Module IV Group Theory

Algebraic System
An algebraic system consists of a set with an operator on the set and accompanying properties which
are taken as axioms of the set.

Group
A set 𝐺 together with a binary operation ∗ is called a group, if it satisfies the following properties;

1. 𝐺 is closed with respect to the binary operation ∗

𝑖𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
2. 𝐺is associative with respect to the binary operation ∗

𝑖𝑒, 𝐼𝑓 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐

3. There exists an identity element in 𝐺 with respect to the binary operation ∗

𝑖𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐺 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎
4. The inverse of each element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 exist in 𝐺.
𝑖𝑒, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑒 = 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎

A group 𝐺 is said to be commutative or abelian if it satisfies the commutative law,

Order of a group
The order of a group is the number of elements in it and is denoted by 𝑂(𝐺) or |𝐺|.

If there are finite number of elements in the group, then 𝐺 is said to be finite otherwise it is said to be
infinite.

Question:1

Show that the set of integers 𝑍 forms an abelian group with respect to the addition of integers.

Solution:

1. Closure Property: since the sum of integers is also an integer, the set 𝑍 is closed with respect to
the addition.
𝑖𝑒,⩝ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍.
2. Associative law: since the sum of integers is again an integer the set of integers 𝑍 satisfies the
associative law.
𝑖𝑒,⩝ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑍 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐).
3. Existence Identity: The integer 0 ∈ 𝑍 is the identity element
𝑖𝑒, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑍, 𝑎 + 0 = 𝑎 = 0 + 𝑎.
4. Existence of inverse: ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑍, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 − 𝑎 ∈ 𝑍 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎 + (−𝑎) = 0 = (−𝑎) + 𝑎.
Thus, inverse of each element exists in 𝑍 with respect to the addition.
5. Commutative law: Since ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎, the integer satisfies the commutative law
with respect to the addition.
Hence (𝑍, +) is an abelian group.
Example:

• The algebraic system (𝑅, +) is a group with the identity element 0. The inverse of 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 is
−𝑥.
• The algebraic system (𝑄 − {0}, . ) is a group with the identity element 1. The inverse of 𝑥 ∈
1
𝑄 − {0} is 𝑥.

Question:2

Prove that (𝑍,∗) is an abelian group under the operation 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1.

Solution:

Closure Property: Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑍 then 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1 ∈ 𝑍.

Associative Property: Let 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑍

(𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) ∗ 𝑧 = (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1) ∗ 𝑧

= 𝑥+𝑦+1+𝑧+1

= 𝑥 + (𝑦 + 𝑧 + 1) + 1

= 𝑥 ∗ (𝑦 ∗ 𝑧)

Existence of Identity: Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍 and 𝑒 be the identity element.

Then 𝑥 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑥 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑥

𝑥∗𝑒 =𝑥

⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑒 + 1=𝑥

⇒ 𝑒 = −1, the identity element

Existence of Inverse: Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍 and 𝑥′ be it’s inverse. Then 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 ′ = 𝑒 = 𝑥 ′ ∗ 𝑥

⇒𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 ′ = −1

⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑥 ′ + 1 = −1

⇒ 𝑥 ′ = −𝑥 − 2, the inverse of 𝑥.

Abelian: Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑍

𝑥∗𝑦 =𝑥+𝑦+1

=𝑦+𝑥 =1

=𝑦∗𝑥

Hence (𝑍,∗) is an abelian group.

Question:3

Show that the set of all positive rational numbers 𝑄 + forms an abelian group under the composition
𝑎𝑏
defined by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 2
.

Solution:
𝑎𝑏
1. Closure Property: ,⩝ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑄 + 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 2
𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑖𝑛 𝑄 + .
Hence 𝑄 + is closed with respect to the binary operation ∗.
𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏𝑐
2. Associative law: for 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑄 + 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 2
∗𝑐 = .
2 2
= 2.2
= 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐)
Hence the operation ∗ is associative.
3. Existence Identity:
If 𝑒 is the identity element of 𝑄 + , 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎
𝑎𝑒
⇒ =𝑎
2
⇒ 𝑎𝑒 = 2𝑎
⇒ 𝑎(𝑒 − 2) = 0
⇒ 𝑎 ≠ 0 [𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎 ∈ 𝑄 + ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 = 2
Hence 2 is the identity element.
4. Existence of inverse: Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝑄 + , if 𝑏 is the inverse of 𝑎 then 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑒 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎
⇒𝑎∗𝑏=2=𝑏∗𝑎
𝑎𝑏
⇒ =2
2
⇒ 𝑎𝑏 = 4
4
⇒𝑏=𝑎

4
Hence 𝑎 is the inverse of 𝑎.

𝑎𝑏 𝑏𝑎
5. Commutative law: for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑄 + , 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = = =𝑏∗𝑎
2 2
+
Hence 𝑄 forms an abelian group under the given composition.

Question:4

Prove that the 4th root of unity 1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖 forms an abelian multiplicative group.

Solution:

Composition table of 4th root of unity is given below;

. 1 −1 𝑖 −𝑖
1 −1 𝑖 −𝑖

−1 −1 −𝑖 𝑖

𝑖 𝑖 −𝑖 −1

−𝑖 −𝑖 𝑖 −1
Let 𝐺 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖}

1. Closure Property: since all entries in the composition table belong to the set 𝐺, the set 𝐺 is
closed with respect to multiplication.
2. Associative law: since all elements of 𝐺 are complex numbers and multiplication of complex
numbers is associative, the elements of 𝐺 satisfy the associative law
3. Existence Identity: From the table it can be observed that 1 is the identity of 𝐺.
4. Existence of inverse: From the table it can be observed that the corresponding elements of the
rows and column of encircled entries are inverse of each other.

Order of an element of a group:

The order of an element of a group 𝐺 is the smallest positive integer 𝑛 such that 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒. It is
denoted by 𝑂(𝑎). If no such integer exists, we say that 𝐺 is of infinite order.

Example

Consider the above problem, {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖} be a multiplicative group with identity.

The order of the element 1 is 1, since 11 = 1

The order of the element −1 is 2, since (−1)2 = 1

The order of the element 𝑖 is 4, since 𝑖 4 = 1

The order of the element −𝑖 is 4, since (−𝑖)4 = 1

Permutation Group:

The set 𝐺 of all permutations on a non- empty set 𝑋 under the binary operation ′𝑜′ of
composition of permutations is a group called permutation group.

Permutation group is as group made up of elements which are permutations of a set.

If 𝑋 = {1,2,3 … 𝑛}, the permutation group is also called symmetric group denoted by 𝑆𝑛 . The number
of elements of 𝑆𝑛 is 𝑛!

For example, let 𝑆3 be the set of all permutations on the set 𝑆 = {1,2,3} is a group under the operation
of composition of permutations.

There are 3! Permutations given by,

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
𝑓1 = ( ) 𝑓2 = ( ) 𝑓3 = ( ) 𝑓4 = ( )
1 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 2 1 3 2
1 2 3 1 2 3
𝑓5 = ( ) 𝑓6 = ( )
3 2 1 2 1 3
The composition table for (𝑆3, . ) is
 . 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓3 𝑓4 𝑓5 𝑓6
𝑓1 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓3 𝑓4 𝑓5 𝑓6
𝑓2 𝑓2 𝑓3 𝑓1 𝑓5 𝑓6 𝑓4
𝑓3 𝑓3 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓6 𝑓4 𝑓5
𝑓4 𝑓4 𝑓6 𝑓5 𝑓1 𝑓3 𝑓2
𝑓5 𝑓5 𝑓4 𝑓6 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓3
𝑓6 𝑓6 𝑓5 𝑓4 𝑓3 𝑓2 𝑓1

The binary operation ′𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛′ on 𝑆3 is closed and is associative

𝑓1 is the identity element

Inverse exists for each element in 𝑆3 .

Here 𝑓3 is the inverse of 𝑓2.

𝑨𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒐 𝒎

if 𝑎 and 𝑏 are two integers, then addition modulo 𝑚 is the remainder 𝑟 when 𝑎 + 𝑏 is divided by 𝑚
which is denoted by 𝑎+𝑚 𝑏 = 𝑟

Example: 4 +5 3 = 2

(𝑍𝑚 , +𝑚 ), 𝑚 ∈ 𝑍 + , 𝑚 > 1, is an abelian group of integers under ′𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑜 𝑚′ where

𝑍𝑚 = {0,1,2,3 … 𝑚 − 1}

(𝑍4 , +4 ) is an abelian group where, 𝑍4 = {0,1,2,3}

Question:5

Show that (𝑍6 , +6 ) is a group.

Solution:

𝑍6 = {0,1,2,3,4,5}

The composition table of (𝑍6 , +6 ) is as follows;

+6 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4
The binary operation +6 on 𝑍6 is closed and is associative

0 is the identity element

Inverse for each element exists.

Hence (𝑍6 , +6 ) is a group.

Question:6

Show that (𝑍4 , +4 ) is a group.

Solution:

𝑍4 = {0,1,2,3}

The composition table of (𝑍4 , +4 ) is as follows;

+4 0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3
1 1 2 3 0
2 2 3 0 1
3 3 0 1 2

The binary operation +4 on 𝑍4 is closed and is associative

0 is the identity element

Inverse for each element exists.

Hence (𝑍4 , +4 ) is a group.

Question:7

Show that (𝐴,∗) be an abelian group where 𝐴 = {𝑎 ∈ 𝑄|𝑎 ≠ −1} and for any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴,

𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 .

Solution:

1. Closure Property: For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐴

Closure property is satisfied
2. Associative Property: For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐴,
(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏) ∗ 𝑐
= 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑐 + (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏)𝑐
= 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎𝑏𝑐 ……….(1)
𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐)
= 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐)
= 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎𝑏𝑐……….(2)

Associative property hold

3. Existence of Identity:
For all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 there exist 𝑒 ∈ 𝐴 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎.
 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎 + 𝑒 + 𝑎𝑒 = 𝑎
⇒ 𝑒 + 𝑎𝑒 = 0
⇒ 𝑒(1 + 𝑎) = 0
⇒ 𝑒 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (1 + 𝑎) ≠ 0 (Since, 𝑎 ≠ −1)
⇒ 𝑒 = 0 is the identity element
4. Existence of Inverse:
For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 there exist 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 0
⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 = 0
⇒ 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 = −𝑎
⇒ 𝑏(1 + 𝑎) = −𝑎
−𝑎
⇒ 𝑏 = 1+𝑎, is the inverse of 𝑎
5. Commutative:
For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴,
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎
Hence (𝐴,∗) is an abelian group.

Question:8

show that 𝑄 + of all positive rational numbers forms an abelian group under the operation ∗ defined by
1
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑄 + .
2

Solution:
1
1. Closure Property: For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑄 + , 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 2 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝑄 + , Closure property is satisfied.
2. Associative Property: For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑄 + ,
1 1 1
(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = ( 𝑎𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = (𝑎𝑏)𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑏𝑐) = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐)
2 4 4
3. Existence of Identity: For all 𝑎 ∈ 𝑄 + , there exist 𝑒 ∈ 𝐴 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎
𝑎∗𝑒 =𝑎
1
⇒ 2 𝑎𝑒 = 𝑎
⇒ 𝑎𝑒 = 2𝑎
⇒ 𝑒 = 2 ∈ 𝑄 + is the identity element.

4. Existence of Inverse:
For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝑄 + , there exist 𝑏 ∈ 𝑄 + such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑒
⇒𝑎∗𝑏 =2
1
⇒ 2 𝑎𝑏 = 2
⇒ 𝑎𝑏 = 4
4
⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑎 ∈ 𝑄 + , is the inverse element of 𝑎.
5. Commutative Law: For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴
1 1
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎
2 2
Hence ∗ is commutative.

⸫(𝑄+ ,∗) is an abelian group.

Question:9

Show that (𝐴,∗) be a non- abelian group where 𝐴 = 𝑅 ∗ × 𝑅 and for any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴,

(𝑎, 𝑏). (𝑐, 𝑑) = (𝑎𝑐, 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑑).

Solution:

1. Closure Property: Let (𝑎, 𝑏), (𝑐, 𝑑) ∈ 𝐴

(𝑎, 𝑏). (𝑐, 𝑑) = (𝑎𝑐, 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑑) ∈ 𝐴
2. Associative Property: Let (𝑎, 𝑏), (𝑐, 𝑑), (𝑒, 𝑓) ∈ 𝐴
[(𝑎, 𝑏). (𝑐, 𝑑)]. (𝑒, 𝑓) = [𝑎𝑐, 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑑]. (𝑒, 𝑓)
= (𝑎𝑐𝑒, (𝑏𝑐 + 𝑑)𝑒 + 𝑓
= (𝑎𝑐𝑒, 𝑏𝑐𝑒 + 𝑑𝑒 + 𝑓)

(𝑎, 𝑏). [(𝑐, 𝑑). (𝑒, 𝑓)] = (𝑎, 𝑏). [𝑐𝑒, 𝑑𝑒 + 𝑓]

= (𝑎𝑐𝑒, 𝑏𝑐𝑒 + 𝑑𝑒 + 𝑓)

Associative property is true.

3. For all (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝐴 there exist (𝑒1 , 𝑒2 ) ∈ 𝐴 such that (𝑎, 𝑏). (𝑒1 , 𝑒2 ) = (𝑎, 𝑏) = (𝑒1 , 𝑒2 ). (𝑎, 𝑏)
(𝑎, 𝑏). (𝑒1 , 𝑒2 ) = (𝑎𝑒1 , 𝑏𝑒1 + 𝑒2 ) = (𝑎, 𝑏)
This is possible only when 𝑎𝑒1 = 𝑎, 𝑏𝑒1 + 𝑒2 = 𝑏
⇒ 𝑒1 = 1 and 𝑒2 = 0

Hence (1,0) ∈ 𝐴 is the identity element.

4. For any (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝐴 there exist, (𝑐, 𝑑) ∈ 𝐴 such that (𝑎, 𝑏). (𝑐, 𝑑) = (1,0)
(𝑎, 𝑏). (𝑐, 𝑑) = (1,0)
⇒(𝑎𝑐, 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑑) = (1,0)
⇒ 𝑎𝑐 = 1, 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑑 = 0
1 𝑏
⇒ 𝑐 = 𝑎 , 𝑑 = −𝑏𝑐 = − 𝑎, inverse exists.

5. Commutative law:
(𝑎, 𝑏). (𝑐, 𝑑) = (𝑎𝑐, 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑑).
(𝑐, 𝑑). (𝑎, 𝑏) = (𝑐𝑎, 𝑑𝑎 + 𝑏)
(𝑎, 𝑏). (𝑐, 𝑑) ≠ (𝑐, 𝑑). (𝑎, 𝑏), not commutative.
⸫(𝐴,∗) is a non- abelian group.
Question:10

Let 𝑀2 (𝑍) denote the set of 2 × 2 matrices with integer entries and + denote the usual matrix addition.
Show that (𝑀2 (𝑍), +) forms an abelian group.

Solution:

Closure Property: Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two matrices of order 2 × 2 with integer entries.

𝑖𝑒, 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝑀2 (𝑍)

𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝑀2 (𝑍) ⇒ 𝐴 + 𝐵 ∈ 𝑀2 (𝑍)

Closure property is satisfied.

Associative Property: Let 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 ∈ 𝑀2 (𝑍)

Addition of matrices satisfies associative property.

𝑖𝑒, (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 = 𝐴 = (𝐵 + 𝐶)
0 0 𝑎 𝑏
Existence of Identity: The identity element is [ ] for any 𝐴 = [ ]
0 0 𝑐 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 0 0 𝑎 𝑏 0 0 𝑎 𝑏
Since [ ]+[ ]=[ ]= [ ] +[ ]
𝑐 𝑑 0 0 𝑐 𝑑 0 0 𝑐 𝑑
Existence of Inverse: Let 𝐴 ∈ 𝑀2 (𝑍). Then −𝐴 is the additive inverse of 𝐴.
𝑎 𝑏 −𝑎 −𝑏 0 0 −𝑎 −𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
Since [ ]+[ ]=[ ]=[ ]+[ ]
𝑐 𝑑 −𝑐 −𝑑 0 0 −𝑐 −𝑑 𝑐 𝑑
Abelian: Matrix addition is commutative.

𝐴+𝐵 =𝐵+𝐴

Question:11

Show that any group 𝐺 is abelian if and only if (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 𝑏 2 for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.

Solution:

Suppose: 𝐺 is abelian

To PT: (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 𝑏 2 for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.

(𝑎𝑏)2 = (𝑎𝑏)(𝑎𝑏)

= 𝑎(𝑏𝑎)𝑏 (Associative Property)

= 𝑎(𝑎𝑏)𝑏 (𝐺 is abelian)

= (𝑎𝑎)(𝑏𝑏) (Associative Property)

= 𝑎2 𝑏 2

Suppose: (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 𝑏 2 for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.

To PT: 𝐺 is abelian

(𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 𝑏 2

⇒ (𝑎𝑏)(𝑎𝑏) = 𝑎2 𝑏 2

⇒ 𝑎(𝑏𝑎)𝑏 = 𝑎(𝑎𝑏 2 ) (By cancellation)

⇒ (𝑏𝑎)𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏 2

⇒(𝑏𝑎)𝑏 = (𝑎𝑏)𝑏 (By cancellation)

⇒𝑏𝑎 = 𝑎𝑏

Hence 𝐺 is an abelian group.

Theorem:1

Let (𝐺,∗) be a group. Then

a. The identity element is unique.

b. The inverse element of each element is unique

Proof:

a. Suppose 𝑒 and 𝑒 ′ be two identity elements of 𝐺.

Then, as 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑒 ′ is the identity element,
𝑒 ∗ 𝑒 ′ = 𝑒 = 𝑒 ′ ∗ 𝑒 …………(1)
as 𝑒 ′ ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑒 is the identity element,
𝑒 ′ ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ′ = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑒 ′ …………..(2)

From (1), (2), 𝑒 = 𝑒 ′

b. Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 be any element and let 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 be two inverse elements. Then,

𝑎 ∗ 𝑎1 = 𝑎1 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒
𝑎 ∗ 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒

Now, 𝑎1 = 𝑎1 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎1 ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑎2 ) = (𝑎1 ∗ 𝑎) ∗ 𝑎2 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎2 = 𝑎2

Thus the inverse of each element is unique.

Question:12

If 𝐺 is a group, prove that for all

a. (𝑎−1 )−1 = 𝑎
b. (𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1

Solution:

a. For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐺

Which means that the inverse of 𝑎−1 is 𝑎.
𝑖𝑒, (𝑎−1 )−1 = 𝑎
b. Consider (𝑎𝑏)(𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 ) = 𝑎(𝑏𝑏 −1 )𝑎−1 [Associative Property]
= (𝑎𝑒)𝑎−1 [Inverse exist in G]
= 𝑎𝑎−1 [Identity exist in 𝐺]
=𝑒 [Inverse exist in 𝐺]

⸫ the inverse of 𝑎𝑏 is 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1.

Sub Group

A non- empty subset 𝐻 of a group 𝐺 is said to be a sub group of 𝐺 if 𝐻 itself is a group under the binary
composition of 𝐺.

Theorem:2

A non- empty sub set 𝐻 of a group 𝐺 is a sub- group of 𝐺 if the following conditions are satisfied;

a. 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻
 b. 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻

Proof:

Let 𝐻 be a sub group of 𝐺. Then (𝑎), (𝑏) hold immediately.

Conversely, let each condition (𝑎), (𝑏) hold in 𝐻.

Then the closure property is satisfied due to (𝑎).

Now, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺⇒𝑎(𝑏𝑐) = (𝑎𝑏)𝑐

Hence the associative law hold in 𝐻

Since, it is given that 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑒

Thus an identity element exist in 𝐻

Condition (𝑏) shows that inverse of each element exists in 𝐻.

Since 𝐻 satisfies all the conditions of a group, it forms a group by itself.

Hence 𝐻 is a sub group of 𝐺

Question:13

Prove that if 𝐻 and 𝐾 are sub group of 𝐺 then 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 is a subgroup of 𝐺.

Solution:

• Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 ⇒ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐾

⇒ 𝑥𝑦 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑥𝑦 ∈ 𝐾, by closure property of 𝐻 and 𝐾.

⇒ 𝑥𝑦 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾

• Since 𝐻 and 𝐾 are sub group of 𝐺, 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑒 ∈ 𝐾 ⇒ 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾, the identity exists.

• Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 ⇒ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐾

⇒𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐾, Since 𝐻 and 𝐾 are sub groups

⇒ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾

⸫ the inverse element exists in 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾.

Hence 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 is a sub group of 𝐺.

Cyclic Group

A group (𝐺,∗) is called a cyclic group if every element of 𝐺 can be expressed as some power
of a particular element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺. The element 𝑎 is called the generator of the group because for any

𝑥 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 for some 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍.

Example:1 consider the group𝐺 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖}.

Then (𝐺, . ) is a cyclic group generated by 𝑖, since

(𝑖)1 = 𝑖, (𝑖)2 = −1, (𝑖)3 = −𝑖, (𝑖)4 = 1.

−𝑖 is also a generator of this group.

Example:2 The group (𝑍4 , +4 ) where 𝑍4 = {0,1,2,3} is a cyclic group.

(𝑍4 , +4 ) is a cyclic group generated by 1, since

1+4 1 = 2

1+4 1+4 1 = 3

1+4 1+4 1+4 1 = 0

3 is also a generator of this group.

3+4 3 = 2

3+4 3+4 3 = 1

3+4 3+4 3+4 3 = 0

Question:14

Prove that every cyclic group is abelian.

Solution:

Let 𝐺 be a cyclic group generated by 𝑎

𝑖𝑒, 𝐺 = {𝑎𝑛 |𝑛 ∈ 𝑍}

Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑚 where 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍

𝑥. 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛 .𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛+𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚 . 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑦. 𝑥

Hence 𝐺 is abelian.

Question:15
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
In the group 𝑆4 , let 𝛼 = ( ), 𝛽 = ( ). Determine 𝛼𝛽,𝛼 2 , 𝛼 −1 , 𝛽 −1 , (𝛼𝛽)−1 .
2 3 4 1 4 3 2 1
Solution:
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
𝛼𝛽 = ( )( )=( )
2 3 4 1 4 3 2 1 3 2 1 4

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
𝛼2 = ( )( )=( )
2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 3 4 1 2

2 3 4 1 1 2 3 4
𝛼 −1 = ( )=( )
1 2 3 4 4 1 2 3

4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
𝛽 −1 = ( )=( )
1 2 3 4 4 3 2 1
 3 2 1 4 1 2 3 4
(𝛼𝛽)−1 = ( )=( )
1 2 3 4 3 2 1 4

Question:16

Let 𝐺 = (𝑍6 , +6 ). If 𝐻 = {0,2,4}. Prove that 𝐻 is a sub group of 𝐺.

Solution:

𝑍6 = {0,1,2,3,4,5, }, 𝐻 is a subset of 𝐺.

+6 0 2 4
0 0 2 4
2 2 4 0
4 4 0 2

𝐻 is a sub group of 𝐺 under the operation +6 . 0 is the identity element.

Homomorphism and Isomorphism of Groups

Let (𝑋, . ) and (𝑌,∗)are any two groups, the mapping 𝑓: (𝑋, . ) → (𝑌,∗) is called group homomorphism
if for any two elements 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝑋, 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = 𝑓(𝑥1 ) ∗ 𝑓(𝑥2 ).

If the function 𝑓 is 𝑜𝑛𝑒 − 𝑜𝑛𝑒 and 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 then it is a group isomorphism. If there is a group isomorphism
from 𝑋 onto 𝑌 then the two groups are said to be isomorphic.

Theorem:3

Let (𝐺, . ) and (𝐻,∗) are groups with respective identities 𝑒𝐺 and 𝑒𝐻 . If 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐻 is a homomorphism,
then

a. 𝑓(𝑒𝐺 ) = 𝑒𝐻
b. 𝑓(𝑎−1 ) = [𝑓(𝑎)]−1 for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
c. 𝑓(𝑎𝑛 ) = [𝑓(𝑎)]𝑛 , for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 and all 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍.

Proof:

a. 𝑒𝐻 ∗ 𝑓(𝑒𝐺 ) = 𝑓(𝑒𝐺 )
= 𝑓(𝑒𝐺 . 𝑒𝐺 )
= 𝑓(𝑒𝐺 ) ∗ 𝑓(𝑒𝐺 )

𝑒𝐻 ∗ 𝑓(𝑒𝐺 ) = 𝑓(𝑒𝐺 ) ∗ 𝑓(𝑒𝐺 )⇒𝑒𝐻 = 𝑓(𝑒𝐺 ) [By right cancellation].

b. Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺. Then 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺

We have 𝑓(𝑒𝐺 ) = 𝑒𝐻
𝑖𝑒, 𝑒𝐻 = 𝑓(𝑒𝐺 ) = 𝑓(𝑎. 𝑎−1 ) = 𝑓(𝑎−1 . 𝑎)
𝑒𝐻 = 𝑓(𝑎−1 ) ∗ 𝑓(𝑎)
⸫𝑓(𝑎−1 ) = [𝑓(𝑎)]−1
c. 𝑓(𝑎𝑛 ) = 𝑓(𝑎. 𝑎. 𝑎. 𝑎 … 𝑎) [𝑛 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠]
= 𝑓(𝑎) ∗ 𝑓(𝑎) ∗ … 𝑓(𝑎)
= [𝑓(𝑎)]𝑛
Question:17

Prove that commutative property is invariant under group homomorphism.

Solution:

Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 be a group homomorphism and let 𝐴 be a commutative group.

𝑖𝑒, 𝐴 is abelian.

To prove that: 𝐵 is abelian

Let 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ∈ 𝐴 such that 𝑓(𝑎1 ) = 𝑏1 and 𝑓(𝑎2 ) = 𝑏2 , where 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 ∈ 𝐵

To prove: 𝑏1 𝑏2 = 𝑏2 𝑏1

𝑏1 𝑏2 = 𝑓(𝑎1 )𝑓(𝑎2 )

= 𝑓(𝑎1 𝑎2 ) [since, 𝑓 is a homomorphism]

= 𝑓(𝑎2 𝑎1 ) [Since 𝐴 is abelian]

= 𝑓(𝑎2 )𝑓(𝑎1 ) [since, 𝑓 is a homomorphism]

= 𝑏2 𝑏1

Hence 𝐵 is abelian.

Question:18

Consider the groups (𝑧 + , +) and (𝑍 + ,×) is the set of all positive integers. Check whether the function
defined as 𝑓(𝑛) = 3𝑛 is a homomorphism of these two groups?

Solution:

Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍 + .

𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 3𝑎+𝑏 = 3𝑎 . 3𝑏 = 𝑓(𝑎). 𝑓(𝑏)

Hence the function 𝑓(𝑛) = 3𝑛 is a group homomorphism from (𝑧 + , +) to (𝑍 + ,×).

Question:19

Let 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐻 be a group homomorphism. If 𝐺 is abelian, prove that 𝐻 is abelian.

Solution:

Given (𝑓, . ) and (G,∗) is a group homomorphism. Then 𝑓(𝑥. 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∗ 𝑓(𝑦)

Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎, 𝑓(𝑦) = 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.

Now, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑓(𝑥) ∗ 𝑓(𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥𝑦) [Since 𝑓 is a homomorphism]

= 𝑓(𝑦𝑥) [Since 𝐺 is abelian]

= 𝑓(𝑦) ∗ 𝑓(𝑥) [Since 𝑓 is a homomorphism]

=𝑏∗𝑎

⸫ 𝐻 is abelian.
Cosets & Lagrange’s theorem

If 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺, then for each 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 the set 𝑎𝐻 = {𝑎ℎ: ℎ ∈ 𝐻} is called the left
coset of 𝐻 in 𝐺. The set 𝐻𝑎 = {ℎ𝑎: ℎ ∈ 𝐻} is the right cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺.

If the operation in 𝐺 is addition we write 𝑎 + 𝐻 in place of 𝑎𝐻, where

𝑎 + 𝐻 = {𝑎 + ℎ: ℎ ∈ 𝐻} and 𝐻 + 𝑎 in place of 𝐻𝑎, where,

𝐻 + 𝑎 = {ℎ + 𝑎: ℎ ∈ 𝐻}.

Example: Let 𝐺 = (𝑍, +) be the group of integers under addition.

Let 𝐻 = {… − 8, −4,0,4,8 … }.

Left cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺 is

0+𝐻 =𝐻

1 + 𝐻 = {… − 7, −3,1,5,9 … }

2 + 𝐻 = {… − 6, −2,2,6,10, … }

3 + 𝐻 = {… − 5, −1,3,7,11, … }
Theorem 4

If 𝐻 is a subgroup of the finite group 𝐺 then for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺,

a. |𝑎𝐻| = |𝐻|
b. Either 𝑎𝐻 = 𝑏𝐻 or 𝑎𝐻 ∩ 𝑏𝐻 = ∅

Lagrange’s theorem
The order of each subgroup of a finite group is a divisor of the order of the group.

𝑖𝑒, If 𝐺 is a finite group of order 𝑛 with 𝐻 is a subgroup of order 𝑚, then 𝑚 divides 𝑛.

Proof

Let 𝐺 be a finite group of order 𝑛

Let 𝐻 be a subgroup of 𝐺 and 𝑂(𝐻) = 𝑚.

Suppose ℎ1 , ℎ2 , … ℎ𝑚 be the 𝑚 elements of 𝐻.

Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺. Then 𝐻𝑎 is the right coset of 𝐻 in 𝐺 and we have;

𝐻𝑎 = {ℎ1 𝑎, ℎ2 𝑎, … . . ℎ𝑚 𝑎}

𝐻𝑎 has 𝑚 distinct elements. Any two distinct right cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺 are disjoint, any finite
group 𝐺 can be partitioned into mutually disjoint cosets.

𝑖𝑒, 𝐺 = 𝐻𝑎1 ∪ 𝐻𝑎2 ∪ … ∪ 𝐻𝑎𝑘

Now;
Number of elements in 𝐺 =Number of elements in 𝐻𝑎1 + Number of elements in 𝐻𝑎2 +…

Number of elements in𝐻𝑎𝑘

[Since two distinct right cosets are mutually disjoint]

⇒ 𝑂(𝐺) = 𝑚 + 𝑚 + 𝑚 … + 𝑚 (𝑘 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠)

⇒ 𝑂(𝐺) = 𝑘𝑚

⇒ 𝑛 = 𝑘𝑚

⇒ 𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑛

𝑖𝑒, 𝑚|𝑛

Hence 𝑂(𝐻) divides 𝑂(𝐺).

Theorem 5
Every group of prime order is cyclic.
Proof:

Let 𝐺 be a group with 𝑂(𝐺) = 𝑝, where 𝑝 is prime.

Let 𝑎 ≠ 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺

𝐻 is a cyclic subgroup of 𝐺 generated by 𝑎.

By Lagrange’s theorem. 𝑂(𝐻)|𝑂(𝐺) ⇒ 𝑂(𝐻)|𝑝.

Hence 𝑂(𝐻) = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑝 since 𝑝 is prime.

If 𝑂(𝐻) = 1 then 𝑎 = 𝑒, which is not possible since 𝑎 ≠ 𝑒 .

Hence 𝑂(𝐻) = 𝑝

⸫𝐺 = 𝐻 and 𝐻 is cyclic. Hence 𝐺 is cyclic.

Theorem 6
The order of any element of a finite group is a divisor of the order of the group.
Proof:

Let 𝐺 be the finite group and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺. Let the order of 𝑎 is 𝑚.

Then 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑒.

Let 𝐻 be a cyclic group of 𝐺 generated by 𝑎

Then 𝐻 = {𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑒} ⇒ 𝑂(𝐻) = 𝑚

By Lagrange’s theorem 𝑂(𝐻) is a divisor of 𝑂(𝐺).
𝑖𝑒, 𝑚 is a divisor of 𝑂(𝐺).

𝑖𝑒, 𝑂(𝑎) is a divisor of 𝑂(𝐺).

Theorem 7

If 𝐺 is a finite group of order 𝑛, then 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒 for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.

Proof:

If 𝑚 is the order of 𝑎, then 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑒.

Then 𝑚 is a divisor of 𝑛 [From theorem 6]

𝑖𝑒, 𝑛 = 𝑘𝑚

Now, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑘𝑚 = (𝑎𝑚 )𝑘 = 𝑒 𝑘 = 𝑒.

Question:20

Let 𝐺 = {1, 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 }(𝑎4 = 1) be a group and 𝐻 = {1, 𝑎2 } is a subgroup of 𝐺 under multiplication.

Find all right cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺.

Solution:

The right cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺 are,

𝐻1 = {1, 𝑎2 } = 𝐻

𝐻𝑎 = {𝑎, 𝑎3 }

𝐻𝑎2 = {𝑎2 , 𝑎4 }

𝐻𝑎3 = {𝑎3 , 𝑎5 } = {𝑎3 , (𝑎4 )1 } = {𝑎3 , 𝑎} = 𝐻𝑎

Question:21

If 𝐻 and 𝐾 are subgroup of 𝐺, where 𝑒 is the identity of 𝐺. Prove that if |𝐻| = 10 and
|𝐾| = 21, then 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 = {𝑒}.
Solution:

Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾.

Let order of 𝑥 be 𝑛.

Then 𝑛 divides both 10 and 21. [The order of any element of a finite group is a divisor of the
order of the group].

Since gcd(10,21) = 1 ⇒ 𝑛 = 1

⇒𝑥1 = 𝑒

⇒𝑥 = 𝑒

⸫𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 = {𝑒}.