is represented by g wt
Total energy Increases TE ∝- r-1 (or) gf respectively.
1gf = 980 dyne

PRESSURE Units
CGS units: dyne/cm2 or [Link]/cm2
THRUST SI units: N/m2 or [Link]/m2
All bodies have a certain weight and a Note:
certain base area. When a body rests on a The SI unit N/m2 is also known as Pascal. It
surface, it exerts a force equal to its weight,
is denoted by ‘Pa’.
normal to its surface.
This force is called thrust. The other units of pressure are bar, torr,
Thrust is the total force or total weight cm of Hg and mm of Hg.
acting normal to the surface. 1 atm = 105 Pascal = 105 N/m2
Weight of the body is the product of mass = 106 dyne /cm2 = 76 cm of Hg
and acceleration due to gravity = 760 mm of Hg = 760 torr
i.e.W = mg (where ‘g’ is the acceleration Pressure on a body can be exerted from
due to gravity) any direction. Hence, it has a no particular
Thrust (T) = weight of the body = mg direction and is considered as a scalar
The value of acceleration due to gravity (g) quantity.
is 9.8 ms-2 in SI system and 980 cm s2 in Applications of Pressure
CGS system. This is considered to be Design of wheels of different vehicles
constant on the earth’s surface.
Depending on the requirement, wheels of
Since thrust is defined as the total force or
different vehicles are designed
weight, its units are the same as force and
accordingly. Two illustrations are cited
weight.
here,
Unit System Absolute Gravitational
of of units units Double wheel at the rear end
thrust units In general, the weight (force) is more at the
SI Newton [Link] (or) rear end of the trucks, buses etc. This
kgf results in the development of greater
CGS Dyne [Link]. (or) gf pressure between the tyres and the road.
Kilogram-weight (or) kilogram-force If the pressure is more, the rate of damage
is more and it may lead to accidents.
The weight of one-kilogram object is called
Decreasing the force (weight) is practically
kilogram weight (or) the force exerted by
not feasible, but the pressure can be
one-kilogram body on its
decreased by increasing the area of
resting surface is called kilogram-force It is
contact between the tyres and the road.
represented by kg wt (or) kgf.
This is done by using double tyres in the
1kgf = 9.8 N
case of lorries and buses.
Gram-weight (or) Gram-force
Broad chains for tankers
Weight of one gram object is called gram
Army tankers are much heavier than
weight (or) the force exerted by one gram

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ordinary vehicles. wide so that they exert less pressure on the

If they are provided with tyres, they cannot ground and do not sink in due to the
withstand the weight of the tanker and extremely high pressure of the building.
may result in the bursting of tyres. FLUID PRESSURE
In addition to this, the tankers have to A substance which flows from one point to
move through deserts, forests and hill another is called fluid. Since liquids and
places. gases can flow, they are known as fluids.
To satisfy all these conditions and make the
A fluid exerts three types of pressure:
usage of tankers effective, wheels are
designed with broad chains. • Downward Pressure
These broad chains occupy more area than • Upward Pressure
• Lateral Pressure
the tyres, thereby exerting less pressure on
the ground. This enables easy movement. Downward Pressure of Water:
This is done by using double tyres in the Consider a vessel (V) containing some
case of lorries and buses. water of weight (W), say 500 g. Let the area
of its base (A) be 100 cm2. Then the weight
Easy walking of camels in deserts
of water (W) is the thrust acting on the
Animals like camels walk easily in deserts
base of area 100 cm2. This shows that
as compared to horses or donkeys because
they have broad feet. liquids exert downward pressure.
Broad feet exert less pressure on sandy Lateral Pressure of Water:
ground.
Take a long cylindrical vessel containing
Usage of flat and long skies to slide: water and punch a hole (H) on its wall as
The skiers use flat and long skies to slide on No figure is [Link] water comes out
the snow because the larger the area of with a speed and falls at distance. This
cross-section, the lesser is the pressure on
proves that liquid has lateral pressure.
the snow.
Hence, a skier can easily slide over snow Upward Pressure of Water:
without sinking his feet in the ground. Take a football and immerse it in water in
It is for the same reason that sledges are
a vessel (V) and leave it. The ball
never provided with wheels because the
immediately comes up and floats on water.
wheels increase pressure on snow.
This shows that water (or fluid) exerts
Sharpening of cutting edge of knives,
pressure in the upward direction.
blades and axes
The cutting edge of knives, blades and axes Hydrometer
are sharpened. As the cutting edge is A direct-reading instrument used for
sharpened, the area of contact measuring the density or relative density
decreases and hence pressure exerted by it
of a liquid is called hydrometer.
increases. Thus, they can easily penetrate
a given surface. Principle of hydrometer

Wide foundations for high-rise buildings Hydrometer is based on the principle of

Foundations of high-rise buildings are kept floatation, [Link] weight of the liquid

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displaced by the immersed portion of the A ship weighing several tons floats while a
hydrometer is equal to the weight of the needle sinks in water. This can be
hydrometer. explained from the fact that the ship is
Hydrometer is a glass instrument. It made up of iron and steel, but it has a lot
consists of a cylindrical bulb having a of space filled with air. This causes the ship
spherical bulb at its lower end and a long to displace water with a weight equal to
stem (narrow tube) at its upper end. the weight of the ship. On the other hand,
the needle displaces more water than its
The lower spherical bulb is partially filled
weight and hence it sinks.
with lead shots. This helps the hydrometer
to float (or stand) vertical in liquids. The Archimedes Principle
stem has markings so that relative density When a body is immersed partly or wholly
of a liquid can be read off directly. The in a liquid, there is an apparent loss in the
hydrometer is placed in the liquid taken in weight of the body which is equal to the
a glass jar. The reading against the level of weight of liquid displaced by the body.
liquid gives the relative density of the Object weighs less than the fluid it
liquid. displaces

FLOATA TION

Floatation depends upon density. If an

object has density less than the density of
water, it floats. The principle of floatation
is stated by Archimedes
Archimedes, the ancient Greek scientist Object sinks
first stated the principle of floatation. Object weighs more than the fluid it
According to him, all the objects placed in displaces
a liquid experience an upward force which
allows the body to float if it displaces water
with a weight equal to the weight of the
body. This upward force is known as
buoyant force and the law is known as the
law of buoyancy. Floatation mainly
depends upon [Link] an object has a
density less than the density of water, it
floats. E.g. The leaf of a plant floats on
water because, the density of leaf is less
than the density of water.A stone thrown
in water sinks because, the density of stone
is more than the density of water.

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• Purity of milk is measured by

lactometer.

SURFA CE TENSION

The surface tension of a liquid is a force

that mainly acts to reduce the surface area
of a liquid. The directed contracting force
which attracts the molecules at the surface
of a liquid towards the interior of the liquid
Laws of Floatation is surface tension. The surface tension of
• A body floats in a liquid if, liquids has many important roles in daily
life and also various industrial processes.
• Density of the material of the body is
less than or equal to the density of the Molecular Perspective
liquid. There are mainly two types of molecules–
• If the density of the material of the body interior type and the exterior type
is equal to the density of liquid, the body Molecules that are on the outside are
floats fully submerged in liquid in neutral exterior type molecules and molecules that
equilibrium. are on the inside are interior type
molecules. The energy state of the interior
• When a body floats in neutral
molecules is lower than the exterior
equilibrium, the weight of the body is
molecules because the interior molecules
equal to the weight of displaced liquid.
are attracted to all the surrounding
• The centre of gravity of the body and molecules, but the exterior molecules are
centre of gravity of the displaced liquid attracted to only the other surface
should be in one vertical line. molecules and those molecules that are
Density is mass per unit volume. Its SI unit below the surface. Because of this reason,
is kg/m3 and relative density is the density molecules always try to maintain a lower
of material per density of water at four surface area which allows more molecules
degree Celsius. Relative density is to have a lower energy state.
measured by Hydrometer. In the case of water, the water molecules
attract each other because of their
• The density of sea water is more than
opposite charge. Hydrogen is positive and
that of normal water. That is why it is
oxygen is negative, so they attract each
easier to swim in sea water.
other and stick together. This is the reason
• When ice floats in water, its 1/10th the there is surface tension and it needs
part remain outside the water. certain energy to break the bonds between
• If ice floating in water in a vessel melts, the molecules. Water is a liquid which has
the level of water in the vessel does not very high surface tension. Because of this
change. very high surface tension, many things can
float on the water whose density is less
than water.

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The unit of surface tension is Newton per Applications of Surface Tension

metre (SI unit) and Dyn/cm (CGS unit). Surface tension has a huge role in daily life,
Surface tension of a liquid decreases with health and many industrial processes.
the increase of temperature and becomes There are so many techniques that have
zero at critical temperature. been developed to modify surface tension.
1. Daily life examples
Capillary Action
• Small insects such as the water strider
There are two types of forces – adhesive
can walk on the surface of the water
force and cohesive force. The
because their weight is very less and so
intermolecular force which acts in
they can’t penetrate the water.
between the molecules is known as a
cohesive force. Now when a liquid is in • Disinfectants are mainly the solution of
contact with a surface, then there is an low surface tension so that when we use
attraction between molecules of the liquid them in the field, they can float on the
and the surface, these forces are called as water and spread out on the cells to
adhesive forces. destroy them.
Now consider a very small diameter tube • Soaps and detergents also work on the
open at both ends is inserted into a liquid. basis of surface tension. They lower the
Here we can see the results of adhesive surface tension of the water so that the
and cohesive force. When the capillary soaps and detergents easily soak into the
tube is inserted into the water, the pores and holes.
adhesive forces are stronger than the • The water bubbles are round because
cohesive forces. So, in this case, water the surface tension of water provides the
molecules are attracted more strongly to tension to form the bubble with the water
the glass than to each other. So as a result, and the surface tension minimises the
the water surface rises due to the high bubble into spherical shapes.
surface tension of water and the water • A small needle can be floated on the
wets the glass surface. This is capillary surface of the water.
action. • As the surface of the leaf is waxy, the
Now if we use mercury instead of water water adheres weakly to wax and strongly
and then insert a capillary in it, we can see to itself hence forming clusters into drops.
that the mercury surface curves downward The surface tension of water gives them
against the glass. This is because the spherical shapes.
cohesive force is stronger than the • Objects which are less dense than water
adhesive force here. The mercury can float on the surface of the water. The
molecules are attracted more to each water striders use the surface tension of
other than they are attracted to the the water to walk on the surface of the
molecules of a glass surface. So when a water.
capillary tube is inserted in mercury, • The raindrops are spherical because of
mercury falls in the glass capillary due to the cohesive forces between the rainwater
the surface tension. Also, mercury does not molecules and the surface tension of the
wet the glass. water molecules.
• The surface tension of water is zero at
boiling temperature.

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• Oil spreads over the surface of the Viscosity in liquid is much greater in
water mainly because the surface tension comparison to gases and an ideal liquid has
of oil is less than the surface tension of zero viscosity.
water. There is no viscosity in solids.
Viscosity of a liquid decreases with the rise
2. Role of surface tension on human
in temperature.
health
Viscosity of gases increases with the rise in
Surface tension changes in biological
temperature.
phenomena can determine various
Viscosity is measured by its coefficient of
diseases in the human body.
viscosity and its SI unit is decapoise or
3. Industrial applications pascal second.
Surface tension is an important factor in The SI unit of viscosity is newton-second
industrial processes. In all the industrial per square metre (N s m-2) or pascal-
plants, the R&D departments use the second (Pa s.) The dimensional formula of
surface tension phenomena to improve viscosity is [ML-1T-1].
the quality of the products. Many Viscosity –Types
operations are used to improve the quality
Viscosity is the measure of fluid’s friction to
of the product such as detergent
its flow. There are two ways to measure
formulations. By the use of detergent
the fluid’s viscosity as follows:
formulations, we can improve the cleaning
Dynamic Viscosity (Absolute Viscosity)
properties with more biological surfactants
Kinematic Viscosity
at a lower temperature.
Dynamic
Surface tension is also important for the Kinematic Viscosity
Viscosity
characterisation of food, pharmaceutical
and packaging products. This is defined as
This is defined as
the diffusivity of
absolute
momentum. To be
V ISCOSITY precise, it explains
viscosity. It gives
more information
how fast the liquid
about the force
The force by virtue of which the relative is moving when a
required to make
motion between different layers of liquid certain amount of
the liquid flow at
or gases is opposed is called viscous force external force is
a specific rate.
and this phenomenon is known as applied.
viscosity.
It represents the Dynamic viscosity
Viscosity is the property shown by both
inertia as well as the represents the
liquid and gases.
viscous force of the viscous force of
The viscosity of the liquid is due to the
fluid. the liquid.
cohesive force between its molecules.
The viscosity of a gas is due to the diffusion The symbol of The symbol of
of its molecules from one layer to the other kinematic viscosity dynamic viscosity
layer. is V. is μ.

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This represents the This represents That’s why in streamline flow, each particle
ratio between the ratio between follows the same path as followed by a
dynamic viscosities shear stress and previous particle passing through that
and density. shear strain. point.

Dynamic force is Critical Velocity

It is utilised when
utilised only The maximum velocity up to which fluid
inertia and viscous
when viscous motion is streamlined is called critical
force are dominant.
force is dominant. velocity.
The flow up to critical velocity is
Kinematic viscosity Dynamic viscosity
streamlined but above critical velocity, the
is a fundamental is a derived
flow is turbulent.
property. property.
If the velocity of flow is more than the
Unit of kinematic Unit of dynamic critical velocity, the rate of flow depends
viscosity is m2/s. viscosity is Ns/m2. on the density of the fluid and not on
viscosity. Due to this reason, on an
eruption of the volcano the lava coming
V ARIOUS TERMS RELA TED out of it flows very swiftly, although it is
TO V ISCOSITY very dense and has large viscosity.

Turbulent flow
Terminal Velocity When the speed of the moving fluid
When a body falls in a viscous solution, its exceeds the critical velocity, the motion
velocity increases at first and finally becomes turbulent. In this case, the
becomes constant and this constant velocity changes both in magnitude and
velocity is known as terminal velocity. direction from particle to particle and
The terminal velocity of a spherical body hence the individual particles do not move
falling in a viscous medium is proportional in a streamlined path.
to the square of the radius of the body.
Bernoulli’s Theorem
The radius of the spherical rain drop is very
According to Bernoulli’s theorem, in case
small, therefore their terminal velocity is
of streamline flow of incompressible and
also small with which they strike the
non-viscous fluid through a tube, total
earth’s surface.
energy (sum of pressure energy, potential
When a liquid flows through a pipe, its
energy and kinetic energy) per unit volume
speed is maximum near the axis and
of fluid is same at all points.
minimum near the walls of pipe.
1
𝑝 + 𝑝𝑔ℎ + ⍴𝑣 2
Streamline flow 2
Where, ⍴ = density
If a fluid is flowing in such a way that the
𝑣 = velocity
velocity of all the fluid particles reaching a
𝑔 = acceleration due to gravity
particular point is the same at all the time,
ℎ = elevation
then the flow of liquid is said to be a
𝑝 = pressure
streamline flow.

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Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids The materials that exhibit elasticity

Temperature and pressure affect the or get deformed are known as the elastic
viscosity of a fluid. The viscosity of liquids materials and the bodies that will not get
increases rapidly with an increase in deformed are known as rigid bodies. In
temperature. On increasing pressure, rigid bodies, the separation between its
viscosity of liquid molecules increases due constituent particles will not change. In
to the increase in resistance to the flow of nature, they are not perfectly elastic and
liquid. perfectly rigid. Whenever any deformation
If the viscosity does not change with
takes place in elastic bodies, its energy will
pressure, we describe it as being a
be stored in the form of elastic potential
Newtonian fluid. And, if the viscosity does
energy.
change as stress or temperature changes,
In nature, there are not any
we describe it as being a non-Newtonian
perfectly elastic or inelastic bodies. But
fluid. Water is an example of Newtonian
fluid and toothpaste is an example of non- there are elastic and partially elastic
Newtonian fluid. bodies. Perfectly elastic bodies refer to the
object which regains its original shape and
size after removing deforming forces,
ELASTICITY practically it is impossible to have perfectly
elastic bodies, all the objects will
Elasticity is a property of matter that eventually lose their original shape and size
explains the deformation of materials. after applying deforming forces.
Whenever a force is exerted on a solid, it
Elasticity
undergoes deformation. When an external
If a body regains its original shape and size
force is applied to a body, there will be a
after the removal of deforming force, it is
change in its length, volume and shape.
said to be elastic and the property is called
The change in parameters depends upon
elasticity. The force which changes the size
the ratio of applied stress to the resulting
or shape of a body is called a deforming
strain. When the external forces are
force.
removed from the body, it tends to regain
Examples: Rubber, metals, steel ropes, etc.
its original shape and size. Such a property
of a material by virtue of which the body Hooke’s Law
tends to regain its original shape, size as a The elastic behaviour of a solid is
result of removal of external forces is determined by the law of elasticity
known as the elasticity. represented by Hooke’s law. The law is
The property of matter by virtue of used to find the relation between the force
which the materials retain their original and distance of spring in various branches
shape and size after removing deforming of science and engineering.
forces is known as elasticity. The elasticity It was discovered by the English
is mainly due to the intermolecular forces scientist Robert Hooke and it states that
between the atoms or the molecules of the the force needed to extend or compress a
body, e.g. rubber, spring, etc. spring by some distance is proportional to

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that [Link]’s law holds comparison, enables a solid to return to its

importance where an elastic body is original shape after the load is removed.
deformed and by using it, the relation Plastic deformation is a property of
between strain and stress of complex ductile and malleable solids. Brittle
objects can be deduced.
materials such as cast iron cannot be
Stress
plastically deformed, though at elevated
When the body is deformed by the
temperatures some materials such as
application of external forces, forces within
the body are brought into action. Elastic glass, which is not a crystallised solid, do
bodies regain their original shape by virtue undergo plastic flow.
of internal restoring forces. The internal Steel is more elastic than rubber.
forces and external forces are always The young’s modulus is the ratio of stress
opposite in direction. If a force ‘F’is applied to strain. If the same force is applied to the
uniformly all over a surface of area ‘A’, wire of steel and rubber thread, which are
then the stress is defined as the force per
of equivalent length and cross-segment
unit area. The SI unit of stress is N/m2.
region, we will find that the expansion in
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = the elastic string is a lot more prominent
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Strain than augmentation in steel wire.
A body subjected to stress gets Subsequently, for a given pressure, the
deformed. The change in the dimension of strain created in steel is a lot less than that
a body produced by the external stress delivered in the rubber. This suggests
acting on it is called [Link] ratio of
young’s modulus for steel is more
change of any dimension to its original
prominent than that for rubber. Therefore,
dimension is called the strain. Since strain
steel is more elastic than rubber.
is the ratio of two identical dimensions, it
is a unitless quantity.

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 SIMPLE HA RMONIC
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
MOTION

PLASTICITY The object moves to and fro about a mean

position. The pendulum of a wall clock
If a body does not regain its original shape executes a similar motion. Examples of
and size after removal of the deforming such periodic to and fro motion are: a boat
tossing up and down in a river, the piston
force, it is said to be a plastic body and the
in a steam engine going back and forth, etc.
property is called plasticity.
Such a motion is termed oscillatory
Example: Glass motion.
It enables a solid under the action of
There is no significant difference between
external forces to undergo permanent oscillations and vibrations. It seems that
deformation without rupture. Elasticity, in when the frequency is small, we call it

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oscillation (the oscillation of a branch of a time. This quantity is called the frequency
tree), while when of the periodic motion. It is represented by
the symbol ν. The relation between ν and T
the frequency is high, we call it vibration
is
(the vibration of a string of a musical
1
instrument). 𝜈 =
𝑇
Simple harmonic motion is the simplest The unit ofν 𝜈 is thus s-1. After the
form of oscillatory motion. This motion discoverer of radio waves, Heinrich
arises when the force on the oscillating Rudolph Hertz (1857–1894), a special
body is directly proportional to its name has been given to the unit of
displacement from the mean position, frequency. It is called hertz (abbreviated as
which is also the equilibrium position. Hz). Thus,
Further, at any point in its oscillation, this 1 hertz = 1 Hz =1 oscillation per second =1
force is directed towards the mean s-1
position.

Period and Frequency

Any motion that repeats itself at regular C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S O F SH M
intervals of time is called periodic motion.
The smallest interval of time after which
When a particle executing SHM passes
the motion is repeated is called period.
through the mean position,:
For periodic motions, which are either too
fast or too slow on the scale of seconds, • No force acts on the particle.
other convenient units of time are used.
• Acceleration of the particle is zero.
The period of vibrations of a quartz crystal
is expressed in units of microseconds (10-6 • Velocity is maximum.
s) abbreviated as μs. On the other hand, • Kinetic energy is maximum.
the orbital period of the planet Mercury is
• Potential energy is zero.
88 earth days. Halley’s comet appears after
every 76 years. The reciprocal of T gives the When a particle executing SHM is at the
number of repetitions that occur per unit extreme end, then,

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1. Acceleration of the particle is maximum. If we place a small leaf on the water

surface, the leaf moves up and down about
2. Restoring force acting on the particle is
its original position but does not move
maximum.
away from or towards the source of
3. Velocity of the particle is zero. disturbance along with the waves. This
4. Kinetic energy of the particle is zero. shows that the disturbances move from
one place to another, but the water is not
5. Potential energy is maximum.
carried with it.
Simple Pendulum
If a point mass is suspended from a fixed
support with help of a massless and
inextensible string, the arrangement is
called simple pendulum. Practically a
simple pendulum is made by suspending a
small ball (called bob) from a fixed support
with the help of a light string.
If the bob of a simple pendulum is slightly
The water particles simply move up and
displaced from its mean position and then
down about their mean positions. The
released, it starts oscillating in simple formation of ripples on the surface of
harmonic motion. Time period of water is an example of wave motion. The
oscillation of a simple pendulum is given as material in which the wave motion is
produced called a medium. Water surface
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑚 is the medium of wave motion in the above
T = 2𝜋√𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
example.
Wave Motion
It is a motion where the energy or
disturbance is transferred from one point
to another in a medium, without the
transfer of particles of the medium.
Examples
1) Formation of ripples on the water
surface
In the above example, when the stone is
2) Propagation of sound waves through air thrown into the pond, the energy carried
or any other material medium by the stone disturbs the water molecules
Explanation of wave motion close to it. By gaining the energy from the
stone, the water molecules near the stone
If we drop a stone into a pond, we see
start vibrating up and down. These
circular water waves (ripples) spreading
vibrating water molecules transfer some of
out in all directions on the surface of the
the energy to the next set of water
water.
molecules which also start vibrating and so

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on. In this way, water wave is formed. We Amplitude (A)

can now say that, a wave motion is a The maximum displacement of the
vibratory disturbance produced in one part particles of a medium from their mean
of the medium that travels to another part positions during the propagation of a wave
involving the transfer of energy but not the is called amplitude of the wave. It is
transfer of any matter with it. The represented by the letter ‘A’.
disturbance itself is called a wave.
Here A is the amplitude of the wave.
Characteristics of wave motion The SI unit of amplitude is metre (m).
• In wave motion, the particles of the
Note: The amplitude of a wave is a
medium vibrate about their mean
measure of its energy. Thus, the greater
positions. The particles of the medium
the amplitude of a wave, the greater the
don’t move from one place to another.
energy carried by the wave.
• During a wave motion, energy is
Time period (T)
transferred from one point of the medium
to another. There is no transfer of matter The time in which a vibrating body
through the medium. completes one vibration is called time
period or the time required to produce one
• During wave motion, the medium does complete wave (or cycle) is called time
not move as a whole, only the disturbance period of the wave.
travels through the medium.
E.g. Suppose two waves are produced in 1
• A wave motion travels at the same second. Then the time required to produce
speed in all directions in any medium. The one wave will be 1/2 second or 0.5 second.
speed of a wave depends upon the nature In other words, the time period of this
of the medium through which it travels. wave will be 0.5 second.
Terms Related to Wave Motion Note: The SI unit of time period is second
Mean and extreme positions (s).
It is the original position of rest about Frequency (ν )
which the particle oscillates. In the figure, The number of complete waves (or cycles)
O is the mean position and A and B are produced in one second is called frequency
extreme positions. of wave or the number of vibrations per
second is called frequency.
Unit: The SI unit of frequency is hertz
(which is written as Hz).
Hertz: When a vibrating body produces
one vibration in one second, then its
Oscillations
frequency is said to be one hertz.
If the body is given a small displacement
from the position, a force comes into play 1 hertz is equal to 1 vibration per second.
which tries to bring the body back to the 1 hertz = 1 vibration (cycles)/ 1 second and
equilibrium point, giving rise to 1kHz = 1000Hz
oscillations.

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E.g: If 10 complete waves (or vibrations) Classification of Waves

are produced in one second, then the Classification-1
frequency of the waves will be 10 hertz (or Depending upon the requirement of
10 cycles per second). medium for the propagation of wave, the
waves are classified into the following two
Note: groups.
• The frequency of a wave is fixed and • Mechanical waves (or elastic waves)
does not change even when it passes
• Electromagnetic waves
through different substances.
Mechanical waves
• It does not depend on the wave
The waves which need a material medium
velocity, amplitude and nature of the
for their propagation are called mechanical
medium.
waves. The medium may be a solid, a liquid
Relation between frequency and time or a gas. (Mechanical waves cannot travel
period through vacuum).
The frequency of a wave is the reciprocal
E.g. Vibrations in a rope, vibrations in a
of its time period.
stretched string, vibrations on the surface
frequency =1/time period of water, sound waves in air etc. are
⇒f=1/T mechanical waves.

⇒T=1/f Electromagnetic waves (non-mechanical

waves) The waves which don’t need a
Wavelength ( λ ) material medium for their propagation are
Wavelength of a wave is the length of one called electromagnetic waves.
wave. (Electromagnetic waves can travel through
The distance travelled by the wave in one vacuum).
time period is called the wavelength or the Electromagnetic waves travel in vacuum
distance between two nearest particles with the speed of light, i.e. 3×108 m/s.
which are in the same phase is called
E.g.
wavelength. It is denoted by the Greek
Light waves, X-rays, Gamma rays, Radio
letter λ (lambda).
waves, Microwaves etc. are examples of
The S.I unit of wavelength is metre. (m). electromagnetic waves.
Wave Velocity Types of mechanical wave
Wave velocity can be defined as the There are two types of mechanical wave.
distance travelled by a wave in one second. They are
It is also known as wave speed. 1. Transverse wave
It's S.I. unit is metre per second (ms−1) 2. Longitudinal wave

Transverse waves
In a transverse wave the particles of the
medium vibrate in a direction, which is

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perpendicular to the direction of • A transverse wave cannot travel inside

propagation of the wave. the liquid and gases.
E.g. Waves in strings, light waves, etc.
• Propagation of a transverse wave
Transverse waves are produced only in
through a medium results in the formation
solids and liquids
of crests and troughs.

Longitudinal wave
In a longitudinal wave the particles of the
medium vibrate in a direction, which is
parallel to the direction of propagation of
the wave. E.g. Waves in springs, sound
waves in a medium. Longitudinal waves are
Representation of a transverse wave
produced in solids, liquids and also in
In this figure, the direction of wave is from gases.
A to B but the vibration of the particles is
along CD, which is at right angles to the
direction of wave AB. So, this is a
transverse wave.

Compression: The part of a longitudinal

wave in which the density of the particles
of the medium is higher than the normal
density is called a compression.
Crest and trough of a transverse wave
The highest point in the shaded portion is
called crest. With respect to the reference
level, the lowest point on the un-shaded
portion is called trough. (given in Fig. 8.4)

Rarefaction: The part of a longitudinal

wave in which the density of the particles
of the medium is lesser than the normal
density is called a rarefaction.

Fig. 8.4: Crest and Troug Note:

1. Compressions and rarefactions are
Note: formed alternately in a longitudinal wave.
• The distance between the two 2. The distance between the two
consecutive crests or between the two successive compressions or between the
consecutive troughs is equal to one two successive rarefactions is equal to one
wavelength (λ). wavelength (λ).

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3. Longitudinal waves can travel through all

media, i.e. solids, liquids and gases. In longitudinal
waves, the
4. The phase difference between two In transverse waves,
successive compressions or rarefactions is particles of the
the particles of the
equal to 2π radians. medium vibrate
medium vibrate at
parallel to the
right angles to the
direction of the
direction of the
wave.
wave. Transverse
Longitudinal
waves consist of
waves consist of
crests and troughs.
In a spring, a compression is that part in compression and
which the coil (or turns) is closer together rarefactions.
than normal. In figure (b), the regions
Transverse waves
marked ‘C’ are compressions.
can be propagated
In a spring, a rarefaction is that part in only through a solid
which the coils (or turns) are farther apart or a surface of a Longitudinal
than normal. In figure (b), the regions liquid but not in waves can be
marked as ‘R’ are rarefactions. [Link] transverse propagated
waves, the distance through solids,
The sound waves in air are longitudinal
between two liquids and gases.
waves
consecutive crests
When a sound wave passes through air,
or consecutive
the particles of air vibrate back and forth
troughs is equal to
parallel to the direction of the sound wave.
one wavelength.
Thus, when a sound wave travels in the
horizontal direction, then the particles of In longitudinal
the medium also vibrate back and forth in waves, the
the horizontal direction. distance
It should be remembered that the waves between the two
produced in air when a sitar wire is plucked successive
It is represented by a
are longitudinal waves, because those are compressions or
displacement-
sound waves. rarefactions is
distance graph.
equal to one
Difference Between Transverse Waves wavelength. It is
and Longitudinal Waves represented by
Longitudinal density distance
Transverse waves
waves graph.

SOUND

Sound is a form of energy which is emitted

by a vibrating body that travels in the form

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of waves and causes the sensation of source. This causes the effect of hearing
hearing. Sound cannot travel through sounds.

vacuum. Note: We can perceive the direction of

sound with certain accuracy. Left and right
Production of sound location of sound is determined by the
We hear many sounds every day such as perception of difference in the arrival time
the sound of our school bell, an alarm at each ear. A given sound reaches at one
clock, a barking dog and so on. ear first and then at the second ear after a
certain time interval. Based on this time
We talk and communicate with others by
interval, we can identify the direction of
producing sounds.
the sound.
Sound is produced when a body vibrates
Scuba divers ( divers under sea) find it
(moves back and forth rapidly). In other
difficult to ascertain the direction from
words, sound is produced by vibrating which an underwater sound is coming,
bodies. because the sound waves are moving so
quickly in water that they reach both the
Note: Vibrations of the bodies produce
ears at the same time.
sounds and so, vibrations are the causes of
sound. Persistence of hearing
The impact of sound should remain on the
Propagation of sound – Sound needs a
eardrum for a minimum interval to
material medium to travel
perceive the sound clearly. This minimum
The substance through which sound time interval is known as persistence of
travels is called a medium. The medium hearing. For the human ear, the
can be a solid substance, a liquid or a gas. persistence of hearing is equal to 1/10th of
Solids, liquids and gases are called material a second. If two sounds fall on the eardrum
media. Sound needs a material medium within 1/10th of a second, they cannot be
like solid, liquid or gas to travel. In other differentiated.
words, sound can travel through solids,
liquids and gases but it cannot travel AUDIBLE AND INAUDIBLE SOUNDS
through vacuum (or empty space). Sound We cannot sense the sounds produced by
waves are called mechanical waves all vibrating bodies. For example, we
because they need a material medium (like cannot sense the sound produced by a
vibrating pendulum. This is because the
solid, liquid or gas) for their propagation.
frequency of the pendulum is very less. We
Note: Sound travels about 15 times faster will be able to sense the sounds having
in steel than in air. frequencies from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.
Based on frequency, waves can be
Perception of sound
classified as:
Sound is perceived by the vibration of the
eardrum (Tympanic membrane). Sound • Audible range
moves in air in the form of longitudinal • Infrasonics
waves. The vibrating particles of the
• Ultrasonics
longitudinal wave make the eardrum
vibrate at the same frequency as the

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Audible range vibrations, particles of dirt get detached

The range of frequencies that people with and drop out. The objects are thoroughly
normal hearing can detect is called the cleaned.
audible range. Detection of flaws (Cracks) in metals
The highest frequency that humans can Ultrasound is sent through the metallic
hear is the upper limit of their hearing. For structure. They pass through unobstructed
young people, this is usually between structure, if the structure are
16000 and 20,000 Hertz. There is also a homogeneous. In case of a crack inside the
lower limit. This is about 20 Hertz. structure, the ultrasound will be reflected
Thus, the hearing range or the range of back towards the observer and received.
human audibility is 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. Existence of reflection confirms the
existence of a crack. Due to high frequency
Infrasonic Sound and short wavelength, even fine cracks can
Some vibrations produce sounds below the be detected.
normal hearing range. These are known as
infrasonic sounds (below 20 Hz). Depth of Seas and Oceans
Earthquakes, underground nuclear Ultrasound oscillator producing waves of
explosions and tides produce infrasonic frequency 40 kHz is provided inside ships.
sounds. These sounds, although cannot be An ultrasound receiver is also provided
heard by humans, can be detected by a inside the ship. The transmitter oscillator
device called a seismometer. transmits the waves towards the bottom
and the reflected waves are received by
Ultrasonic Sound the receiver.
Vibrations above the normal hearing range
A similar mini-arrangement can be used for
know as ultrasonic sounds (above 20,000
finding the depth of liquid level in a tank
Hz).
without opening its cover.
Many animals like bats, dolphins, dogs,
Sound Ranging
produce and hear such sounds. For
example, humans can hear only a part of A special equipment called SONAR (Sound
the high-pitched squeak of the mouse. The Navigation And Ranging) is used for this
mouse squeak is also made of ultrasonic purpose.
sounds which can be heard by a hunting Emulsions of Immiscible Liquids
cat.
When a strong beam of ultrasound is
Many forms of animal life depend on passed through a liquid, it is heated to a
ultrasonic sound for their survival. very high temperature. This fact is utilised
in preparing a homogeneous stable
Applications of ultrasonic sound waves
emulsion of immiscible liquids.
Cleaning Ultrasound-treated honey does not
Dirty odd – shaped parts, spiral tubes, crystallise.
electronic components are placed in a
Medical and Biological Effects
cleaning solution and ultrasonic waves are
a. When ultrasound is passed through a
passed through it. Due to high-frequency
body part having muscular pain or rigid

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joints, their high frequency vibrations Granite 6000

produce soothing effect and relieve the Aluminium 6420
pain.
Factors affecting the speed of sound in air
b. Ultrasound sent through brain cures a or a gas
mental patient. Density and temperature of the medium in
c. A newly developed technique of three which the sound wave travels affect the
dimensional photographs with the help of speed of sound.
ultrasound (ultrasonography) is being used
Density of the Medium
by the physicians to locate the exact
When the medium is dense, the molecules
position of an eye tumour and its removal
in the medium are closely packed, which
giving normal vision to the patient.
means that the sound travels faster.
d. Harmful insects are killed by exposing Therefore, the speed of sound increases as
them to ultrasound. the density of the medium increases.
Speed of Sound Temperature of the Medium
The speed of sound: Sound takes some The speed of sound is directly proportional
time to travel from the sound - producing to the temperature. Therefore, as the
body to our ears. The speed of sound tells temperature increases, the speed of sound
us the rate at which sound travels from the increases.
sound producing body to our ears.
Factors which do not affect the speed of
Speed of sound in different media: The sound in air
speed of sound is different in different
There is no effect on the speed of sound in
media. The speed of sound is more in
air due to the following factors:
solids, less in liquids and the least in gases
(since solids are much more elastic than i) Change in frequency
liquids and gases). ii) Change in amplitude
Speed of sound (in iii) Change in pressure
Medium
m/s)
Carbon dioxide 260 iv) Change in factors like phase, loudness,
pitch, quality of sound etc.
Air (0°C) 332
Air (20°C) 343 Reflection of Sound When a wave going
Steam (at 100°C) 405 from one medium comes back to the same
Helium 965 medium after striking the second medium,
Alcohol 1213 reflection of the wave is said to take place.
Hydrogen 1269 Sound wave also undergoes reflection like
Mercury 1450 light waves.
Water (20°C) 1482 Applications of Reflection of Sound
Sea water 1533
1. Megaphone
Copper 3560
Iron 5130 Megaphone is a device used to address
public meetings. When we speak through
Glass 5640
the megaphone, sound waves are reflected

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by them. These reflected sound waves are Condition for the formation of an echo:
directed towards the people without much The minimum distance between the
spreading. source of sound and the reflecting body
should be 17 meters.
2. Hearing Aid
Hearing aid is used by a person who can’t Reverberation
hear properly . The sound waves falling on If a sound is produced in a big hall, the
the hearing aid are concentrated into a sound waves are reflected from the walls,
narrow beam by reflection. This narrow ceiling and floor of the hall and produce
beam of sound waves is made to fall on the many echoes. The echo time however is so
diaphragm of the ear. Thus, the diaphragm short that the many echoes overlap with
of the ear vibrates with large amplitude. the original sound. Due to this, original
Hence, the hearing power of the person is sound seems to be prolonged and lasts for
improved. a longer time. In other words, a sound
made in a big hall persists (on lasts) for a
3. Sound Boards
longer time.
Sound boards are curved surfaces
The repeated multiple reflections of sound
(concave) which are used in big halls to
in any big enclosed space is called
direct the sound waves towards the people
reverberation.
sitting in a hall. The speaker is placed at the
focus of the sound board. Sound waves Thunder that follows lightning flash during
from the speaker are reflected by the a storm is an excellent example of
sound board and these reflected waves are reverberatory or multiple echoes.
directed towards the people. Reverberations are also produced in a
closed room.
ECHO
The repetition of sound caused by the SONAR
reflection of sound waves is called an echo. Another application of reflection of sound
is Sound Navigation and Ranging (SONAR).
Minimum distance Required to hear an
The process of locating the position of
echo
objects submerged in water, e.g.
The human ear can hear two sounds submarines and icebergs, by the reflection
separately only if they reach the ear after of sound from them is called echo depth
an interval of 1/10th of a second. This is a sounding. It is also used for finding the
natural feature of the human ear. If we depth of the sea. The instrument used for
take the speed of sound roughly as 340 this purpose is called SONAR.
m/s, the distance travelled by the sound in
A sonar consists of a transmitter and a
1/10th of a second would be 34 m. This
receiver. The transmitter is the source of
means that we are able to hear the original
ultrasonics. With the help of crystals that
and the reflected sound, if we are at a
can be made to vibrate electrically,
distance of 17 m or more from the
ultrasonics of frequency upto 1000 MHz
reflecting surface. This results in hearing
can be produced. The ultrasonic waves
the reflected wave known as echo.
from the transmitter travel underwater in
all directions. When they strike an object,

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they are reflected. The receiver receives depend on the intensity of sound. The
the reflected ultrasonic waves from the amount of sound energy passing each
object. It records not only the reflected second through a unit area, is called
waves but also the time ‘t’ taken by them intensity of sound.
to travel from the ship and back from the It is our common experience that when we
object. shout, we use more energy and hence
Difference Between Musical Sound and produce a louder sound. Similarly, when
Noise we whisper, we use less energy and hence
Musical sound Noise produce a lower sound.

1. It has a pleasant 1. It has an un- Loudness is the characteristic of a musical

effect on the ears pleasant effect on sound by which a loud sound can be
distinguished from a faint sound even
2. Made by regular the ears though both have the same pitch.
and periodic 2. Made by
vibrations irregular and non- 2. Pitch or shrillness:
periodic vibrations Pitch is the characteristic of sound which
enables us to distinguish a shrill sound
3. Has a definite 3. Does not have a from a dull sound.
definite frequency
frequency
A shrill sound has a high pitch and a dull
4. It is produced by
sound has a low pitch. Women and
machines in a children have shrill high pitched voices,
4. It is produced by factory, moving whereas men have grave low pitched
musical buses, cars and voices.
instruments trains etc.
3. Quality or timbre:
5. Has an regular 5. Has an irregular
The quality of a sound is that property by
wave form waveform virtue of which two sounds of the same
6. Can be 6. Cannot be pitch and loudness produced by two
reproduced reproduced different musical instruments or people
can be distinguished.
Characteristics of musical sounds: The
three characteristics of musical sounds by Two notes of the same pitch and loudness
which they can be distinguished from one can sound different. The sound produced
another are as follows: on a veena is different from the same
pitched sound produced by a flute.
1. Loudness or intensity
We can even recognise a person from his
2. Pitch or shrillness and
voice (even without seeing him) on the
3. Quality or timbre basis of the unique quality or timbre of
their voice.
1. Loudness or Intensity
Loudness is the property of sound which
distinguishes the degree of sensation HEA T
produced in the ear. It is a characteristic of
both musical sound and noise. Loudness

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• Heat is the form of energy that produces as it starts from absolute zero
the sensation of warmth. The SI unit of temperature. Relation between various
heat is joule (J) and the other unit is calorie temperature scales,
(1 cal = 4.2 J) .
𝐹 − 32 𝐶
• The transfer of heat is always from a = ;
9 5
hotter to a colder body.
𝐾 = 273.15 + 𝐶
Temperature

• Temperature is the measure of the

hotness or coldness of a body.
• The heat flows from one body to
another due to the difference in their body
temperatures.

Scales of Thermometers
a) Celsius scale
In Celsius scale, also called centigrade
scale, 0°C and 100 °C are the freezing point
and boiling point respectively. Interval has Fig: Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin Scale
been divided into 100 parts. It is termed by
Table: The Equivalence Between Principal
Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius.
Temperature Scales
The formula to convert a Celsius scale to
9 Temperatur Celsiu Fahrenhei Kelvin
Fahrenheit scale is 𝐹 = 5 𝐶 + 32 e s scale t scale (°F) scale
(°C) (K)
The formula for converting a Fahrenheit
5 Boiling 100 212 373.1
scale to Celsius scale is 𝐶 = 9 (𝐹 − 32) point of 5
water
b) Fahrenheit scale Freezing 0 32 273.1
Fahrenheit is a Common unit to measure point of 5
water
human body temperature. It is termed Mean 37 98.6 310.1
temperatur 5
after the name of a German Physicist
e of human
Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit. Freezing point body
Room 72 23 296.1
of water is taken as 32°F and boiling point temperatur 5
212°F. Thermometers with Fahrenheit e (Average)

scale are calibrated from 32°F to 212°F, as d) The Rankine scale

It named after the Glasgow University
shown in Fig. 11.1.
engineer and physicist Rankine, who
c) Kelvin scale proposed it in 1859. It is an absolute
Kelvin scale is termed after Lord Kelvin. It is temperature scale and has the property of
the SI unit of measuring temperature and having a 1°R change is equal to a 1°F
written as ‘K’ also known as absolute scale change. Fahrenheit users who need to

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work with absolute temperature can be • The instrument that is used to measure
converted to Rankine by, the temperature of a body is called a
thermometer. The thermometer was
𝑅 = 𝐹 + 459.67
developed by Galileo, who found that the
Absolute Zero gases expand on heating. In
The temperature at which the pressure thermometers, mercury is commonly used
and volume of a gas theoretically reaches through a wide range from –30° C to 300°
zero is called absolute zero. C.

Note Thermometers are of the following three

The temperatures in Celsius and in types:
Fahrenheit will be same at – 40𝑜
• Clinical Thermometer:
1032 Kelvin was the temperature of the It is used to measure human body
Universe in the earliest moments after the temperatures and it ranges from 96° F to
Big Bang 110° F or 35° C to 43° C. It measures
373.15 Kelvin or 1000 𝐶 , 2120 𝐹 – Boiling temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F).
point of water • Electronic Thermometer:
The basic components of an electronic
329.85 Kelvin, 56.70 𝐶, 134.060 𝐹 – thermometer are thermistors or
Hottest natural temperature ever recorded thermoresistors. The range of the
on Earth. electronic thermometer is – 40° F to 450°
310.15 Kelvin, 370 𝐶, 98.60 𝐹 – Average F.
human body temperature • Other Thermometers:
These include a constant-volume gas
0 Kelvin, −273.150 𝐶, −459.670 𝐹 –
thermometer, platinum resistance
Absolute zero Temperature
thermometer, etc.
The temperature at which Celsius and
Fahrenheit scale will be equal, Thermal Expansion
• The expansion of a body caused by heat
i.e. F = C; is known as thermal expansion.
𝐹 − 32 𝐶 𝐶 − 32 𝐶 Thermal Expansion of Solids
= 𝑜𝑟 = The thermal expansion of solids is of three
9 5 9 5
types:
(𝐶 − 32)5 = 9𝐶
o Linear Expansion
5𝐶 − 160 = 9𝐶 When a body is heated or cooled, the
4𝐶 = −160 length of the body changes due to change
in its temperature. Then the expansion is
𝐶 = −40 said to be linear or longitudinal expansion.
The temperatures in Celsius and in The ratio of increase in length of the body
Fahrenheit will be same at – 40. per degree rise in temperature to its unit
length is called as the coefficient of linear
Thermometers expansion(α). The SI unit of Coefficient of
Linear expansion is 𝐾 −1 . The value of

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coefficient of linear expansion is different • In laying a railway line, a small gap is left
for different materials. in between two iron rails. Otherwise, the
𝛼 railway line will become curved on heating
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ in summer.
=
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑒𝘹𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 • Telephone wires are not tightened on
o Superficial Expansion poles because, in winter, wires get a
If there is an increase in the area of a solid contract and can break.
object due to heating, then the expansion Thermal Expansion of Liquids
is called superficial or areal expansion. • In liquids, only expansion in volume
Superficial expansion is determined in takes place on heating.
terms of coefficient of superficial The expansion of liquid is of two types.
expansion. The ratio of increase in area of • When the expansion of the container
the body per degree rise in temperature to containing liquid on heating is not taken
its unit area is called as coefficient of into account, then observed expansion is
superficial expansion(β). Coefficient of called the apparent expansion of liquids.
superficial expansion is different for • When the expansion of the container
different materials. The SI unit of containing liquid on heating is also taken
Coefficient of superficial expansion is 𝐾 −1 . into account, then observed expansion is
𝛽 called the real expansion of liquids.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
=
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝘹 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 Anomalous Expansion of Water
o Cubical Expansion When the temperature of the water is
If there is an increase in the volume of a increased from 0° C, then its volume
solid body due to heating, then the decreases up to 4°C. It becomes minimum
expansion is called cubical or volumetric at 4° C and then increases. This behavior of
expansion. As in the cases of linear and water expansion around 4° C is called
areal expansion, cubical expansion is also anomalous expansion of water.
expressed in terms of coefficient of cubical Thermal Expansion of Gases
expansion(γ). The ratio of increase in • There are two types of coefficient of
volume of the body per degree rise in expansion in gases.
temperature to its unit volume is called as ▪ At constant pressure, the change in
coefficient of cubical expansion. This is also volume per unit volume per degree celsius
measured in 𝐾 –1 . is called the volume coefficient ().
𝛾 ▪ At constant volume, the change in
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
= pressure per unit pressure per degree
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝘹𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
celsius is called the pressure coefficient ().
Calorimetry
Relation Between the Coefficients of
• The amount of heat required to raise
Expansions
the temperature of 1 g of water by 1° C is
• The coefficients of thermal expansions
called a calorie.
are related as:
• Calorimetry states that the heat lost by
β = 2α and γ = 3α
a hotter body equals the heat gained by a
α:β:γ=1:2:3
colder body.
Real Life Example of Thermal Expansion

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Specific Heat • In the second law, work can be

• The amount of heat required to raise converted into heat and vice-versa but
the temperature of unit mass (m) of a conversion is not possible with 100%
substance through 1° C is called its specific efficiency.
heat (s). • It is impossible for a machine operating
• The SI unit of specific heat capacity is J in a cyclic process to convert heat
kg-1 k-1 completely into work. It is Kelvin’s
• The specific heat of water is 4200 J/kg1/° statement.
C or 1000 cal/ g1/° C, which is high • Heat by itself can not transfer from a
compared with most other substances. colder to a hotter body. It is Clausius’
Therefore, water is used as a coolant in the statement. The refrigerator is based on
radiator in vehicles and hot water is used this statement.
for the fermentation. • A heat engine is a device that converts
Latent Heat heat into mechanical work. Internal
• The heat energy absorbed or released at combustion and external combustion heat
constant temperature per unit mass for engines are two types of heat engines.
change of state is called latent heat. • Carnot’s theorem tells about the
• Its SI unit is J/kg. Ice at 0°C appears maximum efficiency of heat engines. It
colder than that water at 0°C, because refers to the Carnot cycle.
ice takes more heat. • Entropy measures the molecular
• The latent heat of the fusion of ice is 80 disorder of a system and is a
cal/g. thermodynamic function depending only
• The latent heat of the vapourisation of on the temperature of the system.
steam is 540 cal/g. • Evaporation is a process in which
Thermodynamics molecules escape slowly from the surface
• The branch of physics which deals with of a liquid.
the study of the relation of heat energy • For a given liquid, the rate of
with different types of energy is called evaporation depends on the temperature
thermodynamics. and area of the evaporating surface.
Zeroth Law • A refrigerator is a device used for
• If two bodies A and B are separately in cooling things by the evaporation and
thermal equilibrium with the third body C, compression of a volatile liquid inside a
then A and B will be in thermal equilibrium copper coil.
with each other. Humidity
First Law • The presence of moisture in the
• As per the first law about energy, heat atmosphere is called humidity.
given to a substance is equal to the sum of • The amount of water vapour present in
the change in internal energy and work a unit volume of the atmosphere is called
done. absolute humidity.
• dQ = dU (internal energy) + dW (work • The relative humidity of air at a given
done). temperature is the ratio of the mass of
Second Law water vapour present in a certain volume
of air to the mass of water vapour required

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to saturate the same volume of air at the • Refrigerators and ice-boxes have double
same temperature multiplied by 100. walls having a thermocol between them,
• Relative humidity is measured by a which minimises heat gain by conduction.
hygrometer. Convection
• Relative humidity of about 50% is • The mode of transmission of heat in
considered comfortable at temperatures fluids (liquids and gases) due to the actual
22 – 25° C. movement of the particles is called
• If the relative humidity is very low in the convection.
air, then lips become dry and cracks appear • In liquids and gases, heat is transmitted
in them. by convection.
• If the relative humidity is very high in • When a liquid in a vessel is heated at the
the air, then the sweat from our body does bottom, the liquid at the bottom gets
not evaporate readily and therefore, we heated and expands.
feel uncomfortable. • Due to its lower density, the hot liquid
• Air conditioning provides comfortable rises and its place is taken by the cold liquid
conditions by regulating temperature and from above. Convection currents are set up
humidity. in the liquid until the temperature of the
Transmission of Heat whole liquid becomes the same.
• Heat can be transferred from one place • The cooling unit in a refrigerator is fitted
to another by the process of transmission. near the top as cold air moves downward
• There are three methods of and keeps cool the whole interior.
transmission of heat. • The radiator in a motor car works on the
Conduction principle of convection.
• The mode of transmission of heat in Newton’s Law of Cooling
solids from higher temperature part to The rate of loss of heat from a body is
lower temperature part without actual directly proportional to the difference in
movement of the particles is called temperatures of the body and its
conduction. surroundings.
• The transmission of heat in solids takes • If we take hot water and fresh water
place mainly through conduction. and put it in a refrigerator, then the rate of
• Metals are good conductors of heat. cooling of hot water will be faster than the
• Wood, cotton, wool and glass are bad fresh water.
conductors of heat. Dry air is also a bad • Cooking utensils are made of
conductor of heat. aluminium, brass and steel because these
• Woollen clothes do not allow the heat substances have low specific heat and high
of our body to escape and therefore, we conductivity.
feel warm. • In deserts day temperature are very
• On a cold night, two thin blankets give high and night temperature are extremely
more warmth than a single thick blanket low because the specific heat of sand is
because the layer of air between the two very low. Therefore it absorbs the heat
blankets works as a better insulator. readily and its temperature raises by a
large degree during the day. At night sand

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radiates the heat equally readily making • The ratio of emissive power and
the temperature loss. absorptive power of a body is always the
• Human breath is visible in winter but same. It is equal to the emissive power of a
not in summer because in winter air is cold black body. This is known as Kirchhoff’s
and so water vapours present in the Law.
human breath condense, making it visible. • White colour is a bad absorber and good
• A thick glass tumbler often cracks when reflector of heat radiations, while the black
very hot liquid is poured into it because the colour is a good absorber and bad reflector
inner surface of the thick glass tumbler of heat. Therefore, clothes of light colours
coming in contact with the hot liquid give a better feeling in summer and clothes
expands more in comparison with the of dark colours give a better feeling in
outer surface which has relatively lower winter.
temperature. This unequal expansion of Stefan’s Law
inner and outer surfaces causes the • It states that “the amount of heat
tumbler to crack. energy (E) radiated per second by unit area
• Water from a hand pump is warm in of a perfectly black body is directly
winter and cold in summer because in proportional to the fourth power of
winter outside temperature is low and in absolute temperature (T) of the body”.
summer outside temperature is higher as • Good absorbers are good emitters and
compared to the temperature of water poor absorbers are poor emitters.
obtained from underground which E ∝ T4
remains practically unchanged due to E = T4
Earth being bad conductor of heat. where, σ is Stefan’s constant and its value
Radiation is 5.67 × 10-8 Wm −2 K −4
• The process of heat transmission in the
form of electromagnetic waves is called
LIGHT
radiation.
• Radiation does not require any medium
Light is a form of energy, which enables
for propagation and it propagates without
human beings and creatures to 'see' things.
heating the intervening medium. When light emitted from an object or
Black Body reflected from the object enters our eyes,
• A body that absorbs all the radiation we are able to see the object. We can't see
incident on it is called a perfectly black an object in the dark even if we are in light
body. because there is no light coming from the
• The ratio of heat absorbed (radiation) to object to our eyes. Light is an
the total incident radiation for a body is electromagnetic radiation, which exhibits
called absorptive power (a) of the body. It properties like a wave as well as a particle.
has no unit. It always propagates in a straight line. Light
• The amount of heat radiation per unit travels with a speed nearly equal to 3 × 108
area of the surface at a given temperature m/s.
is called the emissive power of the surface.

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According to current theories, no material ray all lie in the same plane. These laws of
particle can travel at a speed greater than reflection are applicable to all types of
the speed of light. reflecting surfaces, including spherical
surfaces.
Luminous and Non-luminous Objects

Luminous objects are those which emit

SPHERICA L MIRRORS
their own light. e.g. sun, burning candle,
electric lights.
Non-luminous objects do not give out their The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror
own light but are visible only when light may be curved inwards or outwards.
from a luminous object falls on them. e.g. This implies that the principal focus of a
moon, earth, table, paper, etc. spherical mirror lies midway between the
pole and the centre of curvature.
Transparent, Translucent and Opaque
Materials Terms Related to Spherical Mirrors
a) Centre of Curvature
Transparent materials are those which
It is the centre of the sphere from which
allow most of light to pass through them.
the mirror is made. It is denoted by the
e.g. glass, water, air.
letter ‘C’. (A ray diagram represents the
Translucent materials allow only a part of
formation of an image by the spherical
the light to pass through them. We cannot
mirror).
see distinctly through them. e.g. greased
paper, paraffin wax, etc. b) Pole
Opaque materials do not allow any light to It is the geometric centre of the spherical
pass through them. They reflect or absorb mirror. It is denoted by the letter ‘P’.
all the light that falls on them. e.g. books,
c) Radius of Curvature
desk, stone, rubber, trees, etc.
It is the distance between the centre of the
REFLECTION OF LIGHT sphere and the vertex. It is shown by the
letter ‘R’.
A highly polished surface, such as a mirror,
reflects most of the light falling on it. The d) Principal Axis
phenomenon of bouncing back of light The line joining the pole of the mirror and
from a surface is known as the reflection of its centre of curvature is called principal
light. An object reflects light that falls on it. axis.
This reflected light, when received by our
e) Focus
eyes, enables us to see things. We are able
When a beam of light is incident on a
to see through a transparent medium as
spherical mirror, the reflected rays
light is transmitted through it.
converge (concave mirror) at or appear to
Laws of Reflection of Light diverge from (convex mirror) a point on the
principal axis. This point is called the
(i) The angle of incidence is equal to the
“focus” or “principal focus”. It is also
angle of reflection.
known as the focal point. It is denoted by
(ii) The incident ray, normal to the mirror the letter ‘F’.
at the point of incidence and the reflected

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f) Focal Length Real

The distance between the pole and the At Highly and
At F
infinity magnified inverte
principal focus is called focal length (f) of a
d
spherical mirror. There is a relation Betwee Behind Virtual
between the focal length of a spherical n F and the Magnified and
mirror and its radius of curvature. The focal P mirror erect
length is half of the radius of curvature.
Uses of Concave Mirrors
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
Focal 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = They are used in torches, searchlights and
2
headlights of vehicles to get powerful
f) Aperture parallel beams of light.
The diameter of the reflecting surface of
They are as shaving mirrors to see a larger
spherical mirror is called aperture.
image of the face.

The dentists use concave mirrors to see

large images of the teeth of patients.

Large concave mirrors are used to

concentrate sunlight to produce heat in
solar furnaces.

Convex Mirror
Concave Mirror A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface
is curved outwards is called a convex
A spherical mirror, whose reflecting
mirror.
surface is curved inwards, i.e. faces
towards the centre of the sphere, is called Image Formed by a Convex Mirror
a concave mirror. Natur
Position Position
e of
Image Formation by a Concave Mirror of the of the Image Size
the
Object Image
Position Position Nature Image
of the of the Image Size of the Highly
Virtual
Object Image Image At diminished
At F and
Real infinity , point
Highly erect
At and sized
At F diminishe Betwee
infinity inverte
d n Betwee Virtual
d
Real infinity n P and Diminished and
Betwee and the F erect
Beyond Diminishe and
n C and pole (P)
C d inverte
F
d
Real Uses of Convex Mirrors
Same size
and They are commonly used as rear-view
At C At C as the
inverte (wing) mirrors in vehicles. These mirrors
object
d
are fitted on the sides of the vehicles,
Real
Betwee enabling the drivers to see the traffic
Beyond and
n C and Magnified behind them to facilitate safe driving. It
C inverte
F
d

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enables the driver to view a much larger direction (or bend) at the boundary
area than would be possible with a plane separating the two medium. For example,
mirror. when light rays travelling in the air go into
another medium, say glass, they change
They are also used in big showrooms and
their direction (or bend) on entering the
departmental stores to have a view of the
glass medium.
customers entering in as well as going out
of the stores. The bending of the ray of light when it
travels from one medium to another is
Magnification: Magnification produced by called the refraction of light.
a spherical mirror gives the relative extent
Cause for the Refraction of Light
to which the image of an object is
magnified with respect to the object size. When a ray of light changes its medium,
the basic change that occurs is the change
If h is the height of the object and h′ is the in its wavelength. This change in the
height of the image, then the magnification wavelength leads to the change in its
(m) produced by a spherical mirror is given velocity and the change in velocity is
by: responsible for its deviation and hence,
refraction takes place.

Mirror Formula
In a spherical mirror, the distance of the
Note:
object from its pole is called the object
When light travels from one medium to
distance (u). The distance of the image
another, the frequency of light does not
from the pole of the mirror is called the
change. However, the velocity and the
image distance (v). The distance of the
wavelength of light change.
principal focus from the pole is called the
focal length (f). There is a relationship • When a ray of light passes from a rarer
between these three quantities given by to a denser medium, it bends towards the
the mirror formula, which is expressed as: normal and ∠r < ∠i .
• When a ray of light passes from a denser
to a rarer medium, it bends away from the
normal and ∠r>∠i.
• A ray of light travelling along with the
normal passes undeflected.
R E F R A C T I O N O F L IG H T

When the light rays are made to go from

one transparent medium to another
transparent medium, they change their

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incidence. It is represented by the symbol

i. In the illustrated image above, angle
PON1 is the angle of incidence.

Angle of Refraction

The angle between the refracted ray and

the normal on the transparent surface at
the point of incidence is called the angle of
Transparent Surface refraction. It is represented by the symbol
The plane surface which refracts light is r. In the illustrated image above, angle
called a transparent surface. In the RON2 is the angle of refraction.
illustrated image above, XY is the section of
a transparent plane surface.
Laws Of Refraction
Point of Incidence
The incident ray, the refracted ray and the
The point on the transparent surface, normal to the interface of two transparent
where the ray of light meets is called the media at the point of incidence all lie in the
point of incidence. In the illustrated image same plane.
above, O is the point of incidence.
The ratio of the sine of the angle of
Normal incidence to the sine of the angle of
A perpendicular line drawn on the refraction is a constant for the light of a
transparent surface at the point of given colour and for the given pair of
incidence is called normal. In the illustrated media. This law is also known as Snell’s Law
image above, N1ON2 is normal on surface of Refraction.
XY. If ‘i' is the angle of incidence and r is the
Incident Ray angle of refraction, then,
sin 𝑖
The ray of light that strikes the transparent = constant = µ or n
sin 𝑟
surface at the point of incidence is called
Images Formed by a Convex Lens for
an incident ray. In the illustrated image
Various Positions of the Object
above, PO is the incident ray.
Position Position Relative Nature
Refracted Ray of the of the Size of theof the
Object Image Image Image
The ray of light that travels from the point
Highly Real
of incidence into the other medium is At At focus diminished and
called a refracted ray. In the illustrated infinity F , point- inverte
image above, OR is the refracted ray. sized d
Real
Betwee
Angle of Incidence Beyond and
n F and Diminished
2F inverte
The angle between the incident ray and the 2F
d
normal on the transparent surface at the Real
At 2F At 2F Same size
point of incidence is called the angle of and

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inverte The positive and negative labels and sign
d for electric charges were chosen arbitrarily
Real
Betwee by Benjamin Franklin.
Beyond and
n F and Enlarged
2F inverte Similar charges repel each other while
2F
d
Infinitely Real
opposite charges attract each other.
At focus At large of and
Charge is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is
F infinity highly inverte
enlarged d coulomb C.
Betwee On the
Electricity is associated with the charge.
n focus same
Virtual
F and side of The proton possesses positive charge (+e)
Enlarged and
optical the lens
erect and electron possesses an equal negative
centre as the
O object charge (−e),

where, e = ± 1.6 × 10 −19 C

ELECTRICITY
Current Through a Wire When a wire is
connected to a battery, an electric field is
The net flow of charge in a direction set up at every point within the wire. This
through a metallic wire constitutes an field exerts a force on each conduction
electric current. The branch of physics electron. Although the electrons are
which deals with the study of charges in continuously accelerated by the field due
motion is called current electricity. to their frequent collisions with the atoms
The electric currents occur naturally in of the wire, they, on average, simply drift
many situations. For example, in the case at a small constant speed in the direction
of lightning, charges flow from the clouds opposite to the field.
to the earth through the atmosphere, Electric Current
which sometimes produces disastrous
• It is amount of charge that flows per
results. The flow of charges in lightning is
second through a cross-sections of
of short duration, resulting in a current
conductor. Current is scalar quantity. In the
flow called transient current. The transient
SI system, the unit of electric current is
current ceases when the flow of charges
ampere (A).
stops. There are many devices, which we
• The current is said to be one ampere
use in our daily life, where the charges flow
when one coulomb of charge flows past
in a steady manner. e.g a cell-driven clock,
any cross-section of a conductor every
a torch, etc.
second’.

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

Electric Charge
In some substances, the electric charges
It is something that a body attains when it can flow easily, while in others, they
loses or gains the electrons. cannot. All the substances can be divided
mainly into two electrical categories —
conductors and insulators.

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Conductors Electric Potential

Those substances through which electric Electric potential at any point of the
charges can flow are called conductors. But electric field can be measured by the
the flow of electric charges is called
amount of work done in bringing a unit
electricity. All the metals like silver, copper,
aluminium, etc., are conductors. Carbon, in positive charge from infinity to that point.
the form of graphite, is a conductor and Its unit is volt and it is a scalar quantity.
the aqueous solution (water solution) of
salts are also conductors. The human body The electric potential inside a spherical
is a fairly good conductor. All the surface is same at each point and is equal
conductors (like metals) have some
to the potential on the surface. Electrical
electrons, which are loosely held by the
nucleus of their atoms. These electrons are potential on Earth is considered to be zero.
called ‘free electrons’ and can move from
one atom to another atom throughout the Electric Potential Difference
conductor. The presence of ‘free electrons’ The electric potential difference between
in a substance makes it a conductor of the two points, A and B, on conductors
electricity. carrying current can be defined as the work
Insulators done to move a unit charge from A to B.

Those substances through which electric Potential difference (V) between points A
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝑊)
charges cannot flow are called insulators. and B = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑞)
In other words, those substances through
which electricity cannot flow are called The unit of potential difference is volt,
insulators. Glass, ebonite, rubber, most named after scientist Alessandra (1745 –
plastics, paper, dry wood, cotton, mica, 1827).
bakelite, dry air, etc., are all insulators One volt is the potential difference when
because they do not allow electric charges one joule of work is done to move a charge
(or electricity) to flow through them. In the of one coulomb.
case of charged insulators like glass,
ebonite, etc., the electric charges remain
bound to them and do not move away.
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
The electrons present in insulators are OHM’S LAW
strongly held by the nuclei of their atoms.
It states that the physical conditions
Since there are no free electrons in an
(temperature, mechanical strain, etc)
insulator that can move from one atom to
remaining unchanged, the current (I)
another, insulators do not allow electric
flowing through a conductor is always
charges (or electricity) to flow through it.
directly proportional to the potential
Note: Substances whose conductivity lies difference (V) across its two ends.
in between the conductors and insulators V ∝ I or V = R I;
are called semi-conductors. where, R is a constant called resistance of
circuit.

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𝑉 Potentiometer
=𝑅
𝐼 • It is basically a long piece of uniform
SI unit of ohm (Ω).
wire, sometimes a few metres in length
Resistance across which a standard cell is connected.
The ability of material to oppose the • The potentiometer has the advantage
electric current through it, is known as its that it draws no current from the voltage
electrical resistance. The resistance of a source being measured.
conductor is directly proportional to its • The potentiometer is also used to
length and inversely proportional to its measure the internal resistance of a cell.
cross-sectional area (A),
Conductor
𝑙 𝑙
i.e. 𝑅 ∝ ⇒ R = ρ𝐴 A substance that allows the passage of
𝐴
where, ρ is the resistivity of material. electric charges through it easily is called a
On increasing the temperature of the conductor. A conductor offers very low
metal, its resistance increases. resistance to the flow of current. For
Galvanometer example copper, silver, aluminum etc.

It is a device used to detect and measure Insulator

electric current in a circuit. It can measure A substance that has infinitely high
current up to 10 −6 A. A galvanometer can resistance does not allow electric current
be converted into a voltmeter by to flow through it. It is called an insulator.
connecting a very high resistance in its e.g. rubber, glass, plastic, ebonite etc.
series.
Resistivity
Specific resistance or resistivity depends
Note: only on the material of conductor and its
Shunt is a low resistor connected in parallel temperature. Resistivity increases with
with a circuit or device that reduces the temperature. Resistivity of a conductor
amount of electric current flowing through change with impurity. Resistivity of an alloy
it. is greater than the resistivity of its
Ammeter constituents.
• If a wire is stretched or doubled on
Ammeter is a device which is used to
itself, its resistance will change, but its
measure electric current in a circuit. It is
specific resistance will remain unaffected.
connected in series in the circuit. The
resistance of an ideal ammeter is zero. • On increasing the temperature of semi-
conductor, its resistance decreases.
Voltmeter • On increasing the temperature of
It is a device used to measure the potential electrolytes, their resistance decreases.
difference between two points in a circuit. For resistances in series
It is connected in parallel in the circuit. The RS = R1 + R2 + R3
resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinite. For resistances in parallel
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4

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Electric Power A magnet is any piece of material that has

It is the electric work done by the electric the property of attracting iron (or steel).
𝑊 Magnetite, also known as lodestone, is a
instruments per unit time, i.e. P = . Its
𝑡
naturally occurring rock that is ‘a
unit is watt.
magnet’.This natural magnet was first
Kilowatt Hour (kWH) discovered in a region known as magnesia
It is the unit of energy and is equal to the and was named after the area in which it
energy consumed in the rate of 1 kilowatt was discovered. Magnetism may be
(1000 J/s) for 1 hour. naturally present in a material or the
1 kilowatt hour = 3.6 × 106 joule. material may be artificially magnetised by
various methods. Magnets may be
Electric Fuse
permanent or temporary. After being
It is a small conducting wire of alloy of magnetised, a permanent magnet will
copper, tin and lead having low melting
retain the properties of magnetism
point and high resistance. It is a protective indefinitely. A temporary magnet is a
device used in series to prevent the
magnet made of soft iron, that is usually
damage due to excess flow of current. All easy to magnetise; however, temporary
electric appliances like bulbs, fans etc are magnets lose most of their magnetic
connected in parallel across the live wires
properties when the magnetising cause is
and the neutral wires. discontinued. Permanent magnets are
Electric Cell usually more difficult to magnetise, but
Electrical cell is a device which converts they remain magnetised. Materials which
chemical energy into electrical energy. can be magnetised are called
Electrical Cells are basically of two types (i) ferromagnetic materials.
Primary cell (ii) Secondary cell Magnetic and Non Magnetic Materials
(i) Primary Cell
In primary cell electrical energy is obtained
from the irreversible chemical reaction
taking place inside the cell. After complete
discharge, primary cell becomes
unserviceable. E.g. Voltaic cell, Leclanche
cell, Daniel cell, Dry cell etc.

(ii) Secondary Cell Types of Magnetic Substances

Secondary cells can be charged again and Based on the property of attraction or
again. Acid and alkali accumulators are the repulsion, magnetic substances can be
types of secondary cells. broadly divided into three classes namely
Ferromagnetic, Paramagnetic and
MA GNETISM Diamagnetic substances.

Ferromagnetic Paramagnetic Diamagnetic

Magnetism is the force of attraction or The The The
repulsion in and around a material. substances substances substances

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which are which are which are allowed people to get acquainted with the
strongly very feebly feebly magnetic properties of bodies.
attracted by a attracted by repelled by • Natural magnets are not magnetically
magnet and a magnet are a magnet strong enough for practical
can be easily called are called
[Link], artificial magnets are
magnetised Paramagneti Diamagneti
required.
to form c substances. c
strong e.g. substances. Drawbacks of Natural Magnets
magnets are platinum, e.g. copper,
• Artificial magnets are far stronger than
called zinc, gold,
natural magnets.
Ferromagneti manganese, bismuth,
c substances. Aluminium, antimony,
• The strength of the artificial magnets
e.g. Iron, oxygen etc. silver, etc. can be increased or decreased while in the
steel, nickel, case of natural magnets, it cannot be done.
cobalt and • Artificial magnets can be made in any
their alloys shape that suits our convenience, while
etc. natural magnets have irregular forms.
Natural and Artificial Magnets Artificial Magnets
• Magnets are of four types, viz. natural , Magnets that are made by people in the
artificial , temporary and permanent laboratory or factory are called artificial
magnets. magnets. These are also known as
manmade magnets, which are stronger
Natural Magnets
than the natural magnets. Artificial
• A substance that possesses the property
magnets can be made in various shapes
of attracting small pieces of iron, steel,
and dimensions. Artificial magnets are
cobalt and nickel is called a magnet and
usually made up of iron, nickel, cobalt,
this property is called the attractive
steel, etc. Alloy of the metals Neodymium
property.
and Samarium are also used to make
• The magnets found in nature are called
artificial magnets.
natural magnets. They are found in quite
irregular and odd shapes. Properties of a Magnet
• An example of a natural magnet is a • It attracts small pieces of iron towards
lodestone. itself.
• When a piece of lodestone is suspended • It also attracts pieces of cobalt, nickel
by a fine thread, it comes to rest in north- and steel. If a bar magnet is rolled in the
south direction. This property is called iron filings, it is observed that the iron
directive property. This property was used filings cling at the ends of the magnet.
by sailors to navigate their ships. Hence, a However, no iron filings cling in the centre.
natural magnet is also called ‘lodestone or This suggests that the magnetic force of
leading stone’. attraction is concentrated near the ends of
• Magnetite is found naturally in many the magnet.
parts of the world. It is a black oxide of iron • A freely suspended magnet points in
with the chemical formula Fe3SO4 and is a north-south direction.
natural magnet. It was magnetite that

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• Like poles repel each other and the 3. A pole of a

unlike poles attract each other. magnet attracts 3. A magnetic
• It can magnetise another piece of the opposite pole substance is
iron,when rubbed several times in one and repels the attracted by both
direction. similar pole of poles of a magnet.
• Magnetic poles exist in pairs. another magnet.
If a bar magnet is broken into two equal
parts, the following observations are
made:
• Each part has an attractive as well as
directive property, i.e. each part is a
complete magnet,
• The new magnetic poles are formed
where the cut is made on the magnet,
• The nature of magnetic polarity on a
Demagnetisation: The loss of the magnetic
given cut is opposite to the polarity on the
property of a magnet is called
far end of the magnet.
demagnetisation. By heating, hammering
Magnet and Magnetic Substances or by rough handling, a magnet loses its
Magnetic property.
Magnet
Substance
Curie Temperature
1. Substances that As temperature increases, the magnetic
1. A substance
are influenced by a property of ferromagnetic substance
which attracts
magnet are called decreases and above a certain
metals like iron or
magnetic temperature the substance changes into
steel and always
substances. Iron, paramagnetic substances. This
points in a
steel, nickel and temperature is called Curie temperature.
particular
cobalt are a few For soft iron, Curie temperature is 1000 K.
direction when
examples of Magnetic Substances
suspended freely
magnetic
is called a magnet. Diamagnetic Substances
substances.
The substances which are weekly
2. A magnet has magnetised when placed in an external
two poles, one of magnetic field, in a direction opposite to
2. A magnetic
which is always the applied field are called Diamagnetic
substance has no
directed towards Substances.
poles and does not
the geographic E.g. copper, lead, gold, silver, zinc,
point to any
north and the antimony, bismuth, etc.
particular direction
other to the Properties
when suspended
geographic south Diamagnetic materials have the following
freely.
when suspended characteristics.
freely. • When suspended in an external uniform
magnetic field they will align themselves

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perpendicular to the direction of the Ferromagnetic Substances

magnetic field. The substances which are strongly
• They have a tendency to move away magnetised when placed in an external
from the stronger part to the weaker part magnetic field in the same direction to the
when suspended in a non-uniform applied field are called Ferromagnetic
Substances.
magnetic field.
E.g. iron, nickel, cobalt Properties
• They get magnetized in a direction
The characteristics of ferromagnetic
opposite to the magnetic field.
materials are given below.
• Examples for diamagnetic substances
• When suspended in an external uniform
are bismuth, copper, mercury, gold, water,
magnetic field they will align themselves
alcohol, air and hydrogen.
parallel to the direction of the magnetic
• Magnetic character of these substances field.
is not affected by the external
• It has a tendency to move quickly from
temperature.
the weaker part to the stronger part when
Paramagnetic Substances suspended in a non-uniform magnetic
The substances which are weakly field.
magnetised, when placed in an external • They get strongly magnetised in the
magnetic field in the same direction of the direction of the field.
applied field are called Paramagnetic • Examples for ferromagnetic substances
Substances. E.g. sodium, aluminium, are iron, cobalt, nickel, steel and their
calcium, manganese, platinum alloys.
Properties: • Magnetic character of these substances
• The following are the characteristics of is affected by the external temperature.
paramagnetic materials. When they are heated, they become para
• When suspended in an external uniform magnetic.
magnetic field they will align themselves
parallel to the direction of the magnetic NUCLEAR PHYSICS
field.
• They have a tendency to move from the
Structure Of Atom
weaker part to the stronger part when
suspended in a non-uniform magnetic
field.
• They get magnetised in the direction of
the field.
• Examples for paramagnetic substances
are aluminium, platinum, chromium,
oxygen, manganese, solutions of salts of
nickel and iron.
• Magnetic character of these substances
is affected by the external temperature.

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Proton Particle 1.6 × 10-

• Credit for the discovery of Proton goes s(–1.6 × 19)C
to [Link]. 10-19)C
• Protons are positively charged. 9.1 × 1.67 × 1.674 ×
• It is present in the nucleus. Mass
10-31 kg 10-27 kg 10-27 kg
• It has charge + 1.6 × 10 −19 C and mass
1.672 × 10−27 kg or 1.00727 u. Atomic nucleus
• It has mass 1836 times than that of the It was discovered by Rutherford.
electron. Rutherford’s alpha-particle scattering
Electrons experiment led to the discovery of the
• The electrons were discovered by J.J. atomic nucleus. The fast moving alpha (α)
Thomson in Cathode Ray Tube Experiment. particles (doubly-charged helium ions)
• They are negatively charged. were made to fall on a thin gold foil.
The mass of an atom is therefore given by
• The charge of an electron was measured
the sum of the masses of protons and
by R. Millikan in his Oil drop experiment.
neutrons present in the nucleus.
• It has mass 9.1 × 10 −31 kg or 0.00054 u. 1
• It has charge −1.6 × 10 −19 C (by The mass of an electron is about 2000 times
Millikan’s oil drop experiment) the mass of a proton. The mass of a proton
and a neutron is taken as one unit each.
Neutrons
• The neutrons were discovered by J. Valency
Chadwick. • The electrons present in the outermost
• It has no charge and has a mass nearly shell of an atom are known as the valence
equal to that of a proton. electrons.
• The mass of a neutron is taken as one • The atoms of elements having a
unit each. completely filled outermost shell show
• It is present inside the nucleus. Its little chemical [Link] combining
antiparticle is antineutrino. capacity or valency is zero. An outermost
• Hydrogen is the only atom in which shell that had eight electrons was said to
neutrons are not present. possess an octet. Atoms would thus react,
• Electromagnetic forces bind electrons so as to achieve an octet in the outermost
with the nucleus. shell. The number of electrons gained, lost
Electro Neutro or shared so as to make the octet of
Basis Proton electrons in the outermost shell gives us
n n
the valency.
J. J. Lord J.
Discove Atomic Number
Thoms Rutherfo Chandw
rer The atomic number is defined as the total
on rd ick
number of protons present in the nucleus
Negativ positivel Neutral of an atom. It is denoted by ‘Z’.
ely y particle
Charge
Charge Charged s, Zero
d Particles( charge

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Mass number Positive or Canal Rays

The mass number is defined as the sum of • Canal rays were discovered by
the total number of protons and neutrons Goldstein.
present in the nucleus of an atom. Since • These rays consist of positively charged
they are present in the nucleus of an atom, particles.
protons and neutrons are also called • These rays travel in straight lines.
nucleons. • These rays are deflected by electric and
Isotopes magnetic fields.
• These rays can produce ionisation in
• Atoms having the same atomic number
gases.
but different mass numbers are called
isotopes. X-Rays
• Hydrogen has three atomic species • These are discovered by Roentgen.
namely Protium, Deuterium and Tritium.
• The atomic number of each one is 1, but • These are electromagnetic waves with a
the mass numbers are 1, 2 and 3, wavelength ranging from 0.1A – 100A.
respectively. • These rays travel in a straight line.
• The chemical properties of isotopes are • Long exposures of X-rays are injurious
similar, but their physical properties are for the human body.
different. Some isotopes have special • X-rays show photoelectric effect.
properties which find them useful in • X-rays penetrate through different
various fields: depth into different substances.
Examples Uses of X-Rays
• An isotope of uranium is used as a fuel • In medical science, these are used in
in nuclear reactors. surgery for detection of fracture, diseased
• An isotope of cobalt is used in the organs, foreign substances like bullet,
treatment of cancer. stone etc. They are used in the treatment
• An isotope of iodine is used in the of cancer and skin disease.
treatment of goitre. • In engineering, X-rays are used in
Isobars detecting faults, cracks, flaws and gas
pockets in the finished metal products and
Atoms of different elements with different
in heavy metal sheets.
atomic numbers, which have the same
mass number are known as isobars. • In scientific work, X-rays are used in
studying crystal structure and complex
Cathode Rays molecules.
• Cathode rays were discovered by Sir • In the customs Department, X-rays are
William Crooke. used for the detection of banned materials
• They travel in straight lines. which are kept hidden.
• These rays produce fluorescence.
Radioactivity
• These can produce through thin foils of
Radioactivity was discovered by Henry
metal and are deflected by both electric
Becquerel, Madame Curie and Pierre Curie
and magnetic fields.
for which they jointly won the Nobel Prize.

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Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon. It Nuclear Fission

is spontaneous emission of radiation from The process of the splitting of a heavy
the nucleus. The nucleus having protons 83 nucleus into two or more lighter nucleus is
or more are unstable. They emit α, β called nuclear fission. Atom Bomb works
particles and γ rays to become stable. The on the principle of nuclear fission. U - 235
elements of such nucleus are called and P - 239 are used as fissionable
radioactive elements and the material. Nuclear fission was first
phenomenon of emission of α, β particles demonstrated by Halin and Fritz
and γ rays is called radioactivity. The Strassmann.
penetrating power for α-particle is
Nuclear Reactor or Atomic Pile
minimum and for γ-rays is maximum.
Nuclear reactor is an arrangement in which
Nuclear Fusion a controlled nuclear reaction takes place.
When two or more nuclei combine The first nuclear reactor was created by the
together to form a heavier nucleus, it is University of Chicago under the
called nuclear fusion. supervision of Prof. Enrico Fermi.
For nuclear fusion, a temperature of the Heavy water, graphite and beryllium oxide
order of 108 K is required. are used to slow down the fast-moving
Hydrogen bomb was made by American neutrons. Hence, they are called
scientists in 1952 based on the principle of moderators. Fissionable materials, U-235
nuclear fusion. It is 1000 times more or U-239 are used as fuels in nuclear
powerful than the atom bomb. reactors. Control rods of Cadmium or
Boron are used to absorb excess neutrons
produced in the fission of uranium nucleus,
so that the chain reaction is controlled.

SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS

INSTRUMENTS USES
Altimeter Used to measure altitudes in aircraft
Ammeter Used to measure current in a circuit
Anemometer Used to measureforce and velocity of wind and directions
Audiometer Used to measurethe intensity of sound
Barograph Used in continuous measure of atmospheric pressure
Barometer Used to measure atmospheric pressure
Binoculars Used to view faraway objects
Bolometer Used to measure heat radiation
Used to measure inner and outer diameters
Callipers
of bodies

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Used to measure the amount of heat involved in a chemical

Calorimeter
reaction
Cardiogram (ECG) Used to measure the electrical activity of heart
Cathetometer Used to measure vertical distances in a scientificexperiment
Chronometer Used to determine the longitudeof a vessel at sea
Colorimeter Used to compare the intensity of colours
Used to change/reverse the direction of electric current; Also used
Commutator
to convert AC into DC
Cinematography Used in cinema making
A type of thermometer used to measure very low temperatures,
Cryometer
usually close to 0˚C
A charged particle accelerator which can accelerate charged
Cyclotron
particles to high energies
Dilatometer Used to measurechanges in volume of substances
Dynamo Used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
Dynamometer Used to measure torque, power and rpm of engines
Electroencephalogra Used to record and interpret the electrical waves of the brain
ph (brain waves) recorded on electroencephalogram
Electrometer Used to measure very small current and potential difference
Electroscope Used to detect the presence of an electric charge
Used to obtain a magnifying view of very small objects, capable of
Electron microscope
magnifying up to 20,000 times
Endoscope Used to examine internal parts of the body
Fathometer Used to measure the depth of the ocean
Fluxmeter Used to measure magnetic flux
Galvanometer Used to measure electric current by deflection of a moving coil
Hydrometer Used to measure the relative density of liquids
Hygrometer Used to measure the level of humidity
Hydrophone Used to measure sound underwater
Hygroscope Used to measure moisture content in the atmosphere
Hypsometer Used for measuring height and elevation
Used to record physiological movement (e.g. blood
Kymograph
pressure/heartbeat)
Used to measure the relative density of milk and determine its
Lactometer
purity
Used to determine the speed of an aircraft in terms of speed of
Machmeter
sound
Mariner’s compass Used by the sailors to determine the direction in sea

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Magnetometer Used to compare magnetic moments and fields

Manometer Used to measure the pressure of gases
Micrometer Used to measure distance/angles
Microphone Used to convert sound waves into electrical vibrations
Microscope Used to obtain a magnified view of small objects
Used to measure the scattering of light by particles suspended in
Nephelometer
liquid
Ohmmeter Used to measure electrical resistance in ohms
Odometer Used to measure the distance covered by the vehicle
Periscope Used to view objects above sea level (used in submarines)
Photometer Used to compare the luminous intensity of the source of light
Phonograph It is an instrument for producing sound
Used to record simultaneous change in physiological processes
Polygraph such as heartbeat, blood–pressure and respiration; used as a lie
detector
Used to determine the density and coefficient of expansion of
Pycnometer
liquids
Pyrheliometer Used to measure components of solar radiation
Pyrometer Used to measurehigh temperature of distant objects
Quadrant Used to measure altitude and anglein navigation and astronomy
Used to detect the direction and range of an approaching
Radar aeroplane by using of radio waves (RADAR - Radio, Angle,
Detection and Range)
Radio micrometer Used to measure heat radiation
Radiometer Used to measure the emission of radiant energy
Refractometer Used to measure refractive indices
Salinometer Used to determine the salinity of solutions
Used by navigators to find the latitude of a place by measuring the
Sextant elevation above the horizon of the sun or another star; also used
to measure the height of very distant objects
Seismograph Used to measure the intensity of earthquake shocks
Spectroscope Used to observe or record spectra
Speedometer Used to record the speed of the vehicle
Spectroscope equipped with a calibrated scale is used to
Spectrometer measurethe position of spectral lines (Measurement of refractive
indices)
Spherometer Used to measure the curvatureof spherical objects

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Sphygmomanomete
Used to measure blood pressure
r
Stereoscope Used to view two-dimensional pictures
Stethoscope Used by doctors to hear and analyse heart and lung sounds
Stroboscope Used to view rapidly moving objects
Used to determine the speed, especially the rotational speed of a
Tachometer
shaft (used in aeroplanes and motor-boats)
A theodolite adopted to measure distances, elevations and
Tacheometer
bearings during surveys
Tangent
Used to measure the strength of direct current
galvanometer
Telemeter Used to record physical happenings at a distance place
Used to send and receive typed messages from one place to
Teleprinter
another
Telescope Used to view distant objectsin space
Thermometer Used to measure temperature
Thermostat Used to regulate temperature at a particular point
Tonometer Used to measure the pitch of sound
Transponder Used to receive signals and transmits a reply immediately
Udometer Used to measure the quantity of precipitation
Used to measure and use ultrasonic sounds (beyond hearing); used
Ultrasonoscope for making an Ecogram to detect brain tumours, heart defects and
abnormal growth
Venturimeter Used to measure the rate of flow of liquids
Vernier caliper Used to measure small sub-division of scale
Viscometer Used to measure the viscosity of liquid
Voltmeter Used to measure electric potential difference between two points
Wattmeter Used to measure the power of an electric circuit
Wavemeter Used to measure the wavelength of a radio wave

of electrons and holes (appeared due to

deficiency of electrons) in the form of
ELECTRONICS
electric current.

Introduction Diode valve

Electronics is the branch of physics and • Designed by J.A. Fleming in 1904, a

technology concerned with the behaviour diode valve consists of two electrodes
and movement of electrons. In electronics placed inside an evacuated glass envelope.
circuits, the operation depends on the flow

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• One electrode is called a cathode which behaves as an insulator in that condition.

is made up of tungsten on which there is a But when temperature of a semiconductor
thin layer of barium oxide. increases, then it has free electrons and
can behave as a conductor. Material such
• When heated, the cathode emits
as Si, Ge, As etc. are semiconductors.
electrons.
Types of semiconductors
• These electrons flow towards the other
electrode called anode or plate, which is at Intrinsic semiconductor
positive potential. A semiconductor in an extremely pure
• As a result, an electric current is form is known as intrinsic semiconductor.
established in the circuit. Extrinsic semiconductor
• The electrons emitted from the cathode If a measured and small amount of
are collected in the evaluated space chemical impurity is added to intrinsic
around it.
semiconductor, it is called extrinsic
• This collection of electrons is called semiconductor or doped semiconductor.
space charge, which is obviously negative.
As a result of doping, there is a large
• The diode valve acts as a rectifier. increase in its conductivity.
• Rectifier is a device which converts an
Note
alternating voltage into direct voltage.
• The impurity atoms added to pure or
Triode valve
intrinsic semiconductor are called dopants.
• Designed by Lee de Forest in 1907,
triode valve is a modified form of usual • In semiconductors, electrons in the
diode. valence shell are bound electrons which
cannot move. Hence, they cannot conduct
• It consists of a usual anode – cathode
any charge.
pair and one more electrode called control
grid. Types of extrinsic semiconductors
• Triode valve can be used as an amplifier,
On the basis of doped impurity, extrinsic
oscillator, transmitter and detector.
semiconductors are of two types:
Semiconductor
N-type semiconductor
Semiconductors are those materials whose
An extrinsic semiconductor in which
electrical conductivity at room
electrons are majority charge carriers is
temperature, lies in between that of
called N-type semiconductor.
insulator and conductor.
Such a semiconductor is made by doping a
Germanium and silicon are two important
pure semiconductor with pentavalent
semiconductors. In a crystal lattice of
impurities like Arsenic, Antimony and
semiconductor, some of the electrons
Phosphorus.
become free from bond formation.

In this type of material, there are no free

electrons at normal temperature. So, it

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P-type semiconductor other components in the circuit as shown

An extrinsic semiconductor in which holes in the fig.
are the majority charge carriers is called a
P-type semiconductor.

Such a semiconductor is made by doping a

pure semiconductor with trivalent
impurities like Gallium, Indium, Boron and
Aluminium. Transistor

Doping Types of Transistor

Adding a chemical impurity to a pure There are two types of transistors. They are
semiconductor is called doping. The NPN transistor and PNP transistor.
amount and type of impurity are closely
NPN transistor consists of a very thin slice
controlled.
of p-type semiconductors and wiched
Donor: Pentavalent impurities are called between two small blocks of n-type
donors. semiconductor. The left side of the
semiconductor is called the emitter, the
Acceptor: Trivalent impurities are called
semiconductor is called the collector and
acceptors.
the middle layer is called the base.
The electrical conductivity of a
PNP transistor consists of a thin slice of n-
semiconductor increases with the increase
type semiconductor sandwiched between
in temperature.
two small blocks of p-type semiconductor.
Definition of a hole: When an electron is The three terminals are named as the
excited, covalent bond is broken. Now emitter (E), the base (B) and the collector
octet rule will not be satisfied. Thus, each (C). It is used as an amplifier in the circuits.
excited electron leaves a vacancy to
Classification of Transistors
complete bonding. This deficiency of
electron is termed as a ‘hole’ There are a variety of transistors available
in today's market including Bipolar,
Note Darlington, IGBT and MOSFET Transistors.
The n-type and p-type semiconductors are
• Bipolar Transistor: A Bipolar Junction
neutral, as we are doping neutral atoms to
Transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal
the intrinsic semiconductors.
electronic device made of doped
Transistor semiconductor material and may be used
Transistor is a semiconductor device that is in amplifying or switching applications.
used to amplify the signals as well as in Bipolar transistors are so named, because
switching circuits. Generally, a transistor is their operation involves both electrons and
made of solid material which contains holes. A bipolar transistor will have
three terminals such as Emitter (E), Base terminals like the emitter, collector and
(B) and Collector (C) for connections with base. A small current at the base terminal
(passing from the base to the emitter) can
modify or switch a much larger current

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between the collector and emitter Basic logic gates using discrete
terminals. components.

• Darlington Transistor: The Darlington The basic elements that make up a digital
Transistor is actually two bipolar system are ‘OR’, ‘AND’ and ‘NOT’ gates.
These three gates are called basic logic
transistors, connected in such a way that
gates. All the possible inputs and outputs
the current amplified by the first transistor of a logic circuit are represented in a table
is amplified even further by the second called truth table.
one. This model offers a higher common-
a) OR Gate
emitter current gain than if both types of
transistors are separated and can even An OR gate has two or more inputs with
take up less space because both transistors one output. The logic symbol and truth
table are shown in the following [Link]
can share a collector.
output Y is 1 when either input A or input
• IGBT Transistor: An Insulated Gate B or both are 1s, that is, if any of the input
Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) is a three- is high, the output is high.
terminal power semiconductor device
typically used as an electronic switch.
IGBT's are types of transistors that are
capable of switching electric power in
many modern appliances such as electric
cars, trains, variable speed refrigerators,
air-conditioners and even stereo systems
with switching amplifiers.

• MOSFET Transistor: A Metal-Oxide-

Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor
(MOSFET) is used in integrated circuits to (a) Logic symbol (b) Truth table of OR gate
control the conductivity of a channel.
AND Gate
MOSFETs are highly dependent on
negative and positive charges. They have An AND gate has two or more inputs and
many purposes, including limiting a one output. The output Y of AND gate is 1
device's power levels, storing data and only when input A and input B are both 1.
being used as a switch for a wide variety of The logic symbol and truth table for this
electronic devices. gate are given in the following fig.

Applications of Transistors
• A Transistor is used as
• An amplifier
• A switch
• Integrated circuits
• Logical Gates

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(a)

(a) Logic symbol

(b) Truth table of AND gate

NOT Gate
This is the most basic gate, with one input (a) Logic symbol (b) Truth table of NOR gate
and one output. It produces a ‘1’ output if NAND Gate
the input is ‘0’ and vice-versa. That is, it
This is an AND gate followed by a NOT gate.
produces an inverted version of the input
If inputs A and B are both ‘1’, the output Y
at its output. This is why it is also known as
is not ‘1’. The gate gets its name from this
an inverter. The commonly used symbol
NOT-AND behaviour. The figure shows the
together with the truth table for this gate
symbol and truth table of NAND gate.
is given in the fig.

Input Output
A Y
O 1
1 0
(b)

(a) Logic symbol

(b) Truth table of NOT gate (a) Logic symbol, (b) Truth table of NAND
gate
NOR Gate
It has two or more inputs and one output. EX-OR GATE
A NOT operation applied after OR gate The XOR gate (sometimes EOR gate or EX-
gives a NOT-OR gate (or simply NOR gate). OR gate and pronounced as Exclusive OR
Its output Y is ‘1’ only when both inputs A gate) is a digital logic gate that gives a true
and B are ‘0’, i.e. neither one input nor the (1 or HIGH) output when the number of
other is ‘1’. The symbol and truth table for true inputs is odd. An XOR gate implements
NOR gate is given in the fig. an exclusive or; that is, a true output
results if one and only one of the inputs to
the gate is true.

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Power Amplifiers
The purpose of the power amplifiers is to
increase the power, i.e. the product of
Input Output output voltage and current is greater than
A B Y the product of input voltage and current.
0 0 0 Either the voltage or current at the output
0 1 1 may be less than the input, the overall
1 0 1 voltage or current product will be greater
1 1 0 than the input. When an AC signal is
(b) applied to the amplifier, only a part of it is
amplified.
(a) Logic symbol (b) Truth table of EX-OR
gate Applications of Amplifier
• Early every radio receiver and probably
Amplifier
TV as well, uses multistage amplifiers in the
An amplifier is an electronic device that IF stage to narrow the bandwidth and
increases the voltage, current or power of improve the amplitude before
a signal. Amplifiers are used in wireless demodulation.
communications and broadcasting and
audio equipment of all kinds. • Nearly every audio system uses a low
power gain stage, (often two or three to
There are three categories of amplifiers compensate for the loss in tone equaliser
depending on the property of their output. controls), before the power stage that
• Voltage Amplifier drives the loudspeakers.
• Current Amplifier • Multistage amplifiers are used to boost
• Power Amplifier very weak signals to usable levels.
Voltage Amplifiers Amplifying the signal in stages also helps to
minimise distortion. These days pretty
The voltage amplifier is a form of the
much any electronic device that processes
common emitter amplifier, which relies on
radio or digital electrical signals will
the transistor; the amplification of voltage
incorporate a multistage amplifier.
is dependent on the ratio of resistors on
the collector and emitter of this transistor. Rectifier

Current Amplifiers A rectifier is an electrical device that

converts an Alternating Current (AC) into a
The current amplifier is an electronic
Direct Current (DC) by using one or more
circuit that increases the magnitude
P–N junction diodes as given in the figure.
of current of an input signal by a fixed
multiple and feeds it to the succeeding
circuit/device. This process is termed
as current amplification of an input signal.

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Rectifier

TYPES OF RECTIFIERS

The rectifiers are mainly classified into two

types:
• Half Wave Rectifier
• Full Wave Rectifier

Half Wave Rectifier

The half wave rectifier is a type of rectifier
which converts half of the AC input signal
(positive half cycle) into pulsating DC
output signal and the remaining half signal
(negative half cycle) is blocked or lost. In
half wave rectifier circuit, we use an single
diode. (a) Full wave rectifier circuit
(b) Input and Output Waveforms

Applications of Rectifier
• Rectifiers derive DC power from an AC
supply (AC to DC converter). Virtually, all
the electronic devices require DC, so
rectifiers are used inside the power
supplies of virtually all electronic
equipment.

Converting DC power from one voltage to

another is much more complicated. One
method of DC to DC conversion first
(a) Circuit Diagram of Half Wave Rectifier converts power to AC (using a device called
(b) Input and Output Waveforms an inverter), then uses a transformer to
change the voltage and finally rectifies
Full Wave Rectifier power back to DC. A frequency of typically
The full wave rectifier is a type of rectifier several tens of kilohertz is used, as this
which converts the full AC input signal requires much smaller inductance than at
(positive half cycle and negative half cycle) lower frequencies and obviates the use of
to pulsating DC output signal. Unlike the heavy, bulky and expensive iron-cored
half wave rectifier, the input signal is not units.
wasted in full wave rectifier. The efficiency
• Rectifiers are also used for the detection
of full wave rectifier is high as compared to
of amplitude modulated radio signals. The
the half wave rectifier.
signal may be amplified before detection.

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If not, a very low voltage drop diode or a • Flow – Electromagnetic, differential

diode biased with a fixed voltage must be pressure, positional displacement, thermal
used. When using a rectifier for mass, etc.
demodulation, the capacitor and load • Proximity and displacement - LVDT,
resistance must be carefully matched; low photoelectric, capacitive, magnetic and
capacitance makes the high-frequency ultrasonic
carrier pass to the output, and high • Biosensors - Resonant mirror,
capacitance makes the capacitor just electrochemical, surface plasmon
charge and stay charged. resonance and light addressable
potentiometric.
• Rectifiers supply polarised voltage for • Image - Charge-coupled devices and
welding. In such circuits,control of the CMOS
output current is required; this is • Gas and chemical - Semiconductor,
sometimes achieved by replacing some of infrared, conductance and
the diodes in bridge-rectifiers with electrochemical.
thyristors,effectively diodes whose voltage • Acceleration – Gyroscopes and
output can be regulated by switching on accelerometers.
and off with phase fired controllers. • Others - Moisture, humidity sensor,
speed sensor, mass, tilt sensor, force
• Thyristors are used in various classes of differential pressure, ultrasonic radio
railway rolling stock systems so that fine frequency, radar, thermal displacement
control of the traction motors can be and viscosity.
achieved. A Gate turn-off thyristors is used Surface plasmon resonance and light
to produce alternating current from a DC addressable potentiometric from the Bio-
supply.e.g. On the Eurostar trains to power sensors group are the new optical
the three-phase traction motors. technology-based sensors. CMOS Image
Sensors sensors have low resolution as compared
to charge-coupled devices. CMOS has the
Sensors are sophisticated devices that are
advantages of being small in size, cheap,
frequently used to detect and respond to
less power consuming and hence are
electrical or optical signals. A sensor
better substitutes for charge-coupled
converts physical parameters
[Link] are independently
(temperature, blood pressure, humidity,
grouped,because of their vital role in
speed, etc.) into a signal which can be
future applications like aircraft,
measured electrically.
automobiles, etc. and fields of
Classification based on property is as videogames, toys, etc. Magnetometers are
given below: those sensors which measure magnetic
As
flux intensity B (in units of Tesla or (m2).
• Temperature – Thermistors,
thermocouples, RTD’s, IC, etc. Classification based on Application
• Pressure – Fiber optics, vacuum, elastic • Industrial process control,
liquid-based manometers, LVDT, electronic measurement and automation

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• Non-industrial use – Aircraft, medical Remote sensing is a method of obtaining

products, automobiles, consumer information or data about an
electronics, other type of sensors. object without physically coming in
contact with that object.
Sensors can be classified based on power
or energy supply requirement of the This data collected can be of various
sensors: forms like variations in —

Active Sensors – • Soundwave distributions and

Sensors that require a power supply are • Force distributions.
called active sensors. e.g. LIDAR (Light
detection and ranging), photoconductive
I M PO R T A N T IN VE N T IO N S IN
cells
P H Y S IC S
Passive Sensors – Sensors that do not
require a power supply are called passive
sensors. e.g. Radiometers, film Inventions Inventors
photography Aeroplane Wright brothers
In the current and future applications, Balloon Michael Faraday
sensors can be classified as follows:
Bicycle K. Macmillan
Accelerometers –These are based on the Computer Charles Babbage
Micro Electro-mechanical sensor
technology. They are used for patient Diesel engine Rudolf Diesel
monitoring which includes pace-makers Alfred Bernhard
Dynamite
and vehicle dynamic systems. Nobel
Dynamo Michael Faraday
Biosensors – These are based on
electrochemical technology. They are used Electric lamp Thomas Alva Edison
for food testing, medical care devices,
Electric iron H.W. Seeley
water testing and biological warfare agent
detection. Fountain pen L.E. Waterman
Jet engine Frank Whittle
Image Sensors – These are based on CMOS
technology. They are used in consumer Lift E.G. Otis
electronics, biometrics, traffic and security James Edward
surveillance and PC imaging. Microphone
Maceo West
Motion Detectors – These are based on Microscope Z. Jansen
infra-red, ultrasonic and microwave / radar Gottlieb Daimler
technology. They are used in videogames Motorcycle and Wilhelm
and simulations, light activation and Maybach
security detection.
Nylon Dr. W.H. Carothers
Remote Sensing
Printing press J. Gutenberg

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Dr. A.H. Taylor and 1 mile 1.60 km

Radar
L.C. Young 1 fathom 6 ft
Radio G. Marconi 1 mile 8 furlong
J. Harrison and A. 1 feet (ft) 12 inch
Refrigerator 1 yard 3 ft
Catlin
Rubber 37° C 98.6° F
Charles Goodyear
(Vulcanised) 50° C 122° F
Rubber −40° C −40° F
Charles Macintosh
(Waterproof) 32° F 0° C
1 British Thermal
Scooter G. Bradshaw 1055 J
Unit
Spinning jenny James Hargreaves 1 erg 1 x 10-7 J
1 hectare 1 x 104 m2
Steam engine
James Watt 1 hp 745.7 W
(Condenser)
1 dyne 1 x 10-5 N
Stainless steel Harry Brearley
1 poise 0.1 kgm-1s-1
Alexander Graham
Telephone
Bell
SI UNITS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITY
Telescope Galileo Galilei UNITS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITY
John Logie Baird
Television and Philo Quantity SI Unit Symbol
Farnsworth Length Metre m
Daniel Gabriel
Thermometer Mass Kilogram kg
Fahrenheit
Time Second s
Bardeen and
Transistor Work and
Shockley Joule J
Energy
Typewriter C.L. Sholes Electric
Ampere A
current
Watch Peter Henlein Temperature Kelvin K
Intensity of
X-ray Wilhelm Roentgen Candela Cd
flame
Zip fastener W.L. Judson Angle Radian Rad
Solid angle Steradian Sr
Tractor J. Froelich Force Newton N
Square
Area m2
metre
Volume Cubic metre m3
C O N VE R SI O N O F U N IT S Metre per
Speed ms-1
second
1 inch 2.54 cm Radian per
Angle velocity rads-1
second
1 feet 0.3 m
Frequency Hertz Hz
1 yard 0.91 m

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Kilogram per Important Discoveries in Physics

Moment of
square kgm-2 Discovery Scientist
inertia
metre Laws of motion Newton
Kilogram Laws of
Momentum metre per kgms-1 electrostatic Coulomb
second attraction
Newton Atom John Dalton
Impulse Ns
second Photography
Kilogram J. Niepce
(on metal)
Angular square Law of electric
kgm2s-1 G.S. Ohm
momentum metre per resistance
second Law of floatation Archimedes
Pressure Pascal Pa Electromagnetic
Michael Faraday
Power Watt W induction
Surface Newton per Photography
Nm-1 W.H. Fox Talbot
tension metre (on paper)
Newton Periodic table Dmitri Mendeleev
second per Radioactivity Henry Becquerel
Viscosity Nsm-2 Electron J.J. Thomson
square
metre Radium Madam Curie
Watt per Quantum theory Max Planck
Thermal Wm-1 Wireless
metre Marconi
conductivity k-1 telegram
-kelvin
Joule per Diode bulb Sir J.S. Fleming
Specific heat Photoelectric
kilogram per Jkg-1K-1 Albert Einstein
capacity effect
Kelvin
Electric charge Coulomb C Principle of
Albert Einstein
relativity
Potential
Volt V Triode bulb Lee De Forest
difference
Neil Bohr and
Electric Atomic structure
Ohm Ω Rutherford
resistance
Proton Rutherford
Electrical
Farad F Raman effect C.V. Raman
capacity
Neutron James Chadwick
Magnetic
Henry H Nuclear reactor Enrico Fermi
induction
Law of
Magnetic flux Weber Wb electrolytic Faraday
Luminous flux dissociation
or Thermionic
Lumen Lm Edison
photometric emission
power
Intensity of Lenses
Lux Cd
illumination A lens is an optically transparent medium
Wavelength Angstrom Å bounded by two spherical refracting
Astronomical surfaces or one plane and one spherical
Light year Au
distance surface.
Lens is basically classified into two types.

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They are, Images Formed due to Refraction through

a Convex and Concave Lens
• Convex Lens
• Concave Lens Convex lens

1) Convex or Bi-convex lens The lens which is thicker at the centre and
thinner at the end is called convex lens.
It is a lens bounded by two spherical
surfaces such that it is thicker at the centre The centres of these spheres are called
than at the edges. A beam of light passing centres of curvature of the lens. The centre
through it is converged to a point. So, a of curvature of a lens is usually
convex lens is also called a converging lens. represented by the letter ‘C’. Since there
When a lens is thicker in the middle than at are two centres of curvature, we may
the edges, it is called a convex lens or a represent them as C1 and C2.
converging lens. An imaginary straight line passing through
2) Concave or Bi-concave lens the two centres of curvature of a lens is
called its principal axis. The central point of
It is a lens bounded by two spherical a lens is its optical centre. It is usually
surfaces such that it is thinner at the centre represented by the letter ‘O’. A ray of light
than at the edges. A parallel beam of light through the optical centre of a lens passes
passing through it is diverged or spread without suffering any deviation. The
out. So, a concave lens is also called a effective diameter of the circular outline of
diverging lens. a spherical lens is called its aperture.
Other Types of Lenses Nature, position and relative size of the
Plano-convex lens: If one of the faces of a image formed by a convex lens for various
bi-convex lens is a plane, it is known as a positions of the object.
plano-convex lens
Plano-concave lens: If one of the faces of a
bi-concave lens is a plane, it is known as a
plano-concave lens

Image Formation due to Refraction

Position of Image, Relative Size and Nature
of image in a Convex Lens

Position Position Relative Nature

of the of the size of of the
object image the image image

Highly Real
At At focus diminished and
infinity F2 , point Inverte
Converging and Diverging Lens sized d

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Beyond centre
Real
2F1(at Betwee ‘O’
Diminishe and
finite n F2 and
d inverte Applications of Concave Lenses
distance 2F2
d
)
• Concave lenses are used as eye lens of
Real
‘Galilean Telescope’
and
At 2F1 At 2F2 Same size
inverte • They are used in wide angle spy hole in
d doors.
Real • They are used to correct the defect of
Betwee
Beyond and vision called ‘myopia’.
n F1 and Enlarged
2F2 inverte Lens Formula
2F1
d
Infinitely Real
The lens formula gives the relationship
At focus At large or and among distance of the object (u), distance
F1 infinity highly inverte of the image (v) and the focal length (f) of
enlarged d the lens.
Betwee On the
1 1 1
n focus same It is expressed as = − .
Virtual f v u
F1 and side of
Enlarged and It is applicable to both convex and concave
optical the lens
erect
centre as the lenses.
“O” object

Concave lens
Magnification of a Lens
When the lens is thicker at the edges than
Spherical lenses produce magnification
in the middle, it is called a concave lens or
and it is defined as the ratio of the height
diverging lens.
of the image to the height of an object.
Magnification is denoted by the letter ‘m’.
If the height of the object is ‘h’ and the
height of the image is ‘h1’, then the
magnification produced by the lens is,
height of the image h1
m= =
Refraction through Concave lens height of the object h
Nature, Position and Relative Size of the If the magnification is greater than 1, we
Image Formed by a Concave Lens for get an enlarged image. On the other hand,
Various Positions of the Object if the magnification is less than 1, we get a
Position Position Relative Nature diminished image.
of the of the size of the of the
Power of a Lens
object image image image
Virtual Power of a lens is numerically defined as
At At focus Highly
and
infinity F1 diminished the reciprocal of its focal length.
erect
Between 1
Virtual P = f
At finite focus F1
Diminished and
distance and The SI unit of power of a lens is dioptre.
erect
optical

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1D is the power of a lens, whose focal Pattern of Interference

length is 1 metre.
Types of Interference of Light
−1
1D = 1m
There are two types of interference.
Differences between a Convex Lens and a
They are,
Concave Lens
• Constructive interference
Concave
[Link] Convex Lens • Destructive interference
Lens
A concave
A convex lens is lens is
thicker in the thinner in
1
middle than at the middle
the edges. than at the
edges.
It is a
It is a converging
2 diverging
lens.
lens.
It produces
It produces real
3 virtual
images mostly. Interference Types
images.
It is used to Constructive interference
It is used to treat
4 treat
hypermetropia. At some points, where the two waves meet
myopia.
in same phase, then the resultant intensity
Interference of Light
is maximum
When two light waves of exactly the same
Destructive interference
frequency and a constant phase difference
travel in the same direction and At some points, where the two waves meet
superimpose, then the resultant intensity in opposite phase, the resultant intensity is
in the region of superposition is different minimum
from the sum of the intensity of individual Prism
waves. This modification in the intensity of
light in the region of superposition is called A prism is a portion of transparent medium
bounded by two plane faces inclined to
interference of light,
each other at a suitable angle (Angle of
This modification in the intensity of light in prism). When a ray of light is incident on
the region of superposition is called the prism, it bends towards its base i.e., it
interference of light. refracts the light.

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Dispersion of white Light by a Glass Prism Diffraction of Light

Diffraction is the slight bending of light, as
it passes around the edge of an object. The
amount of bending depends on the relative
size of the wavelength of light to the size of
the opening. If the opening is much larger
than the light's wavelength, the bending
will be almost unnoticeable. However, if
the two are closer in size or equal, the
Dispersion of Light amount of bending is considerable, and
When a ray of white light is passed through can be easily seen with the naked eye.
a prism, it gets split into its constituent
colours. This phenomenon is called
dispersion of light.
The coloured pattern obtained on a screen
after dispersion of light is called the
spectrum.
Diffraction of Light
The spectrum of seven colours include
Polarisation of Light
VIBGYOR – Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green,
Yellow, Orange and Red. Polarisation is the only phenomenon which
proves that light is a transverse wave.
The dispersion is maximum for violet
colour and minimum for red colour. Light is an electromagnetic wave in which
electric and magnetic field vectors vibrate
Wavelength, Frequency and Photon
perpendicular to each other and also
Energy of VIBGYOR Colour
perpendicular to the direction of
Photo
Wavelengt Frequenc propagation. In ordinary light, the
Colour n
h y vibrations of electric field vector are in
energy
2.75– every plane perpendicular to the direction
380– 668–
Violet 3.26 e of propagation of wave.
450 nm 789 THz
V
2.50– Polarisation is the phenomenon of
450– 606–
BLUE 2.75 e restricting the vibrations of light in a
495 nm 668 THz
V particular direction in a plane
2.17–
495– 526– perpendicular to the direction of
Green 2.50 e
570 nm 606 THz propagation of wave.
V
2.10–
570– 508– Theory of Colours
Yellow 2.17 e
590 nm 526 THz
V Colour is the sensation perceived by the
2.00–
Orang 590– 484– cones in the eye due to light.
2.10 e
e 620 nm 508 THz
V Primary Colours
1.65–
620– 400–
Red 2.00 e The spectral colours blue, green and red
750 nm 484 THz
V are called primary colours because all the

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colours can be produced by mixing these in Simple Microscope

proper proportion.
This is simply a convex lens of small focal
Blue + red + Green = White length.

Secondary Colours The object to be enlarged is placed within

the focus of a lens.
The colour produced by mixing any two
primary colours is called a secondary Magnifying power of a simple microscope
colour. There are three secondary colours is given as,
yellow, magenta and cyan. D
M= 1+
Green + Red = Yellow f
Where, D = 25 cm; f = focal length of lens
Red + Blue = Magenta
Blue + Green = Cyan Compound Microscope

Yellow + magenta + Cyan = White It consists of two convex lenses coaxially

fitted in a hollow tube.
When the three secondary colours are
mixed, white colour is produced. The lens facing the object is called
objective and the lens towards the eye is
Complementary colours
called an eyepiece.
Any two colours when added, produce
white light are said to be complementary The aperture of the objective lens is
colours. Clearly, a secondary colour and smaller than that of the eye piece. Both the
the remaining primary colour are lenses are of smaller focal lengths. This
complementary colours. increases the magnifying power of the
• Red and cyan are complementary to instrument.

each other. Electron Microscope

• Blue and yellow are complementary to An electron microscope uses the beam of
ach other. accelerated electrons as a source of
illumination. As the wavelength of
• Green and magenta are complementary
electrons is shorter than that of the visible
to each other.
light, the electron microscope has higher
Microscope resolving power.

Microscope is an instrument that produces Telescope

enlarged images of small objects, allowing
Telescopes are used to view distant objects
the observer an exceedingly close view of
which are not visible to the naked eye. It
minute structures at a scale convenient for
can be divided as astronomical telescope
examination and analysis. It can be divided
as simple, compound and electron and Galilean telescope.
microscope. Astronomical Telescope

It consists of two convex lenses placed

coaxially in a hollow tube.

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The lens facing the object is called Retina: This is the back surface of the eye.
objective and the lens towards the eye is It is the most sensitive part of the human
eye, on which real and inverted image of
called an eyepiece.
objects is formed.
In an astronomical telescope, the objective Eye Lens: It is an important part of the
lens is a convex lens of large focal length, human eye. It is convex in nature.
but the eyepiece is a convex lens of short
Ciliary muscles: Eye lens is fixed between
focal length. the ciliary muscles. It helps to change the
f
Magnifying power = fo (1+ De )
f focal length of the eye lens according to
e
the position of the object.
Galilean Telescope
The objective lens is a convex lens of large
focal length, but the eyepiece is a concave
lens of short focal length.

Human Eye
The human eyes are the most valuable and
sensitive organs responsible for vision.
They are the gateway to the wonderful
world. Structure of Human Eye
Structure of the eye Working of the Eye
The eyeball is approximately spherical in The transparent layer cornea bends the
shape with a diameter of about 2.3 cm. It light rays through the pupil located at the
consists of a tough membrane called centre part of the Iris. The adjusted light
sclera, which protects the internal parts of passes through the eye lens. Eye lens is
the eye. Important parts of the human eye convex in nature. So, the light rays from the
Cornea: This is the thin and transparent objects are converged and a real and
layer on the front surface of the eyeball. It inverted image is formed on the retina.
is the main refracting surface. When light Then, the retina passes the received real
enters through the cornea, it refracts or and inverted image to the brain through
bends the light onto the lens. optical nerves. Finally, the brain senses it
as an erect image.
Iris: It is the coloured part of the eye. It may
be blue, brown or green in colour. Every Persistence of Vision
person has a unique colour, pattern and
If the time interval between two
texture. It controls the amount of light 1
consecutive light pulses is less than
entering into the pupil like camera 16

aperture. second, the human eye cannot distinguish

them separately. It is called persistence of
Pupil: It is the centre part of the Iris. It is
vision.
the pathway for the light to enter into
retina.

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Defects of Vision and their Correction Myopic Eye and its Correction
There are mainly four common refractive Hypermetropia
defects of vision. These are,
Hypermetropia, also known as long-
• Myopia or near-sightedness, sightedness, occurs due to the shortening
• Hypermetropia or far-sightedness of eyeball. With this defect, distant objects
• Presbyopia can be seen clearly but nearby objects
• Astigmatism cannot be seen clearly. The focal length of
eye lens is increased or the distance
Myopia
between the eye lens and retina decreases.
Myopia is also known as near-sightedness. Hence, the near point will not be at 25 cm
A person with myopia can see nearby for such eyes and the near point has moved
objects clearly but cannot see distant farther. Due to this, the image of nearby
objects distinctly. A person with this defect objects is formed behind the retina.
has the far point nearer than infinity. Such
a person may see clearly upto a distance of
only a few metres.

Causes
In a myopic eye, the image of a distant
object is formed in front of the retina and
not at the retina itself.
This defect may arise due to,
• Excessive curvature of the eye lens.
• Elongation of the eyeball.
Remedy
This defect can be corrected by using a
concave lens of suitable power.
Hypermetropic Eye and its Correction

Causes
This is because the light rays from close-by
object are focussed at a point behind the
retina.
This defect arises either because
• the focal length of the eye lens is too
long, or
• the eyeball has become too small.

Remedy
This defect can be corrected by using a
convex lens of appropriate power.

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Presbyopia person loses his power of vision partially or

completely.
The power of accommodation of the eye
usually decreases with ageing. For most This defect can be removed by removing
people, the near point gradually recedes the membrane through surgery.
away. They find it difficult to see nearby Atomic Structure
objects comfortably and distinctly without
corrective eyeglasses. This defect is called Atom was considered the smallest particle
Presbyopia. up to the 19th century. A series of

Causes experiments were performed to reveal the

It arises due to the gradual weakening of structure of the atom as well as to explain
the ciliary muscles and diminishing its important properties.
flexibility of the eye lens.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
Remedy
In 1808, John Dalton published ‘A new
Sometimes, a person may suffer from both system of chemical philosophy’ in which he
myopia and hypermetropia. Such people proposed the following theory:
often require bi-focal lenses.
• Matter consists of indivisible atoms.
A common type of bi-focal lenses consists
• All the atoms of a given element have
of both concave and convex lenses. The identical properties including identical
upper portion consists of a concave lens. It
mass. Atoms of different elements differ in
facilitates distant vision. The lower part is a
mass.
convex lens. It facilitates near vision.
• Compounds are formed when atoms of
These days, it is possible to correct the different elements combine in a fixed ratio.
refractive defects with contact lenses or • Chemical reactions only involve
through surgical interventions. reorganisation of atoms. The atoms are
neither created nor destroyed in a
Astigmatism
chemical reaction.
In this defect, the eye cannot see parallel • Dalton’s atomic theory could explain
and horizontal lines clearly. It may be the law of chemical combination.
inherited or acquired. It is due to the
Advantages of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
imperfect structure of eye
• Dalton’s theory explains most of the
lens because of the development of
properties of gases and liquids.
cataract on the lens, ulceration of cornea,
injury to the refracting surfaces, etc. • This explains the law of chemical
combination and the law of conservation
Remedy
of mass.
Astigmatism can be corrected by using
• This theory helps to recognise the
cylindrical lenses.
molecular differences of elements and
Cataract compounds.
In this defect, an opaque, white membrane
is developed on the cornea, due to which a

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Limitations of Dalton’s Atomic Theory • Fermi (1934): Discovered antineutrino

• Atom is no longer considered as the • Hideki Yukawa (1935): Discovered
smallest indivisible particle. mesons
• Segre (1955): Discovered antiproton
• Atoms of the same element have
• Cork and Association (1956): Discovered
different masses (Isotopes).
antineutron
• Atoms of the different elements may
have the same masses (Isobars). Progress of Atomic Models

• Substances made up of the same kind of • In 1808, John Dalton proposed the
atoms may have different properties. atomic theory. He suggested that atoms
(Coal, graphite and diamond are made up were indivisible solid spheres.
of carbon atoms, but they differ in their • J. J. Thomson proposed that, an atom
properties.) was a solid sphere of positively
charged material and negatively charged
Chronology of Atomic Structure
particles and electrons were embedded in
• Dalton (1808): Discovery of atom it like the seeds of a guava fruit.
• Julius Plucker (1858): First discoverer of • Drawbacks: Although the Thomson
cathode rays model explained that atoms are electrically
• Eugen Goldstein (1886): Discovered neutral, the results of experiments carried
anode rays and protons out by other scientists like the α-particle
• Rutherford (1891): Discovered nucleus scattering experiment could not be
and proposed atomic model explained by this model.
• Sir. J. J. Thomson (1897): Discovered • Rutherford proposed a model of the
electron and determined charge/mass atom which is known as nuclear atomic
(e/m) ratio for electron model. This model is similar to the solar
• Max Planck (1901): Proposed quantum system; the nucleus representing the sun
theory of radiation and revolving electrons as planets. The
• Robert Millikan (1909): Determined electrons are therefore, generally referred
charge of an electron to as planetary electrons.
• H. G. J. Mosely (1913): Discovered • Drawbacks: According to the theory, the
atomic number revolving electron would lose energy,
• Niels Bohr (1913): Proposed a new comes closer and closer to the nucleus and
model of atom finally fall into the nucleus. If this were so,
• Clark Maxwell (1921): Electromagnetic the atom should be highly unstable. But we
wave theory know that atoms are quite stable, so this
• De-Broglie (1923): Established wave model was discarded.
nature of particles • In 1913, Neils Bohr proposed that
• Pauli (1927): Discovery of neutrino electrons revolve around the nucleus in a
• Werner Heisenberg (1927): Uncertainty definite orbit with a particular energy.
Principle Based on the facts obtained from
• James Chadwick (1932): Discovery of the spectra of a hydrogen atom, he
neutron introduced the concept of energy levels of
• Anderson (1932): Discovery of positron atoms.

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• In 1916, Sommerfeld modified Bohr’s • Charge of an electron is −1.6×10-19 C.

model by introducing elliptical orbits for (By Millikan oil drop experiment)
electron path. He defined sub-energy
levels for every major energy level
predicted by Bohr.
• The concept of quantum numbers was
introduced to distinguish the orbitals on
the basis of their size, shape and
orientation in space by using principal,
azimuthal, magnetic and spin quantum
numbers.
Discovery of Anode Rays and Protons (1H1
• From the study of quantum numbers,
or P)
various rules are put forward for filling of
electrons in various orbitals by following: • Even before the electron was identified,
▪ Aufbau principle Eugen Goldstein in 1886 discovered the
presence of new radiations in a gas
▪ Pauli’s exclusion principle
discharge and called them canal rays.
▪ Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity
• These rays were discovered by
• In 1921, Burry and Bohr gave a scheme Goldstein. (Also called positive rays)
for the arrangement of electrons in an
• These do not originate from the anode.
atom. Further, the nature of electron(s) is
studied. • These are positively charged and have a
velocity less than cathode rays.
Fundamental Particles of an Atom
• Proton was discovered by Eugen
Discovery of Cathode Rays and Electrons (- Goldstein.
0
1e )
• It is positively charged.
• Electron was discovered in cathode rays
experiment by J. J. Thomson in 1897. In this • It is present in the nucleus.
experiment, when the pressure of a • It has a charge +1.6×10-19 C and mass 1.
discharge tube maintained at high 672×10-27 kg or 1. 00763 amu.
potential is reduced to 10-6 atm, a stream
• It has mass 1836 times that of the
of negatively charged particles called the
electron.
electrons, is originated from the cathode.
These rays were called cathode rays.
• These rays were discovered by Sir Julius
Plucker.
• Electron was discovered by J. J.
Thomson. Its antiparticle is positron.
• Mass of an electron is 9. 11×10-31 kg or
0. 000543 amu. (By J. J. Thomson)

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electrons that move around the nucleus

with a very high speed in circular paths
called orbits.
• It contains protons and neutrons which
are collectively called nucleons.
Characteristics of an Atom
Atomic Number (Z)
• It is defined as the number of protons
Discovery of Neutron (0n1)
present in the nucleus of an atom. It is
• The positive charge of a nucleus is due denoted by Z.
to the positively charged particles called
• The number of electrons is equal to the
protons. But the mass of the nucleus is not
number of protons in an atom, so as to
due to protons alone. There is another sub-
maintain the electrical neutrality of the
atomic particle called neutron.
atom.
• It was discovered by Chadwick.
• Atomic number (Z) = Number of protons
• It has zero charge and a mass of in the nucleus = Number of electrons in an
1.674×10-17 kg or 1.00867 u. atom.
• It is present inside the nucleus. Its Mass Number (A)
antiparticle is antineutrino.
The total number of protons and neutrons
• Hydrogen is the only atom in which or total number of nucleons present in the
neutrons are not present. nucleus of an atom is termed as mass
number. It is denoted by A.
• Electromagnetic forces bind the
electrons with the nucleus. Mass number = Number of protons +
Number of neutrons
• Atoms having the same number of
electrons and protons are neutral. Mass number = Atomic number + Number
of neutrons
• If the number of electrons are less than
that of protons, the atom carries a positive Different Atomic Species
charge and if electrons are more than that • Isotopes
of protons, the atom carries a negative
charge. • Isotopes of an element are defined as
the atoms of an element having the
Discovery of Nucleus same atomic number but different mass
• This model was based upon the 𝛼- number.
particle scattering experiment and • Example: Isotopes of hydrogen, i.e. 1H1
suggests that most of the part of an atom (Protium), 1H2 or D (deuterium) and 1H3 or
is empty. T (tritium). T is radioactive.
• It also suggests that the entire mass of • Polonium has the maximum number of
an atom is concentrated in its centre at the isotopes.
nucleus. The nucleus is surrounded by

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• Hydrogen (H-1) is the lightest isotope The wavelength of the wave associated
and lead-208 is the heaviest isotope (with with any material particle was calculated
mass 207.974). by analogy with photons.

• Isobars λ = h / mv

• Isobars of an element are defined as the or

atoms of different elements having the λ=h/p
same mass number but different atomic
Where,
number.
mv = p is the momentum of the particle.
Example: 18Ar40, 19K40, 20Ca40 are isobars.
The above equation is called the de Broglie
• Isotones
equation and ‘λ’ is called the
• These are the atoms of chemically de Broglie wavelength.
different elements having the same
Thus, the significance of de Broglie’s
number of neutrons but different mass
equation lies in the fact that it relates the
number as well as atomic numbers.
particle character with the wave character
• Example: 11Na23, 12Mg24 because they of matter. Louis de Broglie’s concept of
have (24 – 12 = 12) and (23 – 11 = 12) dual nature of matter finds application in
neutrons, 15P31 and 14Si30 as each have 16 the construction of electron microscope
neutrons. and in the study of surface structure of
Planck’s Quantum Theory solids by electron diffraction.

According to Planck’s quantum theory, The de-Broglie’s concept can be applied

not only to electrons but also to other
• Different atoms and molecules can emit
small particles like neutrons, protons,
or absorb energy in discreet quantities
atoms and molecules.
only. The smallest amount of energy that
can be emitted or absorbed in the form of The Uncertainty Principle (Heisenberg
electromagnetic radiation is known as Principle)
quantum. This principle, which is a direct
• The energy of the radiation absorbed or consequence of the dual nature of matter
emitted is directly proportional to the and radiation, states that, “it is impossible
frequency of the radiation. The energy of to measure simultaneously both the
radiation is expressed in terms of position and velocity (or momentum) of a
frequency as, microscopic particle with absolute
accuracy or certainty”. Mathematically,
E=hν the uncertainty principle can be put as,
Where, Δx. Δp ≥ h / 4π
E = energy of the radiation where,
h = Planck’s constant (6.626×10–34 J s) Δx = uncertainty in the position of the
ν = Frequency of radiation particle
De Broglie Relation

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Δp = uncertainty in the momentum of the

particle
The sign ≥ means that the product of Δx
and Δp can be either greater than or equal
to h / 4π but can never be less than h / 4π.
h is the Plancks constant.
Orbitals and Its Types
S Orbitals
Rules for Filling Electrons in the Orbitals
The s-orbitals are spherical in shape and
Hund’s Rule
have symmetrical orientation. For all
s-orbitals, there are (n-1) numbers of Every orbital in a subshell is singly occupied
spherical nodes where the probability of with one electron before any one orbital is
finding an electron is zero. doubly occupied and all the electrons in
singly-occupied orbitals have the same
P Orbitals
spin.
The p-orbitals are three in number and
dumb-bell shaped with two lobes of the
same size on each side of the nucleus. The
two lobes are separated by a plane in
which the probability of finding an electron
is zero.
D Orbitals
Aufbau Principle
The d-orbitals are five in number. Four of
these have a double dumb-bell shape The word ‘aufbau’ in German means
‘building up’. The building up of orbitals
whereas the fifth is dumb-bell in shape
means the filling up of orbitals with
with a collar of high electron density. electrons. The principle states that in the
F Orbitals ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are
filled in order of their increasing energies.
Orbitals having n=4, l=3 are called f-orbitals In other words, electrons first occupy the
and they are difficult to describe. They lowest-energy orbital available to them
have multiple complex features. For and enter into higher energy orbitals only
example, orbitals having n=4, l=3, m=0; after the lower energy orbitals are filled.
m=1; and m=-1 are shaped like dumbbells The order in which the energies of the
orbitals increase and the order in which the
again, but now with two donuts between
orbitals are filled is as follows:
the ends of the barbell, but now with two
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s,
donuts between the ends of the barbell.
4f, 5d, 6p, 7s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The other m values look like a bundle of
eight balloons, with all their knots tied
together in the centre.

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The Principal Quantum Number (n)

It describes the energy of an electron and
is always a positive integer (electron shell).
It is represented by K, L, M and N...... or 1,
2, 3, 4. . .
It shows the distance of the outer electron
from the nucleus.
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle The Azimuthal Quantum Number (l) or
The Pauli’s Exclusion Principle is the Angular Momentum Quantum Number
quantum mechanical principle which It describes the subshells and orbital
states that two or more identical fermions angular momentum of each electron.
(particles with half-integer spin) cannot
It shows the shapes of orbitals.
occupy the same quantum state within a
Example: s-orbital is spherical, p-orbital is
quantum system simultaneously. The
dumb-bell shape, d-orbital is double dumb-
maximum number of electrons in the shell
bell shape and f-orbitals have complicated
with principal quantum number n is equal
structure.
to 2n2.
It has values 0 to n-1.
It shows the distance of outer electron
from the nucleus.
If l = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …..
Subshell = s, p, d, f, g ,…..
Magnetic Quantum Number (m)
It determines the orientation of orbitals in
Quantum Numbers space or direction of an orbital in the space
The quantum numbers are the set of four of a magnetic field. Its value depends upon
numbers that give complete information the value of ‘l’. Its values vary from –l, …..,
about: 0, ……, +l. Total values of m = (2l + 1) =
number of orbitals in
The position or energy (i.e. orbit number or
a subshell(l). If l = 0, then m = 0.
shell)
(i.e. there is only 1 s-orbital).
Subshell Spin Quantum Number (s)
Orientation (i.e. orbitals of the subshell) It describes the spin of an electron in the
Spinning (i.e. direction of rotation in the orbital. (spin up or spin down)
orbital) of an electron. 1 −1
The value of s may be +2 or .
2

Important lagoons and lakes

Lakes / Lagoons Facts

• The largest lake in India.

Kolleru Lake – Andhra • Located between Krishna and Godavari delta.
Pradesh • It was declared a wetland of international importance in 2002
under Ramsar convention.

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• India’s largest inland Salt Lake.

Sambhar Lake –
• Mahabharata mentions the Sambhar Lake as part of the
Rajasthan
kingdom of the demon king Brishparva.
• Located in the town of Pushkar in Ajmer district of Rajasthan.
Pushkar Lake – • Pushkar Lake is a sacred lake of the Hindus.
Rajasthan • Thousands of pilgrims come to bath in the waters of the lake
during the festival of Kartika Poornima in November.
• The Lonar lake was formed 50,000 years ago after a meteorite
hit the Earth.
Lonar Lake –
• Recently, the colour of the Lonar lake turned pink overnight
Maharashtra
and hence, this news has been in the news.
• Some experts suggest that the pink colour might be due to the
presence of algae and low level of water.
• Second largest brackish–water lake or lagoon in India.
Pulicat Lake –Andhra • The large spindle-shaped barrier island named Sriharikota
Pradesh separates the lake from the Bay of Bengal.
• The island is home to the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, the
launch site of India’s successful first lunar space mission, the
Chandrayaan-1.
• The largest freshwater lake in North -East India.
• KeibulLamjao, the only floating national park in the world
floats over it, which is the last natural refuge of the endangered
Loktak Lake –Manipur
Sangai or Manipur brow-antlered deer.
• It is designated a wetland of international importance
under Ramsar Convention in 1990.
• Longest lake in India and the largest lake in the state of Kerala.
Vembanad Lake –
• The Nehru Trophy Boat Race is conducted in a portion of the
Kerala
lake.
• It is the largest coastal lagoon in India and the second-largest
lagoon in the world.
Chilka Lake –Odisha • Chilika Lake is the largest wintering ground for migratory birds
on the Indian sub-continent.
• It is a brackish water coastal lake.
• Dal Lake is a lake in Srinagar and is integral to tourism known
as the ‘Jewel in the crown of Kashmir’ or ‘Srinagar’s Jewel’.
Dal Lake – Jammu
• Asia’s largest Tulip garden is on the banks of Dal Lake.
Kashmir
• Mughal gardens, Shalimar Bagh and the NishatBagh are on the
banks of Dal Lake.
Nalsarovar Lake – The Nalsarovar lake and the wetlands around it were declared a
Gujarat bird sanctuary in 1969.
• Tsongmo Lake or Changu Lake is a glacial lake in the East
Tsomgo Lake – Sikkim
Sikkim.

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• The lake is the venue for the Guru Purnima festival in which
Jhakris of Sikkim assemble at the lake area to derive benefits
from the healing qualities of the lake waters.
• It is the largest lake in Kumaon region, known as the ‘lake
Bhimtal Lake –
district of India’.
Uttarakhand
• It is a ‘C’ shaped lake.
Barapani Lake – • Barapani or Umiam Lake is in Shillong.
Meghalaya • The origin of the Lake in 1965 is due to the UmiamUmtru
Hydro Electric Power Project, the first Hydel power project in the
North-east region of India.
Nainital Lake – • It is Kidney-shaped or crescent-shaped.
Uttarakhand • Situated in the Nainital district, called the Lake District of India
• Periyar Lake is formed by the construction of the dam across
the Mullaperiyar River in 1895.
Periyar Lake –Kerala
• The notable elephant reserve and a tiger reserve, Periyar
Wildlife Sanctuary is located on the banks of Periyar lake.
• The lake is in Hyderabad, built by Hazrat Hussain Shah Wali in
1562, during the rule of Ibrahim QuliQutub Shah.
Hussain Sagar Lake – • Connects the twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad.
Telengana • A major attraction at the Hussain Sagar is the 16 metre high,
350 tonnes monolithic Buddha statue on the ‘Rock of Gibraltar’
installed at the centre of the lake.
• It has been renamed after the great ornithologist, naturalist
Salim Ali Lake –
Salim Ali who is known as the birdman of India.
Aurangabad,
• Salim Ali Sarovar (lake) popularly known as Salim Ali Talab is
Maharashtra
located near Delhi Gate, opposite HimayatBagh, Aurangabad.
Kanwar Lake –Bihar • The KanwarTaal or KabarTaal Lake is Asia’s largest freshwater
oxbow lake.
• Nakki Lake is situated in the Indian hill station of Mount Abu
in the Aravalli range.
Nakki Lake – Rajasthan
• Mahatma Gandhi’s ashes were immersed in this holy lake on
12 February 1948 and Gandhi Ghat was constructed.
• Also known as The upper lake lies on the western side of the
Bhojtar Lake –Madhya
capital city of Madhya Pradesh, Bhopal.
Pradesh
• It is the largest artificial lake in Asia.
• It is the largest freshwater lake in India.
Wular Lake – Jammu
• Lake Basin was formed as a result of tectonic activity and is
Kashmir
fed by the Jhelum River.
• It is a lagoon in the Kollam district of Kerala.
Ashtamudi Lake –
• It has been registered as a wetland of international
Kerala
importance under the Ramsar convention.
• It is the second-largest brackish water lake on the Coromandel
Pulicat Lake
coast.

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• It lies on the border of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

• The barrier island of Sriharikota separates the lake from the
Bay of Bengal.

whereas the paired electrons are

TYPES OF BONDS represented by a pair of dots. Symbols
other than dots, like crosses or circles, may
Chemical Bonding be used to differentiate the electrons of
the different atoms in the molecule.
A bond holds the atoms in a molecule
together. Two or more atoms are joined
together by a force to form a stable
molecule. This force is referred to as a
chemical bond.

Octet Rule

Gilbert Newton Lewis used the knowledge

of the electronic configuration of elements
to explain ‘why atoms are joined to form
molecules’. He visualized that inert (noble) Types Of Chemical Bonds
gases have a stable electronic
configuration, while atoms of all other Scientists have recognised three different
elements have an unstable or incomplete types of bonds.
electronic configuration.
They are:
In 1916, G. N. Lewis gave the ‘electronic • Ionic or electrovalent bond
theory of valence’. This electronic theory • Covalent bond
of valence could well be named as the • Co-ordinate covalent bond
‘octet theory of valence’.
Classification of Chemical Bonding
Lewis Dot Structure

When atoms combine to form compounds,

their valence electrons involve in bonding.
Therefore, it is helpful to have a method to
depict the valence electrons in the atoms.
This can be done using the Lewis Dot
Symbol method . The Lewis dot structure
or electron-dot symbol for an atom Ionic (or) Electrovalent Bond
consists of the symbol of the element An ionic bond is a chemical bond formed by
surrounded by dots representing the the electrostatic attraction between
electrons of the valence shell of the atom. positive and negative ions. This bond is
The unpaired electron in the valence shell formed between two atoms when one or
is represented by a single electron-dot more electrons are transferred from the

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valence shell of one atom to the valence separate them. Hence ionic compounds
shell of the other atom. The atom that have high melting and boiling points.
loses electrons will form a cation (positive
• Solubility
ion) and the atom that gains electrons will
Ionic compounds are soluble in polar
form an anion (negative ion). These
solvents like water. They are insoluble in
oppositely charged ions come closer to
non-polar solvents like benzene (C6 H6) and
each other due to the electrostatic force of
carbon tetrachloride (CCl4).
attraction and thus form an ionic bond. As
the bond is between the ions, it is called an • Density, Hardness and Brittleness
ionic bond and the attractive forces being Ionic compounds have high density and
electrostatic, this bond is also called an they are quite hard because of the strong
electrostatic bond. Since the valence electrostatic force between the ions. They
concept has been explained in terms of are highly brittle.
electrons, it is also called as an
electrovalent bond. • Reactions
Ionic compounds undergo ionic reactions,
Characteristics of Ionic Compounds which are practically rapid and
The nature of bonding between the atoms instantaneous.
of a molecule is the primary factor that
determines the properties of compounds. Covalent Bond
By this way, in ionic compounds, the atoms Atoms can combine with each other by
are held together by a strong electrostatic sharing the unpaired electrons in their
force that makes the compounds to have outermost shell. Each of the two
their characteristic features. combining atoms contributes one electron
to the electron pair, which is needed for
• Physical State the bond formation and has an equal claim
These compounds are formed because of on the shared electron pair. According to
the strong electrostatic force between the Lewis concept, when two atoms form a
cations and anions, which are arranged in covalent bond between them, each of the
a well-defined geometrical pattern. Thus atoms attains the stable electronic
ionic compounds are crystalline solids at configuration of the nearest noble gas.
room temperature. Since the covalent bond is formed because
of the sharing of electrons which become
• Electrical Conductivity
common to both the atoms, it is also called
Ionic compounds are crystalline solids and
as an atomic bond.
so their ions are tightly held together. The
ions, therefore, cannot move freely and Characteristics of Covalent Compounds
they do not conduct electricity in the solid • Physical State
state. However, in a molten state, their Depending on the force of attraction
aqueous solutions conduct electricity. between covalent molecules, the bond
may be weaker or stronger. Thus a
• Melting Point
covalent compound exists in gaseous,
The strong electrostatic force between the
liquid and solid form.
cations and anions hold the ions tightly
together, so very high energy is required to

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Example: Oxygen-gas;, Water-liquid, called the acceptor atom. The coordinate

Diamond-solid. covalent bond is represented by an arrow
(→) which points from the donor to the
• Electrical Conductivity
acceptor atom.
Covalent compounds do not contain
charged particles (ions), so they are bad Characteristics of Coordinate Covalent
conductors of electricity. Compounds

• Melting Point The compounds containing coordinate

Except for a few covalent compounds covalent bonds are called coordinate
(diamond, silicon carbide), covalent compounds.
compounds have relatively low melting
• Physical State
points compared to ionic compounds.
These compounds exist as gases, liquids or
• Solubility solids.
Covalent compounds are readily soluble in
• Electrical Conductivity
non-polar solvents like benzene (C6 H6) and
Like covalent compounds, coordinate
carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). They are
insoluble in polar solvents like water. compounds also do not contain charged
particles (ions), so they are bad conductors
• Hardness and Brittleness
Covalent compounds are neither hard nor of electricity.
brittle. They are soft and waxy.
• Melting Point
• Reactions These compounds have melting and boiling
Covalent compounds undergo molecular
points higher than those of purely covalent
reactions in solutions and these reactions
are slow. compounds but lower than those of purely
ionic compounds.
Coordinate Covalent Bond
In the formation of a normal covalent • Solubility
bond, each of the two bonded atoms These compounds are insoluble in polar
contributes one electron to form the bond. solvents likewater but are soluble in non-
However, in some compounds, the polar solvents like benzene, carbon
formation of a covalent bond between two tetrachloride (CCl4) and toluene.
atoms takes place by the sharing of two
electrons, both of which come from only • Reactions
one of the combining atoms. This bond is Coordinate covalent compounds undergo
called the coordinate covalent bond or molecular reactions, which are slow.
dative bond. Mostly the lone pair of
Chemical Reactions
electrons from an atom in a molecule may
A chemical reaction is a process in which
be involved in the dative bonding. The
two or more chemical substances react
atom which provides the electron pair is
together to form new chemical substances.
called the donor atom, while the other
atom which accepts the electron pair is

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The chemical substances which undergo Burning of coal

chemical reactions are called reactants and
Coal (Carbon) reacts with oxygen to form
the chemical substances which are newly
carbon dioxide gas.
formed at the end of the reaction are
called products. C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
The major characteristics of a chemical Formation of water
reaction are the physical changes
associated with it. Gaseous molecules of hydrogen and
oxygen combine to form liquid H2O.
• Change in state
• Change in colour 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
• Evolution of gas Calcium oxide reacts vigorously with water
• Change in temperature to produce slaked lime (Calcium
Types of Chemical Reactions hydroxide), releasing a large amount of
Chemical reactions are classified into heat.
different types based on the nature of CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + Heat
reactants, products and the chemical
changes involved. Decomposition Reactions
A chemical reaction in which a single
• Combination reactions compound breaks down into two or more
• Decomposition reactions simple products is called a decomposition
• Displacement reactions reaction. Decomposition reactions are
• Double displacement reactions generally represented as:
• Redox reactions
AB → A + B
Combination Reactions

A chemical reaction in which two or more

reactants are combined together to form a
single chemical compound is called a
Here, the compound AB undergoes a
combination reaction. A combination
decomposition reaction and splits up into
reaction is otherwise known as synthesis.
two components, A and B.
The general equation for a chemical
reaction is: Examples:

▪ 2FeSO4(s) → Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g) + SO3(g)

▪ CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Examples: The decomposition reaction is of four

types based on the type of energy used for
carrying out the decomposition.

▪ Electrolysis/Electrochemical
Other Examples: decomposition

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▪ Thermal decomposition/Thermolysis Since these reactions are sensitive to light,

they can be used for forming images in
▪ Photolysis/Photochemical
black and white photography.
decomposition
Digestion of food
▪ Digestion of food
The biological decomposition reaction
Electrolysis/Electrochemical
takes place in our body. Carbohydrates
Decomposition
(starch, sugars) in our food break down to
This is a decomposition reaction in which glucose and proteins break down to form
an electric current (electrical energy) is amino acids.
used for the decomposition of reactants.
Carbohydrates → Glucose units
Example:
Protein → Amino acids

Displacement Reactions
Thermal Decomposition/Thermolysis A displacement reaction is a chemical
reaction in which a more reactive element
This is a decomposition reaction in which
displaces a less reactive element from its
heat (thermal energy) is used for the
compound. Both metals and non metals
decomposition of reactants.
can take part in displacement reactions.
Example: The general representation of a
displacement reaction is:

A + BC → AC + B
The heating of lime stone (CaCO3) liberates
carbon dioxide (CO2) and quick lime (CaO), Here, the more reactive A displaces less
which is used in the manufacturing of the reactive B from the compound BC to
cement. form AC.
Photolysis/Photochemical Decomposition The arrangement of metals on the basis of
their increasing reactivity is called
It is a decomposition reaction in which light
reactivity series or electrochemical series.
energy is used for the decomposition of
reactants. K> Na> Ca> Mg> Al> C> Zn> Fe> Sn> Pb>
When metal salts are heated, their ions H> Cu> Hg> Ag> Au
emit various colors of light. White-
coloured AgCl turns black in colour when When an iron nail (Fe) is placed in copper
kept under sunlight due to the formation sulphate solution (CuSO4), the more
of Ag. reactive iron (Fe) displaces the less reactive
copper (Cu) from CuSO4 and forms FeSO4.
Example:
• Fe + CuSO4 → Cu + FeSO4

Cu + FeSO4 → No reaction

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Copper (Cu) cannot displace iron (Fe) from Neutralisation Reaction

its solution due to the reason that copper Neutralisation reaction is a type of
is less reactive than iron. chemical reaction in which an acid and an
alkali react to form a neutral solution
Other examples:
(neither acidic nor alkaline; with a pH vlaue
• Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2 of 7) of salt and water. The water is formed
by the combination of H+ and OH-, which
More reactive zinc displaces the less are released from acid and alkali,
reactive hydrogen from HCl to form ZnCl2 respectively.
liberating H2.
Example:
• 2KI + Cl2 → 2KCl + I2
• Na+OH- + H+Cl- → NaCl + H2O
More reactive chlorine displaces less
reactive iodine from KI to form KCl (alkali) (acid) (salt) (water)
liberating I2.
The Na+ ion from NaOH combines with Cl-
Double Displacement Reactions ion from HCl and form a neutral salt of
NaCl. The H+ ion released from HCl (acid)
Double displacement reaction is a type of combines with the OH- ion released from
displacement reaction in which two NaOH combines to form water.
compounds react by mutual exchange of
their positive ions (cations) or negative Precipitation Reaction
ions (anions) to form products.
The chemical reaction in which two
The general representation for a double solutions containing soluble salts react
displacement reaction is: together to form an insoluble salt is called
a precipitation reaction. The insoluble salt
AB + CD → CB + AD formed is known as a precipitate .
Examples: Examples:
AgNO3 + NaCl → NaNO3 + AgCl • Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI → 2KNO3 + PbI2↓
• Pb2+ (NO3-)2 + 2K+I- → KNO3 + PbI2↓
When the aqueous solutions of Pb(NO3)2
and KI react , PbI2 is formed as an insoluble
precipitate along with KNO3

Oxidation and Reduction Reactions

The exchange of Ag+ and Na+ cations in
AgNO3 and NaCl leads to the formation of The chemical reaction in which the
NaNO3 and AgCl. oxidation state of reacting species
increases by losing electrons is called an
• Na2SO4 + BaCl2 → BaSO4 + 2NaCl
oxidation reaction. An oxidation reaction
The exchange of Na+ and Ba+ cations can be aided by the addition of oxygen.
between Na2SO4 and BaCl2 leads to the
The chemical reaction in which the
formation of Na2SO4 + BaCl2.
oxidation state of reacting species is

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reduced by accepting electrons is called The reactant species which lose electrons
reduction. The reduction reaction can be tend to undergo oxidation and are called
aided by the addition of hydrogen. reducing agents. The reactant species
which gain electrons tend to undergo
Examples
reduction and are called oxidising agents.
• Oxidation
2Cu + O2 → 2CuO
The addition of oxygen to Cu0 increases the
oxidation state of Cu from 0 to 2 and hence
is an example of oxidation.

• Reduction Oxidation Reactions in Daily Life

CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O In nature, the oxygen present in
The addition of hydrogen to CuO decreases atmospheric air oxidises many things,
the oxidation state of Cu from 2 to 0 and starting from metals to living tissues.
hence is an example of reduction.
• The shining surface of metals tarnishes
Characteristics of Oxidation and due to the formation of respective metal
Reduction Reactions oxides on their surfaces. This is called
corrosion.
Oxidation Reduction
Addition of Addition of • The freshly cut surfaces of vegetables and
oxygen hydrogen fruits turn brown after some time because
Removal of Removal of oxygen of the oxidation of compounds present in
hydrogen them.
Addition of non– Addition of metal
• The oxidation reaction in food materials
metal (or) (or) electropositive
that were left open for a long period is
electronegative element
responsible for the spoiling of food. This is
element
called rancidity.
Removal of Removal of non–
metal or metal (or) Oxidation Number
electropositive electronegative
element element The oxidation number of an element is
Loss of electrons Gain of electrons defined as the total number of electrons
that an atom either gains or losses in order
Redox Reactions
to form a chemical bond with another
Redox reactions are chemical reactions in atom. The oxidation number is also called
which oxidation and reduction happen the oxidation state. If the oxidation
number is positive, then it means that the
simultaneously. These reactions are atom loses electrons and if it is negative, it
characterised by the change in the means that the atom gains electrons. If it is
oxidation state of reactants due to the zero, then the atom neither gains nor loses
transfer of electrons between the reacting electrons. The sum of oxidation numbers
species. of all the atoms in the formula for a neutral
compound is Zero. The sum of oxidation

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numbers of an ion is the same as the weights of the other two

charge on that ion. A negative oxidation (Dobereiner’s Triads).
number in a compound of two unlike
Dobereiner’s Triads
atoms is assigned to the more

WEIGHT

WEIGHT

WEIGHT
ELEMENT

ELEMENT

ELEMENT
ATOMIC

ATOMIC

ATOMIC
electronegative atom.

Example:
• The oxidation number of K and Br in KBr

7
23
39

40
88
137

80
127
35. 5
Li

Cl
Na

Ca
Sr
Ba

Br
I
K
molecule is +1 and –1, respectively.

• The oxidation number of N in NH3 The properties of the middle element were
molecule is –3. in between those of the other two
members. Since Dobereiner’s relationship,
• The oxidation number of H is +1 (except
referred to as the Law of Triads, seemed to
hydrides).
work only for a few elements, it was
• The oxidation number of oxygen in most dismissed as [Link] next
cases is –2. reported attempt to classify elements was
made by a French geologist, A. E. B. de
Periodic Classification of Elements Chancourtois, in 1862.
The arrangement of elements in such a He arranged the then known elements in
way so that the elements having similar order of increasing atomic weights and
properties reappear at a regular interval is made a cylindrical table of elements to
called a periodic classification or periodic display the periodic recurrence of
arrangement of elements. properties. This also did not attract much
attention.
Dobereiner grouped the elements into
triads and said that the atomic weight and The English chemist John Alexander
properties of the middle element is the Newlands, in 1865 profounded the Law of
average of the atomic weights or Octaves. He arranged the elements in
properties of the other two elements. increasing order of their atomic weights
and noted that every eighth element had
Progress of the Periodic Table
properties similar to the first element.
The German chemist, Johann Dobereiner,
The relationship was just like every eighth
in the early 1800’s was the first to consider
note that resembles the first in octaves of
the idea of trends among properties of
music. Newlands’s Law of Octaves seemed
elements. By 1829, he noted a similarity
to be true only for elements up to calcium.
among the physical and chemical
properties of several groups of three Although his idea was not widely accepted
elements (Triads). at that time, he, for his work, was later
awarded the Davy Medal in 1887 by the
In each case, he noticed that the middle
Royal Society of London.
element of each of the triads had an atomic
weight about halfway between the atomic Newland’s Octaves

Element Li Be B C N O F

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Atomic 7 9 11 12 14 16 19 • Blank spaces are left for elements yet to
Weight
be discovered.
Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Atomic 23 24 27 29 31 32 35. 5
Weight • The series of ‘fourteen elements’
Element K Ca following lanthanum is called ‘the
Atomic 39 40 Lanthanide series’. The series of ‘fourteen
Weight
elements’ following actinium is called the
The Periodic Law, as we know it today, ‘Actinide series’.
owes its development to the Russian
• Lanthanides and actinides are placed at
chemist, Dmitri Mendeleev (1834–1907)
the bottom of the periodic table.
and the German chemist, Lothar Meyer
(1830–1895). Working independently, Limitations of Modified Mendeleev’s
both the chemists in 1869 proposed that Periodic Table
on arranging elements in the increasing • A few elements that have a higher
order of their atomic weights, similarities atomic mass were placed before those
appear in physical and chemical properties having a lower atomic mass.
at regular intervals.
Example: Argon (39.9) was placed before
Characteristics of Modified Mendeleev’s Potassium (39.1). Cobalt (58.9) was placed
Periodic Table before Nickel (58.6). Tellurium (127.9) was
placed before Iodine (126.9).
• The elements are arranged in the
increasing order of their atomic masses. • There were no provisions for placing
isotopes.
• The vertical columns are called ‘groups’
and the horizontal rows are called • Hydrogen was placed in group IA,
‘periods’. although its properties resembled
elements in group IA as well as group VIIA.
• There are ‘nine groups’ numbered from
I to VIII and 0. • Chemically dissimilar elements were
placed in the same group.
• Groups I to VII are subdivided into
subgroups A and B. Example: Alkali metals like sodium and
potassium were placed along with coinage
• There are ‘seven periods’. metals like copper, silver and gold.
• The first three periods contain 2, 8, 8 Modern Periodic Law
elements, respectively. They are called
‘short periods’. In 1913, a British physicist Henry Moseley,
showed that the atomic number is a more
• The fourth, fifth and sixth periods have fundamental property of an element than
18, 18 and 32 elements, respectively. its atomic weight. This observation led to
• The seventh period is an incomplete the development of the modern periodic
period. law. The modern periodic law states that
“the physical and chemical properties of

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the elements are periodic function of their Example: Elements of group 17 (VII A)
atomic numbers”. constitute the halogen family.

This means that when the elements are Electronic Configuration and Periodic
arranged in order of increasing atomic Table
numbers, the elements with similar
An electron in an atom is characterised by
properties recur after regular intervals.
a set of four quantum numbers and the
The periodic repetition is called periodicity.
principal quantum number (n) defines the
Periods main energy level known as the shell. The
electronic configuration of elements can
In terms of the electronic structure of the
be best studied in terms of variations in
atom, a period constitutes a series of
periods and groups of the periodic table.
elements whose atoms have the same
number of electron shells , i.e. principal s-block Elements
quantum number (n). There are seven
The elements of group 1 (alkali metals) and
periods and each period starts with a
group 2 (alkaline earth metals), which have
different principal quantum number.
ns1 and ns2 outermost electronic
configuration, belong to the s-block
elements. They are all reactive metals with
low ionization enthalpies.

The metallic character and the reactivity

increase as we go down the group. The
compounds of the s-block elements, with
the exception of those of beryllium, are
predominantly ionic.

Groups p-block Elements

A vertical column in the periodic table is The p-block elements comprise those
known as a group . A group consists of a belonging to groups 13 to 18 and together
series of elements having a similar with the s-block elements are called as the
configuration of the outer energy shell. representative elements or main group
There are eighteen vertical columns in the elements. All the orbitals in the valence
long form of the periodic table. According shell of the noble gases are completely
to the recommendations of the filled by electrons.
International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC), these groups are Preceding the noble gas family are two
numbered from 1 to 18. Previously, these chemically important groups of
were numbered from I to VII as A and B, VIII non-metals. They are the halogens (group
and zero groups elements. The elements 17) and chalcogens (group 16). These two
belonging to the same group are said to groups of elements have higher negative
constitute a family. electron gain enthalpies and readily add
one or two electrons respectively to attain
the stable noble gas configuration.

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d-block Elements (Transition Elements) halogens (that are present at the extreme
These are the elements of groups 3 to 12 in right, excluding the zero group elements)
the centre of the periodic table. These have the smallest size.
elements are characterised by filling inner
In a group, on moving down a group of
d-orbitals by electrons and are therefore
regular elements, both atomic and ionic
referred to as d-block elements.
radii increase with increasing atomic
f-block Elements (Inner-transition number, e.g. in the elements of the IA
elements) group, both covalent and ionic radii of M+
The two rows of elements at the bottom of ions increase when we pass from Li to Cs.
the periodic table are called the
Ionisation Energy (Ionisation Potential)
Lanthanides and from 58Ce – 71Lu are
called actinides. In modern terminology, ionisation energy
is known as ionisation enthalpy. The
energy required to remove an electron
from an atom is known as ionisation
enthalpy (IE). The first ionisation enthalpy
may be defined as the amount of energy
required to remove the most loosely
bound electron from the isolated gaseous
atom.

Periodicity of Properties Factors Influencing Ionisation Enthalpy

The repetition of properties of elements at The ionisation enthalpy of an atom
regular intervals is called periodicity in depends on the following factors.
properties. The periodicity is due to a
similar electronic configuration of Size of the Atom
the outermost shells. Some of the
As the distance between the electron and
properties are discussed below.
the nucleus increases (as the size of the
Atomic and Ionic Radii atom increases), the outermost electrons
The size of an atom can be visualised from are less tightly held by the nucleus. Thus, it
its atomic radius. The term atomic or ionic becomes easier to remove an outermost
radius is generally defined as the distance electron. Thus, ionisation enthalpy
between the centres of the nucleus and decreases with increases in atomic size.
the outermost shell of electrons in an atom
Charge on the Nucleus
or an ion. Example: The
atomic radius of a hydrogen atom is equal Ionisation enthalpy increases with an
74
to pm = 37 (bond distance in hydrogen increase in nuclear charge because of the
2
molecule (H2) is 74 pm). increase in the attractive force between
the nucleus and the electron.
In any period, the alkali metals (that are
present at the extreme left of the periodic Screening Effect of Inner Electrons
table) have the largest size, while the

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Ionisation enthalpy decreases when the volt per atom or kilojoules per mole of
shielding effect of inner electrons atoms.
increases. This is because when the inner Factors Influencing the Magnitude of
electron shells increase, the attraction Electron Affinity
between the nucleus and the outermost
electron decreases. The magnitude of electron affinity is
influenced by a number of factors such as
Penetration Effect of Electrons atomic size, effective nuclear charge and
screening effect by the inner electrons.
The penetration power of the electrons in
various orbitals decreases in a given shell • Metallic Properties
(same value of n) in the order: s>p>d>f. Periods: In the periodic table, in a period
Since the penetration power of the s- from left to right the metallic properties of
electron towards the nucleus is more, it the elements decrease while the non-
will be closer to the nucleus and will be metallic properties increase.
held firmly. Thus, for the same shell, the Groups: The metallic property of the
ionisation enthalpy would be more to elements in the group increases from the
remove the s-electrons in comparison with top to the bottom.
the p-electron, which in turn would be
• Chemical Properties
more than that for a d-electron and so on.
Periods: In the periodic table, in a period
Effect of Half-filled and Completely Filled from left to right, the chemical reactivities
Sub-levels of the elements firstly decrease, then
increase.
If an atom has half-filled or completely
filled sub-levels, its ionisation enthalpy Groups: The chemical reactivity of the
is higher than that expected normally from metallic elements increases in the group
its position in the periodic table. This is from top to bottom, while the chemical
because such atoms have extra stability reactivity of the non-metallic elements
and hence, it is difficult to remove decreases in the group from top to bottom.
electrons from these stable configurations.
• Electronegativity
Electron Affinity in Modern Terminology
Electron affinity is known as the electron Electronegativity may be defined as the
gain enthalpy. Electron gain enthalpy is the tendency of an atom in a molecule to
amount of energy released when an attract towards itself the shared pair of
isolated gaseous atom accepts an electron electrons. The main factors on which the
to form a monovalent gaseous anion. electronegativity depends are effective
nuclear charge and atomic radius. The
If an atom has a high tendency to accept an greater the effective nuclear charge, the
electron, large energy will be released. greater is the electronegativity. The
Consequently, electron gain enthalpy will smaller the atomic radius, the greateris the
be high. On the other hand, if an atom has electronegativity.
less tendency to accept the electron, a
small amount of energy will be released, In a period, electronegativity increases in
leading to a small value of electron gain moving from left to right. This is due to the
enthalpy. The values of electron gain reason that the nuclear charge increases
enthalpy are expressed either in electron when the atomic radius decreases as we
move from left to right in a period.

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Halogens have the highest value of • Number of non-mettalic elements - 22

electronegativity in their respective
periods. • The element to be found most

In a group, electronegativity decreases on abundantly on the Earth’s surface - Oxygen

moving down the group. This is due to the
effect of the increased atomic radius. • The metallic element to be found most
Among halogens, fluorine has the highest
abundantly on the Earth's Crust -
electronegativity. In fact, fluorine is the
most electronegative element. Aluminium

Difference Between Electron Gain

• The lightest element to be found in
Enthalpy and Electronegativity
nature – Hydrogen The heaviest element
Electron Gain Electronegativity
to be found in nature - Osmium
Enthalpy
It is the
It is the tendency of
tendency of an an atom in a • The lightest metallic element to be
isolated gaseous molecule to attract found in nature - Lithium
atom to attract the shared pair of
an electron. electrons.
• The lightest non-metallic element to be
It is measured inIt is a number and has
electron no units. found in nature - Hydrogen
volts/atom or It is the property of a
kcal/mole or
bonded atom. • The liquid metal - Mercury
kJ/mole. An atom has a
It is the property
relative value of • The liquid nonmetal- Bromine
of an isolated electronegativity
atom. depending upon its • The metal which is the best conductor
An atom has an bonding state. of the electricity - Silver
absolute value Example:sp
of electron gain hybridised carbon is • The most malleable element to be
enthalpy. more electronegative found in nature - Gold
than sp2- hybridised
It does not carbon, which in turn • The maximum electrons acceptable by
change regularly is more an element in nature - Chlorine
in a period or electronegative than
group. sp3- hybridised • The group of most gaseous elements -
carbon. Zero group
It changes regularly in
a period or group.
SA LTS
Some Important Facts
Acids
• Elements existing in nature - 88
Acid is a substance which furnishes H+ ions
• Artificially produced elements - 24 or H3O+ ions when dissolved in water. Acids
have one or more replaceable hydrogen
• Number of metallic elements - 90 atoms. The word 'acid' is derived from the

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Latin name ‘acidus’ which means sour

taste. Substances with ‘sour taste’ are
acids. Lemon juice, vinegar and grape juice
have sour taste, so they are acidic.

Reaction with Metal Carbonates and

Bicarbonates
When carbonates and bicarbonates come
Properties of Acids into contact with dilute acids, carbon
Physical properties dioxide gas is given out along with water.
For example, limestone (calcium
• Acids are sour in taste.
carbonate) reacts with dilute sulphuric acid
• They are corrosive in nature. Strong acids to form calcium sulphate, carbon dioxide
can spoil substances like human skin, and water.
clothes and paper.

• Generally, acids exist in liquid state but

few acids exist in the solid state as well. e.g.
Benzoic acid.

• Acids are colourless.

Reaction with Metal Oxides
• Acids change the colour of the indicators. Oxides of various metals react with dilute
Blue litmus paper turns red and methyl acids to form their metallic salts and water.
orange turns pink when treated with acids.

• They are soluble in water.

• Solutions of acids conduct electricity due

to ionisation in water.

Chemical properties

Reaction with Metals

Uses of Acids
Metals like zinc, magnesium, aluminum,
iron, etc. react with acids like hydrochloric • Hydrochloric acid present in our stomach
acid and sulphuric acid to form metal salts helps in the digestion of food materials.
and release hydrogen gas.
• Vinegar (acetic acid) is used to preserve
food materials.

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• Benzoic acid is also used to preserve food Tribasic acid: It is an acid which gives three
materials like pickles. hydrogen ions per molecule of the acid in
solution. e.g.H3PO4
• Sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty
acids are used to make washing and Source Acid present
bathing soaps. Apple – Malic acid

• Sulphuric acid is called the king of Lemon – Citric acid

chemicals. It is an effective dehydrating
Grape – Tartaric acid
agent. It is used in various industries to
make detergents, paints, fertilisers and Tomato – Oxalic acid
many more chemicals. Hydrochloric acid,
Vinegar – (food preservative) Acetic
nitric acid and sulphuric acid are important
acid
laboratory reagents.
Curd – Lactic acid
• Cells of all living organisms contain the
fundamental nuclear material called
nucleic acids. Animals have
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) whereas
plants contain ribonucleic acid (RNA).

Classification of Acids

Based on their sources

Acids are classified into two types namely
organic acids and inorganic acids.

Organic acids: Acids present in plants and

animals (living things) are organic acids.
e.g. HCOOH, CH3COOH (Weak acids) For acids, we use the term basicity which
refers to the number of replaceable
Inorganic acids: Acids in rocks and minerals
hydrogen atoms present in a molecule of
are inorganic acids or mineral acids.
an acid. For example, acetic acid has four
e.g. HCl, HNO3, H2SO4 (Strong acids) hydrogen atoms but only one can be
replaced. Hence, it is monobasic.
Based on their Basicity
Based on Ionisation
Monobasic acid: It is an acid which gives
one hydrogen ion per molecule of the acid Acids are classified into two types based on
in solution. e.g. HCl, HNO3 ionisation.
Dibasic acid: It is an acid which gives two Strong acids: These are acids which ionise
hydrogen ions per molecule of the acid in completely in water. e.g. HCl
solution. E.g: H2SO4, H2CO3

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Weak Acids: These are acids which ionise • In the manufacture of rayon
partially in water. e.g. CH3COOH

Based on Concentration
Uses of Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4)
Based on the percentage or amount of acid
dissolved in water, acids are classified into • Used in lead storage battery
concentrated acids and dilute acids.
• In the manufacture of HCl
Concentrated acid: It is an acid having a
• In the manufacture of alum
relatively high percentage of acid in its
aqueous solution. • In the manufacture of fertilisers, drugs,
Dilute acid: It is an acid having a relatively detergents & explosives
low percentage of acid in its aqueous Uses of Ascorbic acid: It is a source of
solution. vitamin C
Uses of HCL Uses of Citric acid: As a flavouring agent
• HCL present in gastric juices is and food preservative

responsible for digestion Uses of Acetic acid: As a flavouring agent

and food preservative
• Used as a bathroom cleaner
Uses of Tartaric acid
• As a pickling agent before galvanisation
• Used as a souring agent for pickles
• In the tanning of leather
• It is a component of baking powder
• In the dying and textile industry
(sodium bicarbonate + tartaric acid)
• In the manufacture of gelatin from
Bases
bones
Base is a substance which releases
Uses of HNO3
hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in
• In the manufacture of fertilisers like
ammonium nitrate water. It is bitter in taste and soapy to
touch (e.g. washing soda, caustic soda and
• In the manufacture of explosives like
caustic potash). They change red litmus
TNT (trinitrotoluene), TNB
(trinitrobenzene), Picric acid blue. They are pink with phenolphthalein
(trinitrophenol) etc. and yellow with methyl orange.
• In the manufacture of nitroglycerine
Classification of Bases
(dynamite)
Based on Ionisation
• Found in rainwater (first shower) Strong bases: These are bases which ionise
completely in an aqueous solution
• It forms nitrates in the soil
e.g. NaOH, KOH

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Weak bases: These are bases which ionise Zinc reacts with sodium hydroxide to form
partially in an aqueous solution. sodium zincate with the liberation of
hydrogen gas.
e.g. NH4OH, Ca(OH)2
Zn + 2 NaOH→ Na2 ZnO2 + H2↑
Based on their Acidity
Metal + Base → Salt + Hydrogen
• Monoacidic Base: It is a base which
ionises in water to give one hydroxide ion Reaction of Non-metallic oxides with
per molecule. e.g. NaOH, KOH Bases

Sodium hydroxide reacts with carbon

• Diacidic base: It is a base which ionises
dioxide and gives sodium carbonate and
in water to give two hydroxide ions per
water.
molecule. e.g Ca(OH)2, Mg(OH)2
2 NaOH+ CO2 → Na2CO3 +H2O
• Triacidic base: It is a base which ionises
in water to give three hydroxide ions per The above reaction indicates that
molecule. e.g. Al(OH)3, Fe(OH)3 Non-metallic oxide + Base → Salt + Water

Based on Concentration Action of Bases with Water

Depending on the percentage or amount Bases generate hydroxide (OH-) ions when
of base dissolved in water, bases are dissolved in water.
classified as concentrated alkali and dilute
NaOH → Na+ + OH-
alkali.
Reaction of Acids with Bases
• Concentrated alkali: It is an alkali having
a relatively high percentage of alkali in its The effect of a base is nullified by an acid.
aqueous solution.
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O
• Dilute alkali: It is an alkali having a Uses of Bases
relatively low percentage of alkali in its
aqueous solution. The term acidity is used • Sodium hydroxide is used in the
for base, which means the number of manufacture of soaps.
replaceable hydroxyl groups present in one
• Calcium hydroxide is used in
molecule of a base.
whitewashing buildings.
Bases which dissolve in water are called
• Magnesium hydroxide is used as a
alkalies. All alkalies are bases but not all
medicine for stomach disorders.
bases are alkalis. NaOH and KOH are
alkalies whereas Al(OH)3 and Zn(OH)2 are • Ammonium hydroxide is used to
bases. remove grease stains from clothes.

Chemical Properties of Bases Test for Acid and bases

Reaction of Bases with Metals • Test with a litmus paper: An acid turns
blue litmus paper red. A base turns red
litmus paper blue.

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• Test with an indicator Acid + Base → Salt + Water

Phenolphthalein: In an acid medium,
Types of Salts
phenolphthalein is colourless. In a basic
• Normal Salts: A normal salt is obtained
medium, phenolphthalein is pink in colour.
by the complete neutralization of an acid
Test for acid and base using litmus paper by a base.

NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O

• Acid Salts: It is derived from the partial

replacement of hydrogen ions of an acid by
a metal. When a calculated amount of a
base is added to a polybasic acid, acid salt
is obtained.

NaOH + H2 SO4 → NaHSO4 + H2O

• Basic Salts: Basic salts are formed by the

Test for acid and base using litmus paper partial replacement of hydroxide ions of a
diacidic or triacidic base with an acid
radical.

Pb(OH)2 + HCl → Pb(OH)Cl + H2O

• Double Salts: Double salts are formed

by the combination of the saturated
solution of two simple salts in equimolar
Test for acid and base using indicators ratio followed by crystallisation. For
• Test with an indicator Methyl orange: example, Potash alum (KAl(SO4)2 ·12H2O) is
In an acid medium, methyl orange is pink in a mixture of potassium sulphate and
colour. In a basic medium, methyl orange aluminium sulphate.
is yellow in colour. Properties of Salts
Acid-base indicator • Salts are mostly solids which melt as
well as boil at high temperature.

• Most of the salts are soluble in water.

For example, chloride salts of potassium
and sodium are soluble in water. But, silver
chloride is insoluble in water.
Salts
• They are odourless, mostly white, cubic
Salts are the products of the reaction
crystals or crystalline powder with a salty
between acids and bases. Salts produce
taste.
positive ions and negative ions when
dissolved in water. • Salt is hygroscopic in nature.

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Identification of Salts • It is used in making baking powder,

• Physical examination of the salt: The which is a mixture of baking soda and
physical examination of the unknown salt tartaric acid.
involves the study of colour, smell and
• It is used in soda-acid fire extinguishers.
density. This test is unreliable.

• Dry heating Test: This test is performed • Baking powder is used to make cakes
by heating a small amount of salt in a dry and bread, soft and spongy.
test tube. After all the water gets
• It neutralizes excess acid in the stomach
evaporated, the dissolved salts are
and provides relief.
sedimented in the container.
Bleaching powder (Calcium Oxychloride –
• Flame Test: Certain salts, on reacting
CaOCl2 )
with concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCl)
form their chlorides. The paste of the • It is used as a disinfectant.
mixture with con. HCl is introduced into
• It is used in the textile industry for
the flame with the help of platinum wire.
bleaching cotton and linen.
• When HCl is added with a carbonate
Plaster of Paris (Calcium Sulphate
salt, it gives off CO2 gas with brisk
Hemihydrate – CaSO4 .½ H2O)
effervescence.
• It is used for plastering bones.

• It is used for making casts for statues.

THEORIES OF ACIDS AND BASES

The Arrhenius Theory of Acids and Bases

Common Salt ( Sodium Chloride – NaCl )
• Acids are substances which produce
• It is used in our daily food and used as a hydrogen ions in solution.
preservative.
• Bases are substances which produce
Washing Soda (Sodium Carbonate – Na2 hydroxide ions in solution.
CO3)
Neutralisation happens because hydrogen
• It is used in softening hard water. ions and hydroxide ions react to produce
water.
• It is used in glass, soap and paper
industries.

Baking Soda (Sodium bicarbonate

The Bronsted-Lowry Theory of Acids and
– NaHCO3)
Bases

According to this theory, acids are the

substances that are capable of donating

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hydrogen ions H+ (protons) and bases are Antacids 10

the substances that are capable of Soapy water 12.5
accepting a hydrogen ion H+. Electrolysis
When an electric current is passed through
The Lewis Theory of Acids and Bases
an electrolyte solution, the ions of the
G. N. Lewis defined an acid as a species electrolyte undergo chemical changes at
which accepts an electron pair and bases the respective electrodes. The chemical
are those which donates an electron pair reaction carried out by passing electricity is
(lone pair). called electrolysis.

pH Scale There are two important laws of

electrolysis proposed by Faraday. The
pH stands for the power of hydrogen ion
relation between the amount of products
concentration in a solution. PH values
liberated at the electrodes and the
decide whether a solution is acidic or basic quantity of electricity passed through the
or neutral. pH scale was introduced by S. P. electrolyte is established based on these
L. Sorenson. It is mathematically expressed laws.
as
Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis
PH = −log10 [H+] Faraday’s First Law
For a neutral solution, pH = 7. The mass of the substance (m) liberated at
the electrodes during the electrolysis is
For an acidic solution, pH < 7. directly proportional to the quantity of
For a basic solution, pH > 7. electricity (Q) that passes through the
When OH- ions are taken into account, the electrolyte.
pH expression is replaced by pOH. Faraday’s Second Law
pOH = −log10 [OH-] When the same quantity of electricity
passes through solutions of different
Some important pH values
electrolytes, the amounts of the
Liquid pH substances liberated at the electrodes are
Battery acid 0-1 directly proportional to their chemical
Stomach acid 1.2-2 equivalents.
Lemon juice, vinegar 2.2-3.4
Orange juice, soda, Electrochemical Equivalent (defined in
3.2-3.9
some dental rinses, wine first law)
Tomato juice, beer 4.0-4.4 ‘m’ is the mass of the substance (in grams)
Black coffee 4.5-5.5 deposited on the electrode by passing ‘Q’
Saliva, cow’s milk 6.4-6.6 coulombs of electricity. Thus, the
Pure water 7
electrochemical equivalent is the amount
Human urine, human
7.3-7.5 of a substance deposited by 1 ampere
blood
Seawater, pH current passing for 1 second.
neutralising dental 8 The Electrical Unit Faraday
rinses
Baking soda, drinking
9.2
soda

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It has been found experimentally that the resistance in ohms which one metre cube
quantity of electricity required to liberate of material offers to the passage of
one gram equivalent of a substance is electricity through it, unit of specific
96,495 coulombs. This quantity of resistance is ohmmeter.
electricity is known as Faraday and is
Specific Conductance
denoted by the symbol F.
The reciprocal of specific resistance is
1 Faraday = 96,495 coulombs = 1 mole
called as specific conductance (or) specific
electrons
conductivity. It is defined as the
Electronic Charge conductance of one metre cube of an
electrolyte solution.
1 Faraday is equal to the quantity of
electricity produced by 1 mole of electrons.
96495
Charge of an electron =
6.023 × 1023
Unit of specific conductance is ohm-1 m-1
= 1.602 × 10−19 Coulomb
(or) mho. m-1, since ohm-1 = mho.
Electrical Conductance Quantities

The SI unit of electrical current is ampere.

The unit for quantity of electricity is
coulomb. When one ampere of current is Also, 1 siemen = 1 mho. It is also expressed
passed for one second, then the quantity as Sm-1. Conductance is the reciprocal of
of current passed is one coulomb. resistance ‘R’.
Q = One Coulomb

Ohm’s Law

This law can be stated as, ‘at constant

Conductance is called as the cell constant
temperature, the strength of the current
(m-1) and is constant for a given
flowing through a conductor is directly
conductance cell.
proportional to the potential difference
and inversely proportional to the Equivalent Conductance
resistance of the conductor’.
Equivalent conductance is defined as the
Thus, I =∆V = RI, V = volt, I = ampere, R = conductance of an electrolyte solution
ohm containing one gram equivalent of the
electrolyte. It is equal to the product of
Specific Resistance
specific conductance of the solution and
The resistance ‘R’ ohms offered by the the volume (V) of the solution that
material of the conductor to the flow of contains one gram equivalent of the
current through it is directly proportional electrolyte.
to its length (l) and inversely proportional
(λC) = specific conductance × V
to the area of cross-section (a). Thus, it is
called the specific resistance and it is

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λC values depend on the type of the value to the total equivalent conductance
electrolyte, concentration of the solution of the electrolyte’’. Consider an electrolyte
and temperature. AB in an aqueous solution. It dissociates as,

Molar Conductance

Molar conductance is defined as the

The pH of Solutions
conductance of a solution containing one
mole of the electrolyte dissolved in it. pH is defined as the negative of the base-
10 logarithm (log) of the H+ concentration.
Mathematically, it may be expressed as pH
= – log10[H+].

where M is the molarity of the electrolyte where, [H+] is the concentration of

solution. For 1:1 electrolytes like NaCl, hydrogen ions in moles per litre.
equivalent conductance is equal to the
molar conductance.

Summary of electrochemical quantities

Quantity Symbol Unit Electric Cells

Resistance R Ohm (or) Ω The starting point to the development of
Resistivity (or) electric cells is the classic experiment by
Specific ρ Ohm.m Luige Galvani and his wife Lucia on a
resistance dissected frog hung from iron railings with
Ohm-1 (or) brass hooks. Later, Italian scientist and
Conductance 1/R professor Alessandro Volta came up with
Siemen
an electrochemical battery. The battery
Specific
Volta named after him consisted of a pile
conductivity (or)
K Ohm-1 m-1 of copper and zinc discs placed alternately,
specific
separated by paper and introduced in a salt
conductance
solution. His experiment established that,
Volume (or)
V m3 a cell could be made by using two dissimilar
dilution
metals and a salt solution which reacts
Ohm-1 m2
Equivalent with atleast one of the metals as
λc ([Link])-
conductance 1 electrolyte. Primary Cell

Molar Ohm-1 m2 The cells from which the electric energy is

μc
conductance mole-1 derived by irreversible chemical actions
are called primary cells. e.g. Daniel cell
Kohlrausch’s Law
Daniel Cell
This law states that, ‘‘at infinite dilution
wherein the ionisation of all electrolytes is Daniel cell or a galvanic cell is an example
complete, each ion migrates of an electrochemical cell. The overall
independently and contributes a definite reaction taking place in the cell is the redox
reaction given as,

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Before taking up the study of the

electrochemical cells, we should be
The Daniel cell is also called as the voltaic familiar with a few common terms.
cell. However, for continuous supply of
current for a long period, the two half cells Current: It is the flow of electrons through
each comprising the metal electrode and a wire or any conductor.
its aqueous electrolyte kept in separate Electrode: It is the material of a metallic
containers can be connected externally. rod/bar/strip which conducts electrons
When the cell is set up, electrons flow from into and out of a solution.
the zinc electrode through the wire to the Anode: It is the electrode at which
copper cathode. As a result, zinc dissolves oxidation occurs. It sends electrons into
in the anode solution to form Zn2+ ions. The the outer circuit. It has negative charge and
Cu2+ ions in the cathode half-cell pick up is shown as (–) in the cell diagrams.
electrons and are converted to Cu atoms
Cathode: It is the electrode at which
on the cathode.
electrons are received from the outer
Secondary Cells circuit. It has a positive charge and is
known as (+) in the cell diagrams.

Electrolyte: It is the salt solution in a cell.

Anode compartment: It is the

compartment of the cell in which oxidation
half-reaction occurs. It contains the anode.

Cathode compartment: It is the

compartment of the cell in which reduction
half-reaction occurs. It contains the
The advantage of secondary cells is that cathode.
they are rechargeable. The chemical Half-cell: Each half of an electrochemical
reactions that take place in secondary cells cell where oxidation occurs and the half
are reversible. e.g. Lead acid accumulator, where reduction occurs is called the half
alkali accumulator cell.
Lead Acid Accumulator Single Electrode Potential
An electrochemical cell consists of two
half-cells. With an open circuit, the metal
electrode in each half-cell transfers its ions
into solution. Thus, an individual electrode
develops a potential with respect to the
solution. The potential of a single electrode
in a half-cell is called the single electrode
potential.

Cell Terminology

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Bose-Einstein Condensate
M A T T E R A N D IT S S T A T E S
The fifth state of matter is BEC ( Bose-
Einstein condensate ). A Bose-Einstein
Matter is anything which has mass and
condensate is a state of matter formed by
occupies space. It exists in five phases,
bosons, cooled to temperatures very near
viz, solid, liquid, gas, plasma and Bose- to absolute zero ( 0 kelvin or −273.15°C )
Einstein condensate. Under such supercooled conditions, a large
fraction of the atoms collapse into the
Solid
lowest quantum state, at which point
They have a definite volume and shape. quantum effects become apparent on a
They are very dense as compared to macroscopic scale.
liquidsand gases.
Interconversion of States of Matter
e.g. wood, stone, iron.
The states of matter are interconvertible.
Liquid They can be interchanged by changing
temperature or pressure. Various terms
They have a definite volume but no related to interconversion of states of
definite shape. They take the shape of the matter are:
vessel in which they are kept. They can
flow. So, they are considered as fluids. e.g. Fusion
milk, water, mercury etc. The process of melting, i.e. change of solid
Gas state into liquid state is known as fusion.

They have neither definite volume nor a Melting Point

definite shape. They take the shape and It the temperature at which a substance
converts from the state of solid to liquid.
volume of the container in which they are
Melting point of ice is 0o C. Melting point
filled. They are highly compressible. e.g. decreases in presence of impurities.
oxygen, air etc.
Sublimation
Fluorescent tube contains helium gas and It is the process of conversion of a
neon gas. Sign bulb contains neon gas. substance from the solid phase to the gas
phase without passing through an
Plasma
intermediate liquid phase. It is used to
Plasma is considered the fourth state of separate a sublimate ( substance
matter. Typically, plasma is made by undergoing sublimation like camphor,
heating a gas until its electrons have naphthalene, ammonium chloride, iodine
sufficient energy to escape the hold of the etc.) from non-sublimate.
positively charged nuclei. As molecular
Vapourisation
bonds break and atoms gain or lose
electrons, ions form. Plasma is made of The process in which a liquid substance
free electrons and positively charged ions changes into a gas rapidly on heating is
(cations). called vapourisation. The same

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phenomenon is called evaporation when liquid at atmospheric pressure at its

heating is categorised to be done below melting point. Particles in water at 0◦c have
the boiling point of the liquid. more energy as compared to particles in
ice at the same temperature, because of
Boiling Point
the presence of latent heat of fusion.
It is a temperature at which the vapour
Latent Heat of Vapourisation
pressure of a liquid becomes equal to
atmospheric pressure and at which a It is the heat energy required to change 1
substance converts from its state of liquid kg of a liquid to gas at atmospheric
to a gas. Boiling point of water at normal pressure at its boiling point. The
conditions is 1000C. It usually decreases at temperature remains constant during
high altitudes, that is why at high altitudes, boiling due to latent heat of
the boiling point of water is less than 1000C [Link] Laws One of the most
and more time is required to cook food. amazing things about gases is that, despite
Boiling point of water in pressure cooker is wide differences in chemical properties, all
high due to high pressure and hence, less the gases more or less obey the gas laws.
time is required to cook the food. Boiling The gas laws deal with the behavior of
point increases in the presence of gases, with respect to pressure, volume,
impurities. temperature and amount.

Evaporation Boyle's Law: The Pressure-Volume Law

It is the process of conversion of a liquid Boyle's law or the pressure-volume law

into vapour at any temperature below its states that the volume of a given amount
boiling point. It increases with an increase of gas held at constant temperature varies
in surface area and temperature. It inversely with the applied pressure when
produces cooling. That is why we feel cool the temperature and mass are constant.
when some nail polish remover or spirit is
kept on our palm.

Condensation
It is the process of conversion of a gas into When pressure goes up, volume goes
liquid. down. When volume goes up, pressure
goes down. From the equation above, the
Latent Heat following can be derived:
The word ‘latent’ means hidden. Thus,
latent heat is the amount of heat absorbed P1V1 = P2V2 = P3V3
or released by a substance undergoing a Charle’s Law: The Temperature-Volume
change of state such as ice changing into Law
water or water to steam at constant This law states that the volume of a given
temperature. amount of gas held at constant pressure is
Latent Heat of Fusion directly proportional to the Kelvin
temperature.
It is defined as the amount of heat energy
that is required to change 1 kg of solid into V T or V / T = C

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As the volume goes up, the temperature

GRAHAM'S LAW OF DIFFUSION
also goes up, and vice-versa. Also, same as
before, initial and final volumes and
temperatures under constant pressure can Graham's law expresses the relationship
be calculated. between the rate of effusion or diffusion
and the molar mass of the gas. Diffusion
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2 = V3 / T3 describes the spreading of a gas
Gay-Lussac's Law: The Pressure- throughout a volume or a second gas,
Temperature Law while effusion describes the movement of
This law states that the pressure of a given a gas through a tiny hole into an open
amount of gas held at constant volume is chamber.
directly proportional to the Kelvin r ∝ 1/(M)½ or r(M)½ = constant
temperature.
where,
P T or P / T = C
r = rate of diffusion or effusion
As the pressure goes up, the temperature
also goes up, and vice-versa. Also, same as M = molar mass
before, initial and final volumes and The Combined Gas Law (or) The Ideal Gas
temperatures under constant pressure can Law
be calculated.
Now, on combining , we have PV / T = C
P1 / T1 = P2 / T2 = P3 / T3
The volume of a given amount of gas is
Avogadro's Law: The Volume-Amount proportional to the ratio of its kelvin
Law temperature and its pressure. As the
This law gives the relationship between pressure goes up, the temperature also
volume and amount when pressure and goes up, and vice-versa. Also, same as
temperature are held constant. The before, initial and final volumes and
amount of gas is measured in moles. Also, temperatures under constant pressure can
since volume is one of the variables, the be calculated.
container holding the gas is flexible in
some way and can expand or contract. If P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2 = P3V3 / T3
the amount of gas in a container is Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
increased, the volume increases. If the
amount of gas in a container is decreased, Dalton's law of partial pressures states that
the volume decreases. the total pressure of a mixture of non-
reacting gases is the sum of their individual
V n or V / n = C partial pressures.
This means that the volume-amount Ptotal = Pa + Pb + Pc + . . .
fraction will always be the same value if the
or
pressure and temperature remain
constant. Ptotal = naRT / V + nbRT / V + ncRT / V + . .
or
V1 / n1 = V2 / n2 = V3 / n3
Ptotal = (na+ nb+ nc+ . . .) RT / V

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Partial pressures are useful when gases are its constituent particles. e.g. silica, water,
collected by bubbling through water sugar, salt etc.
(displacement). The gas collected is
Atom
saturated in water vapour which
contributes to the total number of moles of It is the smallest particle of an element that
gas in the container. may or may not exist independently and
takes part in chemical reactions (By
Chemical Classification of Matter
Dalton’s atomic theory). It can neither be
On the basis of chemical composition, created nor destroyed (Law of
matter can be classified as , pure conservation of mass given by Lavoisier)
substances and mixture.
Molecules
Pure Substances
A molecule is a group of two or more atoms
A substance is said to be pure, if all the that are chemically bonded together. It can
constituent particles of that substance are be defined as the smallest particle of an
the same in their chemical nature. e.g. All element or compound that is capable of
the elements and compounds are pure independent existence and shows all the
substances. properties of that substance. However, it
does take part in a chemical reaction.
Elements

They contain only single type of atoms. Impure Substances

Elements known at present are 118., out of A substance is said to be impure if all the
which 94 are natural. Elements which are constituent particles of that substance are
liquid at room temperature are mercury not the same in their chemical nature.
(Hg) and bromine (Br2). Elements have the
following order of abundance in earth’s Mixtures
crust. These are obtained by mixing two or more
Oxygen > silicon > aluminium > iron > substances in any proportion. The mixture
calcium. can be homogeneous, i.e. have uniform
composition throughout or
Elements have the following order of heterogeneous, i.e. have non-uniform
abundance in human body. composition.
Oxygen > carbon > hydrogen > nitrogen. Physical and Chemical Changes
Elements combine to give molecules. Physical and chemical changes are detailed
below:
Compounds
Physical Change
A compound is a pure substance composed
of two or more elements, chemically Properties such as shape, size, colour and
combined with one another in a fixed state of a substance are called its physical
proportion. The composition of a properties. A change that a substance
compound is always fixed and its undergoes in its physical properties is
properties are completely different from called a physical change. A physical change

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is generally reversible. In such a change, no due to the influence of gravity. Contrary to

new substance is formed. true solution, particles of suspension are
big enough to be seen with the naked eye.
Example: On cutting a piece of paper into
four square pieces, obviously, they cannot 3. Colloidal Solution
be joined to form the original piece.
It is a heterogeneous mixture made of two
Chemical Change phases namely, dispersed phase and
dispersion medium. The substance
A change in which one or more new
distributed as particles is called the
substances are formed is called a chemical
dispersed phase. The continuous phase in
change. A chemical change is also called a
which the colloidal particles are dispersed
chemical reaction. All new substances are
is called dispersion medium. These can
formed as a result of chemical changes.
scatter light because of the presence of
large solute particles,
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS i.e. they show Tyndall’s effect and
Brownian movement.
True Solution • Blue colour of the sky is also due to the
True solution is a homogeneous mixture of scattering of light by dust particles
two or more substances, in which the suspended in the air.
substance dissolved (solute) in solvent has
• They are separated by a special
a particle size less than 10 - 9m or mm or 1
technique called centrifugation.
nm. Simple solution of sugar in water is an
example of true solution. Particles of true • Colloidal solutions are coagulated by
solution cannot be filtered through filter adding an electrolyte.
paper and are not visible to the naked eye.
• Colloidal solutions are purified by
Suspensions dialysis, which is also used in the
purification of blood with the help of
Suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in
artificial kidney machine.
which particle size of one or more
components is greater than 1000 nm. Coagulation found its use in the
When mud is dissolved in water and stirred purification of water by alum, stopping
vigorously, particles of mud are distributed bleeding by FeCl3 and formation of deltas
evenly in water. After some time, the at the junction of sea and river.
particles of this solution settle under water

Property True Solution Colloidal Solutions Suspension

Size of the
< 1nm 1 – 1000nm > 1000nm
particles
Nature Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous
Filterability Particles of true Colloidal particles Suspension particles
(Diffusion solution diffuse pass through filter do not pass through

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through rapidly through filter paper but not filter paper and
parchment paper as well as through parchment parchment paper
paper) parchment paper paper
Colloidal particles are
Particles of true Suspension particles
not seen with the
solution are not are big enough to be
Visibility naked eye but can be
visible to the naked seen by the naked
studied through an
eye eye
ultra-microscope
True solution does Suspension may or
Colloids show Tyndall
Tyndall effect not show Tyndall may not show Tyndall
effect
effect effect
Appearance Transparent Translucent Opaque

Dispersed Phase Dispersion Medium Type of Colloid Example

Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, clouds, mist
Solid Gas Aerosol (solid) Smoke, automobile exhaust
Gas Liquid Foam Shaving cream
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, face-cream
Solid Liquid Sol Milk of magnesia mud
Foam, rubber, sponge,
Gas Solid Foam
pumice
Liquid Solid Gel Jelly, cheese, butter
Coloured gemstone, milky
Solid Solid Solid sol
glass

Applications: In diagnostic laboratories for

S E PA R A T I O N O F M I XT UR E S blood and urine tests, the process of
separating butter from cream, in washing
A number of physical and chemical machines , to squeeze out water from wet
methods are used to separate the number clothes.

of mixtures. Distillation

It is a method of separating mixtures based

Centrifugation
on differences in volatilities of components
It is based upon the principle that the in a boiling liquid mixture.
denser particles are forced to the bottom
Applications: Separation of mixtures of
and the lighter particles stay at the top ether and toluene, benzene, and aniline,
when it spins rapidly. etc.

3. Fractional Distillation

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Separates liquids having a very little Separating funnel

difference in their boiling points.
In this technique, two liquids that do not
Applications: It is used to obtain petrol, dissolve very well in each other (immiscible
pure diesel, kerosene oil, coal tar, etc. from liquids) can be separated by taking
crude oil or mineral oil. advantage of their unequal density. A
mixture of oil and water, for example, can
4. Vacuum Distillation be separated by this technique.
It is used for the substances which
Magnetism
decompose below their boiling point.
It is ideal for separating mixtures of two
Applications: It is used to obtain glycerol solids with one part having magnetic
and H2O2. It is also used to concentrate properties. Some metals like iron, nickel
sugar cane juice in sugar industry. and cobalt have magnetic properties while
Steam Distillation gold, silver and aluminum do not. Magnetic
elements are attracted to a magnet.
It is used for separating a steam volatile
compound from non-volatile or non-steam Paper Chromatography
volatile compounds. It is used to purify This method is often used in the food
sandalwood oil, turpentine oil, aniline, etc. industry. It is used to identify chemicals
Crystallisation (colouring agents) in foods or inks. For
example, if a scientist wants to know how
It is used to separate a mixture of inorganic many substances are in a particular blob of
solids. It is done with the help of suitable ink, paper chromatography can be used.
solvents.

Applications: Separation of a mixture of CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

sugar and salt by using ethyl alcohol.
Atomic Number: 6
Chromatography
Electronic configuration: 2, 4
It is the modern technique used for Valence electrons: 4
separation and purification of organic Property: Non-metal
compounds. It is used for the separation of Abundance: Carbon is the 4th most
coloured pigments from a plant. abundant substance in the universe and
15th most abundant substance in the
Reverse Osmosis
earth’s crust.
It is a technique in which solvent molecules
Compounds having carbon atoms among
move from the solution of higher
the components are known as carbon
concentration to the solution of lower
compounds. Previously, carbon
concentration when they are separated by
compounds could only be obtained from a
a semipermeable membrane and excess
living source; hence, they are also known
pressure is applied to the solution of higher
as organic compounds.
concentration. It is used for desalination of
sea water. Organic Compounds

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These are the compounds containing Alkynes: Hydrocarbons having at least one
mainly carbon and hydrogen or triple bond between two carbon atoms are
compounds of carbon and hydrogen with known as alkynes.
other elements like phosphorus, oxygen,
(Alkane – ane + yne = Alkyne)
nitrogen, sulphur, halogens, etc. The
natural source of hydrocarbon is The general formula of alkynes is CnH2n − 2.
‘petroleum’. As in the case of alkenes, a minimum of
two carbon atoms are required to form an
• Urea is the first synthesised organic
alkyne. Acetylene (C2H2 ) is the first
compound.
member of alkyne.
• Acetic acid was the first organic
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
compound synthesised in the laboratory
from its elements. These have a ring structure with alternate
double bonds and obey Huckel’s rule.
Hydrocarbons
Benzene is the first member of aromatic
(Hydrogen + carbon = Hydrocarbon) hydrocarbons.
Compounds formed because of the
Allotropic Forms of Carbon
combination of hydrogen and carbons are
known as hydrocarbons. There are three Carbon exhibits allotropy and occurs as
types of hydrocarbons, viz. saturated diamond, a beautiful crystalline substance.
hydrocarbon and unsaturated Different amorphous varieties of carbon
hydrocarbon. are
Saturated Hydrocarbons • Coal
• Coke
Hydrocarbons having single bonds are
• Charcoal
known as saturated hydrocarbons.
• Boneblack or animal charcoal
Saturated hydrocarbons are known as
• Lampblack
alkanes. These are also known as paraffins.
• Carbon black
e.g. Methane, Ethane, Propane, etc. The
general formula of alkanes is CnH2n+2. • Gas carbon and
• Petroleum coke
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Structure of Diamond
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are of two
In a diamond, every atom is bonded with
types. They are hydrocarbons with a
the other by covalent links resulting in the
double bond (Alkene) and hydrocarbons
formation of a giant molecule. Each carbon
with a triple bond (Alkyne).
atom is linked with four neighbor, carbon
Alkene: Hydrocarbons having at least one atoms held at the corners of a regular
double bond between two carbon atoms tetrahedron by covalent bonds. The C-C
are known as Alkenes. The general formula bonds are very strong. The crystal of a
of alkene is CnH2n. diamond is very hard and has high melting
and boiling points. A tetrahedral
arrangement of the carbon atoms is
repeated to give the structure of a

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diamond. The combined strength of the • The term graphene was coined as a
many carbon-carbon bonds within the combination of graphite and the suffix-ene
structure of diamond gives it both great by Hanns-Peter Boehm, who discovered
hardness and a lack of chemical reactivity. single-layer carbon foils in 1962.

• It is the purest form of carbon. Amorphous Form of Carbon

• It is the hardest natural known Amorphous carbon is the most reactive

substance. form of carbon. It burns relatively easily in
air, thereby serving as a fuel and is
• It is a bad conductor of electricity.
attacked by strong oxidising agents. This
• It has a very high refractive index of form has structural features of graphite
2.415 such as sheets and layers. Its atomic
structure is much more irregular.
• It is highly transparent.
Isomerism
Structure of Graphite (Black Lead)
Compounds having the same molecular
It consists of separate layers. The carbon
atoms are arranged in regular hexagons in formula but different structure formula are
flat parallel layers. There is no strong called isomers and this phenomenon is
bonding between different layers, which called isomerism. e.g. C2H6O can have the
are, therefore, easily separable from each
following structure: CH3OCH3 and C2H5OH
other. Since there are no covalent linkages
between the adjacent planes, graphite can
Functional Group
be easily cleft along the lines of the planes.
Whilst the bonds within the layers are It is an atom or group of atoms in a
strong, those between the layers are not molecule which is responsible for the
and so they slide over each other easily. chemical properties of the molecules.
This accounts for the softness and
—OH is an alcoholic group, —CHO is an
lubricating power of graphite.
aldehyde group, >C==O is a keto group,
• It is opaque and black. —COOH is a carboxylic acid group and —
• A good conductor of electricity and O— is an ether group.
heat.

• It is chemically more reactive than Uses of some important organic

diamond. compounds
• Its layer structure is held by weak Van Methane (CH4)
der Waal’s force.
It is used to manufacture printer ink,
Graphene methyl alcohol and to obtain light and
• Graphene is an allotrope of carbon. Its energy.
structure is one-atom-thick planar sheets Ethylene (C2H4)
of carbon atoms that are densely packed in It is used to prepare mustard gas (war gas)
a honeycomb crystal lattice. and for the ripening of fruits.

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Glycol (C2H6O2) It is used to synthesise explosive TNT, for

It is used as an antifreeze mixture in car dry cleaning and the synthesis of medicines
radiators and prevents the freezing of fuel like chloramine.
in space crafts.
Phenol (C6H6O)
Acetylene (C2H2)
It is used to synthesise explosives, 2, 4, 6–
It is used to generate light, weld metals as trinitro-phenol (picric acid) and Bakelite.
oxy-acetylene flame and prepare synthetic
Ethyl Alcohol (C2H6O)
rubber (neoprene).
It is used for drinking as liquor, in medicine
Methyl Alcohol (CH3OH)
to prepare tincture, as an insecticide and as
It is used as a fuel with petrol, to synthesise a fuel with petrol.
varnish and polish and to denature
Physical Properties of Carbon and its
ethanol.
Compounds
Chloroform (CHCl3)
• Carbon is a non-metal found in various
It is used as an anaesthetic and to preserve allotropic forms, from soft powder to hard
substances obtained from plants and solid.
animals. It converts into poisonous
• All the allotropic forms of carbon are
phosgene (COCl2), when exposed to
solids whereas its compounds exist in solid,
sunlight. So, it is kept in dark bottles.
liquid and gaseous states.
Glycerol (C3H8O3)
• Amorphous forms of carbon and
It is used to synthesise explosive nitro- graphite are almost black in colour and
glycerine, stamp ink and boot polish. opaque. Diamond is transparent and shiny.
Formic Acid (HCOOH) • Its amorphous forms have low melting
It is used in vinegar, medicines and acts as and boiling points compared to crystalline
a solvent. forms.

Oxalic Acid (C2H2O4) • Carbon is insoluble in water and other

common solvents. But some of its
It is used in the printing of clothes, compounds are soluble in water and other
photography and the synthesis of coal tar. solvents. e.g. Ethanol, CO2 are soluble in
Glucose (C6H12O6) water.

It is used for the synthesis of alcohol and as Chemical Properties of Carbon and its
a preservative for fruit juice. Compounds

Benzene (C6H6) Elemental carbon undergoes no reaction at

room temperature and limited number of
It is used as a solvent for oil fat and in dry reactions at elevated temperatures. But its
cleaning. Sodium benzoate is a food compounds undergo a large number of
preservative. reactions even at room temperature.
Toluene (C6H5CH3) Oxidation (Reaction with oxygen)

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Carbon combines with oxygen to form its A substance that can supply energy either
oxides like carbon monoxide (CO) and alone or by reacting with another is known
carbon dioxide (CO2) with the evolution of as fuel. Heat produced by fuel is measured
heat. Organic carbon compounds like in calories. Fuels may be solid, liquid or gas.
hydrocarbons also undergo oxidation to
Calorific Value
form oxides and steam with the evolution
of heat and flame. This is otherwise called • It is defined as the heat obtained when
combustion. 1 g of a fuel is burned in excess of oxygen
and is expressed in kcal/g.

• Hydrogen is the fuel of future.

• Alcohol, when mixed with petrol, is an

alternative source of energy.
Reaction with Steam
Carbon reacts with steam to form carbon For the combustion of a substance, its
monoxide and hydrogen. This mixture is ignition temperature should be low.
called water gas.
Fuel Calorific value (kJ/g)
Coal 25-32

Reaction with Sulphur Kerosene oil 48

With sulphur, carbon forms its disulphide Petrol 50
at high temperatures. Diesel 45
Biogas 35-40
LPG 50
Reaction with Metals
Wood 17
At elevated temperatures, carbon reacts
Ethanol 30
with some metals like iron, tungsten,
titanium, etc. to form their carbides. Methane 55
Hydrogen 150
Natural gas 35-50

Fuel Coal

Substances that burn in air to give heat Occurrence of coal

energy are called fuels. Fossil fuels are It is believed to formed by the slow
formed from the buried remains of carbonisation of vegetable matter buried
decayed plants and animals over millions underneath the Earth from centuries ago,
of years, under the influence of heat and in limited supply of air under high
pressure in the absence of air. Coal, temperature and pressure prevailing
petroleum and natural gas are called fossil there.
fuels.
Composition Of Coal

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Coal is a natural black mineral, which is a The chief petroleum-producing countries

mixture of free carbon and compounds of are U.S.A, Kuwait, Iraq, Iran, Russia and
carbon containing hydrogen, oxygen, Mexico. In India, petroleum is found in
nitrogen and sulphur. Assam, Gujarat, Maharashtra (Mumbai),
Andhra Pradesh (Godavari and Krishna
Types of Coal
basin) and Tamil Nadu (Cauveri basins).
On the basis of carbon content, coal is
Petroleum is obtained by drilling through
classified into the following types:
the earth. The crude oil is pumped out
1. Peat: It is the first stage of coal. It is the from the well as a black liquid.
most inferior variety of coal which contains
60% of carbon. When it is burnt, it
produces a lot of smoke.

2. Lignite: Lignite is brown in colour. It

contains 70% of carbon. Like peat, it also
produces a lot of smoke on being ignited. It
can be used for power generation.

3. Bituminous coal: It is also called soft

coal. It contains 80% of carbon. It is used as
a common household fuel and industrial
fuel.

4. Anthracite coal: It is also called hard

coal. It is one of the most superior
varieties. It contains 90% carbon. It
produces high heat energy.
Natural Gas

Formation of Natural gas

Natural gas is formed whenever vegetation

decomposes in marshy areas and waste
sewages. It also occurs in coal mines and
petroleum wells. It mainly contains 90%
methane.

Petroleum Occurrence
Millions of years ago, dead plants and
Natural gas is found in Tripura, Rajasthan,
animals were buried at the bottom of the
Maharashtra, Andhra pradesh (Krishna,
sea. They got covered with layers of sand
Godavari basins) and Tamil Nadu (Cauveri
and clay. Due to high pressure and
delta)
temperature, they get transformed into
petroleum. • 1 Natural Gas )

Occurrence of Petroleum

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CNG is stored at high pressure whereas Antiknock Compounds

LNG is in ultracold liquid form. CNG can be
• These are used to reduce the knocking
produced at lower cost.
property. e.g. tetraethyl lead (TEL)
CNG (Compressed Natural Gas)
Cetane Number
• It consists mainly of methane (95%)
• Cetane number is the percentage of
which is a relatively unreactive
cetane in the mixture of cetane and
hydrocarbon and makes its nearly
complete combustion. • α-methyl naphthalene which has the
same knocking properties as the fuel
• It has octane rating of 130.
sample.
LNG ( Liquified Natural Gas)
• It is a measure of quality of diesel. It is
• It is a mixture of n-butane, iso-butane 100 for cetane and 0 for α-methyl
and some propane. naphthalene.

• It is easily compressed under pressure Flame

as liquid and stored in iron cylinders. It is the hottest part of fire and has three
parts.
• A strong foul smelling substance called
ethyl mercaptan, is added to LPG which • Innermost region of flame: It is black
detect the gas leakage. because of the presence of unburned
carbon particles.
Advantages and uses of CNG
• Middle region: It is yellow and
• It is less pollutanting.
luminous due the partial combustion of
• It is directly used as fuel for burning at fuel.
home and factories.
• Outermost Region: It is blue and non-
• It is the basic material for the luminous due to the complete combustion
manufacture of a number of chemicals and of fuel. It is hottest part of flame and is
fertilisers. used by goldsmiths to heat gold.

Octane Number Safety Matchstick

• Octane number is the percentage of iso- Safety match stick contains a mixture of
octane in the mixture of iso-octane and n- antimony trisulphide and potassium
heptane which has the same knocking chlorate at its one end. Its box side
properties as the fuel sample. contains a mixture of powdered glass and
red phosphorus.
• It is a measure of quality of petrol
(gasoline). It is zero for heptane and 100 Metallurgy
for iso-octane, i.e. 2, 2, 4-trimethyl
Ores and Minerals
pentane.
Metals occur in nature; sometimes, in free
• The higher the octane number, the
or native state but most of these occur in
better is the fuel.
nature in the form of chemical

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combination, i.e. in the form of their stable Magnesite, dolomite,

Magnesium
compounds which are associated with epsom salt, kieserite,
(Mg)
gangue or matrix. carnalite
Dolomite, calcite,
The earthy impurities such as sand, clay,
Calcium (Ca) gypsum, fluorspar,
rocks, etc. associated with ores are
asbestos
collectively known as gangue or matrix.
Strontium
Strontianite, silestone
The natural material in which the metal or (Sr)
their compounds occur in the earth is Gold (Au) Calaverite, sylvanites
known as mineral. Thus, a mineral is a Barium (Ba) Barytes
naturally occurring material present in Mercury (Hg) Cinnabar
earth’s crust which contains metal in the Antimony
native (freestate) or in a combined state. Stibnite
(Sb)
When a mineral contains sufficient amount Cadmium
Greenockite
of metal in a combined state from which it (Cd)
can be readily and profitably separated on Bismuth (Bi) Bismutite
commercial scale, then the mineral is said Haematite, limonite,
to be an ore of the metal. Thus, all ores are Iron (Fe) magnetite, siderite, iron
minerals but all minerals are not ores. pyrite, copper pyrites
Cobalt (Co) Smelite
A mineral from which a metal can be
Nickel (Ni) Milarite
profitably extracted is called an ore. For
Manganese
example, clay (Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O) and Pyrolusite, magnetite
(Mn)
bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O) are two minerals of
Uranium (U) Carnotite, pitch blende
aluminium but aluminium can be profitably
extracted only from bauxite and not from
clay. Hence, bauxite is an ore of aluminium
while clay is a mineral.

The biggest source of metal is the earth’s

crust and the process of taking out the ores
from the earth crust is called mining.

In the combined state, ores are generally

found in the form of oxides, sulphides,
carbonates, sulphates, chlorides and
silicates.

Important Metals and their Ores

Metal Ores
Chile Saltpetre trona,
Sodium (Na)
borax, common salt
Potassium Nitre (salt petre), Occurrence of Metal
(K) carnalite

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The mineral particles become wet by oils

while the gangue particles by water. A
rotating paddle agitates the mixture and
Concentration of Ores draws air in it. As a result, froth is formed
This can be done by the following methods: which carries the mineral particles. The
froth is light and is skimmed off. It is then
• Gravity separation process or hydraulic dried for recovery of the ore particles.
washing
• Froth floatation process Electromagnetic separation process
• Electromagnetic separation process

Gravity separation process or hydraulic

washing

This is based on the differences in gravities

of the ore and the gangue particles. It is
therefore, a type of gravity separation. In
one such process, an upward stream of
running water is used to wash the
powdered ore. The lighter gangue particles This is based on differences in magnetic
are washed away and the heavier ores are properties of the ore components. If either
left behind. the ore or the gangue (one of these two) is
capable of being attracted by a magnetic
Froth flotation process
field, then such separations are carried
This method has been in use for removing out. e.g. extraction of iron from their ores.
gangue from the sulphide ores. In this The ground ore is carried on a conveyer
process, a suspension of the powdered ore belt which passes over a magnetic roller.
is made with water. Collectors and froth
Metallurgical Processes
stabilisers are added to it. Collectors (e.g.
pine oils, fatty acids, xanthates, etc.) Metallurgy is a branch of chemistry which
enhance non-wettability of the internal deals with,
particles and froth stabilisers (e.g. cresols,
• Extraction of metals from ores.
aniline) stabilise the froth.
• Refining crude metal.

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• Producing alloys and the study of their Purification of Metals

constitution, structure and properties.
A metal extracted by any method is usually
• The relationship of physical and contaminated with some impurity. For
mechanical treatment of metals to alloys. obtaining metals of high purity, several
techniques are used depending upon the
The extraction of metals cannot be carried
differences in properties of the metal and
out by any universal method because
the impurity. Some of them are listed
extraction of each metal requires different
below:
methods of extraction. This depends upon
• Distillation
the nature and preparation of metals. In
• Liquation
general, noble metals such as Au, Ag, etc.
• Electrolysis
are usually extracted by electrolysis of
• Zone refining
their chlorides, oxides or hydroxides.
• Vapour phase refining
Heavy metals like Cu, Zn, Fe, Pb, Sn, etc. are
extracted by making use of roasting and • Chromatographic methods
smelting methods. Distillation
This is very useful for metals with low
Roasting (oxidation) boiling points like zinc and mercury. The
Roasting is one of the oxidation methods impure metal is evaporated to obtain the
where the ore is converted into a metal pure metal as distillate.
oxide. In the process of roasting, the ore Liquation
either alone or with the addition of a
suitable material, is subjected to the action In this method, a metal with low melting
of heat in excess of air at a temperature point like tin can be made to flow on a
below its melting point. sloping surface. In this way, it is separated
from higher melting impurities.
Calcination
Electrolytic refining
Another method of conversion of an ore
into metal oxide (oxidation) is called In this method, the impure metal is made
calcination. It is the process in which the to act as an anode. A strip of the same
ore is subjected to the action of heat at a metal in pure form is used as a cathode.
high temperature in the absence of air They are placed in a suitable electrolytic
below its melting point. It is done for bath containing soluble salt of the same
hydroxide or carbonate ore. metal. The more basic metal remains in the
solution and the less basic ones go to the
Smelting (reduction) anode mud.
The process of smelting is that the ore is Zone refining
melted with a flux and often with a
reducing agent and it involves calcination,
roasting and reduction. In general, the
process of separation of a metal or its
sulphide mixture from its ore in a fused
state is called smelting.

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Zone refining is a very useful method to get Al (94%) + Cu

metals with very high purity such as silicon Duralumi (3%) + Mg For making
and germanium. It is also referred to as n (2%) + Mn utensils
(1%)
zone melting, floating zone process, and
For casting
travelling melting zone. Cu (80%) +
Bell metal bells,
Sn (20%)
Vapour phase refining statues
Fe (75%) + Cr For making
In this method, the metal is converted into Stainless (15%) + Ni utensils and
its volatile compound and collected steel (10%) + C surgical
elsewhere. It is then decomposed to give a (0.05%) cutlery
pure metal. So, the two requirements are, For making
electrical
Nickel Fe (95%) + Ni
The metal should form a volatile wire,
steel (5%)
compound with an available reagent. automobile
parts
The volatile compound should be easily Catalytic Processes and their Catalysts
decomposable so that the recovery is easy.
Catalytic Processes and their Catalysts
Important Alloys & their Uses
Composition Process Catalyst
Alloys Uses
s
Synthesis of
Cu (70%) + In making Iron
Brass Ammonia
Zn (30%) utensils
In making Manufacturing of Nitrogen (II)
Cu (90%) + sulphuric acid oxide, platinum
Bronze coins, bell
Sn (10%)
and utensils Cracking of
Zeolites
Cu (60%) + petroleum
German In making
Zn (20%) + Ni Hydrogenation of Nickel,
silver utensils
(20%)
unsaturated platinumor
In making
Rolled Cu (90%) + Al hydrocarbons palladium
cheap
gold (10%) Oxidation of Copper (II) oxide,
ornaments
Cu (88%) + In making hydrocarbons in vanadium(V)
Gun Sn (10%) + guns,barrels automobile oxide, platinum,
metal Zn (1%) +Pb , gears and exhausts palladium
(1%) bearings Aluminium
Cu (60%) + In making
Delta Isomerisation of n- chloride,
Zn (38%) + blades of
metal butane to isobutane hydrogen
Fe (2%) aeroplane
chloride
Munz Cu (60%) + In making
metal Zn (40%) coins • Fe + Mo is used in the synthesis of NH3.
• Ni or Pd is used in the synthesis of
In making
Dutch Cu (80%) + vanaspati ghee.
artificial
metal Zn (20%) • Pt is used in the synthesis of H2SO4.
ornaments
Bi (50%) + Pb For making • NO is used in the manufacture of
Rose
(28%) + Sn automatic H2SO4.
metal
(22%) fuse

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• CuCl2 is used in the preparation of Calcium

CaSO4.2H2
chlorine gas. sulphate Gypsum
O
Some Important Facts dihydrate
Chemical Chemical Common Calcium
CaSO4.1/2 Plaster of
Formula Compound Name sulphate
H20 Paris
Conc.H2SO Oil of hemihydrate
Sulphuric acid
4 vitriol Quick
Hg Mercury
FeSO4. Ferrous Green silver
7H2O sulphate vitriol Mercuric
Hg2Cl2 Calomel
ZnSO4. White chloride
Zinc sulphate
7H2O vitriol Vermilion
Mercuric
CuSO4. Copper Blue HgS /
sulphide
5H2O sulphate vitriol cinnabar
K2SO4.A2 Potassium Deuterium Heavy
Potash D 2O
(SO4)3. aluminium oxide water
alum
24H2O sulphate SiO2 Silicon dioxide Quartz
(NH4)2
Ferrous
SO4. Mohr’s CH4 Methane Marsh gas
ammonium
(FeSO4)2.6 salt
sulphate Ethanoic
H2O CH3COOH Acetic acid
acid
Sodium
NaCl Table salt Methanol
chloride Methyl
CH3OH , wood
Solid carbon alcohol
CO2 Dry ice spirit
dioxide
Trichloromet Chlorofor
Sodium Caustic CHCl3
NaOH hane m
hydroxide soda
Conc.
Potassium Caustic
KOH 3HCl+ hydrochloric Aqua
hydroxide potash
HNO3 acid + conc. Regia
Sodium Baking
NaHCO3 nitric acid
bicarbonate soda
Laughing
Calcium Bleaching N 2O Nitrous oxide
CaOCl2 gas
hypochlorite powder
Litharge
Sodium
Na2CO3.10 Washing (red) and
carbonate PbO Lead oxide
H2O soda massicot
decahydrate
(yellow)
Sodium
Na2CO3 Soda ash
carbonate AgNO3 Silver nitrate

CaO Calcium oxide Quicklime Hydrochl

Hydrogen oric acid
Calcium Limeston HCl
CaCO3 chloride /Muriatic
carbonate e
acid
Calcium Slaked
Ca(OH)2
hydroxide lime

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Potassium of heat. Lead and mercury are

K2CO3 Potash
carbonate comparatively poor conductors of heat.
vii. Metals are good conductors of
M E T A L S A N D N O N - ME T A L S electricity.
viii. Metals are sonorous.
METALS
ix. Metals have high densities except
Metals are a group of elements which have sodium and potassium.
similar properties. Most of the known
x. Metals have high melting points. Gallium
elements are metals and they occupy a
and caesium have low melting points.
large area in the periodic table. The left
side of the periodic table contains metals. Chemical Properties of Metals

METALS ARE FURTHER CLASSIFIED INTO: • Metals are electropositive in nature,

i.e. they have the tendency to lose
• Alkali metals, e.g. sodium and electrons forming cations. So, they react
potassium readily with non-metals like oxygen,
• Alkaline earth metals, e.g. calcium and hydrogen, chlorine, sulphate, etc.
magnesium • Easily corrodible
• Transition metals, e.g. iron and nickel • Can lose electrons
• Other metals, e.g. aluminium and tin • Form basic oxides
Physical Properties of Metals • Have low electronegativity
i. All metals except mercury exist as a solid
• Acts as very good reducing agents
at room temperature.
• Metals which are highly reactive
ii. Metals in their pure state have metallic
displace the less reactive metals from their
lustre because of the presence of free
salts.
electrons. They can be polished.
The order of reactivity is Potassium (K) >
iii. Metals are generally hard (except
Sodium (Na) > Lithium (Li) > Calcium (Ca) >
sodium and potassium which are soft in
magnesium (Mg) > Aluminium (Al) > Zinc
nature) and the hardness varies from metal
(Zn) > iron (Fe) > Lead (Pb) > Copper (Cu) >
to metal.
mercury (Hg) > Silver (Ag) > Gold (Au)
iv. Metals are malleable, i.e. can be (Thus, gold is a less reactive metal).
converted into thin sheets by hammering.
• When iron nails are kept in copper
Gold and silver are the most malleable
sulphate solution (blue), iron being more
metals.
reactive displaces the copper from copper
v. Metals are ductile. Gold is the most sulphate solution and thus, the blue colour
ductile metal. From 1 mg gold, a 200 m of the solution disappears.
long wire can be drawn.
• Sodium and potassium are soft and
vi. Metals are good conductors of heat. highly reactive metals. They react with air
Silver and copper are the best conductors and water. That is why these elements are
kept in kerosene oil.

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• Silver, gold and platinum do not react Physical Properties of Non-metals

with air even on strong heating. • Non-metals are either solids or gases
• Sodium and potassium burn in water except bromine which is a liquid. 10
while calcium floats over it. non-metals exist in solid state and 11 in the
gaseous state.
• Copper (Cu) is the first metal used by
man. • They display a variety of colours.

• Pb (lead) is a bad conductor of • They are poor conductors of heat and

electricity. electricity (except graphite).

• Ti (Titanium) is called strategic metal • They are not lustrous, sonorous or

because vital importance to the national malleable (however, iodine is lustrous).
defense, energy and industry sectors • Non-metals have low melting points,
• Tungsten has the highest melting boiling points and densities (except
point of over 3300oC. diamond and graphite).

• Lithium is the lightest metal. It weighs Chemical Properties of Non-metals

about half as much as water. • Non-metals are electronegative in
nature. They form anions by the gain of
• Osmium is the heaviest metal. It is
1 electrons.
about 222 times heavier than water and
• Non-metals combine with oxygen to
nearly 3 times heavier than iron.
form oxides. e.g. When Sulphur burns in air
• Gallium is a metal. It has a melting (oxygen), sulphur dioxide is formed.
point of 29.8oC. The temperature of a
human body is enough to melt Gallium.
• Among metals, silver is the best
conductor of electricity. Sulphur dioxide, on dissolution with water
gives sulphurous acid. The sulphurous acid
• Mercury is a metal with a very low turns blue litmus paper red.
melting point and it turns into a liquid at
room temperature.

Non-metals • Acidic oxides of non-metals are CO2,

A non-metal is an element that does not SO2, SO3, NO2, P2O5 whereas neutral oxides
have the characters like hardness, of non-metals are CO, NO, N2O, H2O.

shininess, malleability, suitability and • Reaction of non-metals with bases are

complex.
ductility. In other words, a non-metal is an
element that does not have the properties Hydrogen (H2)
• The lightest gas and has three isotopes
of a metal. All non-metals are arranged in
namely–
p-block only. e.g. C, N, O, P, S, Se, Halogens
▪ Protium
(F, Cl, Br and I) and inert gases (He to Rn).
▪ Deuterium

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▪ Tritium (Radioactive) • For nitrogen fixation in leguminous

▪ Protium is the only isotope in the plants
periodic table having zero neutrons. Phosphorous
• Deuterium oxide is known as heavy • It is an important constituent of
water and is used in nuclear reactors as animals and plants. and is present in bones
moderators. and DNA.

• Liquid hydrogen is used as rocket fuel. • White phosphorous is more reactive

than red phosphorous.
• Hydrogen is known as a rogue element
and range element. Halogens
17th group elements
Water (H2O)
• Hard water gives less froth with soap. Fluorine: Used in the preparation of UF6
and SF6 for energy production and as a
• Soft water gives more froth with soap.
dielectric constant, respectively.
• Temporary hardness is due to the
By using HF, chlorofluorocarbon
presence of bicarbonate of calcium and
compounds and polytetrafluoroethylene
magnesium.
can be synthesised.
• Permanent hardness is due to the
• Freon a chloro fluorocarbon, is used as
presence of chlorides and sulphates of
a refrigerant and an aerosol.
calcium and magnesium.
• Non-stick utensils are made of Teflon.
• Temporary hardness is removed by
boiling and Clark’s method while • Chlorine is used to prepare PVC,
permanent hardness is removed by soda insecticides, herbicides, etc.
ash process. Inert Gases
Oxygen Applications of Inert Gases
• Ozone (O3) is an allotrope of oxygen. The applications of inert gases are
• Ozone reduces the effect of ultraviolet summarised as follows:
rays in the atmosphere. Helium
Nitrogen During scuba diving, Helium is used as a
• 78% by volume in the atmosphere, component of breathing gases due to its
liquid nitrogen is used for refrigeration. low solubility in fluids or liquids. This is
important because other gases are
• Ammonia is an important compound absorbed by the blood and body tissues
of N2, which is prepared by Haber’s when under pressure during diving.
process. Because of its reduced solubility, little
Ammonia It is used, helium is taken into cell membranes; when
it replaces a part of the breathing mixture,
• In the preparation of ammonium salt
helium causes a decrease in the narcotic
• In the preparation of explosives effect of the gas at far depths.
• In the preparation of artificial silk Helium and Argon are used to shield

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welding arcs and the surrounding base Radon

metal from the atmosphere. Radon is reported as the second most
Helium is used in very low-temperature frequent cause of lung cancer, after
cryogenics, particularly for maintaining cigarette smoking. However, it also has
superconductors (useful for creating beneficial applications in radiotherapy,
strong magnetic fields) at very low arthritis treatment and bathing. In
temperatures. radiotherapy, radon has been used in
implantable seeds, made of glass or gold,
Neon which are primarily used to treat cancers.
Neon has many common and familiar It has been said that exposure to radon
applications like neon lights, fog lights, TV mitigates auto-immune diseases such as
cine-scopes, lasers, voltage detectors, arthritis. Radon spas such as Bad Gastein in
luminous warnings and advertising signs. Austria and Onsen in Japan offer a therapy
The most popular application of neon is in which people sit for minutes to hours in
the neon tubing used in advertising a high-radon atmosphere, believing that
and elaborate decorations. These tubes low doses of radiation will boost up their
are filled with neon and helium or argon energy.
under low pressure and are submitted to
Xenon
electrical discharges. The colour of the
emitted light depends on the composition Xenon has various applications in
of the gaseous mixture and the colour of incandescent lighting, x-ray development,
the glass of the tube. Pure neon within a plasma display panels (PDPs) and more.
colourless tube absorbs red light and Incandescent lighting uses xenon because
reflects blue light and this reflected light less energy can be used to obtain the
is known as fluorescent light. same light output as a normal
incandescent lamp. Xenon has also made it
Argon possible to obtain better x-rays with
Argon has a large number of applications in reduced amounts of radiation.
electronics, lighting, glass and metal
Note:
fabrications. Argon is used in electronics to
provide a protective heat transfer medium • Except Rn, all inert gases are present in
for ultra-pure silicon crystal the atmosphere.
semiconductors and growing germanium. • Argon is used in welding arcs and
Argon can also fill fluorescent and electric bulbs.
incandescent light bulbs, creating the blue
• Helium is light and non-inflammable.
light found in neon lamps.
So, it is used in balloons, weather
Argon also creates an inert gas shield indicators, etc.
during welding, flushes out melted metals
• Neon is used in discharge tube glow
to eliminate porosity in casting
light.
and provides an oxygen and nitrogen-free
environment for annealing and rolling Uses of some Important Metals and Non–
metals and alloys. metals

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• Ferrous oxide (FeO) is used to prepare An element which is not a metal but has
ferrous salts and green glass. some of the properties of metals are called
metlloids. For example, Arsenic is a
• Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) is used in
metalloid that has the visual appearance of
jeweller’s rouge.
a metal but is a poor conductor of
• Silver nitrate (AgNo3) is called lunar electricity. Metalloids are generally
caustic and is used to prepare the link used semiconductors.
during noting.
e.g. boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic,
• Silver Iodide (Agl) is used for inducing antimony, tellurium and polonium
artificial rain.
Alloy
• Mercuric chloride (HgCl2) is used to
Early people used an alloy named ‘bronze’.
prepare calomel and as a poison.
The idea of making an alloy was quite old.
• Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is used as The majority of the metallic substances
an oxidising agent, bleaching agent, an used today are alloys. Alloys are mixtures
insecticide and for washing old oil painting. of two or more metals and are formed by
Both non-metals and metals take different mixing molten metals thoroughly. Rarely,
forms which have different shapes and non-metals are also mixed with metals to
properties compared to each other. For produce alloys. It is generally found that
example, diamond and graphite are two alloying produces a metallic substance that
allotropes of non-metal carbon whereas has more useful properties than the
austenite and ferrite are two allotropes of original pure metals from which it is made.
iron. For example, brass is an alloy made of
copper and zinc.
Metals Non-metals
These are solids at Advantages of Alloys
room These exist in all • Alloys do not get corroded or get
temperature, three states corroded to a very less extent.
except mercury • They are harder and stronger than pure
These are very These are metals. e.g. Copper is a good conductor of
hard, soft,except heat and electricity whereas brass and
except sodium diamond bronze are not good conductors.
These are These are brittle
• They have less conductance than pure
malleable and and can be broken
metals. e.g. Copper is a good conductor of
ductile down into pieces
heat and electricity whereas brass and
These are non-
bronze are not good conductors.
These are shiny lustrous, except
iodine • Some alloys have lower melting points
Electropositive in Electronegative in than pure metals.e.g. Solder is an alloy of
nature nature lead and tin which has lower melting point
Have high than each of the metals.
Have low densities
densities • When metal is alloyed with mercury, it is
Metalloid called amalgam.

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Amalgam 9. Nitrous oxide: Laughing gas, surgery

• An alloy, in which one of the 10. Alum: Purification of water, leather
component metals is mercury, is called industry
amalgam.
11. Mercury: Thermometer, vermillion,
• In alloys, the chemical properties of amalgam
the component elements are retained but
12. Zinc sulphide: White pigment
certain physical properties are improved.
13. Zinc chloride: Textile industry
COMPOUNDS OF METALS, 14. Zinc oxide: Ointment
NON-METALS AND THEIR USES 15. Zinc: In battery
16. Calcium sulphate: Cement industry
1. Ferrous oxide (FeO): In green glass,
ferrous salt 17. Calcium carbonate: Lime and
toothpaste
2. Ferrous sulphate: In dye industry and
Mohr’s salt 18. Cupric oxide: Blue and green glass,
purification of petroleum
3. Bromine: In dye industry, as a laboratory
reagent 19. Copper: Electrical wire

4. Chlorine: In the formation of mustard 20. Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda): Fire
gas and the formation of bleaching powder extinguisher, bakery and reagent

5. Sulphuric acid: As a reagent, in the 21. Sodium carbonate (washing soda):

purification of petroleum, in lead storage Glass industry, paper industry, removal of
battery permanent hardness of water, washing

6. Sulphur: Antiseptics, vulcanisation of 22. Hydrogen peroxide: Oxidants and

rubber, gun powder, medicine reductants, insecticides

7. Phosphorous: Red (P4),refrigerant, in 23. Heavy water: Nuclear reactor

match industry, etc. 24. Liquid hydrogen: Rocket fuel
8. Coal gas: As fuel, inert atmosphere

Antigens and Antibodies of different lood groups

Blood group Antigen Antibody

(in red blood corpuscles) (in plasma)

A Only A Only B

B Only B Only A

AB Both (A) and (B) Absent

O Absent Both (A) and (B)

Expected and unexpected blood groups of children from parents

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Blood group of the mother Expected blood group Unexpected blood of the child
and father of the child
O×O O A, B, AB
O×A O, A B, AB
O×B O, B A, AB
O×AB A, B O, AB
A×A A, O B, AB
A×B O, A, B, AB None
A×AB A, B, AB O
B×B B, O A, AB
B×AB A, B, AB O
AB×AB A, B, AB O

Difference between plant and animal cell

Plant Cell Animal Cell
It has a cell wall. Cell wall is usually absent.
Plastids are found. Plastids are usually absent.
Centrioles and centrosomes are absent. Centrioles and centrosomes are found.
Cell division takes place by fission and Cell division takes place by mitosis and
budding. meiosis.
They have lysosomes. They generally do not have lysosomes.
They contain a single chromosome which is They contain more than one chromosome.
circular in shape.
A large vacuole is present. Vacuoles are absent or very small in size.

Vaccination Chart
Age Vaccine
New-born BCG
15 days Oral polio
9-12 months Measles
18 – 24 months DPT & Polio
15 months– 2 years MMR vaccine
2 – 3 years Typhoid vaccine
4 – 6 years DT & polio
10 years TT & Typhoid
16 years TT & Typhoid
Bacterial diseases in Human beings

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Leprosy Mycobacterium leprae Nervous system and skin

Disease Causing Organisms Bacteria Affected organ
Diphtheria Corynebacterium diphtheriae Respiratory tube
Pneumonia Diplococcus pneumoniae Lungs
Cholera Vibrio cholerae Intestine
Typhoid Salmonella typhi Intestine
Dysentery Shigella dysenteriae Intestine
Tetanus Clostridium tetani Nervous system
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis Lungs
Whooping cough Hemophilus pertussis Respiratory system
Plague Pasteurella pestis Lungs and area between the legs
Gonorrhoea Neisseria Gonorrhoeae Urinary tract
Syphilis Treponema pallidum Urinary tract

Viral diseases in Human beings

Disease Affected organ Causing Organisms Bacteria
AIDS Immune system HIV
Influenza Respiratory system Influenza virus (A and B)
Dengue (or) Break Entire body Dengue virus (flavi ribovirus)
Break-Bonefever
Polio Throat, backbone nerves Polio virus
COVID-19 Lungs SARS-CoV-2
Mumps Parotid glands Paramyxovirus
Herpes Skin Herpes simplex virus
Rabies Nervous system Rabies virus
Measles Entire body Rubeola virus
Yellow fever Liver Flavivirus
Chicken pox Entire body Varicella zoster virus
Small pox Entire body Variola virus

Fungal Diseases in Human beings

Diseases Causing Organisms fungus Affected part
Athlete’s foot Trichophyton foot
Scabies Acarus scabies skin
Ring worm Micorosporum Trichophyton skin
Baldness Tinea capitis hair
Dhobi itch or tinea cruris Candida albicans skin
Aspergillus Aspergillus fumigatus Lungs
Protozoan Diseases in human beings

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Affected
Disease Parasites Carrier Symptoms mosquito
organ
Fever with Shivering, pain
Female
Plasmodium in joints accompanied by
Malaria RBC & Liver Anopheles
SP chillness, heavy
mosquito
perspiration and fast pulse
Entamoeba Poor oral
Pyorrhoea Gums Bleeding from Gums
Gingivitis hygiene
Sleeping Trypanosoma
Brain Tsetse flies Fever with severe sleep
sickness brucei
Diarrhoea or Frequent passing of loose,
Intestine Entamoeba Infection by
amoebic watery and unformed
Histolytica contamination
dysentery faeces
Kala-azar or
Bone Leishmania
dum-dum Sand files High fever, jaundice
marrow donovani
fever

DISEASE/DISORDE SYMPTOMS AND CAUSATIVE

CURE/PREVENTION
R CONDITIONS AGENTS
• Digestive system
Helicobacter
pylori, smoking,
Erodes tissue
alcohol, Avoiding smoking, alcohol,
Peptic ulcer lining in the
caffeine, anxiety, stress and strain.
stomach
psychological
stress
A portion of the
Hernia intestine pushes
Inguinal Hernia through a Heavy manual
Surgery
Femoral Hernia ruptured weak job
Umbilical Hernia area of the
abdomen
Inflammation of Less fibre Surgery / Addition of fibre
Appendicitis
the appendix content in food content to the food
Stone formation in Surgery / Avoiding High-fat
Gall Stones High-fat diet
the gall bladder diet
Viral infection/
Inflammation of excessive
Hepatitis Avoiding drinking
the liver alcohol
consumption
Skeletal system
Staphylococcal,
Infective arthritis Damages in the Streptococcal,• Antibiotics
joints Gonococcal
While there's no cure for
Damage in the Autoimmune rheumatoid arthritis,
Rheumatic arthritis
connective tissues disease physiotherapy and

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medication can help slow

the disease's progression.
During an acute attack,
anti-inflammatory
Metabolic
medication (NSAIDs) can
disorders-
Pain, swelling and help to relieve pain and
Purine
Metabolic arthritis redness of the shorten the duration of the
metabolism
joints attack. Patients with
(excess uric
chronic gout can use
acid)
behavioural modification
such as diet, exercise.
Medication, physiotherapy
Degenerative
and sometimes surgery can
Osteoarthritis condition of the
help reduce pain and
Joints
maintain joint movement.
Vitamin D
Rickets Bowlegs Balanced diet
deficiency
Vitamin D and
Osteomalacia Bowlegs Balanced diet
Calcium
The person
Autoimmune
Myasthenia Gravis becomes
disease
paralysed
Respiratory System
Pneumonia Inflammation of Streptococcus
Drugs and Oxygen therapy
(communicable) the lungs pneumoniae
Chest pain, A long course of treatment
Tuberculosis (TB) Mycobacterium
shortness of involving multiple
(communicable) tuberculosis
breath, fever antibiotics.
Inflammation of Smoking/atmos
Bronchitis
the bronchi pheric pollution
Circulatory System
Treatment ranges from
Cigarette
Sudden death of a lifestyle changes and
Myocardial smokers, High
part of heart cardiac rehabilitation to
infarction blood pressure,
muscle medication, stents and
overweight
bypass surgery.
Inadequate
Inadequate blood
Angina pectoris blood supply to Coronary bypass surgery
supply
heart
A healthy diet and exercise
Cigarette can help. Treatments
Narrowing of the
Atherosclerosis smoking, include medication,
arteries
Hypertension procedures to open blocked
arteries and surgery.
Rheumatic Heart Streptococcal Treatment consists of
Rheumatic fever
Disease (RHD) bacteria antibiotics
Eye
Short
Errors of refraction Myopia Concave lens
Sightedness

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Long
Hypermetropia Convex lens
Sightedness
Cornea/lens
Astigmatism Varied curvature lens
destroyed
Hardening of
Presbyopia Reading glass
lens
Diabetic Swellings of eye Diabetes
Laser surgery
retinopathy capillaries mellitus
Narrowing of the
Hypertensive Persistent
retinal Laser treatment
retinopathy hypertension
arteries
Cataract Opacity in the lens Ageing Cataract surgery
Infection or Treatment includes eye
Increased Ocular
Glaucoma trauma drops, medication and
Pressure
in the eye surgery.
Degenerative
Nyctalopia (Night Vitamin A
changes in rods Balanced diet
Blindness) deficiency
and cones
Infection of the Staphylococcus Frequent warm compresses
Stye
eyelid glands bacteria on the eye
Infective Viruses
Inflammation of Washing with warm water
conjunctivitis associated with
the conjunctiva and Eye drops
(communicable) a cold
Allergic Inflammation of
Allergic agents
conjunctivitis the conjunctiva
Ear
Problem with part
Conductive hearing Temporary in
of the outer or Medical treatment
loss most cases
middle ear
Cochlea
Sensory hearing malfunction due to Varied hearing
Permanent loss of hearing
loss damage in hair impairment
cells
Problem in cochlea
Hearing Aid
Neural hearing loss to brain Accidents
connection
Nervous System
SYMPTOMS AND
DISEASE/DISORDER CAUSATIVE AGENTS
CONDITIONS
Abnormal symptoms in the
Stroke Clot in the cerebral vessel
brain
Bursting and bleeding of
Brain haemorrhage Hypertension
brain blood vessels.
Progressive loss of memory,
Neurons undergo
Alzheimer’s Disease loss
degeneration in cerebral
Or Chronic brain syndrome of cognitive functions and
cortex- genetic mutation.
death
Bacterial infection or viral
Meningitis (Brain fever) Inflammation of brain
infection or fungal infection

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membranes and the sub-

arachnoid space

The disease caused by deficiency of vitamins and their sources

Deficiency
Vitamin Chemical name Sources
diseases
Milk, egg, cheese, green
Vitamin-A Retinol Colour blindness
vegetables, fish liver oil
Groundnut, rapeseed, dried chilli,
Vitamin-B1 Thymine Beriberi
pulses, liver, egg, vegetables, etc.
Cracking of skin,
Vitamin-B2 Riboflavin reddish eye, Meat, green vegetables, milk, etc.
cracking of tongue
Whitening of hair
Nicotinamide or
Vitamin-B3 and mental Meat, groundnut, tomato, etc.
Niacin
retardness
Pantothenic Meat, groundnut, leafy vegetable,
Vitamin-B5 Pellagra
acid tomato, etc.
Anaemia, skin
Vitamin-B6 Pyridoxine Liver, meat, grains, etc.
disease
Paralysis, body
Vitamin-B7 Biotin Meat, egg, liver, milk, etc.
pain, Hair falling
Anaemia, jaundice
Vitamin-B12 Cyanocobalamin Meat, milk, etc.
Teroile Glutemic
Anaemia,
Vitamin-B11 Folic acid Pulses, liver, vegetables, eggs, etc.
dysentery
Lemon, orange, tomato, sour
Scurvy, swelling of
Vitamin-c Ascorbic acid substances, chilly, sprouted grain,
gums
etc.
Rickets (in
children)
Vitamin-D Calciferol Fish liver oil, milk, eggs, etc.
Osteomalacia (in
adults)
Leafy vegetables, milk, butter,
Vitamin-E Tocopherol Less fertility sprouted wheat, vegetable oil,
etc.
Non-clotting of Tomato, soy bean oil, green
Vitamin-A Phylloquinone
blood vegetables, etc.

Protein
Deficiency Symptoms
/Vitamin
Marasmus Bones are visible as covered by skin
Protein
Kwashiorkor Enlarged belly

Human genetic disorder due to autosomal abnormalities

Disorder Chromosomes Effect
complement

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Down’s Trisomy 21 (extra Short stature, epicanthus, small round head,

syndrome chromosome number) protruding lower lip, flattened nasal bridge,
mental retardation, short life
Edward’s Trisomy 18 (extra Long but narrow skull, small face, short digits,
syndrome chromosome number) webbed neck, corneal opacity, daffiness, mental
retardation
Cri-du-chat Deletion in short arm Microcephaly, the encrusted distance between
(5p minus) of chromosome 5 eyes, moon face, several mental deficiencies, the
cat-like cry of the neonate
Patau’s Trisomy 13(extra Left plate and lip, polydactyly, mental
syndrome chromosome number) retardation, anomalies in dermal pattern, heart
viscera and genitalia

Inventions related to the Medical/ Biological science

Inventions/Discoveries Inventor
Vitamin Casimir Funk
Sulpha drugs Gerhard Domagk
Streptomycin Selman Waksman
Heart transplantation Christian Bernard
Homeopathy Samuel Hahnemann
Malaria parasite and treatment Ronald Ross
Diarrhea and treatment of plague Kitajato
Sex Hormone Stenach
Open heart surgery Waltallilehak
Contraceptive pills Pincus
First test-tube baby Edwards and Stepto
Electrocardiograph Iwanyaan
Antigen Karl Landsteiner
RNA James Watson and Arther Arg
DNA James Watson and crick
Insulin Banting
Chloroform Harrison and Simpson
Vaccine of chickenpox Edward Jenner
TB bacteria Robert Koch
Diabetes Banting
Penicillin Alexander Fleming
Polio vaccine Johan E. Salk
BCG Guerin Calmette
Bacteria Anton van Leeuwenhoek
Blood transfer Karl Landsteiner

Important information

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Largest and heaviest mammal Blue whale

Largest Land mammal African elephant
Largest living reptile Sea turtle (tortoise)
Largest living bird Ostrich
Largest snake Python
Largest monkey Gorilla
Smallest bird Hummingbird
Largest egg Ostrich’s egg
Fastest animal Cheetah (panther)
Fastest flying bird Spine tailed swift
Egg-laying mammal Echidna and duckbilled platypus
Tallest mammal Giraffe (Africa)
Busiest human organ Heart

Some important facts regarding botany

Facts Example and details
Largest angiosperm tree Eucalyptus
Longest tree in the world Sequoiadendron Giganteum which is a
gymnosperm. Its height is 120 m.
Smallest angiosperm (plant) Wolffia
Plant with the largest leaf Victoria Regia - This is an aquatic plant
that is found in West Bengal in India.
Largest fruit Lodoicea- This is also called double
coconut. This is found in Kerala in India.
Smallest Pteridophyte Azolla- This is an aquatic plant.
Smallest seed Orchid
Smallest flower Wolffia- Its diameter is 0.1 mm.
Largest flower Rafflesia arnoldii- Its diameter is 1 metre
and its weight can be 8 kg.
Smallest Angiosperm (parasite) Arceuthobium is a parasite on the stems
of gymnosperms.
Largest male couplet Cycas (a gymnosperm)
Largest seed-egg Cycas
Smallest chromosomes In algae
Longest chromosomes In Trillium
The plant with the largest number of Ophioglossum (fern) – There are 1266
chromosomes chromosomes in its diploid cell
The plant with the least number of Haplopappus gracilis
chromosomes
The smallest gymnosperm (plant) Zamia Pygmea
The heaviest wooden (plant) Hardwickia binata
The lightest wooden plant Ochroma lagopus-balsa

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The smallest cell Mycoplasma gallisepticum

Fruit like a tennis ball Kenth
Fire of the forest Dhak
Coffee giving plant Coffea Arabica- Caffeine is contained in it
Coco giving plant Theobroma cocoa- Theobromine and
caffeine are contained in it

• Inside the body, approximately 150 lakh we classify things, we put them into groups
cells are destroyed every second. based on their characteristics. The five-
• The weight of the uterus of the woman kingdom classification was proposed by
who has not given birth to a child is 50 R.H. Whittaker in 1969. Five kingdoms
grams and after giving birth to a child, the were formed on the basis of characteristics
weight becomes 100 grams. such as cell structure, mode of nutrition,
• The weight of the kidney is approximately source of nutrition and body organisation.
150 grams. They are Monera, Protista, Fungi, Planatae
• In a single inhaling, a normal adult takes and Animalia.
500-600 ml of air inside the body.
• The capacity of the heart to pump blood is Note: Two- kingdom system was given by
4.5 litres (approx) per minute. Linnaeus (Animals and plants).
• The length of the small intestine is Three-kingdom system was given by
approximately 6 meters and its diameter is Haeckel (Animals, plants, protista).
2.5 centimetres. Four-kingdom system was given by
• The blood circulation inside the body takes Copeland (Animals, plants, protista,
approximately 23 seconds. monera).
• The heartbeat of a child is more than that
of an adult.
• Single respiration is completed
approximately in 5 seconds, i.e. 2 seconds
of inhalation and 3 seconds of exhalation.
• Every day, the blood in the body of a
human being carries approximately 350
litres of oxygen to the cells of the body. Out
of this, 97% oxygen is carried by the
haemoglobin and the remaining 3% is
circulated by blood plasma.

CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS Monera

• The Kingdom Monera was first proposed
Classification of Organisms Five-Kingdom by Ernst.
Classifications • All prokaryotes belong to the Kingdom
The method of arranging the organisms Monera, these organisms do not have a
into groups is called classification. When

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defined nucleus or organelles. They do not

show multi-cellular body designs.
• The mode of nutrition of organisms in this
group can be either by synthesising their
own food (autotrophic) or getting it from Fungi
the other organisms (heterotrophic). All Fungi are non-green plants that include
organisms of this kingdom are microscopic. moulds, mushrooms, toadstools, puff balls
Examples: bacteria, blue-green algae and bracket fungi. They include unicellular
(cyanobacteria), mycoplasma (yeast) and multicellular fungi Rhizopus,
Agaricus and Aspergillus).
Their cell wall is made up of chitin and their
body is made up of hyphae (thread-like
structure) called mycelium.
Fungi reproduce by both sexual and
asexual reproduction.
Protista
Some fungal species live in a permanent
• The kingdom Protista was created by
mutually dependent relationships with
Haeckel. They were the first eukaryotes to
blue-green algae. Such relationships are
evolve about 1000 million years back.
called symbiotic.
• This kingdom includes unicellular
• These symbiotic life forms are called
organisms and a few simple multicellular
Lichens.
eukaryotes usually found in aquatic
• They lack chlorophyll and depend on the
habitats. On the basis of mode of nutrition,
organism for nutrition. Based on mode of
they are autotrophic, parasitic and
nutrition, they are classified as
saprophytic.
a) Parasites – Fungi living on another
• Euglena has both heterotrophic and
organism, e.g. Puccini
autotrophic mode of nutrition. Some of
b) Saprophytes – Fungi living on dead and
these organisms have appendages, they
decaying matters, e.g. Agaricus, Rhizopus
are hair-like cilia or whip-like flagella for
c) Symbionts – Fungi associated with
moving around.
another organism, e.g. Lichens,
• Examples: Unicellular algae, diatoms and
Mycorrhizae
protozoa, amoeba, paramecium.
Note: The study of fungi is called
Mycology.

Classification of Fungi
Phycomycetes Aquatic habitats Asexual Rhizopus
Asexual spores-
conidia
Ascomycetes Sac-fungi Penicillium, Yeast
Sexual
spores – ascopores
Basidiomycetes Bracket fungi Asexual & Vegetative Agaricus
Deuteromycetes Imperfect fungi Asexual or Vegetative Trichodema

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Food – Most commonly eaten fungi are Trichophyton sp. Ringworm

mushrooms. Mushrooms are rich in (Circular rash on
protein and minerals. Penicillium is used in the skin)
cheese industry. Blue -green algae Microsporum Dandruff
(spirulins) act as a rich source of some furfur
proteins. Penicillin is known as the Queen Tinea pedis Athletes foot
of Medicine. It was discovered by Sir
Alexander Fleming in 1928.
In N2-fixation rhodotorula is a fungus that
CYTOLOGY
takes part in nitrogen fixation due to which
the fertility of the soil is enhanced. Cell Biology
Antibiotics – The chemical substances It is the study of cell structure, function and
which are obtained from living organisms reproduction.
that can kill or stop the growth of another Cytology
living organism e.g. Penicillin from It is the study of cell structure
Penicillium Note – Cell is the fundamental, structural
The most common antibiotics are and functional unity of all living organisms.
Streptomycin, Neomycin, Kenamycin, Father of the cell biology – Robert Hooke
Gentamycin and Erythromycin. The cell (little room) is a basic structural,
functional and biological unit of all known
Note: Fungi are placed as the third living organisms.
kingdom in R.H. Whittaker’s five-kingdom Cells were first discovered by Robert
of classification because of absence of Hooke in 1665 in a cork (dead cell).
chlorophyll and starch. Leeuwenhoek firstly observed living cells in
pond water (1674).
Disease caused by fungi in plants
Cell Theory
Pathogen Name of the
In 1838, Schleiden – a German botanist,
Disease
examined a large number of plants and
Fusarium Wilt disease in
observed that all plants are made up of
oxysporum cotton
different type of cells and form the tissue
Cercospora Tikka disease in
of the plant. In 1839, Schwann studied a
personata groundnut
large variety of animal cells and observed
Colletotrichum Red rot in sugar
that cells have a thin outer covering which
falcatum cane
is known as ‘Plasma membrane or Cell
Pyricularia oryzae Blast disease in
membrane’. He studied plant cells. Based
paddy
on his study, he conducted that the
Albugo candida White rust in
presence of cell wall is the unique
radish
character of plant cell.
Cell Theory: Schleiden and Schwann
Disease caused by fungi in Humans
together formulated cell theory, but in this
Name of the Fungi Name of the
theory, they did not explain how new cells
Disease
were formed.

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Rudolf Virchow (1855) first explained that The cell wall is the most prominent part of
cells divide and new cells were formed the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of
from pre-existing cells. Thus, he gave the cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin. It
final shape to the cell theory. protects the plasma membrane and other
(Note: Viruses are an exception of cell cellular components. The cell wall is also
theory) the outermost layer of plant cells. It is a
rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell
Some Important Points membrane. It provides shape and support
• The smallest cell is mycoplasma to the cells and protects them from
(Bacteria). mechanical shocks and injuries.
• The longest cell is a nerve cell. Cytoplasm
• The largest cell is the cell of ostrich’s The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like
egg. substance present between the cell
• The longest plant cell is the ‘Fibres of membrane and the nucleus.
Ramei’.
• The cell wall was discovered by Robert Nucleus
Hooke. The nucleus contains the hereditary
material of the cell, the DNA. It sends
Cell Structure signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide
The cell structure comprises individual and die. The nucleus is surrounded by the
components with specific functions nuclear envelope that separates the DNA
essential to carry out life’s processes. from the rest of the cell. It is also called the
These components include cell wall, cell brain of the cell or CPU of the cell.
membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus and cell
organelles. Cell Organelles
Cell Membrane Cells are composed of various cell
The cell membrane supports and protects organelles that perform certain specific
the cell. It controls the movement of functions to carry out life’s processes. The
substances in and out of the cells. It different cell organelles along with their
separates the cell from the external principal functions are as follows:
environment. The cell membrane is • Nucleolus
present in all the cells. The cell membrane The nucleolus is the site of ribosome
is the outer covering of a cell within which synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling
all other organelles such as the cytoplasm cellular activities and cellular reproduction.
and nucleus are enclosed. It is also referred • Nuclear membrane
to as the plasma membrane. The nuclear membrane protects the
By structure, it is a porous membrane (with nucleus by forming a boundary between
pores) which permits the movement of the nucleus and other cell organelles.
selective substances in and out of the cell. • Chromosomes
Besides this, the cell membrane also Chromosomes play a crucial role in
protects the cellular component from determining the sex of an individual. Each
damage and leakage. human cell contains 23 pairs of
Cell Wall chromosomes.

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• Leucoplast and
Endoplasmic reticulum • Chromoplast
The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in • Chloroplast: It is green in colour
the transportation of substances because it contains a green coloured
throughout the cell. It plays a primary role substance called chlorophyll. With the help
in the metabolism of carbohydrates, of this, the plant photosynthesises and
synthesis of lipids, steroids and proteins. makes food, hence the chloroplast is called
• Golgi Bodies the kitchen of the plant cell.
It was discovered by a scientist named • Leucoplast: It is a colourless plastid. It
Camillo Golgi (Italy). It is made up of a is found in the cells of those parts of the
group of small tubules and sacs. In the plant which are deprived of sunlight. For
Golgi complex, the proteins and other example, in roots, underground stems, etc.
substances synthesised by the cell are It is a food storage agent.
packed in the form of vesicles. Golgi bodies • Chromoplast: These are coloured
are called the cell’s post office, as it is plastids, which are usually red, yellow,
involved in the transportation of materials orange in colour. These are found in the
within the cell. coloured parts of the plant like flowers,
• Ribosome fruit wall, seeds, etc.
It was first disovered by Robinson and Other examples of pigments in plants:
Brown in 1953 AD in plant cell and G.E. lycopene in tomato, carotene in carrot and
Paled in 1953 AD. It is the production site betaine in beet
of protein. That is why it is also called the
factory of protein
• Mitochondria
GENETICS AND HEREDITY
It was discovered by Altman in 1886 AD
and Benda named it Mitochondria. It is the Terminologies
respiratory site of the cell. Mitochondria Heredity: The inheritance of
are called the powerhouse of the cell. It is characteristics from one generation to
also called the engine of the cell. It is so another generation is called heredity.
called because it produces ATP – the cell’s • Variation: It refers to the differences
energy currency. shown by the individuals of the same
• Lysosomes species and also by the offspring of the
Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the same parents.
foreign bodies entering the cell and help in • Traits: Characters– morphological
cell renewal. Therefore, it is known as the /oratorical / physiological and
cell’s suicide bags. reproductive are called as traits.
• Vacuoles • Gregor Johan Mendel conducted a
Vacuoles store food, water and other scientific study on heredity with garden
waste materials in the cell. pea plant (Pisum Sativum).
• Plastid: • Phenotype: Expression of
It is found only in plant cells. It is of three morphological characters
types: • Genotype: Expression of genes of a
• Chloroplast particular trait

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• Monohybrid cross: Hybrid off spring • The centromere contains a complex

of parts differing is one character. system of fibres called kinetochore.
• Allelomorph: Contrasting pair of • The kinetochore is made up of protein
alleles make up on allelomorph. fibres and microtubules which assist in the
Chromosome formation of spindles during mitosis and
• In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA meiosis.
molecule is packaged into thread-like b) Secondary constriction
structures called chromosomes. • All the constrictions other than
• Each chromosome is made up of DNA, primary are called secondary constrictions.
tightly coiled many times around proteins • A satellite is a short chromosomal
called histones that support its structure. segment, separated from the main
• The number of chromosomes varies chromosome by a relatively elongated
from species to species. But the number secondary constriction.
remains constant among the members of • A chromosome with a satellite is called
the same species. SAT-chromosome.
• The lowest number of chromosomes is • Chromatin is a viscous gelatinous
two and is found in Ascarismegalocephala substance that contains DNA, RNA, histone
(horse threadworm) and the highest and non-histone proteins.
number of chromosomes is 1600 and is • H1, H2A, H2B, H3, H4 are the five types
found in radiolarian. of histones found in the chromatin.
Note: Telomeres act as an aging clock in • The chromatin is formed by a series of
every cell. Telomeres are protective repeated units called nucleosomes. Each
sequences of nucleotides found in nucleosome has a core of eight histone
chromosomes. As a cell divides every time, subunits.
they become shorter. Telomeres get too Note: T.H. Morgan was awarded Nobel
short to do their job, causing our cells to Prize in 1993 for determining the role of
age. chromosomes in heredity.
• Structure: Each chromosome consists Types of Chromosomes: The
of similar structures called chromatids. A chromosomes are classified into different
typical chromosome has narrow zones types based on the shape and position of
called constrictions. There are two types of the centromere.
constrictions namely, primary constriction Based on the position of centromeres, the
and secondary constriction. four types of chromosomes are,
a) Primary constriction • Metacentric chromosomes
• The primary constriction is made up of The centromere occurs in the centre of the
centromere and kinetochore. chromosome and forms two equal arms.
• Both the chromatids are joined at the They are v-shaped chromosomes.
centromere, which is essential for the • Sub-metacentric chromosomes
movement of chromosomes at anaphase. The centromere is found near the centre of
• If the centromere of the chromosomes the chromosome. Thus, forming two
is damaged, such chromosome fails to unequal arms. They are L- shaped
move at anaphase. chromosomes.
• Acrocentric chromosomes

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It has one long arm and one very short arm length, thickness, position of centromere,
as the centromere is located towards one shape etc. with the sex chromosomes
end of the chromosome. They are also J- placed at the end.
shaped chromosomes.
• Telocentric chromosomes
It has the centromere located on one end.
There is only one arm here. They are rod-
shaped chromosomes.
Types of Chromosomes based on function
The eukaryotic chromosomes are classified
into autosomes and allosomes.
DNA
Autosomes contain genes that determine
Deoxyribonucleic acid is an extremely long,
the somatic (body) characters. Males and
double-stranded nuclei acid molecule
females have an equal number of
arranged as a double helix that is the main
autosomes. Allosomes are chromosomes
constituent of the chromosomes and that
that are responsible for determining the
carries the genes as segments along its
sex of an individual. They are also called
strands.
sex chromosomes or hetero-
• Structure of DNA
chromosomes. There are two types of sex
chromosomes, X and Y chromosomes. • DNA and RNA are identified in the
nucleus. They are complex macro
Human males have one X chromosome and
one Y chromosome and human females molecules and are made up of millions of
smaller units called nucleotides.
have two X chromosomes.
Karyotype • Hence, DNA is a macromolecular
The number of chromosomes in any living substance with double-stranded
organism (animal or plant) is constant. In polynucleotide.
humans, each cell normally contains 23 • Each nucleotide is made up of pentose
pairs of chromosomes. Out of which, 22 sugar, a phosphate group and a
pairs are autosomes and the 23rd pair is the nitrogenous base.
allosome or sex chromosome. In the body • The sub-unit containing only sugar and
cells of sexually reproducing organisms, nitrogenous base is known as nucleoside.
the chromosomes generally occur in pairs. • Ribose is the constituent sugar in RNA
This condition is called diploid (2n). The and Deoxyribose in DNA
gametes produced by the organisms • The nitrogenous bases are of two
contain a single set of chromosomes. kinds – purines and pyrimidines. Adenine
Hence, the gametes are said to be haploid and guanine are the purines, thymine and
(n). Karyotype is the number, size and cytosine are pyrimidines.
shape of chromosomes in the cell nucleus • The nitrogenous bases found in DNA
of an organism. Idiogram is the are adenine, guanine, cytosine and
diagrammatic representation of karyotype thymine, whereas in RNA, thymine is
of a species. It consists of all the replaced by uracil.
metaphasic chromosomes arranged in
homologous pairs according to decreasing

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• Hence, nucleotides are building blocks ribose rather than deoxyribose RNA is
of DNA. In humans, the length of DNA in a formed upon a DNA template. DNA is said
diploid cell is about 2.0 m. to be evolved from RNA.
• The total number of purine molecules • Structure of RNA
in DNA equals that of pyrimidine
molecules. (i.e. A+G = C+T). This is called as
Chargaff’s rule.
Note: Plasmid is the small circular double-
stranded DNA molecule found in the
cytoplasm of bacterial cells and are
separated from the chromosomal DNA. It
can replicate independently. The Ribonucleic acid is otherwise known as
Watson and Crick model RNA.
• In 1953, James Watson and Francis • This is universally present in all
crick proposed a double helix DNA model organisms except DNA viruses.
on the basis of x-ray diffraction studies • It is made up of nucleotides called
with photographs of DNA taken by Wilkins ribonucleotides.
and Franklin. • There are four types of nucleotides
• DNA is a double-stranded structure in having four different nitrogenous bases.
which the two strands are coiled around But, sugar and phosphate are common for
each other forming a double helix. all nucleotides.
• There are two hydrogen bonds • The four nucleotides are adenine,
between adenine and thymine (A = T) and cytosine, guanine and uracil.
there are three hydrogen bonds between • RNA plays an important role in protein
guanine and cytosine pairing. synthesis.
• Replication of DNA • Types of RNA
• Replication is the process by which There are three major types of RNA which
DNA makes exact copies of itself. occur in all organisms. They are,
• Replication is the basis of life and takes Messenger RNA (mRNA), Transfer RNA
place during the interphase stage. (tRNA) and Ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
• Watson and Crick suggested the Messenger RNA
semiconservative method of replication of • mRNA carries the genetic information
DNA. from DNA to the ribosomes.
• This has been proved by Messelson • Genetic information on the DNA are
and Stahl in their experiments on transcribed into the mRNA by a process
Escherichia coli using radioactive isotopes. called transcription.
• DNA synthesis can occur only in the 5’ • Based on the message in the codon,
to 3’ direction. the proteins are synthesised. This stage is
• DNA is synthesised in small fragments called translation.
called Okazaki fragments. These fragments Transfer RNA
are linked by the enzyme called ligase. • Transfer RNA is also known as soluble
RNA Ribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid RNA(sRNA). The tRNA is a small molecule
molecule similar to DNA but containing compared with other types of RNAs. It

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amounts to about 15 per cent of the total parents. These genes are responsible for
RNA of the cell. the physical outlook and biological
• The most important function is to act functions. The branch of biology that deals
as a carrier of amino acids to the site of with the genes, genetic variation and
protein synthesis. heredity of living organisms is called
• tRNA has a cloverleaf-like structure. genetics.
Ribosomal RNA • A gene is a physical and functional unit
• This is found in the ribosomes. of heredity. It carries information from one
• The rRNA represents about 40 to 60 generation to the next.
per cent of the total weight of the • A gene is a segment of DNA that
ribosomes. specifies the sequence of amino acids in a
• Relatively, it constitutes about 80 per polypeptide chain.
cent of the total RNA of the cells. • Gene is the hereditary unit and is
• They are produced in the nucleus. present in the chromosomes of the
• They are the most stable forms of nucleus.
RNA. • Gene is made up of DNA and DNA is
Differences between DNA and RNA made up of two polynucleotide chains. The
[Link] DNA RNA two chains are helically coiled.
1 It contains a It contains five- • Each polynucleotide chain consists of a
five-carbon carbon ribose series of units called nucleotide.
deoxyribose sugar. • The gene contains the information for
sugar. a polypeptide chain (protein). The
2 It contains It contains polypeptide chain consists of a sequence of
adenine, adenine, amino acids.
guanine, guanine, • The sequence of amino acids in a
cytosine and cytosine and polypeptide chain is specified by the
thymine. uracil. sequence of nucleotides of the gene.
3 It mostly It often occurs as • Each amino acid is specified by 3
occurs as a single-stranded. nucleotides of the gene. These 3
double- nucleotides of a gene are called a codon or
stranded triplet code.
helix. Note: Sickle cell anaemia is caused by the
4 It is often It is shorter. mutation of a single gene. Alteration in the
much longer. gene brings a change in the structure of the
5 It is more It is less stable. protein part of haemoglobin molecule. Due
stable. to the change in the protein molecule, the
Gene red blood cell (RBC) that carries the
We inherit traits and characteristics from haemoglobin is sickle-shaped.
our father and mother. Some of our • Molecular structure of gene: A gene is
characteristics might have been inherited made of DNA. The gene may be subdivided
from our grandparents. we inherit into different units according to Benzer
characters from one generation to another such as recon, muton, cistron and operon.
because of the genes we inherit from our

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• Recon – smallest portion of a gene develops into a male baby. This shows that
which can undergo crossing over and the sex of the baby is determined by males.
recombination and may be as small as a
single nuclecotide pair
V ARIATION
• Muton – smallest unit of a gene that
can undergo mutation and can involve a
pair of nucleotides Kinds of variations:
• Cistron– functional unit which can • Intra-specific variations – Difference
synthesise one polypeptide. in character among some species.
• Operon – group of genes having an • Intergeneric variations – Difference in
operator, a structural gene and other character among different generation
genes in a sequence which all function as a • Inter-specific variations – Difference
unit. in character among different species
• Exons and introns – In Eukaryotes, the
genes on the DNA strand have coding TYPES OF VA RIA TIONS
regions called exons interrupted by no-
coding DNA segments which do not carry
Somatic variations – variation in body cells
genetic information called introns.
and it is not inherited.
Sex determination
• Germinal variation – Variation is germ
Cells contain thread-like structures called
cells (gametes) and it is inherited to the
chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs of
next generation.
chromosomes, among each pair, one is
• Jean Baptise Lamarck postulated the
from the mother and the other is from the
use and disuse theory. According to this
father. The first 22 pairs are body
theory, ‘Will or Want’ for a character
Chromosomes (Autosomes) and the last
makes the organism to possess it at a later
pair is a sex chromosome.
time. e.g. long neck of Giraffe
Sex chromosomes are of two types namely
• Charles Darwin postulated the law of
X and Y. Human females have two X
natural selection involving the struggle for
chromosomes (X, X) and males have XY
existence and survival of the fittest.
chromosomes (XY). Each chromosome pair
should have one from the mother and the • Speciation: Arising of a new species
other from the father. Females always from sub–population of original species
have X chromosome in eggs as they have which is geographically or reproductively
only X chromosome (XX). As males have isolated over a long period of time
two different chromosomes (XY), the • Genetic drift: When two populations
sperm will have either X or Y. are isolated by geographical barriers or
When a sperm containing ‘X’ chromosome reproductive barriers, there is a chance for
fertilises the egg, the zygote will have two a change in their generation flow resulting
X chromosomes (XX). This zygote develops in the formation of new species.
into a female. If the sperm with a Y
chromosome fertilise the egg, it gives a Cloning
zygote (XY) chromosome. This zygote The carbon copy of an individual is often
called a clone. However, more

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appropriately, a clone means to make a • Stem cell culture:

genetically exact copy of an organism. Our body is composed of over 200
In gene cloning, a gene or a piece of DNA specialised cell types that can carry out
fragment is inserted into a bacterial cell specific functions. e.g. neurons or nerve
where DNA will be multiplied (copied) as cells that can transmit signals or heart cells
the cell divides. A brief outline of the basic which contract to pump blood or
steps involved in gene cloning are, pancreatic cells to secrete insulin. These
Isolation of desired DNA fragment by using specialised cells are called as differentiated
restriction enzymes cells. In contrast to differentiated cells,
• Insertion of the DNA fragment into a stem cells are undifferentiated or
suitable vector (Plasmid) to make rDNA unspecialised mass of cells. The stem cells
• Transfer of rDNA into bacterial host are the cells of variable potency.
cell (Transformation) The two important properties of stem cells
• Selection and multiplication of that differentiate them from other cells
recombinant host cell to get a clone are:
• Expression of cloned gene in host cell. • Its ability to divide and give rise to more
Using this strategy several enzymes, stem cells by self-renewal.
hormones and vaccines can be produced. • Its ability to give rise to specialised cells
Note: Dolly was the first cloned female with specific functions by the process of
sheep developed by Dr. Ian Wilmut and his differentiation.
colleagues at the Roslin Institute, Scotland
in July 1996. She was created by somatic
TYPES OF STEM CELLS
cell nuclear transfer technique. She lived
for 6.5 years and died in 2003 because of
lung disease. Embryonic stem cells can be extracted and
cultured from the early embryos. These
cells are derived from the inner cell mass
TYPES OF CLONES of blastocysts. These cells can be
developed into any cell in the body.
Natural clones: The cloning process takes • Adult stem cell or somatic stem cells
place naturally. E.g. identical twins are found in the neonatal (newborn) and
• Identical twins (mono zygotic twins): adults. They have the ability to divide and
Twins developed from a single fertilised give rise to specific cell types. Sources of
egg, they are genetically identical and both adult stem cells are amniotic fluid,
are of the same sex. umbilical cord and bone marrow.
• Fraternal twins (dizygotic twins): Stem-cell therapy
Twins developed from two separately Sometimes cells, tissues and organs in the
fertilized eggs, they are not generically body may be permanently damaged or lost
identical and sexes may differ. due to genetic conditions, disease or
Induced clones: These clones are injury. In such situations, stem cells are
developed by nuclear transfer into host cell used for the treatment of diseases which is
and the process is called as artificial called stem-cell therapy. In treating
cloning. E.g. Dolly. neurodegenerative disorders like

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Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s the purpose of passing the changes to the
disease, neuronal stem cells can be used to next generation.
replace the damaged or lost neurons. Mutation
Genetic Engineering • Sudden change in the genetical setup
Genetic engineering is the modification of of an organism is defined as mutation.
the gene by adding, removing or repairing • In 1901, Hugo de Vries first used the
a part of DNA (genetic material). term ‘mutation’ based on his observation
• Genetic engineering is also called as on Oenothera lamarckiana.
generation manipulation or recombinant • The organism which undergoes
DNA technology (R–DNA Technology). mutation is called a mutant.
• Important enzymes of genetic • Mutations that affect the biochemical
engineering are Restriction endonuclease reactions are called biochemical
(Molecular scissors)– used to cut genetic mutations.
material and DNA ligase – used to past • Some mutations drastically influence
genetic material. the genes and cause death to the
• Genetic engineering is used to produce individual, such mutation is described as
large quantities of insulin, interferons lethal mutation.
(Anti-viral protein), human growth Types of Mutation
hormones and vaccines. Spontaneous mutations
These mutations occur in nature, randomly
and spontaneously.
GENE THERA PY
These mutations could be due to a number
of changes like,
Applying the principle of Biotechnology, it Change in an individual gene – gene
is possible to correct the defective gene. mutation
When the defective gene is corrected with • Change in the number of chromosomes
a new gene, the genetic defect developed – chromosomal mutations
is rectified and cured. Gene therapy is the • Change in the structure of
means to treat or even cure genetic and chromosomes – chromosomal mutations
acquired diseases like cancer and AIDS by
• They may also be caused by radiations,
using a normal gene to supplement or
chemicals (like formaldehyde, peroxides,
replace the defective gene.
tautomeric pairing) and by mismatching of
nitrogen base during replication of DNA.
TYPES OF GENERATION In nature, mutations occur at a very low
rate.
THERAPY
Mutations generally lead to a loss of a
function, i.e. produce harmful effects. Only
Somatic generation therapy: The genome about 0.1% mutations are beneficial.
of the recipient is changed and this change Induced mutations
occurs only for that person and it will not These mutations are produced artificially
pass to the next generation. by using some external factors called
• Germline generation therapy: Eggs mutagens agents.
and sperm of the parents are changed for

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Induced mutations are used in plant • They are eukaryotic, multicellular and
breeding to develop improved varieties. autotrophic organisms.
Induced mutations occur in a very high
frequency. Mutations can also be classified • The plant cell contains a rigid cell wall.
into two types depending on which body • Plants have chloroplast and
cells they occur in. chlorophyll pigment, which is required for
• Somatic mutations: Occur in the photosynthesis.
general body cells of individuals and die
out with an individual. They are not Theophrastus: He was a Greek philosopher
inherited to children however, the and naturalist and is often called the
mutations are passed on to daughter body ‘Father of Botany’.
cells by mitosis.
Carolus Linnaeus: Linnaeus was the first
• Germ mutations: Occur in the germ
person to propose an orderly system for
cells or gametes and are inherited by the
classifying organisms. He developed the
children. These can be passed on to the
Binomial System of Naming Plants in 1753.
next generations.
He is called the ‘Father of Taxonomy’.
Mutagens
It is a physical or chemical agent that In 1883, Eichler divided the kingdom
changes the genetic material, usually DNA Plantae into two sub-kingdoms:
of an organism and thus increases the • Cryptogamae
frequency of mutations above the natural • Phanerogamae
background level.
Cryptogams
Types of Mutagens: Cryptogams never bear flowers and
• Chemical mutagens – Chemical reproduce by some minute bodies called
substances that induce mutations are spores or by simple fission. They are again
called chemical mutagens. They are a divided into three groups:
variety of chemicals like ethyl
methanesulphonate, sodium azide, • Thallophyta: A thallophyte is a plant
mustard gas, etc. where the plant body is an
undifferentiated mass of cells (thallus),
• Physical mutagens – they include
having nothing like stems, roots and
several kinds of radiations like x-rays,
leaves. The green thallophytes which
gamma rays, UV rays, IR rays, cosmic
usually grow in water are called algae and
radiation, etc.
non-green thallophytes are the fungi.
Achievements of mutation breeding
• Sharbati Sonora is a wheat produced • Bryophyta: This group includes plants
from Sonora-64 by using gamma rays. like mosses with small stems and simple
• Production of Atomita 2 rice with leaves but no roots. They grow in moist
saline tolerance and pest resistance. places often forming something like green
• Groundnuts with thick shells. velvety carpet. They are also known as
Plant Kingdom: (Plantae) amphibians of the plant kingdom.
• Kingdom Plantae includes all the
plants.

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• Pteridophyta: Here, the plant body is The dicot

The monocot
well-differentiated into roots, stems and embryos have a
embryos have a
leaves and the organs have well-developed pair of
single cotyledon
conducting strands. These are the highest cotyledons
cryptogams also known as vascular They have a fibrous They have a tap
cryptogams. Ferns are the familiar root system root system
examples. Leaves in monocots Leaves in dicots
have parallel have reticulate
venation or net venation
Phanerogams
The count of
These are the higher plants. They bear In monocot flowers,
parts in a dicot
flowers and reproduce by means of seeds. the count of parts of
flower is a
They are of two types: the flower is a
multiple of four
multiple of three or
• Gymnosperms: Gymnosperms are the or five or equal
equal to three
naked-seeded plants where the seeds to four or five
remain exposed. The plants are usually The roots and
perineal, evergreen and woody. They have The roots and stems stems of
a well-developed vascular tissue but do not of monocotyledons dicotyledons
have vessels. The reproductive organs do not possess a possess a
generally form cones or strobilus. There is cambium and cambium and
no fruit formation and the seeds are hence cannot increase in have the ability
said to be naked. e.g. cycas, pinus and diameter to increase in
deodar. diameter
A few examples of A few examples
• Angiosperms: Angiosperms are monocotyledons are of dicots are
closed-seeded ones where seeds are garlic, onions, beans,
covered, that is, remain inside the fruits. wheat, corn and cauliflower,
Also called the flowering plants, they are grass apples and pear
found abundantly in nature. These plants
are usually terrestrial and they may be Plant morphology
annual, biennial or perennial. The vascular
Phytomorphology or Plant morphology is
system is very well developed with xylem
the study of the physical form and external
and phloem. Angiosperms also show the
structure of plants. This is usually
feature of double fertilisation. e.g. mustard
considered distinct from plant anatomy,
plant, pea plant, etc.
which is the study of the internal structure
Based on the cotyledons (seed leaves), of plants, especially at the microscopic
Angiosperms are further divided into level. Plant morphology is useful in the
Monocotyledonous plants and visual identification of plants.
Dicotyledonous plants.
The morphology of a plant includes the
Monocotyledon vs Dicotyledon roots, stem, leaves, flowers and fruits.

Monocotyledon Dicotyledon The Root

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Root is the descending part of plants, the Stem is an essential part of the plant axis
root always grows in the ground away from which bears branches, leaves, flowers,
the light. The root is a brown, nongreen fruits and helps in the conduction of water
and underground part of a plant. Root with and minerals. It is the aerial part of the
their branches is collectively called a root plant, developed from the plumule of an
system. There are three types of the root embryo or the germinating seeds.
system:
• Leaves
▪ Taproot System
The leaf is a laterally borne structure and is
The taproot is mainly found in usually flattened. It is the main
dicotyledonous plants. It develops from photosynthetic part of the plant. It absorbs
the radicle of the germinating seed, along light and helps in the exchange of gases
with its primary roots and branches, giving through the stomata.
rise to the taproot system. Mustard seeds,
The leaves are green because of the
mangoes, grams are a few examples of the
presence of the photosynthetic pigment
taproot system.
called chlorophyll and have a tiny pore or
▪ Fibrous root System opening called stomata, where the
gaseous exchange takes place.
The fibrous root is mainly found in ferns
and all monocotyledonous plants. This root • Flowers
develops from thin, moderately branching
roots or primary roots, growing from the The flower is the reproductive unit in the
stem. The fibrous root system usually does angiosperms. It is meant for sexual
not penetrate deep into the soil. Wheat, reproduction. A typical flower has four
paddy, grass, onion, grass are a few different kinds of whorls arranged
examples of the fibrous root system. successively on the swollen end of the stalk
or pedicel, called thalamus or receptacle.
▪ Adventitious root System These are calyx, corolla, androecium and
gynoecium. Calyx and corolla are accessory
The roots which originate from any part of
organs, while androecium and gynoecium
the plant body other than the radicle are
are reproductive organs.
called the adventitious root system. This
root system is mainly found in In some flowers like lily, the calyx and
monocotyledonous plants. In plants, the corolla are not distinct and are termed as
adventitious root system is used for perianth. When a flower has both
various purposes like mechanical support, androecium and gynoecium, it is bisexual.
vegetative propagation, etc. Maize, oak A flower having either only stamens or only
trees, horsetails are a few examples of the carpels is unisexual.
adventitious root system.
Functions of Flowers
• Shoot System They help in the process of reproduction.

This is the part of the plant that grows • They produce diaspores without
towards the light. It develops from the bud. fertilisation.
It forms the shoot system of the plant.

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• The gametophytes develop inside the plants, the ovary wall dries out completely,
flower. while in some it remains fleshy. Based on
the number of cotyledons, seeds are
• The flowers attract insects and birds further classified into two types:
which then act as a medium to transfer the
pollen from the anther of one flower to the • Monocotyledons – The embryo
stigma of some other flower. consists of an embryo axis and has only one
cotyledon. The monocotyledons are also
• The ovary of the flower develops into known as monocot seeds. Grains including
a fruit that contains seeds. rice, millet, wheat and other plants like
• Fruits onions, corn, ginger banana, palm tree are
examples of monocot seeds.
The fruit is the characteristic feature of
flowering plants, which is a ripened or • Dicotyledons –The embryo consists of
mature ovary and the seed is what the an embryo axis and has two cotyledons.
ovules develop into after fertilisation. The The dicotyledons are also known as dicots
fruit that develops without fertilisation is or dicot seeds. Legumes including beans,
known as Parthenocarpic. lentils, pea, peanuts and tomato are
examples of dicot seeds.
Types of Fruits
Plant Hormone
There are three different types of fruits
and are classified mainly based on their A plant hormone is a chemical substance
mode of development. which is produced naturally in the plant
and regulates growth and physiological
• Simple: Developed from the processes. It controls and coordinates
monocarpellary ovary or multicarpellary various activities in plants such as.
syncarpous ovary. E.g. Grapes, bananas,
blueberry, etc. • growth of root, stem and leaves (cell
division, cell elongation and cell
• Aggregate: Developed from the differentiation)
multicarpellary apocarpous ovary. E.g.
strawberries, pineapples, mulberries, etc. • growth of fruits

• Composite: These are false fruits • opening and closing of stomata

developed from the entire inflorescence
• germination of seeds
rather than from a single flower. E.g.
walnut, poppy, fig, apple, etc. • flowering of plants etc.

The Seed • Auxins

A seed is a basic part of a plant, which is Auxins were discovered by W. Went, and it
found enclosed within the fruit. It is made is the first plant hormone to be discovered.
up of a seed coat and an embryo. During It is the hormone that controls the growth
the development of the fruit, the wall of of the plant. It is produced in the upper
the ovary becomes the pericarp. In some parts of the plant.

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Its main functions, It is a type of dicarboxylic acid. It is

produced in the injured cell, due to which
• Prominent increase in size of head in
the wounds of the plant are filled.
plants and the stopping of growth of lateral
orbital buds Plant Tissues

• Prevention of wilting of leaves A collection of cells performing a specific

function is called a tissue. Plant tissues can
• Destruction of weeds be grouped into plant tissue systems each
• Protection of crops from falling performing specialised functions. A plant
tissue system is defined as a functional
• Gibberellins unit, connecting all organs of a plant. Plant
tissue system is also grouped into various
It elongates the dwarf plant. It helps in the
tissues based on their functions.
formation of flowers. It breaks the
dormancy of the seeds and encourages Plants are multicellular eukaryotes with
them to germinate. tissue systems made of various cell types
that carry out specific functions.
• Cytokinins
Plant tissue systems fall into one of two
It naturally works in conjunction with
general types: meristematic tissue and
auxin. It helps in cell division and growth in
permanent (or non-meristematic) tissue
the presence of auxins. It prevents decay.
Cells of the meristematic tissue are found
It is helpful in making RNA and proteins. It
in meristems, which are plant regions of
is used to lengthen dwarf plants.
continuous cell division and growth.
• Abscisic acid (Abscisic acid or ABA) Meristematic tissue cells are either
undifferentiated or incompletely
It is an inhibitor of growth hormone. It differentiated and they continue to divide
keeps the seeds dormant. It plays a major and contribute to the growth of the plant.
role in wilting of leaves. It hinders
flowering. Meristematic tissues can be of three types
depending on the region where they are
• Ethylene present:

It is the only hormone which is found in • Apical meristems: The apical

gaseous form. In the form of hormones. It meristem is found in the roots just below
helps in the ripening of fruits and increases the root cap. It bring about increase in
the number of female flowers. It induces length.
shedding of leaves, flowers and fruits.
• Lateral meristems: A type of
• Florigens meristematic tissue comprised of
meristematic cells in the lateral areas of a
These are formed in the leaf but help in the
plant and is associated with lateral growth.
blooming of flowers. Therefore, they are
also called flowering hormones. • Intercalary meristems: Intercalary
meristems are located near the base of the
• Traumatin

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stem or at the internodes of the leaves. Complex Permanent Tissue

They promote plant elongation and Unlike simple permanent cells which look
development at nodes and internodes of the same and are made up of only one type
stems and leaves, as well as longitudinal of cells, complex permanent tissues are
growth of stems, leaves and grasses. made up of more than one type of cells.
These different types of cells coordinate to
In contrast, permanent tissue consists of
perform a function.
plant cells that are no longer actively
• Xylem: It consists of tracheids, vessels,
dividing. Permanent tissues are derived
xylem parenchyma and xylem fibres. It
from the meristematic tissues and have
helps in conducting water and minerals.
lost their ability to divide. They have
The xylem conducts only in one direction,
attained their mature form.
i.e. vertically
They are further classified into two types: • Phloem: It consists of four elements:
Simple and complex permanent tissues sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem
fibres and the phloem parenchyma. Unlike
Permanent Tissues the xylem, phloem conducts in both
Simple Permanent tissues directions. It is responsible for transporting
Simple tissues are homogenous and food from the leaves to other parts of the
composed of structurally and functionally plant.
similar cells.

• Parenchyma: These tissues are found

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
in the soft parts of a plant such as the roots,
stems, leaves and flowers. The cells of this Photosynthesis is a process by which
tissue are loosely packed and contain large phototrophs or autotrophs convert light
intercellular spaces between them. Each energy into chemical energy, which is later
cell has a vacuole at the center. The used to fuel cellular activities. The chemical
functions of parenchyma tissues are energy is stored in the form of sugars,
storage, photosynthesis, and to help the which are created from water and carbon
plant float on water. dioxide.
Photosynthesis is the process that
• Collenchyma: They are similar to
exclusively takes place in the chloroplasts
parenchyma cells with thicker cell walls.
through the photosynthetic pigment
They are meant to provide mechanical
chlorophyll. All green plants utilise
support and flexibility to the plant
photosynthesis to synthesise nutrients by
structure in parts such as petiole of the
using carbon dioxide, water and sunlight.
leaf.
Photosynthesis also applies to other
• Sclerenchyma: The cells of this tissue organisms besides green plants. These
are dead. They are rigid, contain thick and include prokaryotes such as cyanobacteria,
lignified secondary walls. Their main purple bacteria and green sulphur bacteria.
function is to provide strength and support
to parts of the plant. The glucose produced during
photosynthesis is then used to fuel various

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cellular activities. The by-product of this Chlorophyll is the green pigment in leaves.
physio-chemical process is oxygen. It has four components.
Photosynthesis reaction involves two Chlorophyll (a) , chlorophyll (b) , carotene
reactants, carbon dioxide and water. These and xanthophyll.
two reactants yield two products namely Chlorophyll (a) and (b) are green in colour
oxygen and glucose. It is an endothermic and transfer energy. It is the centre of
reaction. photosynthesis.
Formula for photosynthesis: Chlorophyll absorbs violet, blue and red
6CO2 + 6H2O —> C6H12O6 + 6O2 colours from light. The rate of
photosynthesis is the highest in red light
Steps in Photosynthesis:
and lowest in violet light.
During the process of photosynthesis,
The process of photosynthesis is an
carbon dioxide enters through the
oxidation-reduction process. In this, the
stomata, water is absorbed by the root
oxidation of water takes place in the
hairs from the soil and is carried to the
formation of oxygen and the reduction of
leaves through the xylem vessels.
carbon dioxide in the formation of glucose.
Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy from
the sun to split water molecules into The process of photosynthesis occurs in
hydrogen and oxygen. two stages:
The hydrogen from water molecules and • Light-dependent reaction or light
carbon dioxide absorbed from the air are reaction
used in the production of glucose. • Light independent reaction or dark
Furthermore, oxygen is liberated out into reaction
the atmosphere through the leaves as a
Light-dependent reaction: It is also called
waste product.
photochemical [Link] process takes
Glucose is a source of food for plants that place in the part of chlorophyll. It is also
provide energy for growth and called Hill reaction. In this process, water
development, while the rest is stored in decomposes to form hydrogen ions and
the roots, leaves and fruits for their later electrons. The energy for the
use. decomposition of water comes from light.
Pigments are other fundamental cellular At the end of this process, ATP and NADP
components of photosynthesis. They are in the form of energy, which helps in
the molecules that impart colour and they conducting the Light independent reaction
absorb light at some specific wavelength / dark reaction.
and reflect back the unabsorbed light. All Light independent reaction: This action
green plants mainly contain chlorophyll (a) takes place in the stroma of chlorophyll. In
, chlorophyll (b) and carotenoids which are this process, carbon dioxide is reduced to
present in the thylakoids of chloroplasts. It form sugar and starch.
is primarily used to capture light energy.
Plant Diseases
Chlorophyll (a) is the main pigment.
Like animals, plants also suffer from a
variety of diseases. The biological agents

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that cause diseases in plants are known as Cankers Woody plants

pathogens. Some of the common plant Cotton, beans, peas,
Leaf spot
pathogens are − etc.
• Viruses Fleshy or succulent
Soft rots
• Bacteria plant parts
Rosebushes, pome
• Fungi Fire Blight
fruit trees, etc.
However, some non-pathogenic diseases Fungal Diseases in Plants
(in plants) may also occur when the pH
value, moisture, humidity, soil, etc. of soil The following table illustrates the major
change. plant diseases caused by fungi:

Viral Diseases in Plants Disease Plants Affected

Cankers Largely woody plants
The following table illustrates the major
plant diseases caused by viruses:
Ring spot Brassicas
Disease Plants Affected Leaf blight Carrot
Bud Blight Soybeans Cavity spot Carrot
Beans, tomato, sugar Wilts Potatoes, alfalfa, etc.
Curly top
beets, etc. Smuts Oats, barley, corn,
Tomato, tobacco, wheat, grasses, etc.
corn, legume, Scab Wheat, barley, rye,
potato, pea, sugar potato, etc.
Mosaic leaf
beet, cucumber, Root rots All types of plants
maize, cauliflower, Rusts Wheat, barley, rye,
sugarcane, bean, etc. oats, etc.
Barley, sugar beet, Tuber Potato, sweet potato,
Yellowing of leaf
potato, etc. diseases etc.
Tomato, capsicum, Powdery Grains, legumes
Spotted Wilt
etc. mildew
Tomato, capsicum, Ergot Rye, barley, wheat and
Chlorosis
etc. other grasses
Bacterial Diseases in Plants Downy Grains, onions,
The following table illustrates the major mildew cucumbers, alfalfa, etc.
plant diseases caused by bacteria : Plant hormones:

Disease Plants Affected Plant hormones are organic molecules that

Vegetable crops, are produced at extremely low
Blights concentration in plants. These molecules
fruit trees, etc.
Corn, tobacco, control morphological, physiological and
Bacterial wilts potatoes, alfalfa, biochemical responses.
tomatoes, etc. Types of Plant Hormones
Fruits and leaves of
Bacterial speck There are five major classes of plant
different plants hormones.

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They are: • Auxins promote the elongation of stems

• Auxins and coleoptiles which makes them grow.
• Cytokines • Auxins induce root formation at low
• Gibberellins concentration and inhibit it at higher
• Abscisic Acid (ABA)
concentration.
• Ethylene
Among all these plant hormones auxins, • The auxins produced by the apical buds
cytokinins and gibberellins promote plant suppress the growth of lateral buds. This is
growth while abscisic acid and ethylene called apical dominance.
inhibit plant growth. • Seedless fruits without fertilization are
Note: Victoria amazonica, the leaves of this induced by the external application of
plant grow up to 3 m across. A mature auxins. (Parthenocarpy) . e.g. Watermelon,
Victoria leaf can support an evenly Grapes, Lime etc.
distributed load of 45 kg or an apparently • Auxins prevent the formation of
young person. abscission layer.
• Auxins: Cytokines:
Auxins were the first plant hormones Cytokines (Cytos - cell; kinesis - division)
discovered. The term auxin was introduced are the plant hormones that promote cell
by Kogl and Haagen Smith in 1931. Auxins division in plant cells. It was first isolated
are produced at the tip of stems and roots. from Herring fish sperm. Cytokinin is found
In 1880,Charles Darwin observed unilateral abundantly in liquid endosperm of
growth and curvature of canary grass coconut.
(Phalaris canariensis) coleoptiles. He came
Functions:
to the conclusion that some ‘influence’ was
transmitted from the tip of the coleoptile • Cytokinin induces cell division
to the basal region. This ‘influence’ was (cytokinesis) in the presence of auxins.
later identified as Auxin by Went. • Cytokinin also causes cell enlargement.
• Both auxins and cytokinins are essential
Types of Auxins: for the formation of new organs from the
callus in tissue culture (Morphogenesis) .
Auxins are classified into two types,
• Cytokinins promote the growth of
Natural Auxins:
lateral buds even in the presence of apical
Auxins produced by the plants are called buds.
natural auxins, e.g. IAA (Indole – 3 - Acetic
Acid) • Application of cytokinin delays the
process of ageing in plants. This is called
Synthetic Auxins: Artificially synthesized Richmond Lang effect.
auxins that have properties like auxins are
Gibberellins:
called as synthetic Auxins,e.g. 2, 4 D (2, 4
Dichlorophenoxy Acetic Acid) Gibberellins are the most abundantly
Functions: found plant hormones. In 1926,Kurosawa
observed Bakanae disease or foolish

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seedling disease in rice crops. This • ABA induces bud dormancy towards the
internodal elongation in rice was caused by approach of winter in trees like birch.
fungus Gibberella fujikuroi. The active
• ABA is a powerful inhibitor of lateral bud
substance was identified as Gibberellic
growth in tomatoes.
acid.
Functions: Ethylene:

• Application of gibberellins on plants Ethylene is a gaseous plant hormone. It is a

stimulates extraordinary elongation of the growth inhibitor. It is mainly concerned
internodes. e.g. corn and pea with the maturation and ripening of fruits.
Maximum synthesis of ethylene occurs
• Treatment of rosette plants with during the ripening of fruits like apples,
gibberellin induces sudden shoot bananas and melons.
elongation followed by flowering. This is
called bolting. Functions:

• Gibberellins promote the production of • Ethylene promotes the ripening of

male flowers in monoecious plants fruits. e.g. Tomato, Apple, Mango, Banana,
(Cucurbits) . etc.

• Gibberellins break the dormancy of • Ethylene inhibits the elongation of stem

potato tubers. and root in dicots.

• Gibberellins are efficient than auxins in • Ethylene hastens the senescence of

inducing the formation of seedless fruits. leaves and flowers.

• Parthenocarpic fruits (Development of • Ethylene stimulates the formation of

fruits without fertilisation) e.g. Tomato. abscission zone in leaves, flowers and
fruits. This leads to premature shedding.
• Abscisic acid or ABA:
• Ethylene breaks the dormancy of buds,
Abscisic acid (ABA) is a growth inhibitor seeds and storage organs.
which regulates abscission and dormancy.
It increases tolerance of plants to various
kinds of stress. So, it is also called as stress POLLUTION
hormone. It is found in the chloroplast of
plants. Such unwanted changes in the physical,
Functions: chemical or biological properties of air,
water or land (i.e., environment) which are
• ABA promotes the process of abscission
harmful to human beings and other living
(separation of leaves, flowers and fruits
beings and afects their living conditions,
from the branch)
industrial processes and cultural
• During water stress and drought achievements are called pollution.
conditions,ABA causes stomatal closure.
Pollution is the introduction of
• ABA promotes senescence in leaves by contaminants into the natural
causing loss of chlorophyll. environment that cause adverse change.
Pollution is mainly of the following types-

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• Air pollution
• Water pollution Water pollution:
• Noise pollution Water pollution is said to occur when toxic
• Soil pollution pollutants and particulate matter are
introduced into water bodies such as lakes,
• Nuclear pollution
rivers and seas. These contaminants are
Air Pollution:
generally introduced by human activities
When pollution is present in the like improper sewage treatment and oil
atmosphere and the optimum amount of spills. However, even natural processes
the components of the atmosphere such as eutrophication can cause water
changes, then it is called air pollution. pollution.
In the context of air pollution, PM stands Sources of water pollution: Water
for Particulate Matter and SPM stands for pollution is mainly caused by the
Suspended Particulate Matter. dissolution of carbonates, chlorides,
Major air pollutants: Carbon monoxide sodium and bicarbonates, sulphates of
(CO), sulphur dioxide (SO), hydrogen magnesium and potassium, ammonia,
sulphide (HS), hydrogen fluoride (HF), carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and
oxides of nitrogen (NO and NO2), industrial wastes in water.
hydrocarbons, ammonia (NH3), tobacco Seawater pollution is caused by the
smoke, fluorides dust and smoke particles, dissolution of sulphur containing heavy
aerosols, etc. metals, hydrocarbons, petroleum
Air pollutant asbestos (mica) dust affects substances in water.
the lungs, lead affects the stomach, Oil Spills: The spill from oil tankers spreads
mercury affects the blood streams and quickly on the surface of sea water. In this
carbon monoxide affects the brain. way the oil spread on the water surface is
Sulphur dioxide (SO2), sulphur trioxide called oil spills.
(SO3), nitrogen oxide (NO) reacts with Drinking water containing mercury causes
atmospheric water to form sulphuric acid Minamata disease.
or sulphurus acid and nitric acid. These Consumption of water containing asbestos
acids come to the earth with rainwater, fibres leads to a deadly disease called
this is called acid rain. asbestosis.
The term brown air is used for Only 2.5% - 3% of the available water on
photochemical smoke. earth is clean.
Emphysema is a dangerous disease caused Note: Water pollution in rivers is measured
by air pollution that affects the lungs. by the dissolved amount of oxygen.
Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) is a secondary Noise pollution:
pollutant.
The unwanted or undesirable noise spread
Note: World Environment Day It is around the environment is called noise
celebrated on 5 June. First World pollution. Noise pollution refers to the
Environment Day was celebrated in 1973. excessive amount of noise in the

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surrounding that disrupts the natural • Pollution caused by ultraviolet rays of

balance. Usually, it is man-made, though the sun.
certain natural calamities like volcanoes
can contribute to noise pollution.
A NIMA L TISSUES
In general, any sound which is over 85
decibels is detrimental. Also, the duration
an individual is exposed plays an impact on
their health. For perspective, a normal
conversation is around 60 decibels, and a
jet taking off is around 150 decibels.
Consequently, noise pollution is more
obvious than the other types of pollution.
Soil Pollution:
Soil pollution, also called soil Epithelial Tissues: Epithelial tissues cover
contamination, refers to the degradation most organs and cavities within the body.
of land due to the presence of chemicals or Epithelial tissue in the skin functions as a
other man-made substances in the soil. water-proof membrane. Based on the
The xenobiotic substances alter the natural shape, arrangement of cells and their
composition of soil and affect it negatively. functions.
These can drastically impact life directly or a) Squamous Epithelium:
indirectly. It is made up of thin, flat cells with
Sources of Soil Pollution: Acid rain, water prominent nuclei. These cells have
from mines, excessive use of fertilizers and irregular boundaries and bind with
pesticide chemicals, garbage, industrial neighboring cells. The squamous
waste, sewage discharge in open fields etc. epithelium is also known as pavement
are the main sources of soil-pollution. membrane, which form delicate lining of
the buccal cavity, alveoli of lungs, proximal
Nuclear pollution:
tubule of kidneys and covering of the skin
This pollution is generated by radioactive
and tongue. It protects the body from
rays. The following sources of radioactive
mechanical injury, drying and invasion of
pollution can be Pollution obtained from
germs.
rays used in medical.
b) Columnar Epithelium:
• Pollution caused by the fuel used in
It is composed of a single layer of slender,
nuclear furnaces.
elongated and pillar like cells. Their nuclei
• Pollution caused by the use of nuclear are located at the base. It is found lining
weapons. the stomach, gall bladder, bile duct, small
• Pollution resulting from waste material intestine, colon, oviducts and also forms
from nuclear power plants. the mucous membrane. They are mainly
involved in secretion and absorption.
• Pollution caused by radioactive
substances used in research. Note: Duration of cell replacement of skin
cells is about every 2 weeks.

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c) Cuboidal Epithelium: Note: Epithelial cells lining the gut last only
about 5 days.
It is composed of single layer of cubical
cells. The nucleus is round and lies in the Vascular Tissues: Blood (Fluid connectivity
center. This tissue is present in the thyroid tissue)
vesicles, salivary glands, sweat glands and Connective Tissues: It is one of the most
exocrine pancreas. It is also found in the abundant and widely distributed tissue. It
intestine and tubular part of the nephron provides structural frame work and gives
(kidney tubules) as microvilli that increase support to different tissues forming
the absorptive surface area. Their main organs. It prevents the organs from getting
function is secretion and absorption. displaced by body movements. The
d) Ciliated Epithelium: components of the connective tissue are
the intercellular substance known as the
Certain columnar cells bear numerous
matrix, connective tissue cells and fibers.
delicate hair like out growths called cilia
and are called ciliated epithelium. Their Connective tissue is classified as follows:
function is to move particles or mucus in a 1. Connective tissue proper
specific direction over the epithelium. It is (Areolar and Adipose tissue)
seen in the trachea of wind-pipe,
bronchioles of respiratory tract, kidney 2. Supportive connective tissue
tubules and fallopian tubes of oviducts. (Cartilage and Bone)

e) Sensory Epithelium: 3. Dense connective tissue

(Tendons and Ligaments)
Some of the epithelial cells are modified to
respond to stimuli and they form the sense 4. Fluid connective tissue (Blood and
organs. Lymph)

f) Glandular Epithelium: Connective tissue proper: Connective

Epithelial cells are often modified to form tissue proper consist of collagen fibers,
elastin fibers and fibroblast cells.
specialised gland cells which secrete
a) Areolar tissue: It has cells and fibers
chemical substances at the epithelial
loosely arranged in a semi-fluid ground
surface. This lines the gastric glands, substance called matrix. It takes the form
pancreatic tubules and intestinal glands. of fine threads crossing each other in every
direction leaving small spaces called
g) Germinal epithelium: It is a thick layer areolae. It joins skin to muscles, fills space
of cells that covers the sex organs during inside organs and is found around muscles,
the early developmental stage of the blood vessels and nerves. It helps in repair
embryo. These are cuboidal cells found in of tissues after injury and fixes skin to
both testes and ovary. In males, it covers underlying muscles.
the wall of seminiferous tubules within
b) Adipose Tissues: They are fat storing
testes. In females, it covers the outermost
cells. They are spherical or oval in shape.
layer of the ovary. The germinal cell
They are arranged closer such that their
undergoes division and differentiation to
inter-cellular space is absent. They act as
form haploid gametes.
shock absorbers around the kidneys and

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eye balls. They also regulate the body bundles of collagen fibers, between which
temperature by acting as insulator. They are present rows of fibroblasts.
are present below the skin. b) Ligaments: They are highly elastic
Supportive connective Tissue: The structures and have great strength which
supporting or skeletal connective tissue connects bones to bones. They contain
forms the endoskeleton of the vertebrate very little matrix. They strengthen the
body which protects various organs and joints and allow normal movement.
help in locomotion. They are supportive in
function and classified as
a) Cartilage tissue
They are soft, semi-rigid, and flexible and
are less vascular in nature. The matrix is
composed of large cartilage cells called
chondrocytes. It provides support and
flexibility to the body parts. These cells are
present in fluid filled spaces known as
lacunae. Present in nose, ear, trachea and
Note: Sprain is caused by excessive pulling
larynx.
(stretching) of ligaments.
b) Bone tissue:
Fluid connective tissue:
It is solid, rigid and strong, non-flexible
The blood and the lymph are the fluid
skeletal connective tissue. The matrix of
connective tissues which link different
the bone is rich in calcium salts and
parts of the body. The cells of the
collagen fibers which gives the bone its
connective tissue are loosely spaced and
strength. The matrix of the bone is in the
are embedded in an intercellular matrix.
form of concentric rings called lamellae.
The bone cells present in lacunae are called Nervous Tissue:
osteocytes. They communicate with each Nervous tissues are composed of neurons
other by a network of fine canals called and nerve fibers. Neurons are structural
canaliculi. The hollow cavities of spaces are
unit of nervous system. They are the
called marrow cavities filled with bone
marrow. They provide shape and structural longest cells of the body. It has cell body
framework to the body. Bones support and called cyton and long tail called axon. The
protect soft tissues and organs. Dendron’s are short and highly branched
Dense Connective Tissue: It is a fibrous protoplasmic processes of cyton. The axon
connective tissue densely packed with
is a single, long fiber like process that
fibers and fibroblasts. It is the principal
component of tendons and ligaments. develops from the cyton and ends up with

a) Tendons: They are cord like, strong, fine terminal branches. They send signals
structures that join skeletal muscles to to different parts of the body
bones. Tendons have great strength and
limited flexibility. They consist of parallel

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distinguishing features of the cardiac

muscles. These muscles are involuntary
muscles. These muscles are only found in
heart.

Muscular Tissue:
Muscular tissues are made of muscle cells
and form the major part of contractile
tissue. They are composed of numerous
myofibrils. Each muscle is made up of
many long cylindrical fibers arranged
parallel to one another. According to their
KINGDOM ANIMALIA
structure, location and functions there are
three main types of muscles
Note: It takes 17 muscles to smile and 42
muscles to frown.
1. Striated Muscle
They are called as Skeletal Muscles. Dark
and light bonds are present in them. They
are multi nucleated. Striated muscle is
covered by a membrane called
sarcolemma. They can be controlled and
hence called as voluntary muscles. They
occur in the biceps and triceps of arms and
undergo rapid contraction.
2. Non-striated Muscle:
They are spindle shaped with broad middle
part and tapering ends and without
branches. They are involuntary muscles Criteria for Classification:
and cannot be controlled by will and so • Cellular organisation (unicellular,
called involuntary muscles. There is a multicellular), symmetry.
single centrally located nucleus • Germ layers (diploblastic, triploblastic).
(uninucleate). Found commonly in the wall
of digestive tract, urinary bladder and • Coelom-fluid filled cavity inside the
internal organs. body. (Acoelomate Ex: Tapeworm,
Eucoelomate Ex: Earthworm,
3. Cardiac Muscle Pseudocoelomate Ex: Roundworm).
They are multi nucleated but the nuclei are Pseudo-false, eu-true.
centrally located. The muscle fibers are
cylindrical, branched and uninucleate. The • Body temperature (poikilotherm-
branches join to form a network called as varying body temperature and
intercalated disc which are unique homeotherm-constant temperature).

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Phylum Porifera (Pore bearers) Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flat worms)

• The word Porifera means organisms
with holes. • The body wall is made up of three basic
• These are non-motile animals attached layers and hence the animals are
to some solid support. triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical and
acoelomate (without body cavity).
• There have pores all over the body
called ostia and form a canal system that • Hooks/suckers act as organs of
helps in circulating water. attachment to the host body.

• Food and oxygen are taken from • Excretion occurs by specialized cells
circulating water through ostia. called flame cells. Most of them are
parasitic in nature
• These animals are covered with hard
outside layer or skeleton. • There is no skeleton, respiratory organ,
circulatory system.
• The body shows minimal differentiation
and division into tissues. • Alimentary canal with single opening,
anus is absent.
• Reproduction is by both asexual and
sexual methods. • These worms are hermaphrodites
having both male and female reproductive
• Ex: Sponges, Sycon, Euplectella, etc
organs in a single individual.
• Ex: planaria, tapeworm, liver fluke, etc.
Phylum coelenterate (Cnidaria)
• Coelenterates are aquatic organisms,
mostly marine and few fresh water forms. Phylum Aschelminthes (Round worms)
• Body is cylindrical, unsegmented and
• It shows radial symmetry and
protected by a resistant cuticle. Their
multicellular.
bodies are bilaterally symmetrical and
• Body wall is diploblastic with two triploblastic.
layers. An outer ectoderm and inner
• They are pseudocoelomates with a fluid
endoderm are separated by Non-cellular
filled space between the mesoderm and
jelly like substance called mesoglea.
internal organs.
• A distinct sac-like space inside the body
• They exist as free-living soil forms or as
called the coelenteron or gastro-vascular
parasites.
cavity is present and it takes care of
digestion. • The body is round and pointed at both
the ends. It is unsegmented and covered by
• It has a central gastro vascular cavity
thin cuticle. Sexes are separate.
called coelenteron with mouth surrounded
by short tentacles. The tentacles bear • Alimentary canal is complete in which
stinging cells called cnidoblast or mouth and anus both are present.
nematocyst.
• There is no circulatory and respiratory
• Ex: Sea anemone, hydra, jelly fish. system but nervous system is developed.

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• The most common diseases caused by • Respiration is through body surface,

nematodes in human beings are gills or tracheae (air tubes). Excretion
elephantiasis and ascariasis. occurs by malphigian tubules or green
glands.
• Ex: Wuchereria, Ascaris, etc.
• Ex: cockroach, spiders, crabs, etc.

Phylum Annelida (Segmented worms) Phylum Mollusca (Soft Bodied Animals)

• They are diversified group of animals
• They have elongated, cylindrical and
living in marine, fresh water and terrestrial
segmented bodies.
habitats.
• Body is externally divided into segments
called metameres joined by ring like • Alimentary canal is well developed.
structures called annuli. • Soft, un-segmented bodies without
appendages, covered by a thin fleshy
• These worms move with the help of
small bristles called setae and parapodia. structure called mantle.
• The mantle protects the body by
• Bilaterally symmetrical, eucoelomate
secreting a hard shell made of calcium
and triploblastic.
carbonate.
• Ex: earthworm, leech and Nereis.
• Respiration is through gills (ctenidia) or
lungs or both. Excretions take place
Phylum Arthropoda (Animals with jointed through kidney.
legs) • Moves around with the help of
• Arthropoda is the largest phylum of the muscular foot.
animal kingdom.
• Blood often has a blue color pigment
• It includes crustaceans (Ex: crabs and called Haemocyanin.
prawns), insects (Ex: butterflies and
cockroaches), arachnids (spiders and • Ex: Snail, Octopus, squid.
scorpions) and myriapods (centipedes and
millipedes). Phylum Echinodermata (Spiny Skinned
Animals)
• Arthropod means jointed foot.
• Echino-derma means spiny skinned.
• It is covered by a hard, firm external
• Young ones- bilateral symmetry. Adult-
skeleton made up of a strong substance
radial symmetry.
called chitin and is shed periodically as the
animal grows. The casting off and re- • Triploblastic and coelomate with
growing of exoskeleton is called molting. organ-system grade of organization.

• Have open circulation system, • They are unique because they have a
bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and system of water-filled canals inside the
coelomate animals. body. These canals project out in the form
of hundreds of tube feet which have
• Body cavity is filled with haemolymph
suction cups at their ends and forms the
(blood).
water-vascular system.

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• The water-vascular system also helps in Prochordata

the exchange of gases, internal transport The prochordates are considered as the
of nourishment and excretion. forerunners of vertebrates. Based on the
• Locomotion occurs by tube feet. Body nature of the notochord, prochordata is
wall is covered with spiny hard calcareous classified into subphylum Urochordata and
ossicles. subphylum Cephalochordata.

• There is a special capacity of Subphylum Urochordata

regeneration. Notochord is present only in the tail region
of free-living larva. Adults are sessile forms
• Ex: star fish, brittle star, sea-urchin, sea-
and mostly degenerate. The body is
cucumber.
covered with a tunic or test.
e.g. Ascidian
Phylum Hemichordata
Subphylum Cephalochordata
• Hemichordates are marine organisms Cephalochordates are small fish like
with soft, vermiform and unsegmented marine chordates with unpaired dorsal
body. fins. The notochord extends throughout
• They are bilaterally symmetrical, the entire length of the body.
coelomate animals with non-chordate and E.g. Amphioxus
chordate features.
Vertebrates
• They have gill slits but do not have
They are the most advanced form of
notochord.
organisms. coelomate, triploblastic and
• They are ciliary feeders and mostly bilaterally symmetrical, have a strong and
remain as tubiculous forms. flexible vertebral column made of a chain
• E.g.- Balanoglossus (Acorn worms). of cylindrical bones. Vertebrates include
body segmentation, closed blood
Note: Sea snake which is called Hydeophis circulation and presence of a well-
is the world’s most venomous snake. developed
Chordata a) Class: Cyclostomata
• Chordates are characterized by the
• Cyclostomes are jawless vertebrates
presence of notochord, dorsal nerve cord
(mouth not bounded by jaws).
and paired gill pouches.
• Body is elongated and eel like. They
• Notochord is a long rod like support
have circular mouth.
along the back of the animal separating the
gut and nervous tissue. • Skin is slimy and scaleless.

• All chordates are triploblastic and • They are ectoparasites of fishes. E.g.
coelomate animals. Hagfish.

• Phylum Chordata is divided into two b) Class Pisces

groups: Prochordata and Vertebrata. • Aquatic, streamlined and covered with
scales

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• Fishes are poikilothermic (cold- d) Class Reptilia

blooded), aquatic vertebrates with jaws. • Poikilothermic (Temperature of body
• They breathe with the help of gills. varies with respect to surrounding
temperatures)
• Gills protected by a lid-like bony plate
called the operculum. • Their body is covered with horny
epidermal scales, making it waterproof.
• Skeleton is made up of cartilage.
• The heart of a reptile has three
• The heart is two chambered with an chambers.
auricle and a ventricle.
• They use their lungs to breathe.
There are two main types of fishes. • Most of the reptiles lay their eggs with
• Cartilaginous fishes with skeleton made tough outer shell. Ex: lizard, crocodile,
of cartilages e.g. Sharks, Skates. turtle, etc.
Note: Reptile crocodile has 4 chamber
• Bony fishes with skeleton made of
heart. Mesozoic era is called the era of
bones e.g. Carps, Mullets. reptiles. Cobra is the only snake that makes
Note: Octopus is the only invertebrate that nest. Cobra emits its venom through
canine teeth.
is capable of emotion, empathy, cognitive
function, self-awareness, personality and e) Class Aves
even relationships with humans. Some • Homeothermic (warm blooded)
speculate that without humans, octopus
would eventually take our place as the • Have streamlined bodies covered with
dominate life form on earth. feathers that enable flight.

c) Class Amphibia • Fore limbs are modified to wings and

Hindlimbs are adapted for walking,
• These are the first four legged
perching or swimming
(tetrapods) vertebrates.
• They are Cold blooded vertebrates, can • Use lungs to breathe which have air sacs
live on both land and water. and heart is four chambered.
• Amphibian uses both gills and lungs for • Bones are filled with air (pneumatic
respiration
bones), which reduces the body weight.
• Their skin is moist and have mucus
glands. Eggs are laid in water. • They lay large yolk laden eggs. They are
covered by hard calcareous shell.
• An amphibian’s heart has three
chambers: two auricles and a single Ex: pigeon, the crow, ostrich, penguin, emu
ventricle. Ex: frogs, salamanders, toad, etc. and cassowary.
Note: During hibernation frog respires f) Class Mammalia
through skin. The Chinese giant
• Homeothermic (Temperature of body
salamander Andrias davidians is the
is constant Irrespective of surrounding
largest amphibian in the world. Its length is
temperatures)
about five feet and eleven inches. It weighs
about 65 kg, found in Central and South
China.

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• Varied pattern of teeth is called as Eg: Human Digestive System is wrong.

heterodont dentition. The skin is covered Human Digestive System is correct
with hairs. Ingestion
• Females have mammary glands, which Taking the food into the mouth is called
secrete milk for feeding the young ones. Ingestion. Man and other animals have
holozoic nutrition (Eating food in the solid
• Heart is four chambered. form). The alimentary canal in humans is a
• Diaphragm is present. long tube (8 to 10 metres) which begins
with an anterior opening, i.e., mouth and
• Presence of sweat glands and
ends in posteriorly through the anus.
mammary glands.
Teeth
Ex: dolphin, elephant, humans, etc. • The study of teeth is called odontology.
Note: Mammals like Platypus, and Spiny • With the help of teeth, the food is
anteater lay eggs. chewed.

Dental formula
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY The number and kinds of teeth in mammals
are represented by an equation, called
Human Digestive System dental formula. Since two halves of each
The main function of the digestive system jaw are identical, the teeth of only one side
are considered in the equation.
is the splitting of complex food materials Dental formula can be represented as
into simpler molecules by hydrolysis, so below:
that they can be easily absorbed by the • ICPmM
• 2123
intestine.
I – Incisors, C – Canine, Pm – Premolars, M
– Molars

Teeth are of four different kinds in

humans:
The complete process of nutrition is • Incisors (for cutting)
divided into five stages: • Canines (for tearing)
Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption,
• Premolars (for chewing)
Assimilation and Defecation.

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Milk teeth do not include premolar teeth. not have the capsaicin- sensitive receptors
• Molars (For chewing and grinding) on their tongues, that’s why they enjoy
a) Premolars and molars are called check chillies so much.
teeth. Milk teeth include only two molar Salivary gland
teeth. These are exocrine glands that discharge
b) There are 20 milk teeth and 32 their secretion into oral cavity. In humans,
permanent teeth including the 4 wisdom there are three types of salivary glands
teeth. parotid (largest), sublingual (smallest) and
c) In humans, the first teeth appear in submandibular glands. Saliva contains
between 6 and 8 months. By the age of 6, amylase, ptyalin and lysosyme
baby teeth are gradually replaced by the (antibacterial agent).
permanent teeth.
d) The hardest part in the human body is
the tooth enamel.
e) In elephants, the tusks are the incisors
of the upper jaw.
Tongue
It is a highly muscular organ containing
voluntary muscles attached to the floor of
Digestion
buccal cavity with the help of connectivity
The process of conversion of complex non-
tissue (frenulum lingua). Frenulum lingua
absorbable food into an absorbable form
prevent us from swallowing our own
is known as digestion. The digestion of the
tongue. It also helps in the process of
food starts from the mouth.
speech.
• Saliva is secreted by the salivary gland in
• Saliva secreted by the salivary glands is
the mouth. Saliva contains enzymes called
mixed with the chewed food by the
amylase and ptyalin.
tongue.
• They convert starch into simple sugar
• The tongue also contains taste buds due
and make it digestible.
to which we sense bitter, sour, salty or
• In humans, the secretion of saliva is
sweet taste.
approximately 1.5 litres per day.
• Women, generally have more taste
• The nature of saliva is slightly acidic (pH
buds than men.
6.8).
• The blue whale has the largest tongue of
• From the mouth, the food reaches into
all animals, i.e. about 2.7 metric tons.
stomach through the food pipe
• Chillies and other spicy ingredients in
(oesophagus).
food cause its hotness because of a
• Digestion does not take place in the
substance called capsaicin. The human
food pipe.
tongue has many nerve endings called
receptors that detect different tastes like • Contraction and expansion of the wall of
sweet, bitter, sour and salty. One kind of oesophagus to push the food in forward
receptors detects how warm the food is. direction is known as peristaltic
Capsaicin irritates this receptor, causing movement.
the tongue to feel hot. Birds like parrots do

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Digestion in Stomach (j-shaped) and it turns the acidic medium of food into
a) The food lies approximately for four alkaline.
hours in the stomach. • Here, pancreatic juice secreted from the
After reaching the food in stomach gastric exocrine part of the pancreas combines
glands secrete the gastric juice. This is a with food. PH of pancreatic juice is 7.
light-yellow acidic liquid of pH 2.5 Secretin is the hormone that stimulates the
(approximately). In the human body, about production of pancreatic juice. Pancreatic
2 to 3 litres of gastric juice is secreted per juice contains three types of enzymes:
day. ▪ Trypsin: It converts the protein and
peptone into polypeptides and amino
acids.
▪ Amylase: It converts the starch into
soluble sugar.
▪ Lipase: It converts the emulsified fats
into glycerol and fatty acids.

Digestion in Jejunum
• Here, the process of digestion gets
completed and absorption of digested
b) Hydrochloric acid secreted from the foods starts.
oxyntic cells of the stomach kills all the • From the wall of small intestine,
bacteria coming with food and accelerates intestinal juices are secreted. Intestinal
the reaction of enzymes and then makes juice is also called succus entericus.
the food acidic. HCL is also called muriatic • In healthy people, approximately 2 litres
acid. of intestinal juice is secreted every day. Its
c) The enzymes in the gastric juice of the Ph is 8.5 (alkaline in nature).
stomach are pepsin and renin. • The enzymes present in intestinal juice
d) Pepsin breaks down the protein into are,
peptones. • Erepsin: It converts the remaining
Renin breaks down the Caseinogen (milk) protein and peptone into amino acids.
into casein (curd) • Maltase: It converts maltose into and
e) Pylorus is the end of the stomach; it glucose.
connects the stomach to the duodenum. • Sucrase: It converts sucrose into
Digestion in intestine glucose.
The intestine is divided into small (6 m) and • Lactase: It converts lactose into glucose
the large intestine (1.5 m), the small and galactose.
intestine is further divided into duodenum • Lipase: It converts the emulsified fats
(shortest), jejunum and ileum (longest). into glycerol and fatty acids.
Digestion in Duodenum(c-shaped) Digestion in Ileum
• As soon as the food reaches the Absorption
duodenum, the bile juice that is secreted Reaching digested foods into blood is
from the liver and stored in the gall bladder called absorption. The absorption of
combines with it. Bile juice is an alkaline digested foods takes place through small

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intestinal villi. The size of villi is 1 mm and i) The production of fibrinogen protein
approximately 4 million villi are present in takes place in liver which helps in clotting
the ileum. of blood.
j) The production of heparin takes place in
Assimilation
liver which prohibits the clotting of blood
The use of absorbed food in the body is
inside the body.
called assimilation.
k) The dead RBC is destroyed by the liver.
Digestion in Large intestine
l) The liver reserves some quantity of iron,
Absorption of water, some minerals and
copper and vitamin.
drugs take place here.
m) It helps in regulating the body
Defecation
temperature.
Undigested food reaches into the large
n) Liver is an important clue in
intestine where bacteria turn it into faeces,
investigating a person’s death due to
which is excreted through the anus.
poison in food.

THE MAIN ORGANS PARTICIPATING IN

DIGESTION

Liver
a) Study of liver is called hepatology.
b) This is the largest gland of the human
body. Its weight is approximately 1.5 – 2
kilograms.
c) Liver cells are called hepatic cells and
these cells have the highest regeneration
power.
Note: Duration of cell replacement of Liver
d) Liver stores fat-soluble vitamins like A,
cells is about every 300 – 500 days.
D, E and K.
e) Bile (pH 8.6) is secreted by liver. This bile Gall Bladder
accelerates the reaction of enzymes It is a pear-shaped sac, in which the bile
present in the intestine. About 500-1000 from the liver is stored.
ml of bile is secreted every day. a) Bile comes into the duodenum from gall
f) Liver converts excess of amino acid into bladder through the bile duct.
ammonia by deamination. This ammonias b) Secretion of bile into the duodenum
are further converted into urea by takes place by reflex action.
ornithine cycle. Urea comes out from the c) Bile is a yellowish-green coloured
body through the kidney. alkaline liquid whose pH value is 7.7.
g) In carbohydrates metabolism, liver d) It helps in the absorption of vitamin k
converts the excess of glucose found in and other vitamins mixed in fat.
blood into glycogen and stores it into
hepatic cells as reserve nutrients.
h) In case of decrease in fat of the body,
the liver converts some of the parts of the
carbohydrates into fat.

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and gamma cells which secrete the

somatostatin hormone.
g)

Pancreas
a) It is a soft, lobbed, greyish-pink gland
which weighs about 60 grams. It is 2-5 cm
wide and 12-15 cm long.
b) This is the second-largest gland of the
human body. It acts simultaneously as
1. Insulin: Insulin was discovered by
endocrine (Islets of Langerhans –secrete
Banting and Best in 1921. It controls the
hormones) and exocrine (secretes
process of converting glycogen from
pancreatic juice) type of gland.
glucose. Diabetes is caused due to the
c) Pancreatic juice contains 9.8 % water
deficiency of insulin and excessive flow of
and the remaining parts are salt and
insulin causes Hypoglycemia in which one
enzymes.
loses the reproducing capacity and vision
It is an alkaline liquid whose pH value is 7.5
deterioration. Zinc metal is present in
– 8.3.
insulin. Less production of Insulin causes
d) It contains enzymes which can digest all
diabetes mellitus.
the three types of food materials (like
2. Glucagon: It converts the glycogen into
carbohydrates, fat and protein), therefore
glucose.
it is called complete digestive juice.
3. Somatostatin: This is a polypeptide
e) Islets of Langerhans: This is the
hormone which increases the duration of
endocrine part of the pancreas. It is
assimilation of food.
discovered by Paul Langerhans.
f) It contains beta cells which secrete
insulin, alpha cells which secrete glucagon

IMPORTANT MINERAL AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Daily
Minerals Main sources Functions
quantity
It is normally found in external fluid of
cells and is related to following
Sodium (as normal salt, fish,
functions: Contraction of muscles, in the
Sodium 2-5 grams meat, eggs, milk
transmission of nerve impulses in nerve
Chloride) etc.
fibre, control of positive electrolyte
balance in the body, etc.
It is normally found in protoplasm. It is
important for the following different
Potassium 1 gram All Edibles
chemical reaction in cells: muscular
contraction, nerve conduction,

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maintenance of positive electrolyte in

the body, etc.
This provides strength to bones and
Milk, cheese, teeth , plays an important role in blood
12 grams
Calcium eggs, grains, formation, related with muscular
(approx)
gram, fish, etc. contraction. helps in clotting of blood,
etc.
Milk, cheese,
This provides strength to bones and
Phosphorous 1.2 grams bajra, green
teeth in co-ordination with calcium
leafy vegetables
This is important for the synthesis of
Sea fish, sea
thyroxin hormone secreted by the
food, Green leafy
Iodine 20 mg thyroid gland.
vegetables,
Iodized salt.
Magnesium Very
For functioning of muscular system and
small Vegetables
nervous system
quantity
Very
Zinc small Liver and fishes For insulin functioning
quantity
Very
Meat, fish, liver Formation of haemoglobin and bones
Copper small
and grains and as a conductor of electrons.
quantity
Very
Meat, fish and For synthesis of RBC and
Cobalt small
water Vitamin B12
quantity

Note:
HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 1. A person can live without one lung, but
Lungs it limits the physical ability of a person.
The lungs are soft, spongy and elastic 2. Lungs is the only floating organ in
organs, which are pinkish in colour. The human body.
upper most portion of lung is called the 3. Snoring is an indication that there may
apex and the lower portion is called the be something wrong with our breathing
base. during sleep.

Parts of the Upper Respiratory Tract

• Mouth, nose & nasal cavity: The
functions of this part of the system are to
warm, filter and moisten the incoming air.
It contains hair to filter air, mucus to filter
bacteria and microbes. About 500 ml of
mucus is secreted in nasal cavity every day.
The two nasal cavities are separated from

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each other by a thin cartilaginous medium carbon dioxide. They are surrounded by a
called nasal septum. network of capillaries into which the
inspired gases pass. There are
• Pharynx: The pharynx provides passage approximately 3 million alveoli within an
to both food and air. There is also a small average adult lung.
flap of cartilage called the epiglottis which • Diaphragm: The diaphragm is a broad
prevents food from entering the trachea. band of muscle which sits underneath the
• Larynx: This is also known as the voice lungs, attaching to the lower ribs, sternum
box as it is where sound is generated. Until and lumbar spine and forming the base of
puberty, there is a little difference in the the thoracic cavity.
size of larynx of men and women. There Process of respiration
after it grows larger and prominent in man The process of respiration can be divided
and is called Adam’s apple. It also helps into four parts:
protect the trachea by producing a strong • External respiration
cough reflex if any solid objects pass the • Transportation of gases
epiglottis. • Internal respiration
Parts of the Lower Respiratory Tract • Cellular respiration
• Trachea: Also known as the windpipe, External respiration (Breathing or
this is the tube which carries air from the Ventilation of Lungs)
throat into the lungs. It ranges from 20-25 The process of external respiration can be
mm in diameter and 10-16 cm in length. divided into two parts:
The inner membrane of the trachea is a) Breathing
covered in tiny hairs called cilia, which b) Exchange of gases
catch particles of dust which we can then
Breathing
remove through coughing.
In lungs, the air is taken and given out at a
• Bronchi: The trachea divides into two
certain rate which is called breathing.
tubes called bronchi, one entering the left
Mechanism of breathing
and one entering the right lung. The left
1. Inspiration is the process of intake of
bronchi are narrower, longer and more
air. During inspiration, muscles of the
horizontal than the right. Irregular rings of
diaphragm contract and the diaphragm
cartilage surround the bronchi; whose
flatten.
walls also consist of smooth muscle. Inside
2. The lower ribs are raised upward and
the lungs, the bronchi split several ways,
outwards. The chest cavity enlarges,
forming tertiary bronchi.
the air pressure in the lungs is
• Bronchioles: Tertiary bronchi continue
decreased and air rushes into the
to divide and become bronchioles, very
lungs.
narrow tubes, less than 1 millimetre in
3. At this stage, air from the environment
diameter. There is no cartilage within the
enters the lungs through the nasal
bronchioles and they lead to alveolar sacs.
passage, due to the increase in
• Alveoli: These are the individual hollow
dimension of the thoracic cavity, a low
cavities contained within alveolar sacs (or
pressure is formed in the lungs and air
ducts). Alveoli have very thin walls which
enters until the pressure of air inside
permit the exchange of gases– oxygen and
and outside became equal.

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4. In the process of expiration, the air It is a complex process in which food is

comes out of the lungs. During broken down to release energy. It is a
expiration, relaxation of muscles of the biochemical phase that takes place inside
ribs and diaphragm takes place. the cell.
5. Diaphragms again become dome-
Cellular respiration
shaped. Chest cavity is reduced and air
Glucose is oxidised by oxygen in the cell.
is forced outward through nose and
This process is called cellular respiration.
trachea.
6. Breathing rate in humans is 18 – 20 Lungs capacity:
/min. a. Total lungs capacity is the maximum
7. Everyday, approximately 400 ml of volume of air contained in the lung by a full
water is excreted through breathing. forced inhalation (6 litres of air).
Exchange of gases b. Tidal volume is the usual amount of air
that we breathe in and out of thelungs with
(i) The exchange of gases, i.e. oxygen and
a normal breath (600 ml) approx.
carbon dioxide take place due to difference
c. Inspiratory reserve volume is the
in their partial pressures. The exchange of
additional air that can be forced into the
gases takes place inside the alveoli through
lungs after breathing in the tidal volume.
normal diffusion.
d. Expiratory reserve volume is the
Transportation of gases additional air that can be forced out.
a) The process of reaching gases (oxygen e. The ratio of volume of CO2 released to
and carbon dioxide) from lungs to the cells the volume of O2 consumed is called
of the body and coming back again to the respiratory quotient.
lungs is called the transportation of gases.
b) Transportation of oxygen takes place by RESPIRATORY ORGANS OF SOME
haemoglobin present in the blood. ANIMALS
c) Transportation of carbon dioxide takes Respiratory
Animal
place through circulation of blood by organ
mixing with plasma. Reptiles like lizards,
d) Carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid Lungs mammals like man,
after mixing in plasma. Transportation of camel, cattle, etc.
7% carbon dioxide takes place in this form. Frog, earthworm and
Skin
e) 70% of carbon dioxide is transported in leeches
the form of bicarbonates. Fishes, tadpoles and
Gills
prawns
f) It mixes with potassium and sodium of
Insects, centipedes and
blood and forms potassium bicarbonate Tracheae
millipedes
and sodium bicarbonate.
Amoeba, euglena,
Body
Internal Respiration (Oxidation of food) chlamydomonas,
surface
Inside the body, gaseous exchange takes spirogyra, hydra, etc.
place between blood and tissue fluid, Spider, scorpion, ticks and
Book lungs
which is called internal respiration. mites

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King-crab, horseshoe General body

Hydra
Book gills crab, cray fish and surface, mouth
daphnia General body
Lung fish and bony fishes surface,
Air bladder Amoeba
(e.g. Labeo) contractile
Air vacuole.
Birds
sacs/lungs Earthworm Nephridia
EXCRETORY SYSTEM IN MAN Flame cells or
Flatworms
The excretory system is responsible for solenocytes
removing any dangerous, unnecessary or Prawns Green glands
excess material from the body. Through Humans(Mammals) Kidney
this process, it allows the body to maintain
homeostasis, thereby preventing any
Kidney
damage from occurring. Most organs in the
The kidney is made up of approximately 1
body that are functioning normally will
million kidney ducts which are called
produce metabolic wastes and because of
nephrons. Nephron is the structural and
this, the entire body depends on the
functional unit of the kidney. The average
excretory system. Organs of the excretory
weight of kidney is 120-140 grams. Kidney
system include urinary system, lungs, the
filters about 20 per cent of total blood.
skin, the liver and large intestines. The
They maintain the chemical composition of
major excretory products are carbon
the blood and so they are called as the
dioxide, excess water and nitrogenous
master chemists of our body. They are
compounds like ammonia, uric acid, urea,
reddish-brown, bean-shaped structures.
etc.
Functions of kidney
Modes of excretion: a) Removing the excess water and
1. Ammonotelism: Excess ammonia nitrogenous wastes from blood as urine.
(NH3) which is highly toxic and highly b) Maintaining the constant concentration
soluble in water. e.g., Aquatic animals of blood plasma (Osmoregulation)
like amoeba, paramoecium, sycon, c) Regulating the pH of the blood.
hydra, prawn, etc.
2. Uricotelism: Excrete uric acid; occurs in
animals living under dry conditions to
conserve water. e.g. snake, lizard,
birds, insects, etc.
3. Ureotelism: Excrete urea (NH2CONH2)
which is less toxic than ammonia. e.g.
Humans, whales, frog, seals, etc.

Excretory organ of some animals

Spider Coxal gland
Malpighian
Cockroach
tubules

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External Structure of Kidney • Glomerulus is a network of capillaries

1) A pair of kidneys are present in the formed from afferent and efferent
upper abdominal region, one on either side arteriole. Afferent arterioles carry the
of the vertebral column attached to the blood to the glomerulus, while efferent
dorsal body wall. arteriole carries the blood out of the
2) A thin transparent membrane called glomerulus.
‘capsule’ covers the kidney. • Bowman’s capsule is a double-walled
3) The kidneys are bean-shaped with outer cup-like structure that surrounds the
convex surface and inner concavity. glomerulus.
4) The depression in the concavity is called • Renal Tubules attached to each
renal hilus, from which arises the muscular bowman’s capsule is a thin, long tubule
tube called the ureter. with three distinct regions.
5) The two ureters open into the • They are
distensible muscular sacs called the urinary 1. Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
bladder, which stores urine.
2. Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
Internal Structure of Kidney 3. Henle’s loop is a hairpin like structure
1) The outer portion of the kidney is dark present in between PCT and DCT. DCT
in colour and is called renal cortex. finally opens into collecting duct.
2) The inner pale region of the kidney is
4. In collecting duct, a number of
called renal medulla.
nephrons open. All collecting ducts
3) Renal medulla contains conical masses
open in renal pelvis and through it
called renal pyramids.
ureter originates, which further opens
4) On the renal pyramids are found the
into the urinary bladder.
openings called renal papillae, which open
into the inner space of the kidney called 5. Loop of Henle is present in medulla,
renal pelvis. while Malpighian corpuscle, PCT and
DCT of the nephron are present in the
5) From the renal pelvis arises the ureter.
cortical region.
Structure of a Nephron Ureters
1) Nephrons are the structural and The pelvis of each kidney is continued as a
functional units of the kidney. ureter and emerges out at hilus. Ureter is a
2) Each kidney is composed of millions of long and muscular tube. Ureter of both
nephrons. sides extend posteriorly and open into the
3) A nephron has two structural urinary bladder.
components namely, malpighian body and Urinary bladder
renal tubules. It is a thin-walled, pear-shaped, white
Malpighian body: Glomerulus along with transparent sac present in the pelvic cavity.
Bowman’s capsule is called Malpighian It temporarily stores the urine.
body or renal corpuscle which filters out
Urethra
large solutes from the blood and delivers
It is a membranous tube which passes
small solutes to the renal tubule for urine to the exterior. The urethral
modification. sphincters keep the urethra closed except
during voiding of urine.

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Mechanism of urine formation tubes with a straight portion extending

(uropoiesis) outward and ending at the opening of one
Urine is an aqueous solution in which 95% of the pores located in the epidermis. The
is water. Other constituents are urea, uric blood vessels in the dermis release
acid, chloride, sodium, potassium, extracellular fluid, the fluid that surrounds
creatinine, organic and inorganic the cells, that is absorbed into the sweat
compounds. The colour of urine is light glands. This fluid containing metabolic
yellow due to the presence of urochrome wastes makes its way through the coils and
in it. Urochrome is formed by the up the tube to exit the body as
dissociation of haemoglobin. The stone perspiration.
formed in the kidney is made up of calcium
Layers of skin
oxalate.
Certain substances like tea, coffee, alcohol Epidermis
that increase the urine output are called The outer layer of skin lacks blood supply
diuretics. The pH of urine varies from 5-8, and must obtain its nourishment from the
it depends on food intake, high protein dermis, the inner layer of skin. This
foods; fruits increase the acidity and epidermis is waterproof as the result of an
vegetables increase the alkalinity. insoluble protein. Epidermis helps in
making new skin cells that at the bottom
Skin
of this layer and it travels up to the top and
Skin not only provides a protective flakes off. Epidermis makes melanin that
covering for the body, but also plays a gives the colour to the skin.
small role in the excretion of metabolic
wastes through perspiration. Dermis
The dermis, the second layer of skin,
Perspiration
contains hair, sweat glands, blood vessels
Perspiration is a continual process serving and nerves. This layer of skin also helps
to cool the body when it becomes through its vascular system (blood vessels)
overheated. It generally goes unnoticed to regulate body temperature as well as
unless it occurs as the result of excessive being the location of the sweat glands.
muscular activity or emotional stress, at
which time the flow increases. The Subcutaneous fat
Integumentary System also states that The bottom layer of skin is the
perspiration serves as a means of subcutaneous fat layer. This layer has a
elimination for metabolic wastes special connecting tissue that attaches the
composed of water, which makes up the dermis to the muscles and bones. The
largest portion, salts and urea. The source subcutaneous fat is the layer that helps
of perspiration is the eccrine sweat glands. keep the body from getting too warm or
too cold.
Eccrine Sweat Glands
Skin contains approximately 2.5 million The Lungs
sweat glands located in the dermis, the The lungs play a mandatory role in the
second layer of skin that lies beneath the excretory system. The lungs remove the
outer layer, the epidermis. They are coiled carbon dioxide built up in the blood using
specialised cells known as alveoli. If the

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lungs did not remove the carbon dioxide c. Skeletal muscles are attached to the
from the blood, it would eventually build skeleton. They appears striated and are
up, causing a number of different under voluntary control.
dilemmas in your body. Note: Humans and giraffes have the same
number of bones in the necks, but the
The Liver
vertebrae in a giraffe’s neck are much
When we eat fatty foods, the liver orders
larger.
the gall bladder to release bile into the
• Skeletal muscles are attached to
intestines. Then, the intestines absorb the
skeletal elements. The human skeleton
fats into the bloodstream. The liver
system consists of both fused and
removes all waste products from blood as
individual bones supported and
it passes through it.
supplemented by ligaments, tendons,
The liver removes the iron, which involves muscles and cartilage.
red blood cell production. Amino acids are
• The skeletal system of humans is made
then broken down and passed into the
kidney. The kidney uses these to carry out up of two parts
its function in the excretory system. The a) Axial skeleton
liver then stores the vitamins and repeats b) Appendicular skeleton
its cycle.
Axial Skeleton
SKELETAL SYSTEM
• Movement is an essential feature of all The skeleton, which makes the main axis of
living organisms. Protoplasmic streaming, the body is called axial skeleton. Skull,
ciliary movements, movements of fins, vertebral column and bones of chest come
limbs, wings, etc. are some forms of under it. There are 80 bones in axial
movement exhibited by animals. A skeleton.
voluntary movement which causes the • Skull: There are 29 bones in it. Out of
these, 8 bones jointly protect the brain of
animal to change its place is called
the human. The structure made up of these
locomotion. Animals move generally in bones is called forehead. All the bones of
search of food, shelter, mate, breeding the forehead remain joined strongly by the
ground, better climate or for the purpose sutures. There are 14 bones in addition to
of protecting themselves. this which from the face.
• The cells of the human body exhibit Vertebral column:
amoeboid, ciliary and muscular
1. The vertebral column of the human is
movements.
made up of 33 vertebras.
• Three types of muscles are present in 2. All vertebras are joined by
our body. They are intervertebral disc.
a. Cardiac muscles that are found in the 3. Most of the body weight is in the back
walls of the heart. It appears striated and of the spinal column. It provides flexibility
are under involuntary control. to the neck and protection to the spinal
b. Smooth muscles are found in walls of cord.
organs other than the heart. They appears The total number of bones in the vertebral
spindle-shaped and are under involuntary column are initially 33 and after
control. development, they are 26.

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S. No Regions of the No of bones • The total number of bones in head is

Vertebral 29 (forehead -8, facial -14, ear -6, hyoid -1)
column • The total number of bones in vertebral
column are initially 33 and after
1 Cervical region 7
development, it becomes 26. (5 sacral
2 Thoracic region 12 fuses into 1 and 4 caudal fuses into 1).
• The total number of bones of ribs are 24
3 Lumber region 5
• The largest bone of the body is femur
4 Sacral region 5 (5 becomes (bone of thigh) and the smallest bone of
1) the body is stapes (bone of ear).
5 Caudal region 4 (4 becomes Chest Box
1) The first 7 pairs of ribs that are directly
Total number of 33 becomes connected with sternum are called true
vertebras 26 ribs.
a) 8th, 9th and 10th ribs are not directly
Appendicular Skeleton attached with sternum and hence they are
called as false ribs.
The following are the parts of it
b) The last two ribs, 11th and 12th are short
1. Foot bones: Both hands and feet have
and they are not attached to sternum.
118 bones.
They are called floating ribs.
2. In humans, there are two girdles to hold
the fore limb on the axial [Link]
girdle of fore limb is called pectoral girdle BODY MOVEMENT
and the girdle of hind limb is called pelvic Human body is made up of two important
girdle. components, bones and muscles. The basic
3. Pectoral girdle joined with forelimb is
framework of bones is known as the
called humerus and the bone from pelvic
girdle joining the hind climb is called skeletal system and it is associated with
femur. muscles.

Note: Osteoarthritis is a joint disease Movement in Human beings

affecting joints and knees in old age and Muscles cannot push, they can only pull. A
people of any age. Currently Indian particular bone has two sets of muscle. On
scientists at CDRI (Central Drug Research moving an organ, When muscle on top gets
Institute – Lucknow) have made a nano contracted, the organ moves towards it
formulation from the Palak (Pala spinach) and when bottom muscle gets contracted,
to cure this disease. the organ comes back to its initial position.
When one muscle gets contracted the
NUMBER OF BONES opposite muscle gets relaxed.
The total number of bones in a human Bone:
body is 206. The total number of bones
• They are hard greyish substances that
during childhood is 300.
are covered by a membrane covering
called periosteum.

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• It is made up of inorganic substances Types of Joints

such as calcium, phosphate, carbonate. • Some joints permit no movement,
• They are not solid; they have strong others permit slight movements and still
outer layer and spongy inside. Centre of others afford considerable movements.
bone is called bone marrow. • Fibrous or Fixed joint – Bones are held
• Study of bones is called osteology. together by fibrous connective tissue with
• The cells of bones are called Osteocytes. no synovial cavity. These joints include
immovable sutures. E.g. Skull bone,
• Osteoblasts are called bone-forming
between calf bone and tibia.
cells.
• Cartilaginous Joints – Bones are held
• Tiny holes in bones are called canaliculi together by cartilage with no synovial
which help in communication between cavity. e.g. Ear bones, tip of nose, sternum.
cells.
• Synovial Joints – All synovial joints are
• The formation of RBC, WBC and freely movable in selected directions and
platelets by bone marrow is called contain synovial cavity. [Link] joint,
Haematopoiesis. shoulder joint, elbow, altas and axis, tarsal
• Bones stores minerals, calcium and bones.
phosphorus and these are supplied to Synovial Joints
other parts of the body when needed.
Synovial joints have synovial cavity (Bone-
Classification of bones shaped cavity in which bone is placed and
Shape Example supported or connected with the help of
Bone of thigh, legs, arm, ligaments).
Long Bones a) Ball and socket joint: It consists of a ball-
forearm and fingers
Short Bones Wrist and ankle like surface of one bone fitted into a cap-
Cranial bones, scapula, like cavity of another bone.e.g. Hip joint
Flat bones and shoulder joint.
clavicle and sternum
b) Hinge joint: One is which the convex
Bones of vertebrate,
surface of bone fits into the concave
Irregular coccyx and certain other
surface of another bone. Ex: Elbow and
facial bones
ankle
Joints: c) Gliding Joint: The moving surface of
Joint is a point of contact between the bone in these joints are usually flat.
bones and the cartilage, between the Movement is not around the axis.e.g.
bones and teeth. Tarsal bones, sternum
• Ligaments are connective tissues which d) Pivot Joint: This joint allows us to turn
connect a bone with a bone. They are more our head from side to side. It is one in
elastic. which a rounded, pointed or conical
• Tendons are connective tissues which surface of one bone moves within a ring
connect a bone and a muscle. formed partly by a ligament.
• They are less elastic.
HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The discovery of blood circulation was
done by William Harvey in the year 1628.

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1. Two-chambered: Possess an atrium and posterior side of the heart, there is a right
a ventricle, heart always receives ventricle and a left ventricle.
deoxygenated blood which passes through a. Between the right auricle and the right
it for once (single circulation) e.g. fishes. ventricle, there is a tricuspid valve.
2. Three-chambered: Possess 2 atrium and b. Between the left auricle and left
1 ventricle. Left atrium receives ventricle, there is a bicuspid valve or mitral
oxygenated blood while right atrium valve.
receives deoxygenated blood which gets c. The blood vessels carrying the blood
mixed in ventricle, incomplete double from the body towards the heart is called
circulation occurs here. e.g., amphibians vein.
and reptiles (except crocodile having a 4- d. Vein carry only deoxygenated blood but
chambered heart) pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood
3. Four-chambered: Possess 2 atrium and from lungs to heart.
2 ventricles. Oxygenated and e. Arteries carry only oxygenated blood
deoxygenated blood do not get mixed and but pulmonary artery
pumped separately. Double circulation carriersdeoxygenated blood from heart to
occurs. e.g., Mammals and birds. lungs.
f. Capillaries are the smallest blood
vessels that transport blood from arteries
to veins and are located within the tissue
of body. Through the thin walls of
capillaries, exchange of waste, nutrients,
carbon dioxide and oxygen takes place.
g. The main blood vessel carrying the
blood from the heart towards the body is
called arota. This is the largest artery found
in humans.
h. The artery that carries blood to the
muscles of heart is called coronary artery.

Course of circulation
• Mammals have double circulation. It
Human Heart: means blood has to cross two times from
It remains safe in the pericardial heart before circulating throughout the
membrane which prevent the heart from body.
friction caused by beating of heart. The • Right auricle receives impure blood
shape of heart is an inverted cone. from Superior vena cava (brings
Location of heart is called Media stinum deoxygenated blood from head and arms)
and is present inside thoracic cavity. Its and Inferior vena cava (brings
weight is approximately 300 grams. Its size deoxygenated blood from lower body)
is just one fist. which goes into right ventricle through
Heart of human is made up of four tricuspid valve. From here, the blood goes
chambers. In the anterior side, there is a into pulmonary artery which sends it to the
right auricle and a left auricle. In the lung for purification. After purification, it is

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collected by pulmonary vein which brings it surgical grafting of an artificial pacemaker,

back to heart in left auricle. From the an electric device in the chest of the
auricle it goes into left ventricle through patient. It stimulates the heart electrically
the mitral valve (or) bicuspid valve. Now at regular intervals.
this purified blood is sent into aorta for
different organ of the body. This circulation 1. Systole and diastole of the heart are
is done in a cardiac cycle. collectively called heartbeat.
Note: The largest vein in the human body 2. In normal conditions, the heartbeat of
is Superior vena cava. humans is 72 times/minute.
• Valves: It prevents backflow of blood. 3. In the single heartbeat, it can pump
There are four types of valve i.e. 2 about 70 ml of blood.
atrioventricular (AV) valves and 2 4. The blood pressure is high in arteries,
semilunar (SL) valves. Atrioventricular gradually drops in arterioles and
valves (tri and bicuspid valves) are present capillaries and becomes very low in the
between the atria and ventricles. It veins. The average BP of normal
prevents the backflow from the ventricle humans is 120/80 mm/hg (systole –
into the atrium during systole. 120) and (diastole – 80).
• Semilunar valves are present in the 5. Blood pressure is recorded in
arteries leaving the heart. millimetres of mercury with the help of
Note: The thickest portion of human heart an instrument known as
is the wall of the left ventricle. sphygmomanometer.
6. Thyroxin and adrenaline are the
Cardiac cycle:
hormones which directly control the
Rhythmic systole (contraction) and heart.
diastole (relaxation) of auricle and 7. CO2 present in the blood accelerates
ventricle constitute a cardiac cycle. the heartbeat by reducing the pH.
Heart beat: 8. Presence of air bubble in bloodstream
Heart keeps beating rhythmically is dangerous to life because, it may
throughout life. There is a node from which obstruct the flow of blood.
originates the contraction of heart.

1. Sinoatrial node (SA node): It is a Cardiac output

specialised area of cardiac muscle fibre in The amount of blood pumped by heart per
right auricle. It generates the electric minute is called cardiac output or heart
impulse and stimulate the heart to beat. output.
2. Atrioventricular node (AV node): AV Cardiac output = stock volume x heart rate
node (pacesetter) is present close to the = 70ml x 75
interatrial septum near the right AV = 5250 ml/min
aperture. Wave of SA node is picked up by (About 5 litres of blood per minute, which
AV node which spread through the Bundles is equivalent to the total body blood
of his and purkinje fibres. volume).
Artificial pace maker: When SA node
becomes defective, the cardiac impulse
does not generate. This can be cured by

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Note: ECG is the graphical record of • Lymphocytes in the lymph defend the
electrical current produced by the body from infections.
excitation of the cardiac muscles.

Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system comprises of CHAPTER - V II
lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic vessels, ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
lymph nodes and lymphatic ducts. Lymph
is the fluid that flows through the Exocrine gland
lymphatic system. The lymphatic Glands which have ducts are called
exocrine glands. It secretes enzymes that
capillaries unite to form large lymphatic
pass through the duct for its destination.
vessels. Lymph nodes are small oval or e.g. Sweat gland, mucous gland, salivary
pear-shaped structures located along the gland, etc.
length of lymphatic vessels.
Endocrine glands:
Lymph • Endocrine glands are ductless glands,
Lymph from the intercellular spaces drains secreting the chemical substances called
hormones.
into lymphatic capillaries. Lymph is a
• The study of endocrine gland and
colourless fluid formed when plasma,
hormones secreted by them is called
proteins and blood cells escape into endocrinology.
intercellular spaces in the tissues through • Thomas Addison is known as the father
the pores present in the walls of capillaries. of Endocrinology.
It is similar to blood plasma, but is • The first hormone Secretin was
discovered by William M Bayliss and Ernest
colourless and contains less proteins. The
H starling in 1903. Ernest H starling coined
lymph contains very small amount of
the term hormone.
nutrients, oxygen, CO2, water and WBC. • Chemically, hormones are proteins or
amino acids or steroids
• Hormones are send to different parts of
Functions of Lymph
the body through blood plasma.
• Supplies nutrients and oxygen to those
parts where blood cannot reach
• It drains away excess tissue fluid and
metabolites and returns proteins to the
blood from tissue spaces.
• The lymph also carries absorbed fats
from small intestine to the blood. The
lymphatic capillaries of intestinal villi
(lacteals) absorb digested fats.

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• Hypothalamus controls the pituitary

gland and so called the master of master
gland.

Pituitary gland is divided into anterior lobe

called adenohypophysis and posterior lobe
called neurohypophysis.
The hormones secreted by anterior
pituitary are
a) Growth Hormone
b) Thyroid-stimulating Hormone
c) Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
d) Gonadotropic Hormone which
comprises the Follicle- Stimulating
Hormone and Luteinising Hormone
Region of human body and Glands e) Prolactin
associated a. Growth hormone (GH)
GH promotes the development and
Head – enlargement of all tissues of the body. It
a) Pituitary Gland stimulates the growth of muscles, cartilage
b) Pineal Gland and long bones. It controls the cell
Neck - metabolism. The improper secretion of this
hormone leads to the following conditions:
a) Thyroid Gland
b) Parathyroid Gland Dwarfism
c) Thorax – Thymus Gland It is caused by the decreased secretion of
Abdomen growth hormone in children. The
characteristic features are stunted growth,
a) Pancreas – Islets of Langerhans
delayed skeletal formation and mental
b) Adrenal Glands – Adrenal cortex and
disability.
Adrenal medulla
c) Gonads – Testes (male) and Ovaries Gigantism
(Female) Over secretion of growth hormone leads to
Pituitary Gland gigantism in children. It is characterised by
the overgrowth of all body tissues and
• Pituitary gland or hypophysis is a pea-
organs. Individuals attain abnormal
shaped cell attached to the hypothalamus
increase in height.
of the brain.
• Pituitary gland is the smallest gland of Acromegaly
the human body. Excess secretion of growth hormone in
• Pituitary gland regulates the function of adults may lead to abnormal enlargement
other endocrine glands and so called the of head, face, hands and feet.
Master gland or Endocrine Orchestra.

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b. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) The follicles are filled with colloid material
TSH controls the growth of thyroid gland, called thyroglobulin.
coordinates its activities and hormone • Ventral side of thyroid gland contains
secretion. parathyroid gland.
c. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) • Thyroid gland secretes thyroxine, an
ACTH stimulates adrenal cortex of the iodinated protein composed of amino acid,
adrenal gland for the production of its tyrosine and iodine.
hormones. It also influences protein
Functions of thyroxine
synthesis in the adrenal cortex.
a) Increases the rate of metabolism and
d. Gonadotropic hormones (GTH)
maintains body temperature.
• The gonadotropic hormones are follicle-
b) It regulates iodine and sugar level in the
stimulating hormone and luteinizing
blood and control water balance of the
hormone which are essential for the
body.
normal development of gonads.
c) It is also called personality hormone, as
• Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) In it is indirectly associated with growth.
males, it stimulates the germinal
epithelium of testes for the formation of d) Promotes growth of bones, hair and
sperms. In females, it initiates the growth differentiation of tissues.
of ovarian follicles and their development e) Normal function of reproductive organs
in the ovary. depends on the activeness of thyroid
gland.
f. Luteinising hormone (LH)
In males, it promotes the Leydig cells of the Disorders
testes to secrete male sex hormone a) Hypothyroidism – Less secretion
testosterone. In females, it causes 1. Simple goitre – It is caused by deficiency
ovulation (rupture of mature graafian of iodine in food. Thyroid gland bulges as a
follicle), responsible for the development swelling. This is commonly prevalent in
of corpus luteum and production of female Himalayan regions due to low level of
sex hormones estrogen and progesterone. iodine content in the soil.
g. Prolactin (PRL) 2. Myxedema – Caused in adults, low
PRL is also called lactogenic hormone. This metabolic rate, slow heartbeat, low blood
hormone initiates the development of pressure, loss of mental and physical
mammary glands during pregnancy and vigour, increase in weight.
stimulates the production of milk after 3. Cretinism – Caused in children, stunted
childbirth. growth, retarded mental development,
defective teeth, low blood pressure, slow
Thyroid Gland (H-shaped) heartbeat, low body temperature. They
• The thyroid gland is composed of two are called as cretins.
distinct lobes lying each on either side of b) Hyperthyroidism – Excess secretion
the trachea. The two lobes are connected Exophthalmic goitre or Grave's disease –
by means of a narrow band of tissue known High metabolic rate, high blood pressure,
as the isthmus. high irritability, loss of weight, fatigue and
• This gland is composed of glandular protrusion of eye balls (Exopthalmia).
follicles and lined by cuboidal epithelium.

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• Islets of Langerhans have two types of

Note: cells called Alpha cells producing glucagon
Thyroid gland is the largest gland of human and Beta cells producing insulin.
body. Edward C. Kendal in 1914 first
Insulin
crystallised thyroxine hormone. Charles
1) Promotes the intake of glucose by the
Harrington and George Barger identified
cells for tissue oxidation.
the molecular structure of thyroxine in
2) Conversion of glucose into glycogen and
1927. Thyroid gland requires 120 µg of
storing it in liver and muscle.
iodine every day for the production of
3) Prevents formation of glucose from fat
thyroxine.
and protein.
Parathyroid Gland 4) Maintains normal blood glucose level at
• The parathyroid glands are four small 80 – 120 mg / 100 ml of blood.
oval bodies that are situated on the
Glucagon
posterior surface of the thyroid lobes. The
1) It is secreted when the glucose level is
chief cells of the gland produce hormones
low in blood.
called parathyroid hormone and calcitonin.
2) Influences conversion of glycogen into
They together control the calcium-
glucose and raising blood glucose level.
phosphorus metabolism in the body.
1. Parathyroid: This hormone is secreted Diabetes mellitus
when there is a lack of calcium in blood. The deficiency of insulin causes Diabetes
2. Calcitonin: This hormone is secreted mellitus. It is characterised by
when there is an excess of calcium in • Increase in blood sugar level
blood. (Hyperglycemia)
• Excretion of excess glucose in the urine
Thymus Gland
(Glycosuria)
• Thymus is partly an endocrine gland and • Frequent urination (Polyuria)
partly a lymphoid gland. It is located in the • Increased thirst (Polydipsia)
upper part of the chest covering the lower • Increase in appetite (Polyphagia)
end of trachea.
• They secrete thymosin which stimulates Note:
and differentiates T–lymphocytes. Human insulin was first discovered by
Fredrick Banting, Charles Best and
Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans) MacLeod in 1921. Insulin was first used in
• Pancreas is an elongated, yellowish the treatment of diabetes on 11 January
gland situated in the loop of stomach and 1922.
duodenum.
Adrenal Gland (Supra renal gland)
• Pancreas plays both endocrine and
exocrine functions. It is called a mixed The adrenal glands are located above each
gland. kidney. Adrenal gland consists of two
• Exocrine parts produce pancreatic juice portions, an outer adrenal cortex and inner
and plays a role in digestion; its endocrine adrenal medulla.
part is islets of Langerhans.

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Adrenal Cortex Epinephrine (Adrenaline)

The hormones secreted by the adrenal • It promotes the conversion of glycogen
cortex are corticosteroids. They are to glucose in liver and muscles.
classified into • It increases heart beat and blood
a) Glucocorticoids pressure.
b) Mineralocorticoids • It increases the rate of respiration by
dilation of bronchi and trachea.
Aldosterone (Mineralocorticoid)
• It causes dilation of the pupil in eye.
1) Mineral Metabolism
• It decreases blood flow through the
2) Reabsorption of sodium and water in
skin.
kidney
Norepinephrine (Noradrenalin) Most of
3) Excretion of potassium and phosphate
its actions are similar to those of
ions
epinephrine.
4) Maintainance of electrolyte and
Reproductive Glands (Gonads)
osmotic balance
The sex glands are of two types: the testes
Glucocorticoid and the ovaries. The testes are present in
1) Stimulate the breakdown of glycogen males, while the ovaries are present in
into glucose females.
2) They regulate cell metabolism Testes (Male)
3) It is an anti-inflammatory and anti- a) Cytogenic function – Production of
allergic agent sperm
b) Endocrine function – Production of
Note: male sex hormone
The cortisol hormones of adrenal cortex
serve to maintain the body in living Hormone Testosterones (Androgen)
condition and recover it from the severe 1) Growth of male reproductive organ
effects of stress reactions. Thus an 2) Production of male sperm
increased output of cortisol is lifesaving in 3) Determination of secondary sexual
shock conditions. It is also known as life- character
saving hormone.
Ovaries (Female)
Adrenal Medulla a) Cytogenic function – Production of egg
The adrenal medulla is composed of b) Endocrine function – Production of
chromaffin cells. It produces two female sex hormones like Oestrogen,
hormones, both together called as Progesterone and relaxin.
Emergency Hormone (or) flight, fright and
Hormone Oestrogen
fight Hormone. It increases heartbeat,
• It brings about the changes that occur
alertness, respiratory rate, dilation of
during puberty.
pupil.
It secretes two hormones namely • It initiates the process of oogenesis.
a) Adrenaline (Epinephrine) • It stimulates the maturation of ovarian
b) Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine) follicles in the ovary.
Functions of adrenal medullary hormones

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• It promotes the development of • It lies under corpus callosum in the

secondary sexual characters (breast brain.
development, high pitched voice etc.) • It produces melatonin, causing
Hormone Progesterone concentration of pigments.
• It is responsible for the premenstrual Hormones secreted by the posterior lobe
changes of the uterus. (Neurohypophysis) of pituitary The
• It prepares the uterus for the hormones secreted by the posterior
implantation of the embryo. pituitary are
• It maintains pregnancy. a) Vasopressin or Antidiuretic hormone
b) Oxytocin
Hormone Relaxin
1. Vasopressin or Antidiuretic hormone
Relaxes pelvic muscle during childbirth.
(ADH) In kidney tubules, it increases
Pineal Gland reabsorption of water. It reduces loss of
Melatonin is a hormone produced by the water through urine and hence the name
pineal gland. It is known as a time
antidiuretic hormone. Deficiency of ADH
messenger.
reduces reabsorption of water and causes
It signals nighttime information
an increase in urine output (polyuria). This
throughout the body. Exposure to light at
deficiency disorder is called Diabetes
night, especially short-wavelength light,
insipidus.
can decrease melatonin production
2. Oxytocin helps in the contraction of the
interrupting sleep. Suppression of
smooth muscles of uterus at the time of
melatonin has been implicated in sleep
child birth and milk ejection from the
disturbances and related metabolic
mammary gland after child birth.
disorders.

Hormones of adenohypophysis Function and Malfunction

It brings growth.
Less production in children– dwarfism (retarded
growth)
Somatotropin Hormone (STH) or
Excess production in children – gigantism (excess
Growth Hormone (GH)
growth)
Excess production in adolescents – Acromegaly (large
limbs and lower jaw)

Thyrotrophic Hormone or
Stimulates the growth of thyroid gland.
Thyroid-stimulating Hormone
Stimulates the production of thyroxine.
(TSH)

Adrenocorticaltropic Hormone
or Stimulates adrenal cortex to produce the hormone
Adrenal cortex stimulating aldosterone and cortisone
Hormone (ACTH)

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Stimulates maturation of graafian follicles and produce

Follicle-stimulating Hormone
egg in females.
(FSH)
Sperm formation in males.

Luteinising Hormone (LH) in

Ovulation and production of female sex hormone
female or Interstitial cell
oestrogen, progesterone and relaxin
stimulating Hormone (ICSH) in
Production of male sex hormone testosterone
male

Growth of mammary gland and milk production after

Lactogenic Hormone (LTH)
child birth

Harmones of Neurohypophysis Function and Malfunctions

Speeds up the process of childbirth by
stimulating contraction and relaxation of the
Oxytocin
uterus in females.
It is also called as birth hormone.
Reabsorbs water and concentrates urine
Constricts the blood vessels and raise up the
Vasopressin or Antidiuretic Hormone
blood pressure
(ADH)
Less production results in diabetes insipidus
(excess dilute urine)

c) Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

C H A PT E R - VI II
H UMA N N E R V O US SY ST E M

Under this system, thread- like nerves are

spread throughout the body. After
receiving the information of
environmental changes from the sensitive
organs, it spreads them speedily like
electrical impulses and establishes working
and coordination among different organs.
Human beings differ from other animals in
their ability to think and take actions, Note: Each neuron can transmit 1,000
which is due to the well-developed nerve impulses per second and make as
nervous system.
many as ten thousands of synaptic
Nervous system of humans is divided into
contacts with other neurons.
three parts
a) Central Nervous System (CNS)
b) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) a) Central Nervous System

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Parts of the nervous system which keep • Piamater (Pia: soft or tender) is the
control on the whole body and the innermost, thin delicate membrane richly
nervous system itself is called Central supplied with blood.
Nervous System. The Central Nervous
System of humans is made up of two parts- Note: Meningeal membranes protect the
Brain and Spinal Cord. CNS is formed of two brain from mechanical injury.
types of matter such as white matter and A human brain is formed of three main
grey matter with respect to the presence parts: (a) forebrain (b) midbrain
or absence of myelin sheath. (c) hindbrain.

Brain Fore Brain

It is situated in a bony box called cranium The forebrain is formed of cerebrum and
which protects it from external injury. The diencephalon. The latter consists of dorsal
weight of the brain of the human is 1350 thalamus and ventral hypothalamus.
grams. The brain is the controlling centre Cerebrum: It is the largest portion forming
of all the body activities. nearly two-third of the brain. The
cerebrum is longitudinally divided into two
Note: Meningitis is an inflammation of the halves as right and left cerebral
meninges. It can occur when fluid hemispheres by a deep cleft called median
surrounding the meninges becomes cleft. Two cerebral hemispheres are
infected. The most common causes of interconnected by thick band of nerve
meningitis are viral and bacterial fibres called corpus callosum. The outer
infections. portion of each cerebral hemisphere is
formed of grey matter and is called
cerebral cortex. The inner or deeper part is
formed of white matter and is called
cerebral medulla. The cortex is extremely
folded forming elevations called gyri with
depressions between them termed as sulci
that increase its surface area. Each
cerebral hemisphere is divisible into a
frontal lobe, a parietal lobe, a temporal
Brain is covered by three connective tissue lobe and an occipital lobe. These lobes are
membranes or meninges. also known as cerebral lobes and are
• Duramater (dura: tough; mater: associated with specific functions. Any
membrane) is the outermost thick fibrous damage in specific lobe in turn affects its
membrane. function. The cerebrum is responsible for
thinking, intelligence, consciousness,
• Arachnoid membrane (arachnoid:
memory, imagination, reasoning and
spider) is the middle, thin vascular
willpower.
membrane providing a web-like cushion.

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(i) Cerebellum: It is the second largest part

Note: Olfactory lobes are the anterior part of the brain formed of two large-sized
of brain formed by a pair of short club- hemispheres and middle vermis. It
shaped structure. They are fully covered by coordinates voluntary movements and
the cerebral hemisphere. Function of these also maintains body balance.
olfactory lobes is concerned with smell. (ii) Pons: ‘Pons’ a Latin word meaning
bridge. It is a bridge of nerve fibers that
(i) Thalamus: Thalamus present in cerebral connects the lobes of cerebellum. It relays
medulla is a major conducting center for signals between the cerebellum, spinal
sensory and motor signaling. It acts as a cord, midbrain and cerebrum. It controls
relay centre. respiration and sleep cycle.
(ii) Hypothalamus: It lies at the base of the (iii) Medulla: It is the posterior part of
thalamus. It controls involuntary functions the brain that connects spinal cord and
like hunger, thirst, sleep, sweating, sexual brain. It has cardiac centres, respiratory
desire, anger, fear, water balance, blood centres and vasomotor centres to control
pressure, etc. It acts as a thermoregulatory heartbeat, respiration and contractions of
(temperature control) centre of the body. blood vessels respectively. It also regulates
It controls the secretion of hormones from vomiting and salivation.
anterior pituitary gland and is an important Note: Electroencephalogram (EEG) is an
link between nervous system and instrument which records the electrical
endocrine system. impulses of brain. An EEG can detect
Note: The human brain constitutes nearly abnormalities in the brain waves and help
60 per cent of fat. The most crucial in diagnoses of seizures, epilepsy, brain
molecules that determine our brain’s tumors, head injuries, etc.
integrity and ability are Essential Fatty
Spinal cord (Myelon)
Acids (EFAs). EFAs cannot be synthesised
It is a cylindrical structure lying in the
and must be obtained from food. Fish,
neural canal of the vertebral column. In
green leafy vegetables, almond, walnut are
adults, the spinal cord ranges from 42 to 45
rich sources of EFAs.
cm in length. It is also covered by
Mid Brain meninges. It extends from the lower end of
It is located between thalamus and hind medulla oblongata to the first lumbar
brain. The dorsal portion of the mid brain vertebra. The posterior region of spinal
consists of four rounded bodies called cord tapers into a thin fibrous thread-like
corpora quadrigemina that controls visual structure called filum terminale. Internally,
and auditory (hearing) reflexes. the spinal cord contains a cerebrospinal
fluid-filled cavity known as the central
Hind Brain
canal. The grey matter of spinal cord is ‘H’
It is formed of three parts cerebellum,
shaped. The upper end of letter ‘H’ forms
pons and medulla oblongata.
posterior horns and lower end forms

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anterior horns. A bundle of fibers passes Some are motor nerves which help in the
into the posterior horn forming dorsal or rotation of eyeball. It also innervates the
afferent root. Fibers pass outward from
eye muscles, muscles of iris and tear gland.
the anterior horn forming ventral or
efferent root. These two roots join to form Spinal nerves:
spinal nerves. The white matter is external
There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves. Each
and has a bundle of nerve tracts. Spinal
spinal nerve has a dorsal sensory root and
cord conducts sensory and motor impulses
to and from the brain. It controls reflex the ventral motor root. The direction of
actions of the body. A reflex is any impulses in dorsal spinal root is towards
response that occurs automatically the spinal cord and in ventral spinal root, it
without consciousness. e.g. winking of
is away from the spinal cord.
eyes when any dust particles enter,
sneezing, coughing, yawning, etc. We Automatic Nervous System
perform these actions without thinking. Autonomic nervous system (ANS) is also
The brain is suspended in a special fluid
called as visceral nervous system as it
environment called cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF). It is a lymph like, watery fluid that regulates the function of internal visceral
surrounds and protects the brain within organs of our body through its two
the skull. It acts as a shock-absorbing fluid
antagonistic (opposite) components-
and protects the brain from damage when
it is subjected to sudden jerk. sympathetic and parasympathetic
systems. They enable the body to perform
rapid and specific visceral activities in
order to maintain a steady state. It controls
the involuntary functions of the visceral
organs.
Langley, first presented the concept of
Automatic Nervous System in the year

Peripheral Nervous System 1921. There are two parts of Automatic

Nervous System.
It is made up of the nerves arising from
Note: Brain is said to store as many as 100
brain and spinal cord. These are called
million bits of information in a life time.
cranial and spinal nerves respectively.
Sympathetic Nervous System
Cranial nerves:
Functions:
In man, there are 12 pairs of cranial nerves.
a) It helps in clotting of blood.
Some of the cranial nerves are sensory, e.g.
optic nerve which innervates the eye.

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b) It increases the blood pressure, sugar b) It decreases the secretion of sweat

level in the blood and number of RBC in the glands.
blood. c) It slows down the heartbeat.
c) It increases the secretion of sweet Note: Nerve cells do not undergo cell
glands, heartbeat. division due to the absence of centrioles,
but they are developed from glial cells by
Parasympathetic Nervous System
neurogenesis.
Functions:
a) It increases the secretion of saliva and
other digestive juices.

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HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM d) The mid piece contains the spirally

coiled mitochondria which provide energy
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM for the movement of tail.
• The male reproductive system has a e) The tail propels the sperm in the liquid
primary sex organ (testis) and accessory medium(semen).
sex organs (seminal, vesicles, prostate
glands, urethra and penis). Note: The sperm is the smallest cell in the
• A pair of testis are located in the male body. A normal male produces more
scrotum outside the abdominal cavity than 500 billion sperm cells in his life time.
because sperm formation requires lower An ovum is the largest human cell.
temperature.
• Each testis contains a coiled mass of FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
tubules known as seminiferous tubules • The female reproductive system
which produce sperms. consists of ovaries and accessory organs
• The process of formation of sperms is (fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix and vagina).
known as spermatogenesis. • The ovary produces an egg for every 28
• The interstitial cells of the testes also days (menstrual cycle) as well as female
secrete the male sex hormones
sex hormones oestrogen and
(androgens) which control
spermatogenesis and secondary sex progesterone.
characters. • Each ovary consists of follicle cells which
• The Sertoli cells are the supporting cells produce the ovum by a process known as
that provide nutrients to the developing oogenesis. The uterus is a hollow, thick-
sperms. walled muscular organ formed of three
• The sperms are delivered through the layers and the fertilised ovum is embedded
vas deferens which unites with the urethra and nourished in the uterus.
to form a common passage for both • Vagina is a muscular tube which
sperms and urine. connects the cervix and the external
• Prostate glands which add their genitalia. It receives sperms and acts as a
secretions so that sperms are released as birth canal.
fluid called semen. • The oestrogen is responsible for
oogenesis and secondary sexual
Structure of a mature sperm
characters.
a) The sperm consists of four parts namely
head, neck, midpiece and tail. Menstrual cycle
b) The head contains a condensed form of • The rhythmic series of changes in the
chromosomes and a terminal acrosome female sex organs that occur for about 28
(Golgi apparatus) containing days throughout the reproductive life of
hyaluronidase, an enzyme that helps the women from puberty to menopause is
sperm to enter the ovum during known as menstrual cycle.
fertilisation. • After ovulation, the mature ovum is
c) The neck connects the head and middle brought to the fallopian tube and may get
piece which comprises the centrioles . fertilised. When the ovum is not fertilised,
the ovum along with the uterine wall is

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ruptured and discharged with blood and sperm. Lack of menstruation generally
uterine tissue by a process called indicates pregnancy
menstruation. REACHING THE PERIOD OF ADOLESCENCE
Phases of Menstrual cycle • Adolescence: The transition period from
childhood to adulthood.
The menstrual phase (1st day – 5th day): • World Health Organization (WHO)
• The decline in progesterone and defines adolescence as the period of life
oestrogen initiates the shedding of between 11 and 19 years of age.
unfertilised eggs and endometrium with
Puberty:
severe bleeding in a process called mensus
or menstruation. At the termination of • The period in life when a body's
menstruation, the corpus luteum is reproductive system gets ready to work is
converted into a scar tissue called corpus called puberty. Girls attain puberty at the
albicans. age of 11 to 12 and boys attain puberty at
a later age of14 to 15 years.
The follicular phase (5th day –14th day): • Puberty brings in lots of changes in both
• This phase is initiated by the secretion male and female’s body such as increase in
of Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and height, body shape, change in voice,
oestrogen of the pituitary. During this increased activity of sweat and sebaceous
phase, primary ovarian follicles begin to glands and development of sex organs.
grow and the mature graffian follicles burst
Notable features:
and release the ovum into the fallopian
tube (ovulation). • Voice box or larynx begins to grow. The
larynx grows larger in boys than that of
The luteal phase or premenstrual phase girls which appears as Adam’s apple. Large
(15th day – 28th day): larynx of boys gives them deep and harsh
• This stage is influenced by Lutenising voice, whereas girls have high pitched
Hormone (LH) of pituitary gland. After the voice.
release of the ovum, the ruptured part of
Sweat and sebaceous glands (oil glands):
graffian follicle is transformed into a
transitory endocrine gland called corpus • Secretion of these two glands increases
luteum. It secretes the pregnancy during puberty. Bacterial infection in some
hormone called progesterone. This sebaceous glands leads to pimples and
hormone causes the thickness of acne.
endometrium and prepares the uterus to Development of sex organs
receive the fertilised ovum. If the ovum is
• in both genders attains its maximum
not fertilised, the ovum and uterine wall
growth and development during puberty.
get ruptured and discharged during
Testes and penis develop completely in
menstrual phase.
male. Ovaries get enlarged and start to
produce eggs in females.
Note: Menstruation is a periodical
phenomenon that continues from puberty Secondary sexual character:
to menopause. This will happen if the • Male and female are distinguished from
released ovum is not fertilised by the each other by certain character such as

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facial hair, muscle development in boys take place. This usually takes place around
and menstrual cycle, breast development the age of 50.
in girls. Such characters are known as • Nutritional needs during Adolescence:
secondary sexual characters and they are Adolescence is the period spurt in growth,
controlled by hormones. the body needs more calories and other
nutrients.
REPRODUCTIVE PHASE:
• Deficiency in nutrients during this
• The phase of life in which production of period retards physical, mental growth and
gametes takes place is called reproductive intellectual growth.
phase. It varies between males and
• Due to growth, there will be increase in
females.
skeletal mass, muscle mass and blood
• Average reproductive phase of female is volume. To maintain this, minerals such as
between 13 to 50 years, but in males it is calcium, iron, phosphorus are required.
from 13 and up until their life time. The
• Calcium: Calcium intake prevents the
reproductive age varies among person to
body from having osteoporosis (dissolving
person.
bones for body’s calcium requirements.)
Reproductive phase in female life: Calcium is present in milk and milk
• Females undergo four distinct phase products.
during their reproductive period where as • Iron: Iron deficiency occurs due to
males do not show such differences in their muscle growth and menstruation in
body. females. Iron is present in leafy vegetables,
• Ovulation: This phase starts after jaggery and whole pulses.
puberty and it is a cyclic process where one
egg is produced every month from B LOOD
alternate ovary.
• Menstruation: The released egg or
• The blood is a fluid connective tissue.
ovum during ovulation, waits in fallopian
tube for fertilisation. At meantime, the • Study of blood is called Haemotology.
uterus gets ready to implant the egg if it is • Ph of blood is 7.4 and it is maintained by
fertilised. If the egg is not fertilised by a the kidney.
sperm, the walls of uterus and egg come • The process of secretion of blood is
out as menstrual flow. It takes about 3-5 called Haematopoises.
days. • It consists of liquid plasma (55%) and
• Pregnancy: After ovulation, if the egg cells (45%).
gets fertilised by sperm, the zygote
• The total blood volume in human
(fertilized egg) gets implanted on the walls females is about 4-5 litres and that of 5- 6
of uterus. The zygote further develops into litres in males.
foetus and a baby.
• Haemocytometer is used to measure
• Menopause: The menopause shows the blood count.
end of female reproductive phase. After
which ovulation and menstruation do not a) Plasma

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 R R B_N T P C

• The blood plasma is a slightly alkaline b) Blood cells

fluid. It is straw-coloured.
1) Red Blood Cells (RBC)
• Plasma without blood clotting factor is
called serum. (i) They are called erythrocytes.

Composition of Components (ii) The red colour of the blood is due to the
plasma Functions presence of Haemoglobin molecule that
Solvent and carries oxygen.
suspending (iii) 1 RBC contains 270 million
Water
medium for blood haemoglobin molecules (approx).
components
(iv) They are bio-concave without a
nucleus (young RBC contains nucleus).
Plasma proteins • Osmotic
• Albumin pressure. (v) They are formed in bone marrow (in
• Globulins • Antibody adults) and die in spleen.
• Fibrinogen formation (vi) RBC is formed in Liver in children.
• Blood clotting
(vii) Life span of RBC is from 100 to 120
Ions - Na, K, Ca, days.
Osmosis, acid-base
Mg, H, HCO, Fe,
balance Note:
PO, Cl2
Nutrients - I. Mammals like camel and llama have a
Glucose, amino nucleus in RBC.
source of energy,
acids, II. RBC increases in higher altitudes and
building blocks and
triglycerides, gradually decreases while sleeping.
enzyme activity
cholesterol,
vitamins
Waste products
• Urea, uric acid, • Excreted by the
creatinine, kidneys
ammonia acid • Product of
• Bilirubin anaerobic
• Lactic acid respiration

Gases • Aerobic
• Oxygen respiration
• Carbon dioxide • Waste product
of respiration 2) White Blood Cells (WBC)
Regulating (i) They are called as leucocytes.
substances
(ii) They are nucleated and irregular in
Hormones and Body functions
shape (amoebic shape).
Enzymes

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 R R B_N T P C

(iii) They contain no Pigments and cells and they get matured in the thymus
hence they are colourless. gland.
(iv) They are formed in bone marrow Note: HIV attacks the T-cells.
and lymph nodes. B-cells produce antibodies which attack
(v) While Infection, WBC count increases. the antigens. They get matured in the
lymph nodes.
(vi) Life span of WBC is two to three
weeks (approx.) • Monocytes (1-4%) – They contain a
(vii) They protect us from disease- bean-shaped nucleus. These are the largest
producing organisms and their types are, leucocytes. They destroy bacteria, dead
cells and cell fragments. During chronic
(viii) granulocytes and agranulocytes. infection, their number increases.

3) Blood Platelets:
a) They are the smallest blood cells called
Thrombocytes.
b) They are responsible for blood clotting.
Granulocytes
• Neutrophils (60-70%)– Nuclei occur in
more than one form and are called Clotting of Blood or Haemostasis
polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN). • A blood clot is a network of thread-like
They are phagocytic. protein called fibrins.
• Eosinophils (0.5-3.0%) – they are bi- • The clotting depends on proteins called
lobed nucleus. These cells play a key role coagulation factors.
during inflammatory reaction. During
allergy, their number increases. They are • Formation of thrombokinase - Damaged
non-phagocytic. tissues release tissue factor (TF) or
thromboplastin. This factor forms a
• Basophils (0.1%) – They contain a three- complex called prothrombinase or
lobed nucleus. They contain heparin which thrombokinase.
inhibits blood clotting. They are non-
phagocytic. • Formation of thrombin - Soluble plasma
protein prothrombin is converted into the
Agranulocytes: enzyme thrombin by prothrombinase.
I. Lymphocytes (20-30%) – These are the • Synthesis of prothrombin in liver
smallest leucocytes. They contain a large requires vitamin K.
round nucleus. Lymphocytes contains T-
cells and B-cells. • The soluble plasma protein fibrinogen is
converted to insoluble protein, fibrin by
II. T-cell can kill the infected cells. They also
thrombin. The fibrin forms the fibrous
act as helper cells by interacting with b-
network of the clot.
cells. T-cells are also called remembrance

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 R R B_N T P C

Blood transfusion • At the time of blood transfusion, Rh

Antigen ‘A’ and antibody ‘a’, Antigen ‘B’ factor is also tested. Rh+ is given to Rh+
and antibody ‘b’ cannot live together. In and Rh- is given Rh- blood only.
case of so happened, the blood gets
• If the blood of Rh+ blood group is
coagulated.
transmitted to a person with Rh- blood
This is called agglutination of blood. group, then due to less quantity for the
Therefore in blood transfusion, adjustment first time there does not seem any bad
of antigen and antibody should be done effect but if this process is repeated then
carefully so that agglutination of blood due to agglutination, the person with Rh-
does not take place. blood group dies.
• Blood group O is called universal donor • Erythroblastosis foetalis: if the father’s
because it does not contain any antigen. blood is Rh+ and the mother’s blood is Rh-
• Blood group AB is called universal then the child to be born dies at the
receptor because it does not contain any pregnancy or short span or time after the
antibody. birth (this happens in the case of second
Note: Blood group was discovered by Karl issue).
Landsteiner in 1901. • The possible blood group of the child is
The four groups of blood division of based on the blood group of mother and
antibody is as follows: father.

Antigen Blood Expected

Blood Antibody Unexpected
(in red blood group of blood
group (in plasma) blood of the
corpuscles) mother and group of
child
father the child
A Only A Only b
O×O O A, B, AB
B Only B Only a O×A O, A B, AB
Both ’A’ and
AB Absent O×B O, B A, AB
‘B’
Both ‘a’ and O×AB A, B O, AB
O Absent
‘b’
A×A A, O B, AB
• Rh factor: in the year 1940, Landsteiner
O, A, B,
and wiener discovered a different type of A×B None
AB
antigen in the blood. They discovered it in
A×AB A, B, AB O
the Rhesus monkey; therefore, it is called
Rh factor. If the blood of the person B×B B, O A, AB
contains RH factor, their blood is called Rh-
B×AB A, B, AB O
positive and if the blood of the person does
not contain RH factor, it is called Rh- AB×AB A, B, AB O
negative.

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