ELECTRIC CHARGES

AND FIELD

CHAPTER – 1

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELD

Electrostatics deals with the study of forces, fields and Negative charges or Electrons have a charge of -1.6 × 10-19
potentials arising from static charges Coulomb. A Negative charge has its field lines coming from
Electric Charge- infinity.
It is the basic physical property of matter and due to this property, The above example where hair strands start to attract to the ruler
a force is experienced when kept in the field of electricity. Electric is due to electric charges. Similarly, rubbing a balloon on hair
charges are of two types, attracts hair to the balloon, in case two balloons are
1. Positive Charge simultaneously rubbed, the balloons will start to repel each other,
Lesser number of electrons than a number of protons but they will attract the hair strands.
The rate of change of electric charge is known as Electric current,
I = q/t

Did You know

Electric charge, which can be positive or
negative, occurs in discrete natural units and is
neither created nor destroyed.
Positive charges or protons have a charge of +1.6 × 10-19
Coulomb. A positive charge has its field lines emerging from Conductors and Insulators
within and going up to infinity Conductors- Conductors are the materials or substances
2. Negative Charge which allow electricity to flow through them. They conduct
More number of electrons than number of protons electricity because they allow electrons to flow easily inside
them from atom to atom. Also, conductors allow the
transmission of heat or light from one source to another.
Metals, humans, earth, and animals are all conductors. This is
the reason we get electric shocks! Moreover, the human body
is a good conductor. So it provides a resistance-free path for
the current to flow from wire to body. Conductors have free
electrons on its surface which allow current to pass through
easily. This is the reason why conductors are able to conduct Quantization of Charge
electricity. According to the quantization of electric charge, Electric charges
Material such as silver is the best conductor of electricity. But are defined as the Integral multiple of the charge present on them,
it is costly and so, we don’t use silver in industries and hence, in any system, The charges will be,
transmission of electricity. Conductors are quite useful in q = ne
many ways. They find use in many real-life applications. For Where, n = Integer numbers e = value of the charge (1.6× 10-19 C)
example, Mercury is a common material in thermometer to Coulomb’s law-
check the temperature of the body. Aluminum finds its use in Coulomb’s law is a mathematical formula that describes the
making foils to store food. It is also used in the production of force between two-point charges. When the size of charged
fry pans to store heat quickly. bodies is substantially smaller than the separation between
them, then the size is not considered or can be ignored. The
Insulators- Insulators are the materials or substances which charged bodies can be considered as point charges. Coulomb
resist or don’t allow the current to flow through them. In general, studied the force between two-point charges and found that
they are solid in nature. Also, insulators are finding use in a variety it is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
of systems. As they do not allow the flow of heat. The property between them, directly proportional to the product of their
which makes insulators different from conductors is its resistivity. magnitudes, and acting in a line that connects them.
Wood, cloth, glass, mica, and quartz are some good examples of Expression for Coulomb’s Law The amount of the force (F)
insulators. Also, insulators are protectors. They give protection between two-point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance
against heat, sound and of course passage of electricity. r in a vacuum is given by
Furthermore, insulators don’t have any free electrons. It is the 1 |𝑞1 𝑞2 |
main reason why they don’t conduct electricity. 𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
Glass is the best insulator as it has the highest resistivity. Plastic is Where F is the force between two-point charges, q1 and q2 are
a good insulator and it finds its use in making a number of things. the point charge, r is the distance between the point charge
As insulators resist the flow of electron, they find worldwide and k is proportionality constant. For subsequent simplicity,
applications. Thermal insulators, disallow heat to move from one the constant k in the above expression is commonly written
place to another. Hence, we use them in making thermoplastic as
bottles. They are also used in fireproofing ceilings and walls. 1
𝑘=
Sound insulators help in controlling noise level, as they are good 4𝜋𝜀0
in absorbance of sound. Thus, we use them in buildings and Here, 𝜀0 is called the permittivity of free space. The value of ε0
conference halls to make them noise-free. in SI units i𝑠 𝜀0 = 8.854 × 10–12 C2 N–1m –2
Charging by induction-
The charging by induction definition states that it is a process of
charging conducting bodies without touching them or by bringing
the two conducting bodies near to each other. This method of
charging is the one in which with the help of a charged object, a
neutral object is charged but without touching the objects. The
charged particle is brought closer to a neutral or an uncharged
conductor which is grounded on a material that is neutrally
charged. If a charge flows between two objects, the uncharged
conductive material will develop a charge whose polarity will be
opposite to that of the charged object.
Basic Properties of Electric Charge
In order to look at the properties of electric charge, consider the Coulomb’s law is better written in vector notation because
electric charges to be really small, known as the Point charge. force is a vector quantity. Charges q1 and q2 have location
Point charges are smaller than the distance between them. vectors r1 and r2, respectively. F12 denotes force on q1 owing
Additivity of Electric Charges to q2 and F21 denotes force on q2 owing to q1. For convenience,
Electric charges when they are considered as point charges are the two-point charges q1 and q2 have been numbered 1 and 2,
scalar in nature. With that, it is important to note that charges can respectively, and the vector leading from 1 to 2 has been
be point charges, but they are still positive and negative charges. designated by r21.
The additive property of electric charges says that if there are n ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟21 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2 − ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1
number of charges present inside, the total charge present will be Similarly, the vector leading from 2 to 1 is denoted by r12,
the algebraic sum of the individual charges. 𝑟12 = ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟1 − ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2
Q = q1+ q2+ q3+…. qn r21 and r12 are the magnitudes of the vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟21 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟12 ,
Conservation of Charges respectively and magnitude r12 is equal to r21. A unit vector
The Conservation of charges says that the charges are neither along the vector specifies the vector’s direction. The unit
created not destroyed. They can be transferred from one body to vectors are used to denote the direction from 1 to 2 (or 2 to
another, but they cannot be created or destroyed. In an Isolated 1) The unit vectors define as,
𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗12
𝑟
system, the charges are always conserved. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
21 𝑟12
Coulomb’s force law between two-point charges q1 and q2 Similarly, F13 denotes the force exerted on q1 as a result of q3,
located at vector r1 and r2 is then expressed as which again is the Coulomb force on q1 due to q3 even though
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹21 = 2 𝑟̂21
other charge q2 is present. Thus, the total force F1 on q1 due
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟21
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 to the two charges q2 and q3 can be expressed as,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹21 = 𝑟21
3
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟21 ⃗⃗⃗1 = 𝐹
𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
12 + 𝐹13
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 1 𝑞1 𝑞3
Forces Between Multiple Charges ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 = 2 𝑟̂12 + 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2 𝑟̂13
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12 0 13
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3
⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 = [ 2 𝑟̂12 + 2 𝑟̂13 ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12 𝑟13

Consider a system in a vacuum with n motionless that is The above force calculation can be applied to a system with
stationary charges q1, q2, and q3. It has been proven more than three charges. The principle of superposition
experimentally that the vector sum of all the forces on a states that in a system of charges q1, q2…….qn, the force on q1
charge due to a number of other charges, taken one at a time, owing to q2 is the same as Coulomb’s law, i.e., it is unaffected
is the vector sum of all the forces on that charge owing to the by the presence of other charges q3, q4,…, qn. The vector sum
other charges. Due to the presence of other charges, the of the forces F12, F13, F1n on the charge q1 owing to all other
separate forces remain unaffected. This is known as the charges gives the overall force F1 can be written as
superposition principle. The force on one charge, say q1, due ⃗⃗⃗1 = 𝐹
𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
12 + 𝐹13 + ⋯ + 𝐹1𝑛
to two other charges, q2 and q3, may be determined by ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑞1 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞𝑛
𝐹1 = [ 22 𝑟̂12 + 23 𝑟̂13 + ⋯+ 2 𝑟̂1𝑛 ]
conducting a vector addition of the forces due to each of these 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12 𝑟13 𝑟1𝑛
𝑞1 𝑞
charges. As a result, if F12 denotes the force exerted on q1 as a ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 = ∑𝑛𝑖=2 2𝑖 𝑟̂1𝑖
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
1𝑖
result of q2 The vector sum is calculated by using the parallelogram law
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹12 = 2 𝑟̂12 of vector addition. Coulomb’s law and the superposition
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12
principle are the foundations of electrostatics.

Q. Two equal point charges (10-3C) are placed 1cm apart in medium of dielectric
constant K=5.
(a) find the interaction force between the point charges
(b) Net force on any of the charge
Sol. (a) Interaction force between point charges is,
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2
2
(10−3 )
F = 9 × 109 (10−2)2 F =9 × 107 𝑁
interaction force between point charges is 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝑵
(b) Net force on any of the charges-
2
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 9×109 (10−3 )
𝐹′ = =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑘 𝑟2 5 (10−2 )2
F’ =18 × 106 𝑁
Net force on any of the charges is 𝟏𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑵
 Q. Two-point charges 𝐴 and 𝐵, having charges +𝑄 and −𝑄 respectively, are placed at certain distance
apart and force acting between them is 𝐹. If 25% charge of 𝐴 is transferred to 𝐵, then force between
the charges becomes
4𝐹 9𝐹 16𝐹
(a) (b) 𝐹 (c) (d)
3 16 9
𝟗𝑭
Sol. Ans. (c)
𝟏𝟔
In case I:

1 𝑄2
𝐹=− ...(i)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝑄 𝑄
In Case II: 𝑄𝐴 = 𝑄 − , 𝑄𝐵 = −𝑄 +
4 4
𝑄 𝑄
1 (𝑄− 4 )(−𝑄+ 4 )
∴ 𝐹′ =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
3 −3
1 (4𝑄)( 4 𝑄) 1 9 𝑄2
= =− ...(ii)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀0 16 𝑟 2
9
From equations (i) and (ii), 𝐹 ′ = 𝐹
16

Electric Field quantity and its value are attributed to change in the position
of source charges.
Physical significance of electric field
Electric Field under Static Condition:

Assume there are point charges (sizes <<< r) P and Q placed Static means 'at rest'. The charged bodies, under the static
r distance apart in a vacuum. Both charges create an electric condition, experience an electric field surrounding them. The
field around them which ultimately is responsible for the electric field is defined at every point and changes from point
force applied by the two on each other. The Electric Field to point
around Q at position r is Electric Field under Electromagnetic Non-static
kQ
E(r) = 2 𝑟̂ Condition:
r
Where r is a unit vector of the distance r with respect to the This is the condition where the accelerated motion of the
origin. This value E(r) amounts to an electric field of each charge gives rise to electromagnetic waves and this
charge based on its position vector r. When another charge q propagates with a speed c passing on a force on another
is brought at a certain distance r to the charge Q, a force is charge. Time-dependent magnetic and electric fields are
exerted by Q equal to: connected with the transport of energy.
kQq Electric field lines
FQ = 2 𝑟̂
r
The notion of the electrical field was first presented by the
Now, there is an equal and opposite force exerted on Q by q
19th-century physicist Michael Faraday. It was Faraday's
which is equal to:
kqQ understanding that the pattern of lines describing the electric
Fq = 2 𝑟̂ Hence, if q is a unit charge, the force applied is equal field is an invisible reality.
r
to field value.
Electric Field due to a System of Charges
If there is a system of charges q1, q2, … qn in space with
position vectors r1, r2, … rn and the net effect of the Electric
Charges are required to be calculated on a unit test charge q
with position vector r placed inside the system, then it is
attributed to a superimposition of Electric field values for all
charges by Coulomb’s Law: ss
E = E1 + E 2 + … + En Since the electric field varies as the inverse of the square of
= kq1/r12 + kq2/r22 + … + kqn/rn2 the distance that points from the charge the vector gets
shorter as you go away from the origin and they always point
where En(rn) is the Electric Field value of charge n in the radially outwards. Connecting up these vectors to form a line
system with respect to position vector rn. Here, E is a vector
is a nice way to represent the electric field. An electric Field lines around a system of a positive and -ve charge
field line is an imaginary line drawn in such a way that its clearly show the mutual attraction between them as shown
direction at any point is the same as the direction of the field below in the figure.
at that point. Field-line in general is a curve drawn in such a
way that the tangent to it at each point in the direction of the
net field at that point.
An electric field line is an imaginary line or curve drawn over
an empty space region such that its tangent at each position,
points in the direction of the electric field vector at this
position.
The relative spacing between lines provides an indication of Properties Of Electric Field Lines
the electric field strength at that point. So, the magnitude of Some important general properties of field lines are
the field is indicated by the density of the lines. This means 1. Field lines start from a positive charge and end on a
that electric field strength due to the charged body is more in negative charge.
the region where the density of field lines is high. In the 2. They are directed away from the positive electric charge
region where the density of these lines is low, the electric field and towards the negative electric charge. So, at any point
has lower strength. Magnitude is strong near the center tangent to field lines give the direction of the electric field
where the electric field lines are close together, and it at that point.
becomes weak as it move farther outwards, where they are 3. These lines leave or enter the charged surface normally.
relatively apart or they have less density. A field line or 4. Field lines never cross each other because if they do so
electric line of force can be considered as the path along then at the point of intersection there will be two
which a small positive test charge would move if we let it directions of the electric field.
move freely along the path. 5. Electric field lines do not pass through a conductor; this
Field Lines due to some charge configurations shows that the electric field inside a conductor is always
For a positive charge zero.
Electric flux
It is defined as the total number of lines of force passing
normally through a curved surface placed in the field.
It is given by the dot product of and normal infinitesimal
→
area 𝑑𝑠 integrated over a closed surface-
→ →
d = E . ds
Field lines of a single +ve charge point radially outwards → →
For a negative charge
For a negative charge, they are radially inwards as shown
f=  E .ds =  Eds cos
where q = angle between electric field and normal to
below in the figure the area

ds


 E

if q = 0, f = Eds (maximum)
For Two Or More Charges
(b) if q = 900, = zero
Field lines around the system of two +ive charges give a
Unit:
different picture and describe the mutual repulsion between
them (a) Newton - metre2 / coulomb
(b) Volt - meter
Dimension: [M L3 T–3 A–1]
Flux due to a positive change goes out of the surface
while that due to negative change comes into the
surface.
Flux entering is taken as positive while flux leaving is y
taken as negative
Value of electric flux is independent of the shape and
size of the surface.
Electric dipole Then, the electric field E+q due to the charge +q can be
expressed as
𝑞 1
𝐸+𝑞 = 2 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 +𝑎
A pair of objects with equal and opposing charges separated Similarly, then the electric field E-q due to the charge –q can
by a large distance is referred to as an electric dipole. The first be expressed as,
charge is assumed to be negative (-q), while the second 𝐸−𝑞 =
𝑞 1
2 2
charge remains positive (q). Electric dipoles in space are 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 +𝑎
always directed from negative charge ‘-q’ to positive charge It is observed that the electric fields E–q due to the charge –q
‘q’ by default. The dipole’s center is the point where ‘q’ and ‘- and E+q due to the charge +q and are equal. The E+q and E–q
q’ meet. directions are displayed in the above-given figure. The
The field of an electric dipole components normal to the dipole axis clearly cancel out.
Coulomb’s law and the superposition principle may be used Along the dipole axis, the components add up. The entire
to calculate the electric field of a pair of charges (–q and q) at electric field is in the opposite direction of 𝑃̂ .
any point in space. The above expression can be added as,
𝐸 = −(𝐸+𝑞 + 𝐸−𝑞 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑃̂
By applying the parallelogram law of vectors, the electric field 2𝑞 𝑎
at any general point P is determined by summing the electric 𝐸=− 3𝑃
̂
4𝜋𝜀0
(𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )2
fields E–q due to the charge –q and E+q due to the charge q.
For points on the axis At large distances (r >> a), the above expression can be
written as,
2𝑞 𝑎
𝐸=− ̂
3𝑃
4𝜋𝜀0
(𝑟 2 )2
2𝑞 𝑎
𝐸=− 𝑃̂
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3
Suppose the point P be at distance r from the center of the At great distances, it is evident in both cases that the dipole
dipole on the side of the charge q. Then electric field E–q due field does not involve q and a separately; it is dependent on
to the charge –q can be expressed as, the product qa. This hints at the meaning of the dipole
𝑞 moment. The dipole moment of an electric dipole is a vector
𝐸 −𝑞 = − 2𝑃
̂
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟+𝑎)
quantity and it is symbol is p is defined by
where 𝑃̂ is the unit vector along the dipole axis that is from – 𝑝 = 𝑞 × 2𝑎𝑃̂
q to q. Similarly, Then electric field E+q due to the charge +q Dipole In A Uniform External Field
can be expressed as A uniform electric field has constant magnitude and fixed
𝑞
𝐸 +𝑞 = 2𝑃
̂ direction. Such a field is produced between the plates of a
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟−𝑎)
Now, the total field at P can be calculated by adding the charged parallel plate [Link] two charges in a dipole
electric fields E–q due to the charge –q and E+q due to the are separated by some distance, the forces acting at different
charge +q and can be expressed as points result in a torque on the dipole. The torque tries to
𝐸 = 𝐸 +𝑞 + 𝐸 −𝑞 align the dipole with an electric field. Once aligned, the torque
𝑞 𝑞 becomes 0.
𝐸= (𝑟−𝑎)2
𝑃̂ +(− (𝑟+𝑎)2
𝑃̂ )
4𝜋𝜀0 4𝜋𝜀0
𝑞 𝑞
𝐸=− (𝑟−𝑎) 2
𝑃̂ − 𝑃̂
4𝜋𝜀0 4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟+𝑎)2
𝑞 1 1
𝐸= [ − (𝑟+𝑎)2] 𝑃̂
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟−𝑎)2
𝑞 4𝑎𝑟
𝐸= [ ] 𝑃̂
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )2
For r >> a, the above expression can be written as,
𝑞 4𝑎𝑟 𝑞 4𝑎𝑟
𝐸= [(𝑟 2)2 ] 𝑃̂ 𝐸= [ 4 ] 𝑃̂
4𝜋𝜀0 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 Magnitude of torque
𝑞 4𝑎𝑟
𝐸= [ ̂
3 ]𝑃
𝜏=qE x 2a sin𝜃
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝜏 = 2qaE sin𝜃
For points on the equatorial plane- 𝜏 = pEsin𝜃.
The vector form of torque is the cross product of dipole
moment and electric field.
Gauss law
This law states that electric flux fE through any closed surface
is equal to 1/e0 times the net charge 'q' enclosed by the
surface i.e
→ →
 E .ds =  0
q
fE =
 Independent of distances between charges inside the
surface and their distribution.
Independent of shape, size and nature of surface.
q Gauss law is valid only for the vector fields which obey
inverse square law
Gauss's and coulomb's law are comparable.

Note Note
The closed surface can be hypothetical and then it is
called a Gaussian surface. (i) A charge q is placed at the centre of a cube, then
𝑞
If the closed surface enclosed a number of charges (a) Total flux through cube =
𝜀0
q1, q2 ........... qn etc. then (b) Flux through each surface =
𝑞
6𝜀0
(ii) A charge q is placed at the center of a face of a
f= = = 𝑞
cube, then total flux through the cube =
2𝜀0
A second cube can be assumed adjacent to the first
cube, total flux through both cubes
𝑞 𝑞
= , So flux through each cube =
𝜀0 2𝜀0

q1 q2

q3 q4 (iii) Now, q is placed at a corner then the flux will

𝑞
be
8𝜀0

Flux is -

Q. What is the flux through a cube of side 𝑎 if a point charge of 𝑞 is at one of its corners?
2𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
(a) (b) (c) (d) 6𝑎2
𝜀0 8𝜀0 𝜀0 2𝜀0

Sol. Ans. (b)

Eight identical cubes are required so that the given charge 𝑞 appears at the centre of the bigger cube.
Thus, the electric flux passing through the given cube is
1 𝑞 𝑞
ϕ= ( )=
8 𝜀0 8𝜀0

Q. A charge 𝑄 is enclosed by a Gaussian spherical surface of radius 𝑅. If the radius is doubled, then
determine the outward electric flux.

Sol. According to Gauss’s law

𝑄enclosed
ϕ𝐸 =
𝜀0
If the radius of the Gaussian surface is doubled, the outward electric flux will remain the same. This
is because electric flux depends only on the charge enclosed by the surface.

Application of Gauss’s law In all the three types of spheres, charge resides only on
Electric field due to a charged conducting sphere/ Hollow
the outer surface of the sphere in order to remain in
conducting or insulating sphere.
minimum potential energy state.
 Electric field due to solid insulating sphere
A charge given to a solid insulating sphere is distributed
equally throughout its volume
r Electric Field
O p
R q Q R p
r
O
Case: 1 OP = r ³ R
→ 1 𝑞 1 𝜎𝑅 2
𝐸= 𝑟̂ = 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝜀0 𝑟 2
Case: 1 r > R (point is outside the sphere)
(s = surface charge density) →
→ 𝜎 1 Q
Case: 2 r = R 𝐸= 𝑟̂ E = r̂
𝜀0 40 r 2
→
Case: 3 r < R 𝐸=0 Case: 2 r = R (point is at the surface)
i.e. At point interior to a conducting or a hollow → 1 Q
sphere, electric field intensity is zero. E= r̂ = Emax = Esurface
40 R 2
For points outside the sphere, it behaves like all the
charge is present at the centre. Case: 3 r < R (point is inside the sphere)
Intensity of electric field is maximum at the surface → 1 Q
E = r r̂
40 R 3
Electric field at the surface is always perpendicular to
the surface. r
=
For points, near the surface of the conductor, E = 3 0
perpendicular to the surface Ein µ r
Graphically, at r = 0, E = 0
E Graphically

1
E 1
r2 E
E= 0 r2
r Er
E r
r<R r=R r>R
Electric potential
Case: 1 r < R
1 𝑄 𝜎𝑅
Vin = =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 𝜀0 r<R r=R r>R r
Case: 2 r = R Again, for points outside the sphere, it behaves as all the
1 𝑄 𝜎𝑅
Vsurface = = charge is present at the centre
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 𝜀0
Case: 3 r > R For points outside, it obeys inverse square law
1 𝑄 𝜎𝑅 2 Electric Potential
Vout = =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑟 Case: 1 r > R
For points interior to a conducting or a hollow sphere, 1 𝑄
potential is same everywhere and equal to the Vout =
potential at the surface. 40 𝑟

Case: 2 r = R
kQ 1 𝑄
V= Vsurface =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
R Case: 3 r < R
1 𝑄(3𝑅 2 −𝑟 2 )
kQ Vin =
40 2𝑅 3
V V=
r Vcentre =
3 1 𝑄
2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
Vcentre = 3/2 Vsurface
r<R r=R r>R Graphically
 Intensity at points near the sheet
→ 
3 E= r̂
V0
Parabola 0
2
where
V0 s = surface charge density
+ +
hyparabola + + 
V + +
+ +
O r<R r=R r>R + +
E
Electric field due to infinitely long charge + +
+ +
A long wire is given a line charge density l. + +
If wire is positively charged, direction of E will be away + +
from the wire while for a negatively charged wire, →
→ E is independent of distance of the point from the
direction of E will be towards the wire. sheet and also of the area of sheet i.e. There is an
E at point p equipotential region near the sheet.
→ Direction of electric field is perpendicular to the sheet.
𝜆 𝜆
E = 2𝜋𝜀 𝑟 𝑟̂ or E =
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 Potential difference between two points A (r1) and B
0

+ (r2) (r1 < r2) near the sheet is

+ 
+ A B DV = VA – VB = (r2 − r1 )
E 0
+ r
1 Electric field due to two infinite parallel plates of charge
+
r Both plates have same type of charge
+ 2
  
+ EO = E 1 + E2 = + =
O
r 2 0 2 0  0
Potential difference between points A (r1) & B(r2) = VA  
E P = E1 + E2 = − =0
 r 
2 0 2 0
– VB = ln  2    
20  r1  E R = E1 + E2 = + =
If two charged wires (l1) & (l2) are kept parallel to each 2 0 2 0  0
+  + 
other at a distance 'd', then the force on unit length of + +
any of the wire is: E1 E2 + E 2 E1 + R
𝜆1 𝜆2
O + P + E 2 E1
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑑 + +
Electric field at a point due to an infinite sheet of charge + +
If 𝜎 = surface charge density. Intensity at points near to the + +
→  1 2
sheet = E = r̂ Two plates have opposite type of charge
2 0
 
EO = E1 + E 2 = − =0
 2 0 2 0
E   
r EP = E1 + E 2 = + =
2 0 2 0  0
 O r
E  
ER = E1 + E 2 = − =0
2 0 2 0
Direction of electric field is perpendicular to the sheet of +  – 
charge. + –
Intensity of electric field does not depend upon the distance E 2 E1 E E R
+ 2 1 –
of points from the sheet for the points in front of sheet i.e. + –
There is an equipotential region near the charged sheet. O P E 2 E1
+ –
Potential difference between two points A & B at distances r1 + –
& r2 respectively is + –
𝜎
VA – VB = (𝑟2 − 𝑟1 ) 1 2
2𝜀0
Electric field due to infinite charged metal sheet
 Note Intensity will be maximum at a distance
R
from the
In this case, we will have a uniform electric field 2
between the two plates directed from positive to center and
negative charged plate. Electric field intensity is 2 1 Q
Emax = . . 2
zero elsewhere. 3√3 4𝜋𝜀0
R
Electric field due to charged ring: Q charge is Electric potential at a distance x from centre,
distributed over a ring of radius R. 1 Q
V=
Intensity of electric field at a distance x from the centre 40 (x + R 2 )
2
of ring along its axis -
1 Qx Uniformly charged semi - circular arc
E=
40 (R + x 2 )3 / 2
2 Q
R
d
r
R  dE cos  axis of E
O x P  the loop 𝜆
Ecentre =
dE 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
𝑄
Intensity will be zero at the centre of the ring. where l = linear charge density =
𝜋𝑅
1 𝑄
Vcentre =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅

Q. Two parallel infinite line charges with linear charge densities +𝜆 C/m and −𝜆 C/m are placed at a distance of
2𝑅 in free space. What is the electric field mid-way between the two-line charges?
𝜆
Sol. Electric field due to an infinite line charge, 𝐸 =
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Net electric field at mid-point 𝑂,
𝐸⃗0 = 𝐸⃗1 + 𝐸⃗2
𝜆 𝜆
As, 𝐸1 = 𝐸2 = ∴ 𝐸0 = 2𝐸1 = N C −1
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 𝜋𝜀0 𝑅

Q. A hollow insulated conduction sphere is given a positive charge of 10 μC. What will be the electric
field at the centre of the sphere if its radius is 2 metres?

Sol.
Field inside a conducting sphere = 0.

Electric dipole Electric field due to a dipole

A system consisting of two equal and opposite charges There are two components of electric field at any point
separated by a small distance is termed an electric →

dipole. (a) Er in the direction of r

→
d (b) Eq in the direction perpendicular to r
– +
p 1 2P cos
–q +q Er = .
40 r3
Na+Cl -, H+ Cl - etc.
1  P sin  
Eq = . 
Dipole moment: The product of the magnitude of 40  r 3 
charges and distance between them is called the dipole
E Er
moment.
(a) This is a vector quantity which is directed from E 
negative to positive charge. p
(b) Unit: Coulomb - metre (C-m)
r
(c) Dimension: [M0 L1 T1A1]
→ → 
(d) Dipole moment p = q d –q O q
Resultant Note
P
E= E 2r + E 2 = 1 + 3 cos2  (i) This is not essential that at a point, where E =
40 r 3 0, V will also be zero there e.g., inside a
→ → uniformly charged sphere, E = 0 but V ¹ 0
Angle between the resultant E and E r , a is given by a (ii) Also, if V = 0, it is not essential for E to be zero
E  1  e.g., in equatorial position of dipole
= tan–1    = tan–1  tan 
2  V = 0, but E ¹ 0
 Er 
If 𝜃 = 0, i.e point is on the axis - Electric dipole in an electric field - uniform electric field
Eaxis =
1 2P
. When an electric dipole is placed in a uniform electric dipole,
40 r 3 a torque acts on it
q = 0, i. e. along the axis. which subjects the dipole to rotatory motion. This t is
If q = 90º, i.e., point is on the line bisecting the dipole given by t = PE sinq or
→ →
perpendicularly →
 = P E
1 P
Eequator = . Potential energy of the dipole
40 r 3 → →
So, Eaxis = 2Eequator (for same r) U = – PE cos q = – P . E
1 2 Pr Cases:
. 2 2 2 → →
40 (r −  ) (a) If q = 0º, i.e., P || E , t = 0 and U = – PE, dipole is in the
Eaxis =
minimum potential energy state and no torque acting on
1 P
Eequator = . 2 2 3/ 2 it and hence it is in the stable equilibrium state.
40 (r +  ) → →
where P = q. (2l) (b) For q = 180º, i.e., P and E are in opposite direction, then
Q t = 0 but U = PE which is maximum potential energy state.
Although it is in equilibrium but it is not a stable state and
a slight perturbation can disturb it.
→ →
r (c) q = 900, i.e., P ⊥ E , then
t = PE (maximum) and U = 0

–q 90° +q p Note
 O  r (a) There is no net force acting on the dipole in a
1 𝑞(2ℓ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 uniform electric field.
V= .
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2 (b) If dipole is placed in a non-uniform electric field,
→ → it performs rotatory as well as translator
1 P cos 1 P. r
= . 2 = . motion because now a net force also acts on the
40 r 40 r 2 dipole along with the torque. (Important)
→
1 𝑃 .𝑟̂
= .
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟3
→ →
where q is the angle between P and r . Work done in rotating on electric dipole in an electric
V can also be written as field
1 → 1 1 r̂ (i) Work done in rotating the dipole from q1 to q2 in a
V= − P .    because    = − 2 uniform electric field
40 r r r
W = PE (cosq1 – cosq2)
P
If q = 0, Vaxis = Force on the surface of a charged
40 . r 2 If surface charge density on a surface is s, then electric field
𝜎
If q = 90º, Vequator = 0 intensity at a point near this surface is .
𝜀0
Here we see that V = 0 but E ¹ 0 for points at equator When a conductor is charged then it's entire surface
Again, if r >> 2l is not true and d = 2l, experiences an outward force perpendicular to the surface.
1 P The force per unit area of the charged surface is called as the
Vaxis = . 2 2 electrical pressure,
40 (r −  )
𝜎2
Vequator = 0 Pelectrical. = N/m2.
2𝜀0
The direction of this force is perpendicular to the surface.
Energy associated with the electric field 4 3 4 3
(i) The energy stored per unit volume around a point in an n. pr = pR or R = n1/3 r (c) Potential of each small
3 3
electric field E is given by
1 q
1 drops = V = .
U = e0 E2 This is also called energy density 40 r
2
(d) Potential of large drop = V'
(ii) If in place of vacuum some medium is present then U =
1 Q
1 V' = = V' = n2/3 V
e e E 2. 40 R
2 0 r
Drop of a charged liquid - 1 q
(e) Electric field at surface of small drop E= .
If n identical drops each having a charge q and radius r 40 r 2
coalesce to form a single large drop of radius R and charge Q, (f) Electric field at surface of large drop = E'
then 1 Q
(a) Charge will be conserved i.e., nq = Q E' = . 2
40 R
(b) Volume will be conserved i.e.
E' = n1/3 z
Like Charges and Unlike Charges: An Electric Field Line:
Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other. It is a curve drawn in such a way that the tangent at each point
• Conductors and Insulators: on the curve gives the direction of electric field at that point.
Conductors allow movement of electric charge through Important Properties of Field Lines:
them, insulators do not. These are:
• Quantization of Electric Charge: It means that total (i) Field lines are continuous curves without any breaks.
charge (q) of a body is always an integral multiple of a (ii) Two field lines cannot cross each other.
basic quantum of (iii) Electrostatic field lines start at positive charges and end
charge (e) at negative charges – they
q = ne cannot form closed loops.
where n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …. • Electric Field at a Point due to Charge q:
• Additivity of Electric Charges: F
Total charge of a system is the algebraic sum of all E=
individual charges in the system. q
• Electric Field due to an Electric Dipole in its
• Conservation of Electric Charges:
Equatorial Plane at a Distance r from the Centre:
The total charge of an isolated system remains uncharged −𝑝 1
with time. 𝐸⃗ = 3
4𝜋𝜀0
(𝑎2 +𝑟 2 )2
−𝑝
• Superposition Principle: ≅ , 𝑓𝑜𝑟r>>a
4𝜋𝜀0
It is the properties of forces with which two charges
• Electric Field due to an Electric Dipole on the Axis at
attract or repel each other are not affected by the
a Distance r from the Centre:
presence of a third (or more) additional charge(s). 2𝑝𝑟
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )2
• The Electric Field E at a Point due to a Charge
2𝑝
Configuration: It is the force on a small positive test ≅ , 𝑓𝑜𝑟r>>a
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3
charges q placed at the point divided by a magnitude
• A Dipole Placed in Uniform Electric Field E
experiences:
Torque  ,
𝜏 = 𝑝𝑥𝐸⃗
• The Electric Flux:
𝜙 = ∫ 𝑑𝜙 = ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠is a ‘dot’ product, hence it is scalar.
𝜋
 is positive for all values of 𝜃 < 2
|𝑞|
𝜋
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2  is negative for all values of 𝜃 > 2
It is radially outwards from q, if q is positive and radially • Gauss’s Law:
inwards if q is negative. The flux of electric field through any closed surface S is
E at a point varies inversely as the square of its distance 1/ε0 times the total charge enclosed by S.
from Q, the plot of E versus r will look like the figure 𝜙 = ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 =
𝑞

given below. 𝜀0

Coulomb’s Law: • Electric field outside the charged shell is as though the
The mutual electrostatic force between two point charges q 1 total charge is concentrated at the centre. The same
and q2 is proportional to the product q1q2 and inversely result is true for a solid sphere of uniform volume charge
proportional to the square of the distance r21 separating density.
them. • The electric field is zero at all points inside a charged
shell.
k (q1q 2)
F21 ( force on q 2 due to q1 = rˆ21 • Electric field E, due to an infinitely long straight wire
r212 of uniform linear charge density λ:
Where r̂21 is a unit vector in the direction from q1 to q2 and 𝐸=
𝜆
. 𝑛̂
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
1 where r is the perpendicular distance of the point from
k= is the proportionality constant.
4 0 the wire and is the radial unit vector in the plane normal
to the wire passing through the point.
 where r is the distance of the point from the centre of the
• Electric field E, due to an infinite thin plane sheet of
shell and R the radius of the shell, q is the total charge of
uniform surface charge density σ:
𝜎 the shell & q = 4πR2σ.
𝐸= . 𝑛̂
2𝜀0 • Electric field E along the outward normal to the surface
Where 𝑛̂ is a unit vector normal to the plane, outward on is zero and σ is the surface charge density. Charges in a
either side. conductor can reside only at its surface. Potential is
• Electric field E, due to thin spherical shell of uniform constant within and on the surface of a conductor. In a
surface charge density σ: cavity within a conductor (with no charges), the electric
𝑞
𝐸= 2 . 𝑟̂ (𝑟 ≥ 𝑅)
field is zero.
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
E = 0(𝑟 < 𝑅)