Department of Electronic s & Instrumentation, SJCE, JSSSTU Mysore

Chapter 4
Gyroscopic Flight Instruments
Gyroscope
In addition to the airspeed indicator, the altimeter and the vertical speed indicator, a
basic group of flight instruments also comprises instruments which provide direct
indication of an aircraft’ altitude.
There are three such instruments, namely a gyro horizon(artificial horizon), a
direction indicator, and a turn and bank indicator. The complete group of instruments
what is termed the basic six arrangement.
The three such additional instruments utilize a gyroscopic type of sensing element.

The Gyroscope and its properties

As a mechanical device a gyroscope may be defined as a system containing a heavy
metal wheel or rotor, universally mounted so that it has three degrees of freedom:
Spinning freedom, about an axis perpendicular through its center (axis of spin XX1)
Tilting freedom about a horizontal axis right angles to the spin axis perpendicular to
both the other axes (axis of veer ZZ1)

Degrees of freedom
The three degrees of freedom are obtained by mounting the rotor in two
concentrically pivoted rings, called inner and outer rings. The whole assembly is
known as the gimbal system of a free or space gyroscope..
In its normal operating position all the axis are mutually at right angles to one another
and intersect at the center of gravity of the rotor.

Dr. Mallikarjunaswamy M S, Associate Professor 1

Department of Electronic s & Instrumentation, SJCE, JSSSTU Mysore

Gyroscopic properties
The system will not exhibit gyroscopic properties unless the rotor is spinning. When
the rotor is made to spin at high speed the device becomes a true gyroscope
possessing two important fundamental properties: gyroscopic inertia or rigidity and
precession.
Both these properties depend on the principle of conservation of angular momentum,
which means that the angular momentum of a body about a given point remains
constant unless some force is applied to change it.
Angular momentum is the product of the moment of inertia (I) and the angular
velocity (w) of a body referred to a given point- the center of gravity in the case of
gyroscope.
If a weight is suspended from the inner gimbal ring with the rotor spinning it will be
found that the ring will support the weight thus demonstrating the first fundamental
property of rigidity. It will also be found, however that the complete gimbal system
will start rotating about the axis ZZ1, such rotation demonstrating the second property
of precession.

Gyroscopic Properties…
The two gyroscopic properties may be more closely defined as follows:
• Rigidity. The property, which resists any force tending to change the plane of rotor
rotation. It is dependent on three factors: (i) the mass of the rotor (ii) the speed of
rotation and (iii) the distance at which the mass acts from the center ie radius of
gyration.
• Precession: The angular change in direction of the plane of rotation under the
influence of an applied force. The change in direction takes place not in line with
the force, but always at a point 90º away in the direction of rotation.

Precession
The rate of precision also depends on three factors:
(i) the strength and direction of the applied force.
(ii) the moment of inertia of the rotor and
(iii) the angular velocity of the rotor.
The greater the force, the greater is the rate of precession, while the greater the
moment of inertia and the greater the angular velocity the smaller is the rate of
precession.
The axis about which a force is applied is termed the input axis and the one about
which precession takes place is termed the output axis.

Determining the direction of precession

The direction in which a gyroscope will precess under the influence of an applied
force may be determined by means of vectors and by solving certain gyro dynamic
problems.
but for illustration and practical demonstration purposes, there is an easy way of
determining the direction in which precession will take place, and also of finding out
where a force must be applied for a second required direction. It is done by
representing all forces as acting directly on the rotor itself.

Dr. Mallikarjunaswamy M S, Associate Professor 2

Department of Electronic s & Instrumentation, SJCE, JSSSTU Mysore

At (a) in fig the rotor is shown spinning in a clockwise direction and with a force F applied
upwards on the inner ring. In transmitting this force to the rim of the rotor it will be act in a
horizontal direction (as in fig (b). Let us assume for a moment that the rotor is broken into
segments and concern ourselves with two of them at opposite sides of the rim as shown at
(c).
Each segment as a motion M in the direction of rotor rotation, so that when force F is
applied there is a tendency for each segment to move in the direction of force. This motion

Dr. Mallikarjunaswamy M S, Associate Professor 3

Department of Electronic s & Instrumentation, SJCE, JSSSTU Mysore

is resisted by rigidity, but the segments will turn about the axis ZZ1 so that direction of
motion is along the resultant of motion M and force F. The solid mass of a rotor it will
precess at an angular velocity proportional to the applied force.

References established by gyroscopes

For use in aircraft, gyroscopes must establish two essential reference datum’s: one for the
detection of pitch and roll attitude changes and the other for the detection of changes about
the vertical axis i.e. a directional reference.
These datum’s are established by using vertical and horizontal spin axis gyroscopes
respectively. Both types utilize their fundamental properties in the following manner:
Rigidity provides a stabilized reference unaffected by movement of the supporting body.
Precession controls the effects of apparent and real drift thus maintaining stabilized
datum’s.

It will also be noted from Fig. that the pitch, roll, and directional attitudes of an aircraft are
determined by its displacement with respect to each appropriate gyroscope. For this reason,
therefore the gyroscopes are referred to as displacement type gyroscopes. Each one has
three degrees of freedom and consequently three mutual axes, but for the purpose of attitude
sensing, the spin axis is discounted since no useful attitude reference is provided when
displacements take place about the spin axis alone. Thus, in the practical case, the two types
of gyroscopes are further classified as two axis displacement gyroscopes.

Dr. Mallikarjunaswamy M S, Associate Professor 4

Department of Electronic s & Instrumentation, SJCE, JSSSTU Mysore

Limitations of a free gyroscope

In flight, the attitudes of an aircraft must be referenced with respect to the earth’s surface
and this being so requires that a free or space gyroscope, thus far considered, be corrected
for drift with respect to the earth’s rotation, called apparent drift, and for wander as a result
of carrying a gyroscope over the earth’s surface called transport wander.

Apparent drift

The earth rotates about its axis at the rate of 15º per hour and in association with gyro
dynamics, this is termed earth rate (we).
When a free gyroscope is positioned at any point on the earth’s surface, it will sense,
depending on the latitude at which it is positioned and on the orientation of its spin and
input axis, various components of we as angular input.
Thus, to an observer on the earth having no sense of the earth’s rotation, the gyroscope
would appear to veer or drift.

Drift
In fig which illustrates a horizontal axis gyroscope at a latitude. At ‘A’, the input axis is
aligned with the local N-S component of we, therefore to an observer at latitude.
The gimbals system would appear to drift clockwise (opposite to the earth’s rotation) in a
horizontal plane relative to the frame and at rate equal to 15º Cos.
When the input axis is aligned with that of the earth (‘B’), drift would also to apparent, but
at a rate equal to we ie 15º hour.
If the input axis is now aligned with the local vertical component of we the apparent drift
would be equal to 15º sin .

Consider diagram (b) of fig, which is a plan view of a free horizontal axis gyroscope,
positioned at the North Pole with its input axis (ZZ1) aligned with that of the earth.
After three hours the earth will have rotated through 45º and the gyroscope will appear to
have drifted through the same amount but in the opposite direction.
After six hours the earth’s rotation and apparent drift will be 90º and so on through a
complete 24-hour period.
If the same gyroscope were to be positioned so that its input axis ZZ1 was aligned with the
E-W component of We at any point, its spin axis would then be vertical: in other words it
becomes a vertical axis gyroscopes.
Since the plane of rotation is coincident with that of the earth, there will be no apparent
drift.

Real drift

Real drift results from imperfections in a gyroscope such as bearing friction and gimbals
system unbalance.
Such imperfections cause unwanted precession which can only be minimized by applying
precision engineering techniques to the design and construction.

Dr. Mallikarjunaswamy M S, Associate Professor 5

Department of Electronic s & Instrumentation, SJCE, JSSSTU Mysore

Transport wander
Consider a horizontal axis gyroscope, which is set up initially at the North Pole, with its input
axis aligned with that of the earth. In this position it will exhibit an apparent drift equal to we.
Assume now that it is carried to lower latitude and with its input axis aligned with the local
vertical component of we.
During the period of transport it will have appeared to an observer on the earth that the spin
axis has tilted in a vertical plane, until at the new latitude it appears to be in the position
shown at © of fig.
This apparent tilt or transport wander would also observed if during transport the input axis
were aligned with either a local N-S component or a local E-W component of we.

Control of drift and transport wander

Before a free gyroscope can be of practical use, drift and transport wander must be controlled
so that the plane of spin of the rotor is maintained relative to the earth. It requires conversion
to what is termed an earth gyroscope.
Drift as already pointed out, relates only to horizontal axis gyroscopes and it can be
controlled either by
(i) Calculating corrections using the earth rate formulae given in the preceding table and
applying them as appropriate example to the readings of a direction indicator.
(ii) Applying fixed torques, which unbalance the gyroscope and cause it to precess at a rate
equal and opposite to we,

(iii) Applying torques having a similar effect to that stated in (ii) but which can be varied
according to the latitude in which the gyroscope is being used.
The control of transport wander is normally achieved by using gravity sensing devices which
automatically detect tilting of the gyroscope’s spin axis and applying the appropriate
corrective torques.

We= earth’s angular velocity

λ = latitude
R = earth’s radius
V = N-S component of transport velocity
U=E-W component of transport velocity

Dr. Mallikarjunaswamy M S, Associate Professor 6

Department of Electronic s & Instrumentation, SJCE, JSSSTU Mysore

Displacement Gyroscope Limitations

Depending on the orientation of its gimbal system, a displacement gyroscope can be subject
to certain operating limitations. One is referred to as gimbal lock and other as gimbal error.
Gimbal lock: This occurs when the gimbal orientation is such that the spin axis becomes
coincident with one or other of the axes of freedom, which serve as attitude displacement
references.

Displacement Gyroscope Limitations

Let us consider for example the case of the spin axes of a vertical axis gyroscope. Becoming
coincident with the ZZ1 axis.
This means in effect that the gyroscope would lose its spin axis and since the plane of spin
would be at 90º to the ZZ1 axis but in the same plane as displacements in roll, then the
stable roll attitude reference would also be lost.
If in this locked condition of the gimbal system the gyroscope as a whole were to be turned
then the forces acting on the gimbal system would cause the system to precess or topple.

Dr. Mallikarjunaswamy M S, Associate Professor 7

Department of Electronic s & Instrumentation, SJCE, JSSSTU Mysore

Gimbal error

This is an error, which is also related to gimbal system orientation, and it occurs whenever
the gyroscope as a whole is displaced with its gimbal rings not mutually at right angles to
each other. The error is particularly relevant to horizontal axis gyroscopes when used in
direction indicating instruments.

Gyro horizon principle

A gyro horizon indicates the pitch and roll attitude of an aircraft relative to its vertical axis
and so for this purpose it employs a displacement gyroscope whose spin axis is vertical.
Indications of attitude are presented by the relative positions of two elements one
symbolizing the aircraft itself, the other in the form of a bar stabilized by the gyroscope and
symbolizing the natural horizon.
Supplementary indications of roll are presented by the position of a stabilized pointer and a
fixed roll angle scale.

Dr. Mallikarjunaswamy M S, Associate Professor 8

Department of Electronic s & Instrumentation, SJCE, JSSSTU Mysore

The gimbal system is arranged so that the inner ring forms the rotor casing and is pivoted
parallel to an aircraft,s lateral axis Y Y1; the outer ring is pivoted at the front and rear ends
of the instrument case, parallel to the longitudinal axis ZZ1. The element symbolizing the
aircraft may be either rigidly fixed to the case or it may be externally adjustable for setting a
particular pitch trim reference.
In operation the gimbal system is stabilized so that in level flight the three axes are mutually
at right angles. When there is a change in an aircraft’s attitude, it goes into a climb say the
instrument case and outer ring will move about the axis YY1 of the stabilized inner ring.
The horizon bar is pivoted at the side and to the inner ring thus forming a magnifying lever
system. The pin passes through a curved slot in the outer ring.

Dr. Mallikarjunaswamy M S, Associate Professor 9

Department of Electronic s & Instrumentation, SJCE, JSSSTU Mysore

In a climb attitude the bar pivot carries the rear end of the bar upwards so that it pivots
about the a stabilized actuating pin. The front end of the bar is therefore moved downwards
through a greater angle than that of the outer ring and since the movement is relative to the
symbolic aircraft element, the bar will indicate a climb attitude. Changes in the lateral
attitude of an aircraft ie rolling, displace the instrument case about the axis ZZ1, and the
whole stabilized gimbal system. Hence lateral attitude changes are indicated by movement
of the symbolic aircraft element relative to the horizon bar and also by relative movement
between the roll angle scale and pointer.
Freedom of gimbal system movement about the roll and pitch axes is 360º and 85º
respectively, the latter being restricted by means of a resilient stop. The reason for this
restriction is to prevent gimbal lock.

Pneumatic type of gyro horizon

A typical instrument of the vacuum type is shown in fig. The rotor is pivoted in ball
bearings within the inner ring casing which is in turn pivoted in outer ring bearings.
A vacuum supply connection is provided at the rear of the instrument case, together with a
filtered air inlet.
When the vacuum system is in operation, the air pressure within the instrument case
becomes lower than that of the surrounding air which is then able to pass through the
filtered inlet and to the spinning jets.
The air issuing from the jets impinges on the rotor buckets, thus imparting even driving
forces to spin the rotor at approximately 15,000 rev/min in an anticlockwise direction as
viewed from above.

Electric gyro horizon

This instrument is made up of the same basic elements as a pneumatic type, with the
exception that the gyroscope is an ac squirrel cage induction motor which operates from a
115V, 400Hz three phase supply source.
When power is applied a rotating magnetic field is set up in the stator. The field, in turn
inducing a current in the squirrel cage rotor. The effect of this current is to produce

Dr. Mallikarjunaswamy M S, Associate Professor 10

Department of Electronic s & Instrumentation, SJCE, JSSSTU Mysore

magnetic fields which interact with the stator’s rotating field causing the rotor to turn at a
speed of approximately 20000-23000 rev/min. A solenoid operated power off warning flag
is also provided.

Erection systems for gyro horizons

These systems are designed for the purpose of erecting the gyroscope to, and maintaining it
in, its vertical spin-axis position during operation. The systems adopted depend on the
particular design of gyro horizon, but they are all of the gravity-sensing type and in general
fall into two main categories: mechanical and electrical.

Pendulous vane unit

This is a mechanical system adopted for the gyro horizon described. It is fastened to the
underside of the rotor housing and as indicated in Fig. 4.13(a) it consists of four knife-
edged, pendulously-suspended vanes clamped in pairs on two intersecting shafts and
passing through the unit body. One shaft is parallel to the axis YY1 and the other to the axis
ZZ1. In the sides of the body there are four elongated ports (A, B, C and D), one under each
vane.

Ball-type erection unit

This mechanical system is applied to some designs of electric gyro horizon; it utilizes the
precessional forces resulting from gravity on a number of steel balls displaced within a
rotating holder suspended from the gyroscope housing as shown in Fig. 4.14. The balls are
free to roll across a radi used erecting disc and into and out of a number of specially

Dr. Mallikarjunaswamy M S, Associate Professor 11

Department of Electronic s & Instrumentation, SJCE, JSSSTU Mysore

profiled hooks in a plate fixed around the inner edge of the holder. The [Link] of the
hooks is chosen so as to regulate the release of the balls when the gyroscope tilts, and to
shift their mass to the proper point on the erecting disc to apply the force required for
precession. Rotation of the holder takes place through reduction gearing from the
gyroscope's rotor shaft; the speed of the holder is approximately 25 rev/min.

Torque motor and levelling switch system

This system is used in a number of electrically-operated gyro horizons and the remote
vertical gyroscope units associated with flight director systems. It consists of two torque
control motors operated independently by liquid levelling switches, which are mounted, one
parallel to the lateral axis, and the other parallel to the longitudinal axis. The disposition of
motors and switches is illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 4.15.

Dr. Mallikarjunaswamy M S, Associate Professor 12

Department of Electronic s & Instrumentation, SJCE, JSSSTU Mysore

The laterally-mounted switch detects roll displacement and is connected to its torque motor
so that a corrective force is applied around the pitch axis. Pitch displacements are detected
by the longitudinally-mounted switch, which is connected to its torque motor so that
corrective forces are applied around the roll axis. Each switch is in the form of a sealed
glass tube containing three electrodes and a small quantity of either mercury or an
electrolytic solution.

Dr. Mallikarjunaswamy M S, Associate Professor 13

Department of Electronic s & Instrumentation, SJCE, JSSSTU Mysore

Each torque motor consists of a stator and a squirrel-cage rotor. The roll torque motor has
its stator fixed to the outer ring of the gyroscope, and its rotor fixed to the inner ring. The
stator of the pitch motor is fixed to the instrument frame, and its rotor fixed to the outer
ring. The electrical interconnection of the components that comprise each system is
indicated in Fig. 4.16(a). In the case of mercury levelling switches, the mercury will lie at
the centre of the tubes and, being in contact with the centre electrode, will supply a voltage
to the reference windings of their respective torque motors, only when the gyro is running
and in its normal operating position. The two outer electrodes are connected one to each
section (designated 'A' and 'B') of their respective torque motor control windings; thus, in
the normal operating position of the gyro the control winding circuit is open. When the gyro
is displaced about one of its axes, the appropriate levelling switch will also be displaced so
that the mercury bridges the gap between the centre electrode and one or other outer
electrode.
This completes a circuit to either the 'A' or 'B' section of the respective torque motor control
winding, depending on the direction of gyro displacement. In order for the torque motor to
apply the necessary corrective torque to the gimbal system, the magnetic field of the motor
stator must be made to rotate. As will be noted from Fig. 4.16, the voltage to the reference
winding is applied via a capacitor, and so, as in any ac circuit containing capacitance, the
phase of the current is shifted so as to lead the voltage by 90°. The control winding circuit
has no capacitance, and so the voltage and current flowing through it are in phase; therefore,
and because the control and reference windings are both supplied from the same power
source, reference winding current must also lead control winding current by 90°. This out-
of-phase arrangement (called phase quadrature} applies also to the magnetic field set up by
each winding.

Thus, with current and a magnetic field flowing through the appropriate half of the control
winding resulting from a displacement of the gyro, a resultant field is produced which
rotates within the torque motor stator in either a clockwise or anti-clockwise direction.
As the field rotates, it cuts the conductors of the rotor and induces a current in them; this in
turn produces a magnetic field that interacts with the stator field and creates a tendency for
the rotor to rotate with the stator field. This tendency is opposed because of the rigidity of

Dr. Mallikarjunaswamy M S, Associate Professor 14

Department of Electronic s & Instrumentation, SJCE, JSSSTU Mysore

the gyro, and consequently a reactive torque is set up in the torque motor and is exerted on
the associated gimbal ring to precess the gyro and levelling switch to their normal operating
position.
In the case of levelling systems utilizing electrolytic solution-type switches, the supply of
current to the control winding sections of a torque motor is controlled in a different manner
to that of mercury levelling switch systems. The reason for this is, as will be noted from
Fig. 4. l6(b), that the electrodes are always immersed in the electrolytic solution, and the
circuits to the control winding of a torque motor are always closed. In the normal stabilized
vertical position of the gyro, the switch electrodes are in equal amounts of electrolyte and so
the currents flowing in each section of a torque motor control winding are equally opposed.
Since the electromagnetic effects on the rotors are also equally opposed then no torques will
be applied to the gimbal system.
When a switch is displaced it causes a change in the amount of surface area of electrolyte in
contact with the electrodes and, in turn, an imbalance in the electrical resistance of the
control winding circuit. This may be noted from diagram (c): at the 'low end' electrode there
is a greater amount of electrolyte and, in accordance with basic electrical principles, this
means low resistance and so more current wili flow in that half of the control winding
connected to that electrode. A corresponding rotating field is therefore produced to set up a
reactive torque in the torque motor for precessing the gyro and levelling switch to the
normal stabilized position and in the same manner as that described earlier.

Gimbal errors
A definition of gimbal error has already been given. In the case of a direction indicator,
errors are dependent upon: (i) the angle of climb, descent, or roll; (ii) the angle between the
rotor axis and longitudinal axis of an aircraft. Fig, 4.21 illustrates the gimbal system
geometry When an aircraft is in particular attitudes. At (a) an aircraft is represented as
flying straight and level on an easterly heading, and as the gimbal system geometry is such
that the rotor axis lies N-.S, the three axes of the system are mutually at right angles, and the
heading will be indicated without error. The same would also be true if an aircraft were
flying on a westerly heading.

If an aircraft rolls to the left or right on either an easterly or westerly heading, or executes a
left or right turn, the outer gimbal ring will be carried about the axis of the stabilized inner
ring (diagram (b)). In this condition the cardinal headings, or changes of heading during
turns, would also be indicated without error. At {c) an aircraft is assumed to be descending
so that, in addition to the outer gimbal ring being tilted forward about the rotor axis, the
inner ring also rotates, both rings maintaining the same relationship to each other. Again,
there is no gimbal error; this would also apply in the case of a climbing attitude. When an
aircraft carries out a manoeuvre which combines changes in roll and pitch attitudes, e.g. the
banked descent shown at (d), the outer ring is made to rotate about its own axis, thus
introducing a gimbal error causing the indicator to show a change of heading.
If an aircraft is flying on an intercardinal heading. the rotor axis will be at some angle to the
aircraft's longitudinal axis. as at (e), and gimhalling errors will occur during turns. rolling in
straight and level flight, pitch attitude changes or combinations of these. When the heading
is such that the aircraft's longitudinal axis is aligned with that of the gyroscope rotor. rolling
of the aircraft on a constant heading will not produce gimballing error because the gimbal
system also rotates about the rotor axis. If, however, rolling is combined with a pitch
attitude change. the effect is the same as the combined manoeuvre noted earlier {diagram
(d)). Whenever the angular relationship between the gimbal rings is disturbed during a

Dr. Mallikarjunaswamy M S, Associate Professor 15

Department of Electronic s & Instrumentation, SJCE, JSSSTU Mysore

manoeuvre. an indicator's erection device will be attempting to re-erect the rotor into a new
plane of rotation and will cause false erection, ,he magnitude of which depends on how long
the erecting force is allowed to operate. i.e. on the duration of the manoeuvre. The
magnitude of the force itself will depend on the angle of the rotor to the device. Thus on
completion of a manoeuvre it is possible to have an error due to false erection and during a
manoeuvre an error can be caused which is a combination or' toth gimballing effect and
false erection.

Dr. Mallikarjunaswamy M S, Associate Professor 16

Department of Electronic s & Instrumentation, SJCE, JSSSTU Mysore

Turn-and-bank indicator
This indicator contains two independent mechanisms: a gyroscopically-controlled pointer
mechanism for the detection and indication of the rate at which an aircraft turns. and a
mechanism for the detection and indication of hank and/or slip. The dial presentation of a
typical indicator is shown in Fig. 4.22(a).

Rate gyroscope
For the detection of rates of turn. a rate gyroscope is used and is arranged in the manner shown
at (b) in Fig. 4.22. It differs in two respects from the displacement gyrcscopes thus far
described: it has only one gimbal ring. and it has a calibrated spring connected between the
gimbal ring and case to restrain movement about the longitudinal axis YY 1, i.e. it is a single-
axis gyroscope. When the indicator is in its normal operating position the rotor spin axis. due
to the spring restraint. will always be horizontal and the turn pointer will be at the zero datum
mark. With the rotor spinning. its rigidity will further ensure that the zero position is
maintained.

Dr. Mallikarjunaswamy M S, Associate Professor 17

Department of Electronic s & Instrumentation, SJCE, JSSSTU Mysore

Let us assume that the indicator is turned to the left about a vertical input axis. The rigidity of
the rotor will resist the turning movement, which it detects as an equivalent force being applied
to its rim at point F. The gimbal ring and rotor will therefore be tilted about the longitudinal
axis as a result of precession at point P.
As the gimbal ring tilts, it stretches the calibrated spring until the force it exerts prevents
further deflection of the gimbal ring. Since precession of a rate gyroscope is equal to its
angular momentum and the rate of turn, then the spring force is a measure of the rate of turn.
The actual movement of the gimbal ring from the zero position can, therefore, be taken as the
required measure of mm rate.
In practice, the gimbal ring deflection is generally not more than 6°, the reason for this being to
reduce the error due to the rate of turn component not being at right angles to the spin axis
during gimbal ring deflection

The rate of turn pointer is actuated by the gimbal ring and a magnifying system which moves
the pointer in the correct sense over a scale calibrated in what are termed 'standard rates'.
Although they are not always marked on a scale, they are classified by the numbers 1 to 4 and
i::orrespond to turn rates of 180°, 360°, 540° and 720° per minute respectively. The marks at
either side of zero of the indicator scale shown in Fig. 4.22 correspond to a Rate 1 turn. A
system for damping out oscillations of the gyroscope is also incorporated and is adjusted so
that the turn pointer will respond to fast rate of turn changes and at the same time respond to a
definite tum rate instantly.
It should be noted that a rate gyroscope requires no erecting device or correction for random
precession, for the simple reason that it is always centred by the control spring. For this reason
also, it is unnecessary for the rotor to rotate at high speed, a typical speed range being 4000-
4500 rev/min. The most important factor in connection with speed is that it must be maintained
constant, since precession of the rotor is directly proportional to its speed.

Bank Indication
In addition to the primary indication of turn rate, it is also necessary to have an indication that
an aircraft is correctly banked for the particular turn. A secondary indicating mechanism is
therefore provided which depends for its operation on the effect of gravitational and
centrifugal forces. A method commonly used for bank indication is one utilizing a ball in a
curved liquid-filled glass tube as illustrated in Fig. 4.23.

In normal level flight (diagram (a)) the ball is held at the centre of the tube by the force of
gravity. Let us assume now that the aircraft turns to the left at a certain airspeed and bank
angle as at diagram (b). The indicator case and the tube move with the aircraft, of course, and
because of the turn, centrifugal force in addition to that of gravity acts upon the ball and tends
to displace it outwards from the centre of the tube. However, when the turn is executed at the
correct bank angle and matched with airspeed, then there is a balanced condition between the
two forces and so the resultant force holds the ball at the centre of the tube as shown. If the
airspeed were to be increased during the turn, then the bank angle and centrifugal force would
also be increased, but so long as the bank angle is correct for the appropriate conditions, the
new resultant force will still hold the ball at the centre of the tube.

Dr. Mallikarjunaswamy M S, Associate Professor 18

Department of Electronic s & Instrumentation, SJCE, JSSSTU Mysore

If the bank angle for a particular rate of turn is not correct, say under banked as in diagram (c),
then the aircraft will tend to skid out of the turn. Centrifugal force will predominate under such
conditions and will displace the ball from its central position. When the turn is overbanked, as
at (d), the aircraft will tend to slip into the turn and so the force due to gravity will now have
the predominant effect on the ball. It will thus be displace from centre in the opposite direction
to that of an under banked turn.

Dr. Mallikarjunaswamy M S, Associate Professor 19