Anupama Sheet 1 of 8
Radiography in Modern Industry
Process Control
Users of industrial radiography must frequently meet requirements of density
and sensitivity set forth in inspection specifications. They must also keep the
radiograph rejection rate to a minimum. Control of variability in both exposing
and film processing is essential if these requirements are to be met. Although
exposure and processing are the most frequent sources of significant
variations, other factors, such as intensifying screens and film, also contribute
to radiographic variability.
The exposure of industrial x-ray film to energy in the visible spectrum is not a
reliable indicator of the process level or the repeatability of exposures to x-
radiation. Therefore, exposure of the control film to white light is not a
satisfactory tool for controlling process variability in industrial radiography. In
the procedure for controlling either the exposing unit or the film processing,
or both, described here, x-radiation is used to expose the control film.
The data obtained from exposures to x-radiation can be utilized in many
ways. The procedure is simple and not only reveals both exposing and
processing variations but also differentiates between them. It can be
customized to fit specific requirements; a few suggestions for doing so are
presented later. No attempt has been made to list all the measures available
for reducing variations in density inasmuch as the procedures required for
adequate process control depend on the conditions in the laboratory and
production specifications.
EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
Most of the equipment and the material needed to set up a meaningful
program of process control is readily available to industrial radiographers. The
key items are:
Electronic Direct-Reading Densitometer
Accurate, precise densitometers capable of measuring diffuse density are
available from dealers in photographic supplies.
Calibrated Film Strip
The strip is used to check the precision of the densitometer. If one is not
available, a control strip on which previous readings have been recorded will
suffice.
Stepped Wedge
The wedge should be made of steel or the material most often tested. One
step should be thick enough to permit the passage of radiation sufficient to
produce a density of 0.6 to 1.0, another step should be thin enough to permit
passage of twice as much radiation to produce a density of 2.0 or higher.
Although not essential, it is helpful if the difference in the density produced
by adjacent steps is uniform.
Film
A box of industrial x-ray film of the type most frequently used in the normal
production operation should be reserved for the control program. Before all
the film in this box has been used, a new box should be reserved for the
same purpose and the necessary data on the response of the new film should
be obtained.
Refrigerator
After exposure, control strips must be stored at 40°F (4.5°C) or lower. When
the stock of control film exceeds a six-week supply, the unexposed film
Anupama Sheet 2 of 8
should be stored in a refrigerator and no more than a one-week supply should
be removed at any one time. When the temperature and the humidity are
high (more than 75°F or 24°C and 50 percent relative humidity), unexposed
film should be refrigerated regardless of the size of the stock.
Cassette
One cassette or film holder for each exposing unit in the operation should be
reserved for exclusive use in exposing control film in that unit.
Intensifying Screens
If lead intensifying screens are used in the normal production operation, one
set should be reserved for exclusive use in exposing control film.
Electronic Thermometer with Submersible Stainless Steel Probe
This is an essential item if two or more automatic processors are operated at
a common density aim that has close tolerances. It is also helpful in reducing
variations in density attributable to processing in an automatic processor.
GENERAL ASPECTS
The information that follows pertains to the central system as a whole.
Specific details of exposing, processing, use of data accumulated, and the like
are presented later.
Procedure
Establish a specific exposure technique for each x-ray unit in the control
system. A separate technique for each unit is essential because of variability
in units of the same design and variations among units of different designs.
Each time control film is exposed in a unit, the technique established for that
particular unit must be followed exactly.
Routinely check the accuracy and the precision of the densitometer using the
calibrated film strip or a control strip on which previous readings has been
recorded.
Maintain a separate process control chart for each exposing unit in the control
system.
Maintain a separate process control chart for each processor in the control
system unless two or more processors are kept operating at a common level.
Expose control film each day in a designated unit. The exposed film is cut into
enough strips to provide a minimum of two strips for each processor in the
operation. More than the minimum number of strips are cut if possible.
Identify each strip.
Place half of the strips in an airtight, lighttight container; put the container in
a moistureproof bag (a bag made of polyethylene, for example); and place
the package in the refrigerator to minimize fading of the latent image. The
strips are kept in the refrigerator for processing with freshly exposed strips
the following day. (A freshly exposed control strip is always processed with a
refrigerated control strip exposed in the same unit the previous day.)
Tape the control strips to a leader if they are to be processed in an
automated processor. This will provide better transport. If they are to receive
rack-and-tank processing, it may be necessary to make a special strip hanger
or to adapt a standard film hanger in order to hold the strips securely. The
control strips should always be processed with the high-density end down.
Maintain an accurate, up-to-date log containing all information that could
affect process control. The following should be included in the log:
1. Maintenance data and changes resulting from readjustment of an exposing unit, including
the supply of electrical current to the unit and any significant changes in line voltage.
2. Maintenance data and changes resulting from readjustment of a processor.
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3. Age of the developer replenisher.
4. Replenishment rate of the developer.
5. Age of the developer.
6. Temperature of the developer at the time control strips are being processed.
7. Comments on fixer and wash and their replenishment rates. (Although the condition of the
fixer and the wash does not noticeably affect the variability of film densities, the condition
of each does have an effect on the physical quality of processed film.)
Process Control Charts
Two steps on the control strip are selected for measurement. One step should
have a density of 0.6 to 1.0; the other, 2.0 or higher. A specific area of the
step is selected for measurement, and that same area on each of the two
steps is measured to obtain a high-density value and a low-density value.
From the first day on, four values are obtained--the value of the high-density
step and the value of the low density step on the fresh control strip and the
values of the corresponding steps an the control strip exposed the preceding
day--always in the same area on each step.
The upper and the lower control limits for the process density aim can be
assigned arbitrarily on the basis of acceptable tolerances in the process
operation (2.0 ± 0.2, for example). Sometimes it is desirable to calculate
more precise control limits, however, and a statistical method, such as the
standard deviation of density values with three sigma control limits, can be
used to determine the limits. If the standard deviation with three sigma
control limits is used, 95 percent of all data collected should be within the
limits. (The method of calculating the standard deviation with three sigma
control limits, which is given in most books on statistical quality control, has
been described in relatively simple terms by Mason -- Mason, R. D.: Statistical
Techniques in Business and Economics. Monograph in Irwin Series in
Quantitative Analysis for Business. Published by Richard D. Irwin, Inc.,
Homewood, Illinois, 1970, pp. 116-123, 314-329.)
When a new box of control film is introduced into the operation, control
exposures are made on both the old and the new stock for four days and a
temporary process density aim is computed on the basis of the average
densities obtained during the four-day period. After 10 days, the process
density aim, or the mean density, is recomputed on the 10-day average.
The process density aim is reestablished whenever changes are made within
the operation. Such changes as the introduction of a new control film and
alterations to the exposing unit, for example, make it necessary to reestablish
the aim.
Control limits for variables of the exposing unit and the film processing are
wider than if either were monitored individually.
The densitometric data obtained from the control strips can be utilized in
several ways. The table below shows densitometric readings for a 10-day
period. Some of the data in the table are plotted on one process control chart
(see the second table below) to show variations in exposure and processing;
some are plotted on another process control chart (see the third table below)
to indicate changes in contrast.
Densitometric data for process control in industrial radiography
accumulated in accordance with the procedure described in the text.
In each of the two pairs of figures shown for each day except the
first and the weekend, the top figure is the reading determined from
the control strip exposed one or three days before--the latent-image
control strip. The bottom figure is the reading determined from the
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control strip exposed and processed that day--the fresh-image
control strip. In this example, the density difference is the difference
between the high-density reading and the low-density reading of the
fresh control strip. Latent-image control strips serve equally well for
determining density difference.
Densitometric Data for Industrial X-ray Process Control
Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat. Sun. Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri.
High-density 1.95 2.12
reading
1.90 1.85
2.15 2.00
1.70 1.80
1.95 -- -- 1.85
2.05 2.00
1.95 1.80
1.90 1.95
2.05 1.95
2.00
Low-density 0.82 0.91
reading
0.71 0.74
1.03 0.90
0.61 0.64
0.80 -- -- 0.80
1.01 0.97
0.92 0.72
0.80 0.88
0.95 0.75
0.80
Density 1.13 1.19 1.12 1.09 1.15 -- -- 1.04 1.03 1.10 1.10 1.20
difference
Control chart below for one exposing unit and one processor showing
variations in exposure and processing. The control limits are wider
than if either exposure or processing were monitored individually.
Plot all the high-density readings, but connect only the readings
from control strips exposed at the same time. The connecting lines
represent the day-to-day repeatability of film processing; the
difference between point plots on a given day represents the
repeatability of exposure.
Anupama Sheet 5 of 8
Process Control Chart--Exposure and Processing Variations
Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat. Sun. Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri.
Upper 2.15
control
limit
Process 1.95
density
aim
Lower 1.75
control
limit
Process Control Technique
Certain measures can be taken to reduce radiographic process variability, but
they depend largely on the conditions and the requirements of the individual
user. This is particularly true with respect to variations introduced by the
exposing unit. Obvious causes of exposure variability, such as fluctuations or
changes in line voltage, must first be eliminated, of course. The following may
be of help in reducing variations in density attributable to processing of the
film in an automated processor.
Use the electronic thermometer with the submersible stainless steel probe to
set the temperature of the developer. Use it to check for fluctuations in
developer temperature; the thermostat for the developer may allow the
temperature to vary by 2°F. Procedures and thermostats that will hold the
temperature of the developer to ±1/5°F are available.
Use a graduate frequently to check and to maintain the developer replenisher
rate at that recommended for the average film density in the process.
Keep processing of completely exposed film or completely unexposed film to
a minimum. Developer that is overreplenished generally causes an increase
in film densities; developer that is underreplenished generally causes a
decrease in film densities. When the stage of underreplenishment reaches a
certain point, the rate at which film densities decrease may become quite
rapid.
Never permit the developer replenisher to age beyond its recommended
storage life. If the developer replenisher exceeds its storage life, the storage
tank should be emptied and rinsed and a fresh solution should be prepared.
Do not mix fresh developer replenisher with a solution that is near the limit of
its recommended storage life.
Do not replenish with developer replenisher that is past its recommended
storage life. Do not replenish with oxidized developer replenisher. The results
of these practices can be losses in density, a shift in contrast, or both.
Use fresh solutions at the time a process control system is initiated to reduce
the possibility of establishing a process density aim base on a process that is
abnormal.
When the processed control strips indicate an out-of-control condition, check
for an obvious error, such as the temperature of the developer (if a film
processing error is indicated), or the technique used to set up the exposing
unit (if an exposure error is indicated), or poor densitometry. If an abnormal
process is indicated, process another set of control strips. (It is for this
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purpose that more than the minimum of two strips for each processor is
advisable.)
When an out-of-control condition does exist that is the result of a film
processing variation and not an obvious testing error, the process should be
restarted with fresh solutions. Adding chemicals to the developer is frequently
unsuccessful, is more time consuming, and is more expensive in the end than
restarting the process. Contamination of the developer (1 mL of fixer in a
gallon of developer can be detected in film densities) and
underreplenishment of the developer are examples of conditions that indicate
the process should be restarted with fresh solutions.
TECHNIQUE
Exposure of Control Film
Load the cassette with a sheet of control film. (If the control film has been
refrigerated, be sure to allow enough time for the film to reach room
temperature before handling.) If lead intensifying screens are used in the
normal production operation, use the set reserved for process control.
Carefully set up the x-ray exposure unit for the exposure technique. The
cassette and the stepped wedge must be positioned identically each time
control film is exposed.
Cut the exposed film into a minimum of twice the number of processors in the
control system. If possible, cut more than the minimum, but do not make
duplicate exposures and assume they are identical. Each exposure of control
film must be considered a complete control.
Identify the strips as to date and exposing unit.
Place half or the exposed control strips in an airtight, lighttight, and
moistureproof wrapper and store them in the refrigerator. Remove the
moistureproof package of control strips exposed in the same unit the previous
day. When these latent-image control strips are at room temperature, they
can be handled and processed.
Processing of Control Strips
Process the freshly exposed control strips and the strips exposed in the same
unit the previous day in the corresponding processor (or processors).
If the strips are less than 2 1/2 inches wide, tape them to a leader. If a leader is
not used, process a cleanup sheet before processing the control strips.
Always process a fresh control strip exposed in a designated unit with a
control strip exposed in that same unit the previous day.
Record in the log the temperature of the developer at the time the strips are
in the processor. Record in the log any other information pertinent to process
control.
Densitometry
Check the accuracy and the precision of the densitometer each time before it
is used to obtain the numerical density values from the control strips.
Determine the density value of each of the two steps selected for measuring
density on the freshly exposed and processed control strip and the density of
the two corresponding steps on the latent-image control strip. (Once these
steps have been selected, the density of the same area on each of the steps
is used every time control strips are measured.)
Record the densitometric readings and plot them on the process control
charts.
Anupama Sheet 7 of 8
DISCUSSION
Densitometric data and process control charts for one exposing unit and one
processor are presented as the three tables here. The process density aim
(the mean density) and the upper and lower control limits on the charts (the
table immediately above and the one below) were computed from the
densitometric data for the 10-day period shown in the first table above. As
stated earlier, the control limits on both charts are wider than would be the
case if either the exposing unit or the processor were monitored individually.
Although two control charts are illustrated, they can be combined into one for
convenience.
Exposure and Processing Variations
Variations in both exposure and processing are reflected on the process
control chart reproduced as the table above. All the high-density readings are
plotted, but only the readings from control strips exposed at the same time
are connected. The lines represent the day-to-day repeatability of film
processing, the difference between the point plots on a given day represents
the repeatability of exposure.
Control chart for one exposing unit and one processor indicating
changes in contrast. Plot the difference between the high-density
reading and the low-density reading of the fresh-image control
strips, and connect the plots. A decrease in density difference from
the process density aim, or the mean density, indicates lower
contrast; an increase indicates higher density.
Process Control Chart--Changes in Film Contrast
Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat. Sun. Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri.
Upper 1.30
control
limit
Process 1.10
density
aim
Lower 0.90
control
limit
There will be a slight density loss of the latent image on the control strips
processed one to three days after exposure even though they are
refrigerated. However, this small difference in density is no cause for concern
with the type of control chart shown as the middle table above. If the density
of the refrigerated control strip is always slightly lower (0.03 to 0.04) than
that of its corresponding fresh control strip, the process is repeating
identically.
Contrast Variations
Variations in film contrast are reflected on the control chart reproduced as the
table immediately above. The difference between the high-density reading
and the low-density reading of the fresh-image control strips is plotted on this
chart. (Latent-image control strips serve equally well for determining density
difference.) A decrease in density difference from the mean density, or the
Anupama Sheet 8 of 8
process density aim, indicates lower contrast, an increase in density
difference indicates higher contrast.
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