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Radiography in Modern Industry

Arithmetic of Exposure
RELATIONS OF MILLIAMPERAGE (SOURCE STRENGTH),
DISTANCE, AND TIME
With a given kilovoltage of x-radiation or with the gamma radiation
from a particular isotope, the three factors governing the exposure are the
milliamperage (for x-rays) or source strength (for gamma rays), time, and
source-film distance. The numerical relations among these three quantities
are demonstrated below, using x-rays as an example. The same relations
apply for gamma rays, provided the number of curies in the source is
substituted wherever milliamperage appears in an equation.
The necessary calculations for any changes in focus-film distance (D),
milliamperage (M), or time (T) are matters of simple arithmetic and are
illustrated in the following example. As noted earlier, kilovoltage changes
cannot be calculated directly but must be obtained from the exposure chart
of the equipment or the operator's logbook.
All of the equations shown on these pages can be solved easily for any of the
variables (mA, T, D), using one basic rule of mathematics: If one factor is
moved across the equals sign (=), it moves from the numerator to the

denominator or vice versa.

We can now solve for any unknown by:
1. Eliminating any factor that remains constant (has the same value and is in the same
location on both sides of the equation).
2. Simplifying the equation by moving the unknown value so that it is alone on one side of
the equation in the numerator.
3. Substituting the known values and solving the equation.

Milliamperage-Distance Relation
The milliamperage employed in any exposure technique should be in
conformity with the manufacturer's rating of the x-ray tube. In most
laboratories, however, a constant value of milliamperage is usually adopted
for convenience.
Rule: The milliamperage (M) required for a given exposure is directly
proportional to the square of the focus-film distance (D). The equation is
expressed as follows:
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Example: Suppose that with a given exposu re time and kilovoltage, a
properly exposed radiograph is obtained with 5mA (M 1) at a distance of
12 inches (D1), and that it is desired to increase the sharpness of detail in the
image by increasing the focus-film distance to 24 inches (D2). The correct
milliamperage (M2) to obtain the desired radiographic density at the
increased distance (D2) may be computed from the proportion:

When very low kilovoltages, say 20 kV or less, are used, the x-ray intensity
decreases with distance more rapidly than calculations based on the inverse
square law would indicate because of absorption of the x-rays by the air.
Most industrial radiography, however, is done with radiation so penetrating
that the air absorption need not be considered. These comments also apply
to the time-distance relations discussed below.
Time-Distance Relation
Rule: The exposure time (T) required for a given exposure is directly
proportional to the square of the focus-film distance (D). Thus:

To solve for either a new Time (T2) Or a new Distance (D2), simply follow the
steps shown in the example above.
Tabular Solution of Milliamperage-Time and Distance
Problems
Problems of the types discussed above may also be solved by the use of a
table similar to the one below. The factor between the new and the old
exposure time, milliamperage, or milliamperage-minute (mA-min) value
appears in the box at the intersection of the column for the new source-film
distance and the row for the old source-film distance.
Suppose, for example, a properly exposed radiograph has an exposure of
20 mA-min with a source-film distance of 30 inches and you want to increase
the source-film distance to 45 inches in order to decrease the geometric
unsharpness in the radiograph. The factor appearing in the box at the
intersection of the column for 45 inches (new source-film distance) and the
row for 30 inches (old source-film distance) is 2.3. Multiply the old
milliampere-minute value (20) by 2.3 to give the new value--46 mA-min.
Note that some approximation is involved in the use of such a table, since
the values in the boxes are rounded off to two significant figures. However,
the errors involved are always less than 5 percent and, in general, are
insignificant in actual practice.
Further, a table like the one below obviously cannot include all source-film
distances, because of limitations of space. However, in any one radiographic
department, only a few source-film distances are used in the great bulk of
the work, and a table of reasonable size can be constructed involving only
these few distances.
Milli-amperage-Time and Distance Relations
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Old Dist./
25° 30° 35° 40° 45° 50° 55° 60° 65° 70° 75° 80°
New Dist.
25 min. 1.0 1.4 2.0 2.6 3.2 4.0 4.8 5.6 6.8 7.8 9.0 10.0
30 min. 0.70 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.3 2.8 3.4 4.0 4.8 5.4 6.3 7.1
35 min. 0.51 0.74 1.0 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.4 4.0 4. 5.2
40 min. 0.39 0.56 0.77 1.0 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.6 3.1 3.5 4.0
45 min. 0.31 0.45 0.60 0.79 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.8 3.2
50 min. 0.25 0.36 0.49 0.64 0.81 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.2 2.6
55 min. 0.21 0.30 0.40 0.53 0.67 0.83 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.1
60 min. 0.17 0.25 0.34 0.44 0.56 0.69 0.84 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
65 min. 0.15 0.21 0.29 0.38 0.48 0.59 0.72 0.85 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.5
70 min. 0.13 0.18 0.25 0.33 0.41 0.51 0.62 0.74 0.86 1.0 1.1 1.3
75 min. 0.11 0.16 0.22 0.28 0.36 0.45 0.54 0.64 0.75 0.87 1.0 1.1
80 min. 0.10 0.14 0.19 0.25 0.32 0.39 0.47 0.56 0.66 0.77 0.88 1.0

Milliamperage-Time Relation
Rule: The milliamperage (M) required for a given exposure is inversely
proportional to the time (T):

Another way of expressing this is to say that for a given set of conditions
(voltage, distance, etc), the product of milliamperage and time is constant for
the same photographic effect.
Thus, M1T1 = M2T2 = M3T3 = C, a constant.
This is commonly referred to as the reciprocity law. (Important exceptions
are discussed below.)
To solve for either a new time (T2) or a new milliamperage (M2), simply follow
the steps shown in the example in "Milliamperage-Distance Relation".
THE RECIPROCITY LAW
In the sections immediately preceding, it has been assumed that exact
compensation for a decrease in the time of exposure can be made by
increasing the milliamperage according to the relation M 1T1 = M2T2. This may
be written MT = C and is an example of the general photochemical law that
the same effect is produced for IT = constant, where I is intensity of the
radiation and T is the time of exposure. It is called the reciprocity law and is
true for direct x-ray and lead screen exposures. For exposures to light, it is
not quite accurate and, since some radiographic exposures are made with
the light from fluorescent intensifying screens, the law cannot be strictly
applied.
Errors as the result of assuming the validity of the reciprocity law are usually
so small that they are not noticeable in examples of the types given in the
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preceding sections. Departures may be apparent, however, if the intensity is
changed by a factor of 4 or more. Since intensity may be changed by
changing the source-film distance, failure of the reciprocity law may appear
to be a violation of the inverse square law. Applications of the reciprocity law
over a wide intensity range sometimes arise, and the relation between
results and calculations may be misleading unless the possibility of failure of
the reciprocity law is kept in mind. Failure of the reciprocity law means that
the efficiency of a light-sensitive emulsion in utilizing the light energy
depends on the light intensity.
Under the usual conditions of industrial radiography, the number of
milliampere-minutes required for a properly exposed radiograph made with
fluorescent intensifying screens increases as the x-ray intensity decreases,
because of reciprocity failure.
If the milliamperage remains constant and the x-ray intensity is varied by
changing the focus-film distance, the compensating changes shown in the
table below should be made in the exposure time.

Approximate Corrections for Reciprocity Law Failure

Distance (Direct and Lead Screen Exposures) (Fluorescent Screen Exposures)

Increased by Exposure Time Multiplied by1 Exposure Time Multiplied by1
25% 1.6 about 2
50% 2.3 about 4
100% 4.0 about 8
Distance
Decreased by
20% 0.62 about 0.5
33% 0.43 about 0.2
50% 0.25 about 0.1
1
Column 2 shows the changes necessitated by the inverse square law only.
Column 3 shows the combined effects of the inverse square law and failure of
the reciprocity law.

The table gives a rough estimate of the deviations from the rules given in the
foregoing section that are necessitated by failure of the reciprocity law for
exposures with fluorescent intensifying screens. It must be emphasized that
the figures in column 3 are only approximate. The exact values of the factors
vary widely with the intensity of the fluorescent light and with the density of
the radiograph.
When distance is held constant, the milliamperage may be increased or
decreased by a factor of 2, and the new exposure time may be calculated by
the method shown in "Time-Distance Relation", without introducing errors
caused by failure of the reciprocity law, which are serious in practice.
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LOGARITHMS
Since logarithms are used a great deal in the following section, a brief
discussion of them is included here. Some handbooks and intermediate
algebra texts give a more detailed treatment.
Before discussing logarithms, it is necessary to define the term "power". The
power of a number is the product obtained when the number is multiplied by
itself a given number of times. Thus, 10 = 10 x 10 = 1000; 5 = 52 x 5 = 25.
In the first example, 1000 is the third power of 10; in the second, 25 is the
second power of 5, or 5 raised to the second power. The superscript figure 2
is known as the exponent. Fractional exponents are used to denote roots.

The common logarithm of a number is the exponent of the power to which 10

must be raised to give the number in question. For example, the logarithm of
100 is 2. The logarithm of 316 equals 2.50, or log 316 = 250; the logarithm
of 1000 equals 3, or log 1000 = 3. It is also said that 1000 is the
antilogarithm of 3 or antilog 3 = 1000.
Logarithms consist of two parts: A decimal which is always positive, called
the mantissa; and an integer which may be positive or negative, called the
characteristic. In the case of log 316 = 2.50, .50 is the mantissa and 2 is the
characteristic. The mantissa may be found by reference to a table of
logarithms, by the use of a slide rule (D and L scales), or by reference to the
figure below. Regardless of the location of the decimal point, the logarithms
of all numbers having the same figures in the same order will have the same
mantissa.
Scale for determining logarithms.

The characteristic of the logarithm is determined by the location of the

decimal point in the number. If the number is greater than one, the
characteristic is positive and its numerical value is one less than the number
of digits to the left of the decimal point. If the number is less than one (for
example, a decimal fraction), the characteristic is negative and has a
numerical value of one greater than the number of zeros between the
decimal paint and the first integer. A negative characteristic of 3 is written
either as 3...to indicate that only the characteristic is negative, or as 7...-10.
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From the figure above, we see that the mantissa of the logarithm of 20 is
0.30. The characteristic is 1.

The preceding table illustrates a very important property of logarithms. Note

that when a series of numbers increases by a constant factor, for example,
the series 20, 40, 80, 160 or the series 20, 200, 2,000, 20,000, the
logarithms have a constant difference, in these cases 0.30 and 1.00,
respectively. In other words, a constant increase in the logarithm of a
number means a constant percentage increase in the number itself.
PHOTOGRAPHIC DENSITY
Photographic density refers to the quantitative measure of film blackening.
When no danger of confusion exists, photographic density is usually spoken

of merely as density. Density is defined by the equation:

where D is density, Io is the light intensity incident on the film and I t is the
light intensity transmitted.
The table below illustrates some relations between transmittance, percent
transmittance, opacity, and density.
This table shows that an increase in density of 0.3 reduces the light
transmitted to one-half its former value. In general, since density is a
logarithm, a certain increase in density always corresponds to the same
percentage decrease in transmittance.

1.0 100 1 0
0.50 50 2 0.3
0.25 25 4 0.6
0.10 10 10 1.0
0.01 1 100 2.0
0.001 0.1 1,000 3.0
0.0001 0.01 10,000 4.0
DENSITOMETERS
A densitometer is an instrument for measuring photographic densities. A
number of different types, both visual and photoelectric, are available
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commercially. For purposes of practical industrial radiography, there is no
great premium on high accuracy of a densitometer. A much more important
property is reliability, that is, the densitometer should reproduce readings
from day to day.
X-RAY EXPOSURE CHARTS
An exposure chart is a graph showing the relation between material
thickness, kilovoltage, and exposure. In its must common form, an exposure
chart resembles the figure below. These graphs are adequate for
determining exposures in the radiography of uniform plates, but they serve
only as rough guides for objects, such as complicated castings, having wide
variations of thickness.

Typical exposure chart for steel. This chart may be taken to apply to
Film X (for example), with lead foil screens, at a film density of 1.5.
Source-film distance, 40 inches.

Exposure charts are usually available from manufacturers of x-ray

equipment. Because, in general, such charts cannot be used for different x-
ray machines unless suitable correction factors are applied, individual
laboratories sometimes prepare their own.
PREPARING AN EXPOSURE CHART
A simple method for preparing an exposure chart is to make a series of
radiographs of a pile of plates consisting of a number of steps. This "step
tablet" or stepped wedge, is radiographed at several different exposure
times at each of a number of kilovoltages. The exposed films are all
processed under conditions identical to those that will later be used for
routine work. Each radiograph consists of a series of photographic densities
corresponding to the x-ray intensities transmitted by the different
thicknesses of metal. A certain density, for example, 1.5, is selected as the
basis for the preparation of the chart. Wherever this density occurs on the
stepped-wedge radiographs, there are corresponding values of thickness,
milliampere-minutes, and kilovoltage. It is unlikely that many of the
radiographs will contain a value of exactly 1.5 in density, but the correct
thickness for this density can be found by interpolation between steps.
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Thickness and milliampere-minute values are plotted for the different
kilovoltages in the manner shown in the figure above.
Another method, requiring fewer stepped wedge exposures but more
arithmetical manipulation, is to make one step-tablet exposure at each
kilovoltage and to measure the densities in the processed stepped-wedge
radiographs. The exposure that would have given the chosen density (in this
case 1.5) under any particular thickness of the stepped wedge can then be
determined from the characteristic curve of the film used (see "THE
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE"). The values for thickness, kilovoltage, and
exposure are plotted as described in the figure above.
Note that thickness is on a linear scale, and that milliampere-minutes are on
a logarithmic scale. The logarithmic scale is not necessary, but it is very
convenient because it compresses an otherwise long scale. A further
advantage of the logarithmic exposure scale is that it usually allows the
location of the points for any one kilovoltage to be well approximated by a
straight line.
Any given exposure chart applies to a set of specific conditions. These fixed
conditions are:
1. The x-ray machine used
2. A certain source-film distance
3. A particular film type
4. Processing conditions used
5. The film density on which the chart is based
6. The type of screens (if any) that are used

Only if the conditions used in making the radiograph agree in all particulars
with those used in preparation of the exposure chart can values of exposure
be read directly from the chart. Any change requires the application of a
correction factor. The correction factor applying to each of the conditions
listed previously will be discussed separately.
1. It is sometimes difficult to find a correction factor to make an exposure chart prepared for
one x-ray machine applicable to another. Different x-ray machines operating at the same
nominal kilovoltage and milliamperage settings may give not only different intensities but
also different qualities of radiation.
2. A change in source-film distance may be compensated for by the use of the inverse
square law or, if fluorescent screens are used, by referring to the earlier table. Some
exposure charts give exposures in terms of "exposure factor" rather than in terms of
milliampere-minutes or milliampere-seconds. Charts of this type are readily applied to
any value of source-film distance.
3. The use of a different type of film can be corrected for by comparing the difference in the
amount of exposure necessary to give the same density on both films from relative
exposure charts such as those shown here.
o For example, to obtain a density of 1.5 using Film Y, 0.6 more exposure is
required than for Film X.
o This log exposure difference is found on the L scale and corresponds to an
exposure factor of 3.99 on the D scale. (Read directly below the log E difference.)
Therefore, in order to obtain the same density on Film Y as on Film X, multiply
the original exposure by 3.99 to get the new exposure. Conversely, if going from
Film Y to Film X, divide the original exposure by 3.99 to obtain the new
exposure.
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o You can use these procedures to change densities on a single film as well. Simply
find the log E difference needed to obtain the new density on the film curve; read
the corresponding exposure factor from the chart; then multiply to increase
density or divide to decrease density.
4. A change in processing conditions causes a change in effective film speed. If the
processing of the radiographs differs from that used for the exposures from which the
chart was made, the correction factor must be found by experiment.
5. The chart gives exposures to produce a certain density. If a different density is required,
the correction factor may be calculated from the film's characteristic curve (see "THE
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE").
6. If the type of screens is changed, for example from lead foil to fluorescent, it is easier and
more accurate to make a new exposure chart than to attempt to determine correction
factors.

Sliding scales can be applied to exposure charts to allow for changes in one
or more of the conditions discussed, with the exception of the first and the
last. The methods of preparing and using such scales are described in
detaillater on.
In some radiographic operations, the exposure time and the source-film
distance are set by economic considerations or on the basis of previous
experience and test radiographs. The tube current is, of course, limited by
the design of the tube. This leaves as variables only the thickness of the
specimen and the kilovoltage. When these conditions exist, the exposure
chart may take a simplified form as shown in the figure below, which allows
the kilovoltage for any particular specimen thickness to be chosen readily.
Such a chart will probably be particularly useful when uniform sections must
be radiographed in large numbers by relatively untrained persons. This type
of exposure chart may be derived from a chart similar to the figure above by
following the horizontal line corresponding to the chosen milliampere-minute
value and noting the thickness corresponding to this exposure for each
kilovoltage. These thicknesses are then plotted against kilovoltage.

Typical exposure chart for use when exposure and distance are held
constant and kilovoltage is varied to conform to specimen thickness.
Film X (for example), exposed with lead foil screens to a density of
1.5. Source-film distance, 40 inches; exposure, 50 mA-min.
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GAMMA-RAY EXPOSURE CHARTS

The figure below shows a typical gamma-ray exposure chart. It is somewhat
similar to the next to the last figure above.
However, with gamma rays, there is no variable factor corresponding to the
kilovoltage. Therefore, a gamma-ray exposure chart contains one line, or
several parallel lines, each of which corresponds to a particular film type, film
density, or source-film distance. Gamma-ray exposure guides are also
available in the form of linear or circular slide rules. These contain scales on
which can be set the various factors of specimen thickness, source strength
and source-film distance, and from which exposure time can be read directly.
Sliding scales can also be applied to gamma-ray exposure charts of the type
in the figure below to simplify some exposure determinations. For the
preparation and use of such scales, see "SLIDING SCALES FOR EXPOSURE
CHARTS".

Typical gamma-ray exposure chart for iridium 192, based on the use
of Film X (for example).
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THE CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

The characteristic curve, sometimes referred to as the sensitometric curve or
the H and D curve (after Hurter and Driffield who, in 1890, first used it),
expresses the relation between the exposure applied to a photographic
material and the resulting photographic density. The characteristic curves of
three typical films, exposed between lead foil screens to x-rays, are given in
the figure below. Such curves are obtained by giving a film a series of known
exposures, determining the densities produced by these exposures, and then
plotting density against the logarithm of relative exposure.
Relative exposure is used because there are no convenient units, suitable to
all kilovoltages and scattering conditions, in which to express radiographic
exposures. Hence, the exposures given a film are expressed in terms of
some particular exposure, giving a relative scale. In practical radiography,
this lack of units for x-ray intensity or quantity is no hindrance. The use of
the logarithm of the relative exposure, rather than the relative exposure
itself, has a number of advantages. It compresses an otherwise long scale.
Furthermore, in radiography, ratios of exposures or intensities are usually
more significant than the exposures or the intensities themselves. Pairs of
exposures having the same ratio will be separated by the same interval on
the log relative exposure scale, no matter what their absolute value may be.
Consider the following pairs of exposures.
Relative Exposure Log Relative Exposure Interval in Log Relative Exposure
1 0.0
0.70
5 0.70
2 0.30
0.70
10 1.00
30 1.48
0.70
150 2.18
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This illustrates another useful property of the logarithmic scale. A previous
figure shows that the antilogarithm of 0.70 is 5, which is the ratio of each
pair of exposures. Hence, to find the ratio of any pair of exposures, it is
necessary only to find the antilog of the log E (logarithm of relative exposure)
interval between them. Conversely, the log exposure interval between any
two exposures is determined by finding the logarithm of their ratio.

Characteristic curves of three typical x-ray films, exposed between

lead foil screens.

As the figure above shows, the slope (or steepness) of the characteristic
curves is continuously changing throughout the length of the curves. The
effects of this change of slope on detail visibility are more completely
explained in "THE CHARACTERISTIC CURVE". It will suffice at this point to give
a qualitative outline of these effects. For example, two slightly different
thicknesses in the object radiographed transmit slightly different exposures
to the film. These two exposures have a certain small log E interval between
them, that is, have a certain ratio. The difference in the densities
corresponding to the two exposures depends on just where on the
characteristic curve they fall, and the steeper the slope of the curve, the
greater is this density difference. For example, the curve of Film Z (see the
figure above), is steepest in its middle portion. This means that a certain
log E interval in the middle of the curve corresponds to a greater density
difference than the same log E interval at either end of the curve. In other
words, the film contrast is greatest where the slope of the characteristic
curve is greatest. For Film Z, as has been pointed out, the region of greatest
slope is in the central part of the curve. For Films X and Y, however, the
slope--and hence the film contrast continuously increases throughout the
useful density range. The curves of most industrial x-ray films are similar to
those of Films X and Y.
More information on Characteristic Curves.
USE OF THE CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
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The characteristic curve can be used to solve quantitative problems arising in
radiography, in the preparation of technique charts, and in radiographic
research. Ideally, characteristic curves made under the radiographic
conditions actually encountered should be used in solving practical problems.
However, it is not always possible to produce characteristic curves in a
radiographic department, and curves prepared elsewhere must be used.
Such curves prove adequate for many purposes although it must be
remembered that the shape of the characteristic curve and the speed of a
film relative to that of another depend strongly on developing conditions. The
accuracy attained when using "ready-made" characteristic curves is
governed largely by the similarity between the developing conditions used in
producing the characteristic curves and those for the film, whose densities
are to be evaluated.
A few examples of the quantitative use of characteristic curves are worked
out below. In the examples below, D is used for density and log E for the
logarithm of the relative exposure.
Example 1: Suppose a radiograph made on Film Z (see the figure below)
with an exposure of 12 mA-min has a density of 0.8 in the region of
maximum interest. It is desired to increase the density to 2.0 for the sake of
the increased contrast there available.

1. Log E at D = 2.0 is 1.62

2. Log E at D = 0.8 is 1.00
3. Difference in log E is 0.62
Antilogarithm of this difference is 4.2
Therefore, the original exposure is multiplied by 4.2 giving 50 mA-min to
produce a density of 2.0.

Circled numerals in the figure correspond to the items in Example 1.

Example 2: Film X has a higher contrast than Film Z at D = 2.0 (see the
figure below) and also a finer grain. Suppose that, for these reasons, it is
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desired to make the radiograph on Film X with a density of 2.0 in the same
region of maximum interest.
4. Log E at D = 2.O for Film X is 1.91
5. Log E at D = 2.0 for Film Z is 1.62
6. Difference in log E is 0.29
Antilogarithm of this difference is 1.95
Therefore, the exposure for D = 2.0 on Film Z is multiplied by 1.95 giving
97.5 mA-min, for a density of 2.0 on Film X.

Characteristic curves of two x-ray films exposed with lead foil

screens. Circled numerals in the figure correspond to the items in
Example 2.

Form of transparent overlay of proper dimensions for use with the

characteristic curves in the solution of exposure problems. The use
of the overlay and curves is demonstrated below.
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GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS TO SENSITOMETRIC PROBLEMS

Many of the problems in the foregoing section can be solved graphically. One
method involves the use of a transparent overlay (see the figure below)
superimposed on a characteristic curve. Another method involves the use of
a nomogram-like chart. In general, the overlay method requires less
arithmetic but more equipment than the nomogram method. The nomogram
method usually requires somewhat more arithmetic but no equipment other
than a diagram similar to the one referenced above and a ruler or
straightedge.
Graphical solutions of either type are often sufficiently accurate for the
purposes of practical industrial radiography.
Overlay Methods
An example of a transparent overlay is shown in the figure above. The
numbers on the horizontal line are exposure values. They can be taken, for
example to be milliampere-minutes, milliampere-seconds, curie-minutes,
curie-hours, or an exposure factor. Further, all numbers on the line can be
multiplied by the same value, without affecting the use of the device. For
instance, multiplying by 10 makes the scale go from 10 to 10,000 (rather
than from 1 to 1,000) of whatever exposure unit is convenient. Note that the
overlay must be made to fit the characteristic curves with which it is to be
used, since it is essential for the horizontal scales of both characteristic
curves and overlay to agree.
The use of the overlay will be demonstrated by solving again some of the
same problems used as illustrations in the foregoing section. Note that the
vertical lines on the overlay must be parallel to the vertical lines on the
graph paper of the characteristic curve, and the horizontal line must be
parallel to the horizontal lines on the graph paper.
Example 1: Suppose a radiograph made on Film Z with an exposure of
12 mA-min has a density of 0.8 in the region of maximum interest. It is
desired to increase the density to 2.0 for the sake of the increased contrast
there available.
Locate the intersection of the line for the original density of 0.8 with the
characteristic curve of Film Z (point A in the figure below). Superimpose the
transparent overlay on the curve, so that the vertical line for the original
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exposure--12 mA-min--passes through point A and the horizontal line overlies
the line for the desired final density of 2.0. The new exposure, 50 mA-min, is
read at the intersection of the characteristic curve with the horizontal line of
the overlay (point B in the figure below).
The method of solution would be the same if the new density were lower
rather than higher than the old. The vertical line corresponding to the old
exposure would pass through the characteristic curve at the point of the old
density. The horizontal line of the overlay would pass through the desired
new density. The new exposure would be read at the intersection of the
characteristic curve and the horizontal line of the overlay.

Characteristic curve of Film Z. Transparent overlay of the figure

above positioned for the graphical solution of Example 1, above.

Example 2: Film X has a higher contrast at D = 2.0 than Film Z and also has
a finer grain. Suppose that, for these reasons, it is desired to make the
aforementioned radiograph on Film X with a density of 2.0 in the same region
of maximum interest.
Superimpose the overlay on the characteristic curve so that the horizontal
line coincides with the horizontal line for a density of 2.0, and position the
overlay from left to right so that the curve for Film Z cuts the line at the
original exposure of 50 mA-min (point C in the figure below). Read the new
exposure of 97.5 mA-min at the point at which the curve for Film X cuts the
horizontal line (point D in the figure below).

Characteristic curves of Films X and Z. Transparent overlay

positioned for the graphical solution of Example 2, above.
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Sheet 17 of 27

Example 3: The types of problems given in Examples 1 and 2 above are

often combined in actual practice. Suppose, for example, that a radiograph
was made on Film X with an exposure of 20 mA-min and that a density of 1.0
was obtained. Then suppose that a radiograph at the same kilovoltage but on
Film Y at a density of 2.5 is desired for the sake of the higher contrast and
the lower graininess obtainable. The problem can be solved in a single step.
Locate the intersection of the original density of 1.0 and the characteristic
curve of Film X (point E in the figure below for the original exposure--20 mA-
min--passes through point # and the horizontal line coincides with the line
for the new density of 2.5. The new exposure of 220 mA-min is read from
point F (see the figure below), the intersection of the horizontal line and the
characteristic curve of Film Y.

Characteristic curves of Films X and Y. Transparent overlay

positioned for the graphical solution of Example 3, above.
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Sheet 18 of 27
Typical nomogram for solution of exposure calculations. The uses of
the diagram are explained in the section below.

Nomogram Methods
In the figure above, the scales at the far left and far right are relative
exposure values. They do not represent milliampere-minutes, curie-hours, or
any other exposure unit; they are to be considered merely as multiplying (or
dividing) factors, the use of which is explained below. Note, also, that these
scales are identical, so that a ruler placed across them at the same value will
intersect the vertical lines, in the center of the diagram, at right angles.
On the central group of lines, each labeled with the designation of a film
whose curve is shown in the earlier figure, the numbers represent densities.
The use of the figure above will be demonstrated by a re-solution of the
same problems used as illustrations in both of the preceding sections. Note
that in the use of the nomogram, the straightedge must be placed so that it
is at right angles to all the lines--that is, so that it cuts the outermost scales
on the left and the right at the same value.
Example 1: Suppose a radiograph made on Film Z with an exposure of
12 mA-min has a density of 0.8 in the region of maximum interest. It is
desired to increase the density to 2.0 for the sake of the increased contrast
there available.
Place the straightedge across the figure above so that it cuts the Film Z scale
at 0.8. The reading on the outside scales is then 9.8. Now move the
straightedge upward so that it cuts the Film Z scale at 2.0; the reading on
the outside scales is now 41. The original exposure (12 mA-min) must be
multiplied by the ratio of these two numbers--that is, by 41/9.8 = 4.2.
Therefore, the new exposure is 12 x 4.2 mA-min or 50 mA-min.
Example 2: Film X has a higher contrast than Film Z at D = 2.0 (see the
earlier figure) and also lower graininess. Suppose that, for these reasons, it is
desired to make the aforementioned radiograph on Film X with a density of
2.0 in the same region of maximum interest.
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Sheet 19 of 27
Place the straightedge on the figure above so that it cuts the scale for Film Z
at 2.0. The reading on the outside scales is then 41, as in Example 1. When
the straightedge is placed across the Film X scale at 2.0, the reading on the
outside scale is 81. In the previous example, the exposure for a density of 2.0
on Film Z was found to be 50 mA-min. In order to give a density of 2.0 on
Film X, this exposure must be multiplied by the ratio of the two scale
readings just found--81/41 = 1.97. The new exposure is therefore 50 x 1.97
or 98 mA-min.
Example 3: The types of problems given in Examples 1 and 2 are often
combined in actual practice. Suppose, for example, that a radiograph was
made on Film X (see the earlier figure) with an exposure of 20 mA-min and
that a density of 1.0 was obtained. A radiograph at the same kilovoltage on
Film Y at a density of 2.5 is desired for the sake of the higher contrast and
the lower graininess obtainable. The problem can be solved graphically in a
single step.
The reading on the outside scale for D = 1.0 on Film X is 38. The
corresponding reading for D = 2.5 on Film Y is 420. The ratio of these is
420/38 = 11, the factor by which the original exposure must be multiplied.
The new exposure to produce D = 2.5 on Film Y is then 20 x 11 or 220 mA-
min.
SLIDING SCALES FOR EXPOSURE CHARTS
An exposure chart is an exceedingly useful radiographic tool. However, as
pointed out in "PREPARING AN EXPOSURE CHART", it has the limitations of
applying only to a specific set of radiographic conditions. These are:
1. The x-ray machine used
2. A certain source-film distance
3. A particular type of film
4. Processing conditions used
5. The film density on which the chart is based
6. The type of screens (if any) that are used

Only if the conditions used in practice agree in every particular with those
used in the production of the exposure chart can exposures be read directly
from the chart. If one or more of the conditions are changed, a correction
factor must be applied to the exposure as determined from the chart.
Correction factors to allow for differences between one x-ray machine and
another, or between one type of screen and another, are best determined by
experiment--often a new exposure chart must be made. Changes in the other
four conditions, however, can in many cases be calculated, making use of the
characteristic curve of the films involved or of the inverse square law.
Numerical work involved in these corrections can often be avoided by the
use of sliding scales affixed to the exposure chart. The preparation of these
sliding scales will be facilitated (1) if the exposure chart has a logarithm of
exposure (or of relative exposure) scale along one vertical boundary and (2)
if the horizontal (exposure) lines are available on a transparent overlay (See
the figure below), on which the spacing of the lines corresponds to those in
an earlier figure. These overlays can be made by tracing from the exposure
chart involved onto exposed, fixed-out, x-ray film or any stiff transparent
plastic material.
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Sheet 20 of 27
Note that arrowheads are printed on the two figures below. When these
coincide, the exposures read from the chart are those corresponding to the
conditions under which the chart was made.
The material that follows describes the technique of modifying the exposure
chart in the earlier figure, to allow for changes in radiographic conditions 2
through 5 above. The sections below are numbered to correspond to the list
in "PREPARING AN EXPOSURE CHART".

Pattern of transparent overlay for the exposure chart.

Transparent overlay positioned over the exposure chart in such a

way as to duplicate that in an earlier figure. Thus, it applies to
Film X a density of 1.5 and a source-film distance of 40 inches.

2. Source-film distance. Since the intensity of the radiation varies inversely

with the square of the source-film distance, the exposure must vary directly
with the square of the distance if a constant density on the radiograph is to
be maintained. If source-film distance is to be changed, therefore, the
exposure scale on the chart must be shifted vertically a distance that is in
accord with the law.
The earlier chart was made using a 40-inch source-film distance. Assume
that it is desired to make the chart applicable to distances of 30 and
60 inches as well. Note that column 2 of the table below is calculated from
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Sheet 21 of 27
the inverse square law and that the ratio is taken so that it is always greater
than 1. (This is done merely for convenience, it being easier to work with
logarithms of numbers greater than 1 than with logarithms of decimal
fractions.) The logarithms in column 3 can be found in an earlier figure, with
a slide rule, or in a table of logarithms.
Distance Intensity Ratio (relative to 40 in.) Logarithm of Intensity Ratio
30 in. 1.781 0.25
60 in. 2.252 0.35
1
Intensity greater than that at 40 inches by this factor.
2
Intensity less than that at 40 inches by this factor.
A mark is put on the margin of the exposure chart a log E interval of 0.25
above the printed arrow. When the transparent overlay is displaced upward
to this position, exposures for a 30-inch focus-film distance can be read
directly. Similarly, a mark is put a log E interval of 0.35 below the printed
arrow. The overlay, in this position, gives the exposures required at a source-
film distance of 60 inches. In the figure below, the exposure chart and
overlay are shown in this position.

Overlay positioned so as to make the exposure chart and the

nomogram apply to a source-film distance of 60 inches, rather than
40 inches. See No. 2, "Source-film distance", above.

3. Film type. Changes required by the use of a film different from that for
which the exposure chart was prepared can be made by a somewhat similar
procedure. Using the characteristic curve shown in an earlier figure and the
method described in Example 2 in "Overlay Methods" and "Nomogram
Methods", it can be found that Film Y requires four times more exposure than
does Film X to produce a density of 1.5. The logarithm of 4.0 is 0.60 (see an
earlier figure). A mark is put on the margin of the exposure chart a log
exposure interval of 0.60 below the printed arrow. When the transparent
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overlay is in this position, exposures for Film Y can be read directly. The
figure below shows this arrangement.
If the new film were faster than the one for which the chart was prepared,
the same general procedure would be followed. The relative exposure
required for the new film would be taken so that it was greater than 1, and
the logarithm of this number would indicate the log E interval by which the
new mark would be placed above the printed arrow on the chart.

Overlay positioned so as to make the exposure chart and the

nomogram apply to Film Y rather than to Film X. See No. 3, "Film
type", above.

4. Changes in processing conditions. It is difficult to make simple corrections

for gross changes in processing conditions, because such changes affect both
the speed and the contrast of the film, often to a marked degree (see
"EFFECT OF DEVELOPMENT TIME ON SPEED AND CONTRAST").
For the sake of both economy and radiographic quality, avoid large
departures from recommended times and temperatures.
However, in manual processing of some industrial x-ray films, the
development time may be increased, for example, from 5 to 8 minutes at 68°
F. The longer development may result in speed increases that are frequently
useful in practice, with little or no change in the shape of the characteristic
curve--that is, with little or no change in film contrast. Exposure charts and
nomograms of the types shown earlier can be made to apply to both
development times. Assume, for instance, that increasing the development
time of Film X from 5 to 8 minutes at 68° F results in a 20 percent gain in
speed. The ratio of exposures required to achieve the same density would be
1:1.2. The logarithm of 1.2 is 0.08. A mark at log E interval of 0.08 above the
arrow printed on the exposure chart would allow the overlay to be positioned
so that exposures for a development time of 8 minutes could be read
directly.
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5. Film density. Exposure charts apply only to a single density of the
processed radiograph. However, by the use of data from the characteristic
curve of the film, it is possible to supply a sliding scale that can make the
exposure chart applicable to any densities desired.
The earlier exposure chart was drawn for a density of 1.5. Let us assume that
it is desired to make this chart applicable to densities of 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0
also. The second column of the table below is obtained from the
characteristic curve of Film X.
Density Log Relative Exposure Difference of Log Relative Exposure
1.0 1.57 + 0.22
1.5 1.79 0
2.0 1.92 - 0.13
3.0 2.10 - 0.31
The values in column 3 are the differences between the logarithm of relative
exposure required to produce the density for which the chart was originally
drawn (in this case 1.5) and the logarithm of exposure required for the
desired density. They represent the log E intervals that the "exposure" grid of
the exposure chart must be shifted up or down to give exposures that will
result in the lower or higher densities. Plus signs indicate that the added
marks on the margin should be above that printed on the chart; minus signs,
that the added marks are to be below. The figure below shows the chart with
the transparent overlay positioned to directly read exposures required to
give a density of 2.0.

Overlay positioned so as to make the exposure chart and the

nomogram apply to a density of 2.0, rather than 1.5. See No. 5,
"Film density", above.
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Sheet 24 of 27

ESTIMATING EXPOSURES FOR MULTITHlCKNESS

SPECIMENS
A minimum acceptable density for radiographs is often specified, not
because of any virtue in the particular density, but because the slope of the
characteristic curve (and hence the film contrast) below a certain point is too
low for adequate rendition of detail. Similarly, a maximum acceptable density
is often designated because either the film contrast is lower at high densities
or detail cannot be seen on the available illuminators if the density is above a
certain value.
The problem of radiographing a part having several thicknesses is one of
using the available density range most efficiently. In other words, the
kilovoltage and exposure should be adjusted so that the image of the
thinnest part has the maximum acceptable density, and the thickest has the
minimum. Exposure charts alone, although adequate for the radiography of
uniform plates, can serve only as rough guides for articles having
considerable variation in thickness. Previous experience is a guide, but even
when a usable radiograph has been obtained, the question remains as to
whether or not it is the best that could be achieved.
A quantitative method for finding such exposures combines information
derived from the exposure chart and the characteristic curve of the film
used. The procedure is outlined below:
Assume that 1.0 is the lowest acceptable density on Film X and that 3.5 is
the highest. As shown in the figure below, this density interval corresponds
to a certain log exposure interval, in this case 0.63.

Characteristic curve of Film X. Dotted lines show how the log E

interval corresponding to a certain density interval (in this case 1.0
to 3.5) can be found.

The antilog of 0.63 is 4.3, which means that 4.3 times more exposure is
required to produce a density of 3.5 than of 1.0. It is therefore desired that
the thinnest portion of the object to be radiographed transmit exactly 4.3
times more radiation than the thickest part, so that with the proper
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adjustment of radiographic exposure, all parts of the object will be rendered
within the density range 1.0 to 3.5. The ratios of x-ray intensities transmitted
by different portions of the object will depend on kilovoltage; examination of
the exposure chart of the x-ray machine reveals the proper choice of
kilovoltage. For example, in the chart shown in the figure below, the 180 kV
line shows that a thickness range of about 7/8 to about 11/4 inches of steel
corresponds to an exposure ratio of 35 mA-min to 8 mA-min, or 4.3, which is
the ratio required. The next problem is to determine the radiographic
exposure needed. The chart shown below gives the exposure to produce a
density of 1.0 on Film X. Since it is desired to produce a density 1.0 under the
thick section (11/4 inches), the exposure time would be 35 mA-min.

Abridged form of the exposure chart derived from a previous figure,

but showing exposures at 180 kV to produce a density of 1.0 on
Film X. Dotted lines indicate the metal thickness corresponding to
the log E interval of the figure above. If the separation of lines ABC
and DEF is maintained, they can be moved up and down the chart.
They will then mark off a large number of thickness ranges on the
various kilovoltage lines, all of which will completely fill the density
range which has been assumed to be useful.

A simple means for applying this method to routine work is as follows:

Parallel lines are drawn on a transparent plastic sheet, such as a fixed-out x-
ray film, in the manner shown in the figure below. The spacing between the
base line and the line immediately above is the log relative exposure interval
for Film X between D = 1.0 and D = 3.5. It is laid off to the same scale as the
ordinate (vertical) scale of the exposure chart. Similarly, the distance from
the baseline to any other line parallel to it can be made to correspond to the
log relative exposure interval for other density limits and films. This
transparent guide is moved up and down on the exposure chart with its lines
parallel to the thickness axis. The two guidelines being used form a rectangle
with the two vertical lines of the exposure chart that mark the thickness
limits of the specimen. The correct kilovoltage is the one whose graph
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Sheet 26 of 27
intersects diagonally opposite comers of the rectangle. If the film type used
is the one for which the chart was prepared, the correct exposure is indicated
at the intersection of the upper guide line with the exposure scale (point C in
the figure above). If a different film is used, a suitable correction factor
obtained either from tables of relative speeds or by the method described in
Example 2 in "Overlay Methods" and "Nomogram Methods", must be applied
to the exposure as determined from the chart.

System of lines drawn on a transparent sheet to be used in

connection with an exposure chart for estimating radiographic
exposures for multithickness specimens.

If there is only one graph on a gamma-ray exposure chart, this procedure will
indicate limiting thicknesses of material that can be radiographed within the
prescribed density limits.
On a chart of the type shown earlier, which has lines for various densities,
the thickness range that can be radiographed in a single exposure can be
read directly. For example, the same exposure (exposure factor = 0.7) will
give a density of 1.5 through 2 inches of steel and a density of 2.5 through
about 11/2 inches of steel.
USE OF MULTIPLE FILMS
If the chart shows that the thickness range is too great for a single exposure
under any condition, it may be used to select two different exposures to
cover the range. Another technique is to load the cassette with two films of
different speed and expose them simultaneously, in which case the chart
may be used to select the exposure. The log relative exposure range for two
films of different speed, when used together in this manner, is the difference
in log exposure between the value at the low-density end of the faster film
curve and the high-density end of the slower film curve. An earlier figure
shows that when Films X and Y are used, the difference is 1.22, which is the
difference between 1.57 and 2.79. It is necessary that the films be close
enough together in speed so that their curves will have some "overlap" on
the log E axis.
LIMITATIONS OF EXPOSURE CHARTS
Although exposure charts are useful industrial radiographic tools, they must
be used with some caution. They will, in most cases, be adequate for routine
practice, but they will not always show the precise exposure required to
radiograph a given thickness to a particular density.
Anupama
Sheet 27 of 27
Several factors have a direct influence on the accuracy with which exposures
can be predicted. Exposure charts are ordinarily prepared by radiographing a
stepped wedge. Since the proportion of scattered radiation depends on the
thickness of material and, therefore, on the distribution of the material in a
given specimen, there is no assurance that the scattered radiation under
different parts will correspond to the amount under the same thickness of the
wedge. In fact, it is unreasonable to expect exact correspondence between
scattering conditions under two objects the thicknesses of which are the
same but in which the distribution of material is quite different. The more
closely the distribution of metal in the wedge resembles that in the specimen
the more accurately the exposure chart will serve its purpose. For example, a
narrow wedge would approximate the scattering conditions for specimens
containing narrow bars.
Although the lines of an exposure chart are normally straight, they should in
most cases be curved--concave downward. The straight lines are convenient
approximations, suitable for most practical work, but it should be recognized
that in most cases they are only approximations. The degree to which the
conventionally drawn straight line approximates the true curve will vary,
depending on the radiographic conditions, the quality of the exposing
radiation, the material radiographed, and the amount of scattered radiation
reaching the film.
In addition, time, temperature, degree of activity, and agitation of the
developer are all variables that affect the shape of the characteristic curve
and should therefore be standardized. When, in hand processing, the
temperature or the activity of the developer does not correspond to the
original conditions, proper compensation can be made by changing the time
according to methods described in "Control of Temperature and Time".
Automated processors should be carefully maintained and cleaned to achieve
the most consistent results. In any event, the greatest of care should always
be taken to follow the recommended processing procedures.

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