FACULTY OF BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND GOVERNANCE
COMMUNICATION 1 (CMU150S)
SUMMARY OF MODULE 1: COMMUNICATION THEORY
ADDITIONAL NOTES
APRIL 2025
NB. These class notes should be revised together with Chapter 2 & Chapter 3 in the
prescribed textbook/s (can be accessed on the CPUT online library database) and
the PowerPoint class slides that have been uploaded on Blackboard.
SECTION A
Definition: communication is the process of creating meaning between two or more
people through the expression and interpretation of messages
After this chapter you should be able to:
• describe the communication process diagrammatically
• identify possible communication barriers
• identify the purpose of communication in various contexts
• understand how verbal symbols are used to communicate meaning
• explain the relationship between verbal and non-verbal language
• understand how non-verbal language transmits meaning
• explain the functions of non-verbal codes
Communication comes to us in a very natural way. Because it comes to us so
naturally, we are not always aware of how complex the process is. This module will
cover the following topics:
• a model of interpersonal communication
• elements of the communication process
• communication barriers
• communication purposes
• communication contexts
• verbal communication
• non-verbal communication
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A MODEL OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Message Barriers
Sender (encoder) encoding Receiver(decoder)
Medium- telephone,
e-mail, face-to-face
Channel
code
Feedback Barriers encoding
1.2. ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Sender
Who is the sender?
• initiates/starts communication
• Encodes the message
Encoding
What is encoding?
• Encoding is the formulation of a code in order to communicate successfully.
• There are two types of codes- Verbal and non-verbal
• Verbal includes written and spoken language
• Non-verbal includes gestures, facial expressions, body language
Remember that in the communication process, verbal and non-verbal language
complement each other.
Code
A code is a set of symbols that is combined to form meaning. For example words are
combined with other words to form meaning. Can be verbal or non-verbal
Message
The message is the encoded idea that the sender wishes to convey
Medium
The medium is what you use to communicate. Examples of medium would be:
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• telephone
• e-mail
• meetings
• faxes
• NOTICES
• memos
• interviews
• conversations
LANGUAGE
Written Media Spoken Media
Letter Lecture
e-mail Telephone
Newspaper Radio
Fax conversation
Road sign Meeting
Notice TV
Remember that the medium you choose in order to communicate will depend on the
context (situation).
Audience
The audience or the receiver is the person to whom the message is sent. Because of our
different backgrounds, the way we decode (interpret) the message will be different.
Decoding
Refers to the process of receiving, interpreting and understanding the encoded
message.
Feedback
Feedback is the response to the message by the receiver. This response is essential as
it ensures that communication remains a two way process.
Communication Situation (context)
Situation (context) refers to:
• time
• place
• circumstance
Remember that the situation will determine how the message is sent and received.
COMMUNICATION EFFECTIVENESS
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Communication is effective when the receiver understands the intention of the
message sent by the sender.
Remember that the more overlap there is between the meaning of the sender and
the meaning of the receiver, the more effective communication will be.
Communication Efficiency
This refers to the cost in terms of time and money involved in sending the message.
Some media are cheaper and quicker to use than others. You need to show discretion
when choosing the appropriate media in order to communicate.
Communication Purpose
• to inform
• to persuade
• to create goodwill
Communication Contexts/situations/types of communication
• Extrapersonal communication – communicating with a non-human object e.g.
plant, pet, computer screen, etc.
• Intrapersonal communication- e.g. Talking to yourself or thinking
• Interpersonal communication- occurs between individuals.
• Small-group communication- communication that takes place among people
who work together with a common goal can be 3-12 or 4-12 people. Either formal
or informal.
• Social media communication – includes communication that takes place on
internet forums such as Twitter, Facebook, social blogs, etc.
• Public communication- refers to public speaking and occurs in public places.
Usually one way communication
• Mass communication- communication directed to a mass audience/One
way/feedback limited
• Organisational communication – refers to when individuals in an organisation
communicate with one another, as well as with the organisation’s external
stakeholders.
• Organisational communication
Four channels or directions of communication:
• Upward vertical: when worker communicates to a manager e.g. asking a question
• Downward vertical: When a manager communicates to a worker e.g. sending
an email giving an instruction
• Lateral/horizontal (sideways)- when a worker communicates with a fellow
worker who is on the same level
• Informal- GENERAL CONVERSATIONS (informal) & grapevine
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• Intercultural communication
The term culture can be defined as the lifestyle of a group which includes the
values, beliefs and ways of behaving. Intercultural communication refers to
communication between people who belong to different cultures.
Remember: Inter- means between.
• Intracultual communication
Refers to when individuals with the same cultural background i.e. values, beliefs,
traditions, practices communicate with each other.
Remember: Intra- means within
SECTION B
COMMUNICATION BARRIERS
Communication barriers can be seen as something that hinders or breaks down the
communication process.
There are five categories of barriers:
• Frame of reference barriers
• Perceptual Barriers
• Noise Barriers
• Medium barriers
• Feedback barriers
1. FRAME OF REFERENCE BARRIERS
Each person’s mind is shaped by their upbringing and social context. Frame of reference
includes:
• Culture
• Education
• Values
• Beliefs
• Physical attributes
• Age and gender
• Status
• IQ
• Religion
• Family
Remember an individual’s frame of reference is not static, IT CHANGES WITH
EXPERIENCE.
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Aspects of frame of reference develop through interpersonal communication
(interaction with others).
2. PERCEPTUAL BARRIERS
What is perception?
Perception is the way we make sense of the things/ the world around us. It is a way
of interpreting information provided by the world around us.
It is important to note that different people have different perceptions. In other words no
two people will interpret the communication transaction in the same way.
PERCEPTION IS DETERMINED BY FRAME OF REFERENCE.
2.1. Past experience
Perception is learnt through experience. No two people have had the same experiences
therefore no two people will have the same perception.
e.g. Someone might have had a negative experience with smoking and therefore they
would develop an aversion to smoking.
2.2. Selection
You often select something that you are familiar with.
e.g. If you are familiar with music, you will identify and notice information relating to
music.
2.3. Needs
We are all influenced by our PHYSICAL and PSYCHOLOGICAL needs. Maslow put
forward the theory that people are motivated by universal needs. The diagram below
represents Maslow’s Theory and the hierarchy of needs. Maslow’s theory states that
people are only able to reach their full potential (self actualisation when all their other
needs have been fulfilled.)
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1. Physiological Needs - Food, water, air, sleep
2. Safety Needs - Security, stability, protection, structure, order and
law
3. Social Needs - Friendship, affectional relationships, interpersonal
acceptance
4. Self-esteem Needs - High self-evaluation, self respect, self esteem,
esteem of others
5. Self-actualisation Needs - Reaching one’s potential
2.4. Education and environment
Education and IQ play a major role in moulding people’s perceptions. Environment also
determines how people perceive. For example an ANC member and DA member might
look at the same situation from completely different angles.
2.5. Language
Perception involves understanding shared language, or ‘seeing’ what the other person’s
words mean. Our frame of reference will determine how we perceive language. Different
people of different age groups might understand words differently.
3. Noise Barriers
Noise hinders the communication barrier. It can be seen as a disruption which negatively
affects communication. Remember there is a difference between physical noise (a
squeak, a shout, banging) and psychological noise (inside the mind).
Physical noise barriers
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• External factors that negatively impacts the communication process. e.g. loud
music, phone ringing, dog barking.
Psychological noise barriers
• Factors that create a mental or emotional disturbance during the communication
process e.g. feeling anxious, stressed, etc.
Semantic noise barriers
• The barrier occurs when the sender and receiver may have a different
understanding of words.
• Ambiguity- e.g. book has different meanings
• Punctuation errors
• Misspelling of words
• Grammatical errors
• Use of jargon
• Pronunciation
• Accent
Intrapersonal barriers
• Internal barrier of an individual which creates boundaries regarding what a
person considers acceptable.
• These barriers are influenced by:
o Faulty assumptions (e.g. assuming someone is rude when they do not
reply but they may be shy).
o Differences in perception (e.g. individuals perceiving the same
situation/ experience differently.)
o Stereotypes – involves forming incorrect ideas/ thoughts about others
based on generalisations.
o Mindset – refers to a pre-determined mental attitude to a situation i.e. an
open mindset often leads to being open to a suggestion/ proposal vs a
closed mindset often leads to being less willing to consider different ways
of thinking.
o Frame of reference – linked to mindset and how an individual’s
experiences, etc influences one’s worldview.
o Conflicting backgrounds – differences in religious, social, economic,
educational, language, etc backgrounds could lead to conflict.
o Incorrect references – Refers to reading things into a situation that may
not be based on truth.
Interpersonal barriers
Refers to the barriers that occur when communicating with others.
• Limited vocabulary – could create a negative impression for the receiver if the
individual is not able to express themselves adequately by using the correct
words.
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• A mismatch between verbal and non-verbal communication – this refers to
when there is a contradiction between the verbal message and the non-verbal
message. The receiver may perceive the sender to be untrustworthy or not
authentic when the non-verbal message does not match the verbal message.
• Excessive emotion extreme emotions such as anger, jealousy, etc. could have
a negative impact on the communication process.
• Communication selectivity – Refers to when individuals focus on what interests
them during communication with others. They may not give their full attention.
E.g. this can be a barrier when the receiver is not able to give feedback.
• Cultural differences – barriers may occur when individuals from different
cultural backgrounds communicate with each due to different beliefs, values,
perceptions, practices, etc. It is important for individuals to understand these
differences to prevent a communication breakdown.
Choice of Medium barriers
There are various ways of transmitting messages. Examples: writing, speaking to
someone, telephone, fax. Choosing the correct medium for the appropriate context is
fundamental.
Feedback barriers
If the sender sends a message that is inadequately encoded, the receiver will give
inappropriate feedback. This will result in a breakdown in communication.
Frame of reference barriers- refer to slides
Perceptual barriers – refer to slides
Organisational barriers – refer to slides (these include flow of information, information
overload, lack of knowledge of a subject, stressful working environments, unrealistic
deadlines).
Message Flows
As mentioned, the communicator may use a written message, a face- to- face
conversation or the telephone. The quality of feedback varies for each choice.
Written Messages allow for one way communication with little or no immediate feedback.
Spoken, face- to- face conversations allow for two way communication. Feedback,
including direct questions, comments and the reading of body language is possible.
Meanings and feelings may be assessed.
Telephone messages allow for two way communication and for immediate feedback.
Non-verbal language cannot be perceived.
SECTION C
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1. VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Definition: Communication using words
Verbal communication includes spoken words (interviews, meetings, conversations,
TV, Radio broadcasts) and written words (Letters, books, posters, class notes)
What is language?
Language is made up of words which, when put together in sentences, form meaning.
Words do not resemble reality in any way. For example the word “cloud” does not
resemble a cloud. Rather the non-verbal item often does. Cloud can be represented
non-verbally as follows:
2. NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Definition: When you communicate without using words.
Examples:
• Gestures
• Facial Expressions
• Touch
• Clothing
• Body language
• Pictures
• Signs
• Colour
2.1. Functions of non-verbal communication
• Expressing meaning
• Modifying verbal messages
a. Complementing- non verbal language complements the verbal message.
Example
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Verbal : “My head is sore.”
Non-verbal: Speaker puts hand on head
b. Accenting- When non-verbal message enforces the verbal message.
Example
Verbal : No! You can’t.
Non-verbal : Speaker bangs fist on table.
c. Repeating- When non-verbal message is used to repeat verbal message
Example
Verbal : Speaker One: Can I borrow R100?
Speaker Two: Of Course!
Speaker One: Really?
Non-verbal
Speaker Two: Nods their head.
d. Substituting- When a non-verbal response substitutes a verbal response.
Example
Verbal
Speaker one: “Where is my chair?”
Non-verbal
Speaker Two points to chair
e. Contradicting- When the verbal message and the non-verbal message contradicts
each other.
Example
Verbal
Speaker One: “ Look at that”
Speaker Two: “I am looking”
Non-verbal
Speaker two is looking in the opposite direction.
• Regulating the flow of interaction
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In conversation non-verbal messages indicate when a speaker wants to speak or when
he/she is finished speaking. A pause is normally a non-verbal cue that the speaker is
finished speaking.
Remember non-verbal communication and verbal communication go hand- in-hand.
They do not operate in isolation. Non-verbal symbols occur in a cluster. For example, the
tone of voice, the facial expression and body posture must be regarded as a whole, as a
cluster.
2.2. The non-verbal codes
Non-verbal codes will be discussed separately but remember they could occur in a
cluster.
2.2.1. Proxemics
Refers to the use of space to communicate. For example, a fence can be used to
indicate where a campus begins. Also where you place your belongings indicates what
space you consider to be yours.
Personal space (imaginary bubble of space around an individual) is an important non-
verbal consideration in communicating. If a personal space is violated, a barrier could
occur. In Western culture, four zones of personal space are recognised.
• Intimate Zone- This zone is acceptable only in very personal and intimate
relationships and interactions.
• Personal Zone- This zone is observed for interactions with acquaintances and
friends.
• Social Zone- Business and professional transactions should be conducted in this
zone.
• Public Zone- This zone would be appropriate for speeches, lectures or public
ceremonies.
2.2.2. Physical Appearance
Always note that the way a particular person dresses, communicates a particular
message.
Example:
Look carefully at the picture/s below:
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* What does the person’s clothing tell us about him/her?
It is important to note that the physical appearance of a communicator’s body (Height,
skin and hair colour) has very little communication value. It is clothing and personal
adornment that communicates status, group affiliation and personality.
2.2.3. Gaze
Eyesight is one of the most important ways of obtaining information for the brain to
process or interpret. Always remember that your eyes also communicate things about
you. Eye contact is an important sign of your openness to communicate. For example,
maintaining eye contact shows attentiveness.
2.2.4. Facial expressions
Facial expressions could be considered the most important non-verbal code. Six
emotions can be conveyed through facial expressions:
• Happiness
• Sadness
• Fear
• Surprise
• Anger
• Disgust
2.2.5. Kinesics
Kinesics is the study of body movements such as gestures, posture, head, torso and
limb movements.
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e.g. Hand gestures
FOOD FOR THOUGHT!
How can kinesics be used to communicate?
Think about how you use hand gestures to communicate with others e.g. thumbs up or
shaking your head. Is the meaning the same for everyone?
Can you think of more examples?
2.2.6 Voice
The following vocal qualities/features are important:
Volume relates to the loudness of the voice
Pitch The highness or lowness of a voice. By properly varying the
pitch of the voice, the speaker can emphasize or colour the words
in the script
Inflection The rising and falling in the pitch of the voice.
Pace The rate of movement or overall speed of a speech.
Resonance The prolonging of a sound through vibration. In the speech
process, the resonance is amplified by the chest, throat, and
nose.
Classification of non-verbal behaviour
Warmth Hostility Domination Submissiveness
Non-Verbal Cue Non-Verbal Cue Non-Verbal Cue Non-Verbal Cue
Sympathetic Aggressive posture Speaking loudly and Speaking quietly
Gesture at fast pace
Proximity Harsh tone of voice Ignoring responses Saying little
Relaxed Tone Staring eyes Interrupting Allowing
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interruptions
Smiles Distance Controlling tone of Meek tone of voice
voice
Forceful gestures Downcast eyes
Nervous gestures
Becoming aware of the non-verbal codes mentioned above, will make you a more
effective communicator.
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