‫جامعـــة البلقــاء التطبيقيـــة‬

‫كليــــــة الهندســــة التكنولوجيــــة‬

AL-BALQA APPLIED UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
TECHNOLOGY 1997 ‫تأسسـت عام‬

Experiment number (2-4)

Experiment title
)COMPRESSORS Reciprocating compressors(

Course title (Thermodynamic lab)

Instructor’s Name
Dr. Abdullah N. Olimat
:Student Names
Rita khader Emran al-dawawseh
:Experiment Contacted on 11,18/3/2025
Report Submitted on 8/3/2025
.Dept. of Mech Eng

Faculty of Engineering and Technology

AL- Balqa Applied University

1. Objectives
The objective of this experiment is to analyze the performance of a single-
stage reciprocating air compressor. Specifically, the experiment aims to:
 Determine the polytropic index of compression.
 Calculate the volumetric efficiency of the single-stage compressor.
 Evaluate other efficiencies associated with the compressor.
 Measure and analyze the condensate collected in the reservoir.

2. Introduction and Theoretical Background

A reciprocating air compressor is a type of positive displacement machine
that compresses air using a piston-cylinder arrangement. This experiment
focuses on a single-stage compressor, meaning compression occurs in one
stage before the air is delivered to the storage reservoir. The key theoretical
aspects include:
 Polytropic Process: The compression process in real compressors is neither
isothermal nor adiabatic but follows a polytropic path, defined by the
equation: where is the polytropic index, is pressure, and is volume.
 Volumetric Efficiency: It is a measure of the effectiveness of the
compressor in drawing air into the cylinder and is given by:
 Other Efficiencies: Various efficiencies such as isentropic efficiency,
mechanical efficiency, and overall efficiency determine the compressor’s
performance.
 Reservoir Condensate Measurement: During compression, water vapor in
the air condenses due to increased pressure and temperature variations, and
its quantity provides insight into system moisture content and efficiency.

3. Experimental Setup and Procedure

The experimental setup consists of a single-stage reciprocating air
compressor equipped with pressure gauges, temperature sensors, a flow
meter, and a reservoir to collect condensate. The procedure includes:
1. Starting the compressor and allowing it to reach steady-state conditions.
2. Recording initial and final pressure and temperature values for polytropic
index calculations.
3. Measuring the intake and discharge volumes to determine volumetric
efficiency.
4. Calculating isentropic and mechanical efficiencies using relevant
thermodynamic equations.
5. Collecting and weighing the condensate from the reservoir.

4. Experimental Observation
During the experiment, the following observations were recorded:
 Before entering the compressor there is a throttle area.
  At the entrance there are two thermometers, one for dry and the other for
wet.
 At the end of the suction line there is a filter to draw in air without
impurities.
 The compressor began operation smoothly, and pressure readings increased
steadily as expected.
 Heat generation was noticeable around the cylinder, emphasizing the need
for cooling mechanisms.
 A delay in pressure buildup was observed, possibly due to clearance volume
or minor leaks in the system.
 The collected condensate indicated the presence of moisture in the
compressed air, which varied with operating conditions.
 Differences in intake and discharge pressures suggested potential losses in
volumetric efficiency.
 The sound was considered a little loud, maybe there are mechanical
problems.
 Ventilation process to stabilize pressure.

Experimental measured data

Table 1.1 Data obtained from the experiment.

Speed comp. RPM=720 p° =1 ¯¿ 3
ρw =0.87 g/cm Bore diameter= 70mm
Clearance Length= 1mm Orifice Pipe Diamter=25.4mm Sroke length= 50mm
Orifice Diamter= 12.7mm Orifice area (m2) Cd=0.62 orifice discharge coefficient
Local Atmospheric Pressure= 1.012 [Link]
P1(bar) T1(℃) T2(℃) T3(℃) T q(N.m) ΔP(bar) Time(m)
2 17 62 4.6 125
3 18 10 109 5 104 5
4 18 120 5.1 90
5 18 128 5.3 83
6 18 136 5.5 78

Part 1 Polytropic Index

A reciprocating compressor is a type of positive displacement machine where a
piston moves within a cylinder, compressing a fixed mass of air by reducing its
volume. According to Boyle’s Law, as the volume of a gas decreases, its pressure
increases. This fundamental principle governs the operation of reciprocating
compressors.
The relationship between pressure and volume can be represented graphically.

Fig 1.1 Theoretical analysis of the compression cycle Fig 1.2 Actual analysis of the compression
cycle

Since reciprocating compressors operate at relatively low rotational speeds, the

compression and expansion processes deviate from purely adiabatic (n = 1.4) or
isothermal (n = 1) behavior. Instead, the process follows a polytropic path, where
the polytropic index typically falls around 1.3 in real applications.
Experimentally, the polytropic index can be determined by analyzing the slope of
the P-V graph. The gradient of this curve represents (n−1)/n(n-1)/n(n−1)/n, from
which the value of n can be calculated. This allows for a more precise
understanding of the compression process and efficiency of the system.

Result table
Table 1.2 Delivery pressure variation of compressor 1 on polytropic index at a given speed
N= 720 RPM
P° =1.012 ¯¿

( p1p ) ( TT 31 ) K
P1 T1 T3 P1 bar p1 T1 T3 T3 n cal Slope nexp
ln ln
ba ℃ ℃ abs °
p° K K T1
rg abs
2 17 62 3.01 2.9762 1.0906 290 33 1.1552 0.14427 1.15 - -
2 5
3 18 109 4.01 3.9644 1.3773 291 38 1.3127 0.27208 1.246 0.44579 1.8043
2 2
4 18 120 5.01 4.9525 1.5999 291 39 1.3505 0.30047 1.231 0.05574 1.05903
2 3 2
5 18 128 6.01 5.6407 1.73 291 40 1.378 0.32063 1.227 0.15495 1.18336
2 1 5
6 18 136 7.01 6.9288 1.9356 291 40 1.4055 0.34039 1.213 0.09610 1.10632
2 9 4

Sample of calculation
Sample #2
p1
ln ⁡( )
p°
ntheo , calc=
ln
( pp1 )−ln ⁡( TT 31 )
°

ntheo , calc =
(
ln
1.012 )
4.012
=1.246
ln (
1.012 )
−ln (
382 )
3.012 335

T3
ln
T 1 ln ( 1.3127 ) −ln ⁡( 1.1552)
Slope = p 1 = = 0.44579
ln ln ( 3.9644 ) −ln ⁡( 2.9762)
p°
nexp−1 nexp−1
Slope = n ≫≫ 0.44579= ≫ ≫ n exp=1.8043
exp n exp

1.8043 +1.05903+1.18336+1.10632
nexp avg= =1.28825
4
Figures and Data Discussion

Fig 1.3 shows the relation between the Ln(T3/T1) vs. Ln(P1/P0) values obtained from the Exp.

T3 p1
In the plot of ln T 1 versus ln p , the trend reflects the isothermal nature of the
°

compression process. Since the compression is isothermal, the expected value of

the polytropic index n is approximately 1. The experimental data yielded an
average value of 1.2, which is slightly above the ideal isothermal value. This
deviation may be attributed to minor heat transfer effects or measurement
inaccuracies.
n−1
The slope of the plotted line represents n . The near-linearity of the plot supports
the assumption of an isothermal process, with small variations likely due to system
inefficiencies, temperature fluctuations, or instrument precision. This analysis
confirms that the compressor operates close to isothermal conditions, but with
slight deviations that could be minimized with better thermal management.
 Part 2 single stage volumetric efficiency

Volumetric efficiency is a key measure of an air compressor's performance. It

indicates how effectively the compressor draws in air compared to its theoretical
capacity. A higher volumetric efficiency means better utilization of the cylinder’s
volume, leading to improved performance.
Key Concepts
1. Density of Air at Suction Conditions
The density of air at the compressor inlet depends on the suction pressure
and temperature. When the suction pressure is higher or the temperature is
lower, the air is denser, allowing more mass to enter the cylinder.
2. Actual Air Mass Flow Rate
The actual mass of air entering the compressor is affected by the restrictions
in the intake system, such as valve design and pressure losses. The flow rate
is determined by the size of the intake opening and the pressure difference
driving the air into the cylinder.
3. Theoretical Air Mass Flow Rate
The theoretical air mass flow rate assumes that the cylinder fills completely
during each intake stroke. It depends on the volume displaced by the piston,
the speed of the compressor, and the air density at suction conditions.
4. Volumetric Efficiency
Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the actual air intake to the theoretical
intake. It is affected by factors such as clearance volume (the small amount
of air left in the cylinder after compression), pressure losses in the intake
system, and the temperature of incoming air. A lower clearance volume and
reduced intake restrictions help improve efficiency.
Conclusion
Volumetric efficiency determines how well a compressor performs in delivering
air. To achieve higher efficiency, engineers focus on minimizing clearance volume,
optimizing valve design, and reducing intake losses. A well-designed compressor
with high volumetric efficiency consumes less power and operates more
effectively.
 Result table
Table 2.3 Delivery Pressure Variation of Compressor 1 on Volumetric Efficiency at a Given Speed
N= 720 RPM
P° =1.012 ¯¿
P1 T1 T3 P1 bar Air Manometer Actual air mass Ideal air mass Actual η Theory
bar ℃ ℃ abs density ΔP mm flow ṁ kg/s flow vol,a η vol
g ρ kg/m3 H2 O ṁ kg/s

2 17 62 3.012 1.18897 125 4.08555×10−3 5.490831×10−3 74.40677% 0.972529

3 18 109 4.012 1.18673 104 3.72306×10−3 5.480486×10−3 67.9331% 0.960777

4 18 120 5.012 1.18816 90 3.46552×10−3 5.487091×10−3 63.15769% 0.949674
5 18 128 6.012 1.18888 83 3.32903×10−3 5.490416×10−3 60.63347% 0.939043
6 18 136 7.012 1.18939 78 3.22789×10−3 5.492771×10−3 58.766149% 0.928800

Sample of calculation
Sample #1
Table 2.4 shows volumetric flow rate with delivery pressure
P° (pa) V̇ (m3 /s ¿ P1 (pa)
98933.163 3.437×10 −3
301200
99112.4 3.137234×10−3 401200
99231.887 2.9167×10−3 501200
99291.6199 2.800141×10−3 601200
993342934 2.7139035×10−3 701200

Figures and Data Discussion

Fig 2.4 Shows the relation between the volumetric flow rate and delivery pressure.
The graph shows that as delivery pressure increases, the volumetric flow rate
decreases. This is mainly due to the increase in pressure ratio, which reduces
volumetric efficiency by limiting the intake volume of air per cycle.
Additionally, clearance volume effects contribute to this decline. Compressed air
trapped in the clearance space re-expands during the suction stroke, reducing the
fresh intake volume. Higher pressures also increase air temperature, lowering its
density and further decreasing volumetric flow rate.
Overall, the observed trend aligns with theoretical expectations, showing how
increased delivery pressure negatively impacts compressor efficiency.

Fig 2.5 Shows the relation between the volumetric efficiency and the pressure ratio.

The theoretical and experimental volumetric efficiencies of the compressor have

been determined and compared. It is clear that the theoretical volumetric efficiency
was higher than the experimental volumetric efficiency for all pressure readings.
The maximum experimental volumetric efficiency was 58.76% while the
maximum theoretical volumetric efficiency was 92.88%.
This is because the pistons never actually reach the top of their cylinders because
of a small clearance volume (to prevent damage). This means that for each piston
stroke, a small amount of air is compressed but never delivered. So, the actual
volume of air moved is less than the swept (theoretical)Vs. Also, the real machine
cannot pass as much air as it should due to the slight fraction caused by the orifice
and inlet manifold needed for measurement of the air inlet conditions. The
resulting actual air mass flow becomes less, but the swept volume remains the
same, giving a lower efficiency compared to the theoretical value.
 Part 3 single stage other efficiencies

Indicated work rate ( Ẇi ) The indicated work done rate ( Ẇi ) is given by the
area of the PV diagram of a compressor, so that;
[ ]
n
n ( )
Ẇ i=ṁair , a Rair T 1 ( ) P Rn−1 −1 ¿
n−1

the mechanical power (Ẇ mech ) is the power applied in the shaft and it’s
theoretically the torque at each compressor is 3 times that at dynamometer, so you
must multiply the displayed value by 3 to find the mechanical power.
T q 1 ×3 ×2 π × N 1
Compressor 1 Ẇ mech ¿
60

the actual (Ẇ mech ) at the compressor is around 80% of that calculated.
Ẇ mech =Ẇ mech ×80 %
actual

Isothermal power and efficiency (Ẇ iso ) This is the work done to increase the air
pressure. It is a product of the air mass flow:
Ẇ iso =¿ ṁair ,a × R air ×T 1 × ln (P R ¿ )¿

The isothermal efficiency (ηiso ) is the ratio of work done over the indicated
Ẇ iso
power used to do the work. ηiso = ×100 %
Ẇ i

Overall isothermal efficiency (η oiso)This is a measure of how efficient the

compressor in at turning input (shaft) mechanical power into work done
compressing the air. It is an overall efficiency of the system including all losses.
Ẇ iso
η oiso= ×100 %
Ẇ mech

(The isothermal efficiency is higher than overall efficiency.)

Mechanical Efficiency (ηmech ) This is the ratio of the indicated power used by the
compressor to compress air, against the input shaft power applied to the
compressor
(from the Dynamometer):
Ẇ i
ηmech = ×100 %
Ẇ mech ,act
Result table
Table 3.5 Delivery Pressure Variation of Compressor 1 on Other Effecincy at a Given Speed
 ρair ΔP ṁs ṁa Actual η vol,a Theory T q(N.m)
kg/m3 mm H 2 O kg/s kg/s η vol

1.18897 125 5.490831×10−3 4.08555×10−3 74.40677% 0.972529 4.6

1.18673 104 5.480486×10−3 3.72306×10−3 67.9331% 0.960777 5

1.18816 90 5.487091×10−3 3.46552×10−3 63.15769% 0.949674 5.1

1.18888 83 5.490416×10−3 3.32903×10−3 60.63347% 0.939043 5.3

1.18939 78 5.492771×10−3 3.22789×10−3 58.766149% 0.928800 5.5

Pr Ẇ iso Ẇ mech Ẇ i ηmech ηiso η oiso ηo

3.04447 378.57602 832.39639 428.657025 51.49674 88.31677 45.48026

4.047929 434.75631 904.77868 508.57323 56.20968 85.48549 48.05112

5.0507958 468.74488 922.87258 562.51637 83.33 50.79194

60.95277

6.0548916 500.69598 959.06541 613.65121 63.98429 81.59293 52.20666

7.0589922 526.898022 995.25655 657.38336 80.1508 52.94092

66.05165

Sample of calculation
Sample #1
Figures and Data Discussion
Fig. 3.6 illustrates the variation of mechanical, isothermal, overall isothermal, and overall efficiencies
with respect to the pressure ratio

The graph illustrates the variation of mechanical, isothermal, overall isothermal,

and overall efficiencies with respect to the pressure ratio (PR). The observed trends
provide insights into the impact of increasing PR on compressor performance.
As the pressure ratio increases, all efficiencies generally exhibit a declining trend.
This is expected since higher PR values lead to greater compression work and
thermal losses, reducing the overall efficiency of the system. The isothermal
efficiency (η_iso) remains the highest among them, as it represents the ideal case
where no heat is lost during compression. In contrast, the overall isothermal
efficiency (η_oiso) is lower due to additional losses.
Mechanical efficiency (η_mech) and overall isothermal efficiency (η_oiso) exhibit
similar behavior, as they share a common denominator. However, as PR increases,
the gap between their values widens. This suggests that mechanical losses become
more significant at higher PRs, as increased friction, heat generation, and re-
expansion effects further reduce efficiency.
The overall efficiency (η_overall) follows a similar decreasing pattern, influenced
by both mechanical and thermal losses. This decline underscores the importance of
optimizing compressor design and operational conditions to mitigate performance
losses at higher PR values.
These findings emphasize the trade-off between achieving higher pressures and
maintaining efficiency. Future studies could focus on reducing mechanical and
thermal losses by improving lubrication, cooling strategies, and compressor
component design.
Part 4 Single Stage Determination of Reservoir Condensate
The Single Stage Determination of Reservoir Condensate experiment investigates
the formation of condensate in a compressed air reservoir. During air compression,
moisture in the intake air condenses due to temperature and pressure changes,
which can affect system performance. This study examines the factors influencing
condensate formation and highlights the importance of proper moisture removal to
prevent system inefficiencies and potential damage. Understanding this process
helps improve the operation and maintenance of compressed air systems

Table 4.6 Prediction the mass of the condensate water in the reservoir over a given time
N= 750 rpm
P0= 1.008 bar
Measured Period: 5 minutes

𝐏𝟏 𝐓𝟏 𝐓2 𝐓3 𝐓9 𝐏𝟏
Condensate Collected: …………mL

flow 𝒎̇ 𝒂
Manometer Actual air mass

𝒌𝒈/𝒔
bar g ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃ bar abs ΔP mm
H2 O

3 18 10 109 4.008 104 3.738×10−3

Discussion
In the Single Stage Determination of Reservoir Condensate experiment, the
objective is to analyze the moisture content that accumulates in the reservoir of a
single-stage air compressor. When atmospheric air is compressed, its temperature
rises, increasing the capacity of the air to hold moisture. However, as the
compressed air cools inside the reservoir, water vapor condenses due to the drop in
temperature and pressure variations.
The amount of condensate formed depends on factors such as inlet air humidity,
compression temperature, and cooling rate. If the air entering the compressor has
high humidity, more water vapor will be present, leading to greater condensation.
The outlet temperature also plays a critical role, as higher temperatures delay
condensation, while rapid cooling promotes it.
Condensate accumulation in the air reservoir can cause several operational issues,
including corrosion, reduced efficiency, and damage to pneumatic systems.
Therefore, proper moisture removal techniques, such as drain valves or air dryers,
are essential for maintaining system performance.
By analyzing the collected condensate, this experiment provides insights into the
thermodynamic behavior of compressed air and the importance of moisture control
in air compressor systems. The findings help improve the design and maintenance
of compressed air systems, ensuring efficiency and longevity.
Error Analysis
Several factors may have contributed to errors in the Single Stage Air Compressor
experiment, including measurement inaccuracies, heat losses, and system
inefficiencies. The key sources of error include:
1. Instrumental Errors – Inaccuracies in pressure gauges, thermometers, and
flow meters can lead to deviations in recorded values. Regular calibration is
essential to minimize such errors.
2. Heat Losses to the Surroundings – The compression process generates heat,
but some of it is lost to the environment, affecting temperature readings and
thermodynamic calculations. Insulating components could help reduce this
loss.
3. Air Leakages – Small leaks in the system, particularly in valves, fittings, or
seals, can alter pressure readings and affect efficiency calculations. Ensuring
airtight connections can help minimize this issue.
4. Assumptions in Theoretical Calculations – The experiment assumes ideal
gas behavior and negligible frictional losses, but real systems experience
deviations due to non-ideal effects.
5. Human Errors – Misreading instruments, delays in data recording, or
inconsistent timing in measurements can introduce variability in results.
Careful observation and repeated trials can improve accuracy.

Recommendations
1. Ensure Proper Cooling – Installing an intercooler or improving ventilation
can help regulate the temperature of compressed air, reducing energy losses
and improving efficiency.
2. Regular Maintenance and Inspection – Periodic checks on valves, filters,
and lubrication systems can prevent mechanical wear and improve
compressor lifespan.
3. Monitor and Control Moisture – Using moisture separators or air dryers
can prevent condensate buildup, which can lead to corrosion and operational
inefficiencies.
4. Optimize Operating Conditions – Maintaining appropriate intake air
conditions and pressure settings can enhance the compressor’s performance
and energy efficiency.
Conclusions
The Single Stage Air Compressor experiment demonstrated the thermodynamic
principles governing air compression, including pressure, temperature, and
volumetric efficiency. The results highlighted how compression increases air
temperature and pressure while also affecting moisture content.
Key observations include the importance of proper cooling to maintain efficiency
and the necessity of moisture removal to prevent system damage. Regular
maintenance and monitoring of operating parameters are essential for ensuring
optimal compressor performance. Understanding these factors helps improve the
design and operation of single-stage air compressors in various industrial
applications.