Transcript

00::00Hello and welcome to this presentation, what is RF. In this presentation, we'll provide a general, no
n technical introduction to RF or radio frequency technologies, the different ways that RF is used, and a b
rief overview of the most common instruments found in radio test and measurement. To understand RF,
we first need to talk about the 2 different types of electricity. The first of these is direct current or DC. A c
ommon household battery is an example of a source of DC power.

00::30In DC, the amount of voltage or current produced typically remains constant over time. The secon
d type is alternating current or AC. The electrical outlets in your home provide a voltage or current that ri
ses and falls over time. The rate at which this current rises and falls is called the frequency. Frequency de
scribes how many times per second the current goes through one complete cycle of rising and falling bef
ore returning to its original level.

00::57The number of cycles per second is measured in units of Hertz. For example, if this is one second a
nd the current goes through 4 complete cycles in one second, then the frequency is 4 Hertz. In the Unite
d States, the frequency of AC power in wall outlets is normally 60 Hertz, meaning the current completes
60 cycles in one second. Any alternating current that moves through a conductor, such as a wire or an an
tenna, also generates an electromagnetic field that travels outwards into space. At very low frequencies,
such as the 60 Hertz AC we just mentioned, this electromagnetic field is not particularly strong and will n
ot travel very far.

01::39Radio frequency or RF refers to energy whose frequency is high enough to efficiently radiate into s
pace. There's no strict definition of what makes something radio frequency, but most engineers would co
nsider RF to be electromagnetic energy in the range of about 20 kilohertz to about 300 gigahertz. That is
20,000 to 300,000,000,000 cycles per second. Although the most important aspect of RF is the fact that i
t can propagate through space, RF can also be carried by cables or other conductors. A common example
of this is cable television signals sent within coaxial or coax cables.

02::18RF is also conducted between components in electronic devices, such as within a cellphone or a G
PS receiver. And most radio frequency test and measurement applications have traditionally used conduc
ted RF. There are 3 general uses for RF. The first and by far the most common and most important is tran
sferring information. Radio and television broadcasts were among the first uses of RF for transferring info
rmation in the form of sounds and images.

02::46And we've already mentioned that cable television also uses radio frequency signals. The properti
es of RF enable modern data transmission technologies such as WiFi, cellular voice and data, Bluetooth,
etcetera. And obviously, the ability to transmit information through space is extremely important for sate
llite applications, including GPS. Another area of use for RF is sensing or detecting objects. Here, RF is tra
nsmitted and the characteristics of the received RF can provide us with information about the objects th
at it encounters.

03::20Radar is a very well known example of this. The body scanners found in airports also use RF to det
ect objects. And RF can even be used to measure the properties of materials. The 3rd main category of R
F applications involves heating objects. This includes both microwave ovens, as well as industrial and me
dical applications.

03::43Since almost everyone is familiar with using RF to heat objects, we'll start there. Microwave ovens
use something called a magnetron to create RF at a frequency of about 2.5 gigahertz. This is incidentally i
n the same frequency range commonly used by WiFi and Bluetooth. This RF then penetrates foods or liq
uids and causes the molecules, more specifically water, to vibrate and this vibration creates heat. One co
mmon warning when it comes to using RF to heat food in a microwave oven is to avoid having metal obj
ects in the oven.

04::15This is because the metal can turn the radiated RF produced by the magnetron back into conducte
d RF, and the resulting currents in the metal can cause sparks, fires, etcetera. In addition to warming up l
eftovers, RF is also used for heating in industrial applications such as pasteurizing milk, and is now also fo
und in some medical applications, ranging from destroying cancer cells to various cosmetic treatments. A
t this point, it might be worth pausing to talk about RF safety. Some kinds of radiated energy such as x ra
ys, gamma rays, and UV or ultraviolet rays are so called ionizing radiation. Ionizing means that this energ
y can break apart atoms or molecules, including DNA, and can be a direct cause of certain forms of cance
r and other health issues.

05::04RF on the other hand is non ionizing radiation. This means that RF doesn't break apart atoms or m
olecules. That doesn't mean that RF is completely harmless. As we've just discussed, RF can create heati
ng and at very high levels, this can lead to tissue damage. However, there's no firm or conclusive evidenc
e that RF poses a significant danger to living creatures at common power levels or under normal circumst
ances.

05::29High power transmitters do, however, require caution. And it's always best to follow the regulatory
and or industry guidelines when it comes to RF exposure. Standing in front of an operational high power
radar, for example, is definitely not recommended. Radar is, however, an excellent example of how objec
ts can be sensed using RF. We transmit RF and examine what comes back.

05::54Most people are familiar with various radar applications, such as detecting planes or ships, or mea
suring the speed of a vehicle or a baseball. One of the more common examples of using RF for sensing ar
e the body scanners that have largely replaced metal detectors in airports. Some types of motion sensors
and alarm or other systems also use RF. A less well known use of RF for sensing is something called mate
rial measurements. RF allows us to non destructively determine certain properties of materials, such as c
hecking tissue for the presence of breast cancer, or trees for the presence of rot, termites, etc.

06::31But as mentioned earlier, the most common use of RF in the modern world is to transfer informati
on without wires or over the air. In order to transfer information using RF, we have to change 1 or more p
roperties of the generated electromagnetic field, and this process is called modulation. The simplest way
of changing something about our radiated field is just turning it on and off. And this is essentially how M
orse code works. We turn the RF on for a short period of time when we want to send a dot and we turn i
t on for a longer period of time when we want to send a dash.

07::04The next step up from this on off approach is amplitude modulation or AM, where we change the
strength of the RF to convey information. In frequency modulation or FM, we change the frequency of th
e radiated signal depending on the information we want to send. Both AM and FM are primarily used for
analog modulation, such as in radio broadcasts. On the other hand, if we want to send digital informatio
n, we typically use more complicated modulation schemes, often changing both the amplitude and the p
hase or frequency shift of the RF at the same time. The definition of RF covers a very wide range of frequ
encies, but the specific frequency used is largely based on the application.
07::48Generally speaking, 2 things happen as we lower the frequency. 1st, the radiated fields propagate
or travel longer distances. 2nd, lower frequency signals also tend to penetrate or pass through objects m
ore easily. The opposite is true for higher frequencies. For example, broadcast AM radio uses frequencies
in the 100 of kilohertz and broadcast FM radio uses frequencies around 100 megahertz, because we wan
t these relatively low frequency signals to travel many kilometers and be receivable inside of buildings, h
ouses, etcetera.

08::22On the other hand, WiFi is at either 2.4 or 5 GHz, that is at frequencies that are 25 to 50 times hig
her than those used for AM or FM broadcasts. One of the reasons we're using these much higher freque
ncies is that we don't want WiFi signals traveling too far. Your access point is essentially noise or interfere
nce to everyone else's access point. So it's better for everyone if our WiFi signals don't extend much bey
ond our own homes or businesses. In most parts of the world, the right to use a given frequency or rang
e of frequencies is set by a government or regulatory agency.

08::59In the United States, this is the Federal Communications Commission or FCC. Acquiring the license
to use certain frequencies often requires a fee and the cost can be quite substantial. Cellular network op
erators, for example, pay 1,000,000,000 of dollars for the exclusive right to use certain frequencies. Beca
use human beings can't normally sense frequency energy, RF test and measurement equipment is neces
sary for the design, test, manufacture, and debug of radio frequency devices. Every device that uses RF, f
rom TVs and radios to WiFi, cellphones, GPS, radar, etc, was created using RF test and measurement instr
uments.

09::40There are 4 basic categories of RF instruments, namely spectrum analyzers, signal generators, net
work analyzers, and power sensors. And we'll spend a few moments explaining what each of these instru
ments does. The first instrument we'll talk about is something called a spectrum analyzer, so it might be
a good idea to spend a moment explaining what we mean by spectrum. The word spectrum generally ref
ers to a range of frequencies. As human beings, we can perceive 2 different types of spectrum.

10::10What we call color is simply how our eyes and brain interpret different frequencies of light. And ou
r ears can also detect and distinguish sounds, that is vibrations of the air, at different frequencies. But as
we mentioned earlier, the radio frequency spectrum is not humanly perceivable. We normally can't sens
e RF at all and we certainly can't distinguish how much energy is present at different frequencies. Instead
, we use a special instrument called a spectrum analyzer to obtain this information.

10::38When we use this instrument to analyze spectrum, we typically want to detect and measure what
kinds of signals are present and at which frequencies, their powers, any modulation, etcetera. In most ca
ses, spectrum analyzers are used in a laboratory environment, but there are also portable spectrum anal
yzers that are specifically designed to be used outside or in the field. The most basic function of a spectr
um analyzer is displaying power versus frequency. This is a fancy way of saying that we want to know wh
ere RF is present and how much RF is present. In many cases, power is measured relative to other power
s and is therefore expressed in dB or decibels.

11::19In addition to the basic power versus frequency display, many spectrum analyzers can also demod
ulate different types of signals. These can be very basic analog signals like those used in FM radio or it ca
n be quite complex digital signals like those used in LTE, 5 gs, WiFi, etcetera. Demodulation means extrac
ting the information in a signal, but can also be used to tell us things like how much error or inaccuracy t
here is in a modulated or information carrying signal. When a spectrum analyzer is used in this way, it's o
ften referred to as a signal analyzer. In the real world, radio frequency signals come from various devices,
such as your cell phone, a car remote, a GPS satellite, etcetera.

12::03An instrument called a signal generator can be used to create the different types of RF signals nee
ded to design and test RF devices. These signals can be simple, unmodulated signals or can be complex
modulated signals like those used in most wireless communication systems. A signal generator allows th
e user to control all of the parameters of the signals that it generates, including power, frequency and m
odulation. Most signal generators are used for testing devices during design and debug, and therefore, t
hey're primarily found in labs. A very common combination of test and measurement instruments is a sp
ectrum analyzer and a signal generator.

12::41For example, imagine that our DUT or device under test is an amplifier. We can use a signal genera
tor to generate a signal that is sent into the DUT. The amplified signal can then be measured and analyze
d using a spectrum analyzer. In some cases, we can think of our device under test as something called a n
etwork. In the RF world, a network is a device that has 1 or more ports, each of which can pass, reflect a
nd or absorb radio frequency energy.

13::11These are usually components in a system and the typical cell phone has many components that c
an be described as a network. It's important that these components work properly to ensure the perfor
mance of the entire system. And therefore, we need an accurate, reliable and repeatable way to measur
e them. Networks are tested by injecting RF into one of the ports and simultaneously measuring how mu
ch RF is reflected back from that port and how much RF comes out of the other ports. We also might be
concerned with how much delay is introduced by the network or how the network changes other charac
teristics of the injected signal.

13::47In order to analyze networks, we use a network analyzer. A network analyzer both generates and
measures RF energy simultaneously and thus is similar to the combination of a signal generator and spec
trum analyzer. In most cases, network analyzers are very high precision instruments that are able to mea
sure small variations or changes in signals, and sophisticated calibration routines are used to further mini
mize or remove error. Since they're most often used to measure components, network analyzers are mos
t commonly found in labs. Although portable network analyzers can be used in the field for testing things
such as cables and antennas.

14::25You may also hear network analyzers referred to as vector network analyzers or VNAs. Sometimes,
our goal in RF test and measurement is just to measure RF power. Although spectrum analyzers and VNA
s can measure RF power, small relatively inexpensive instruments called power sensors are often used w
hen all we need is a simple measure of received power. The basic functionality of a power sensor, theref
ore, is simply reporting a number, such as 10.92 dBm. Power sensors may not be as sophisticated as the
other instruments we mentioned, but they are very widely used in the RF world and can be easily found i
n most RF labs.

15::07One of the biggest advantages of RF is that it allows communications without cables or wires. That
said, most RF testing uses cables to move signals between the instrument and the DUT or device under t
est. By using conducted RF, we can more precisely control things like the power levels received by the DU
T. However, some of the more recent technologies such as 5 gs require so called over the air or OTA testi
ng, where signals are radiated into and or out of the device under test. This is mostly due to the higher fr
equencies used in these technologies and the lack of an RF connector on the DUT.
15::43In this case, testing usually requires special shielded boxes or chambers in order to keep other RF s
ignals from getting in and prevents our test signals from radiating out. In addition to the 4 categories we
mentioned earlier, there are many other types of RF test and measurement instruments. Communication
s testers are something of a combination of a signal generator and a spectrum or signal analyzer, and the
y are designed to test wireless communications devices such as cell phones, Wi Fi and Bluetooth devices,
etcetera. These testers can emulate a wireless device, a wireless access point, or cellular base station an
d allow both voice and data testing. In EMC or electromagnetic compatibility testing, we're interested in
2 things.

16::291st, whether electrically powered devices are unintentionally radiating RF that could interfere with
other devices. For example, whether a washing machine interferes with our cell phone reception. Conver
sely, we might also want to check if devices are adversely affected by RF. In this case, whether our cellula
r devices or base stations cause washing machines to malfunction. Closely related to EMC testing are am
plifiers, which boost RF signal power and therefore can be used to create the high power RF signals that
are needed in some EMC tests.

17::03And finally, oscilloscopes are another category of RF test and measurement instruments. Scopes ar
e most often used for non RF electrical testing, but can also be used in numerous RF applications as well.
Let's end with a brief summary of what we've covered. Alternating electrical currents produce electroma
gnetic fields. When the frequency of these fields is high enough to radiate efficiently through space, we r
efer to this as radio frequency or RF.

17::32RF is used in 3 main areas. 1st and foremost, RF can be used to transfer information over long dist
ances without wires or cables, such as TV and radio broadcasts, satellite communications, cell phones an
d WiFi. RF is also commonly used to sense and detect objects. Examples of this are things like radar and
airport body scanners. And almost everyone has first hand experience using RF to heat objects in a micro
wave oven.

17::59Because human beings can't directly sense or measure RF under normal circumstances, RF test an
d measurement instruments are needed in the design, test, manufacture and debugging of radio freque
ncy devices. This concludes our presentation, what is RF? If you'd like to learn more about RF and radio f
requency test and measurement, please follow the links in the video description. Thanks for watching.

Chapter 1: Introduction
Definition of RF
RF refers to electromagnetic energy in the range of 20 kHz to 300 GHz.
It can propagate through space and be conducted through cables.
Types of Electricity
Direct Current (DC): Voltage/current remains constant (e.g., batteries).
Alternating Current (AC): Voltage/current varies over time, measured in Hertz (Hz).
Example: U.S. wall outlets operate at 60 Hz.
Uses of RF
Transferring Information: Used in radio, TV, WiFi, cellular communications, and satellite applications.
Sensing/Detecting Objects: Applications include radar and body scanners.
Heating Objects: Used in microwave ovens and industrial/medical applications.
Chapter 2: Using RF
Heating Applications
Microwave ovens use RF at approximately 2.5 GHz to heat food by vibrating water molecules.
Caution against using metal in microwaves due to potential sparks.
RF Safety
RF is non-ionizing radiation, unlike X-rays or UV rays.
High power RF can cause tissue damage; regulatory guidelines should be followed.
Sensing Applications
Radar detects objects and measures speed.
RF can measure material properties non-destructively.
Information Transfer
Modulation techniques change properties of RF to convey information.
On/Off Keying: Basic Morse code.
Amplitude Modulation (AM): Changes strength of RF.
Frequency Modulation (FM): Changes frequency of RF.
Digital Modulation: More complex schemes for digital information.
Chapter 3: Using RF Test
Frequency Effects
Lower frequencies propagate longer distances and penetrate objects better.
Higher frequencies (e.g., WiFi at 2.4 or 5 GHz) are used to limit signal range.
Regulatory Aspects
Frequency usage is regulated by agencies like the FCC in the U.S.
Licensing can be costly, especially for cellular operators.
RF Test and Measurement Equipment
Spectrum Analyzers: Measure and display RF power versus frequency.
Signal Generators: Create RF signals for testing.
Network Analyzers: Measure RF energy and analyze networks.
Power Sensors: Simple instruments for measuring RF power.
Chapter 4: Other RF Signals
Signal Generators
Create various RF signals for device testing.
Used in labs for design and debugging.
Network Analyzers
Measure and generate RF energy simultaneously.
Used for testing components in RF systems.
Power Sensors
Provide straightforward RF power measurements.
Commonly used in RF labs.
Over-the-Air (OTA) Testing
Necessary for modern technologies like 5G.
Requires special shielded environments to prevent interference.
Additional Instruments
Communications Testers: Combine functions of signal generators and analyzers for wireless devices.
EMC Testing: Ensures devices do not interfere with each other.
Oscilloscopes: Used for both RF and non-RF electrical testing.
Chapter 5: Conclusion
Summary of RF Applications
RF is essential for transferring information, sensing objects, and heating.
RF test and measurement instruments are crucial for the design and debugging of RF devices.
Further Learning
For more information on RF technologies and testing, follow