Chapter–24 Evolution

24.0 INTRODUCTION
Questions of origins of earth and life on it have been on the minds of humans since
prehistoric times. Many of us are also concerned with questions of origin.
 How old is the planet earth?
 How long has life been on earth?
 How did life arise on earth?
 How did a certain animal species come into existence?
Answers for these questions come from scientific inquiry. In this chapter we will study
some aspects of organic evolution.
Definition
Evolution refers to the processes that have transformed life on earth from its earliest
forms to the vast diversity that we observe today.
Explanation
 Evolutionary change is based mainly on the interactions between populations of
organisms and their environments.
 Whenever we say or hear the word evolution, name of Darwin comes in our mind
immediately.
 In fact, he was the first person who argued from evidence that species were not specially
created in their present forms rather they had evolved from ancestral species.
He also proposed a mechanism for evolution, which he termed Natural Selection.
24.1 CONCEPT OF EVOLUTION VS SPECIAL CREATION
In the earlier 19th century, there were two schools of thoughts.
1) Creationists believed on theory of Special Creation.
2) Evolutionists believed on theory of Natural Selection.
1) Theory of Special Creation
According to this theory, all living things came into existence in their present forms
especially and specifically created by nature. Among the scientists who believed in divine
creation was Carolus Linnaeus (1701-1778). Carolus Linnaeus in the eighteenth century
classified organisms. He grouped similar species in the same genus and similar genera in
one family. But as a natural theologian, he believed that species were permanent
creations. Carlous Linnaeus was one of the believers of this theory.
2) Theory of Natural Selection
According to this theory, organisms evolved through time, with one type of organism
giving rise to another type of organism.
It is ancient one starting from days of Aristotle to Darwin.

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However, the present-day concept of evolution is based on history.
Scientist’s Name Life Span Achievements
Linnaeus 1707-1778 Order in diversity of life, binomial nomenclature
Lamarck 1744-1829 Theory of evolution
Malthus 1766-1834 Essay on ‘Principle of Population’.
Cuvier 1769-1832 Science of Palaeontology, earth’s history by catastrophism.
Lyell 1797-1875 Principles of Geology
1. Voyage of Beagle.
Darwin 1809-1882 2. Books on origin of species.
3. Essay on origin of species.
Mendel 1822-1884 Papers on inheritance
Wallace 1823-1913 Sent his theory to Darwin
24.2 EVOLUTION FROM PROKARYOTES TO EUKARYOTES
Different speculations about the origin of first life form and evolution of prokaryotes into
eukaryotes are mentioned briefly.
1) Vent Hypothesis
Origin of First Life Form
According to one concept, life may have originated in the oceans, in underwater hot
springs called hydrothermal vents. These vents could have supplied the energy and raw
materials for the origin and survival of early life forms.
Archaebacteria are considered as first life form, which support this vent hypothesis
because they can tolerate temperature upto 120ºC and undergone less evolutionary
changes than any other living species.
As bacteria are prokaryotes, so prokaryotes are considered as first life form on earth.
2) Evolution of Photosynthetic Organisms
Nutrients produced in primitive environment would have limited early life. Photosynthesis,
another source of nutrients, probably freed living organisms from a dwindling supply of
nutrients.
 First photosynthetic organisms probably used hydrogen sulfide as a source of hydrogen
for reducing carbon dioxide to sugars.
 Later water served this same purpose and oxygen liberated by photosynthetic reaction
begun to accumulate in the atmosphere.
3) Evolution of Aerobic Respiration
Accumulation of oxygen in atmosphere changed the primitive environment.
 Ozone developed by oxygen in upper atmosphere began to filter ultraviolet radiations
from the sun. It is considered that about 4.2 billion (420 million) years ago, enough
protective ozone had built up to make life on land possible.
 Reducing atmosphere slowly changed into oxidizing atmosphere.
 Some living organisms began to utilize oxygen.
 Ironically, the change from a reducing atmosphere to an oxidizing atmosphere also means
that life could no longer arise abiotically.
4) Evolution of Prokaryotes into Eukaryotes
 The prokaryotes may have arisen more than 3.5 billion years ago.
 Eukaryotes may have evolved 1.5 billion years ago.
It is considered that prokaryotes converted into eukaryotes. Major change is development
of organelles. Two hypotheses are considered in this context.
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A) ENDOSYMBIONT HYPOTHESIS
This hypothesis was presented by Lynn Margulis.
According to this hypothesis, eukaryotes and their organelles had been produced by some
symbiotic relation with prokaryotes. Origin of some organelles has been described below.
i) Origin of Mitochondria
According to this hypothesis eukaryote cell might have evolved when large anaerobic
amoeboid prokaryote ingested small aerobic bacteria and stabilized them instead of
digesting them. This idea is known as the endosymbiont hypothesis.
These aerobic bacteria then converted into mitochondria, which are the sites of aerobic
respiration and energy conversion in eukaryotic cells.
ii) Origin of Flagella
Flagella (whip-like structure) might have evolved through the ingestion of prokaryotes
similar to spiral-shaped bacteria (spirochetes).
iii) Origin of Chloroplast
Ingestion of prokaryotes that resembled present day cyanobacteria could have led to the
endosymbiotic development of chloroplast in plants.
B) CELL MEMBRANE INVAGINATION HYPOTHESIS
According to this hypothesis, cell membrane of prokaryotes invaginated (folded inward)
to enclose copies of its genetic material.
This invagination resulted in the formation of several double membrane-bounded entities
(organelles) in single cell. These entities could then have evolved into the eukaryotic
mitochondrion, nucleus, chloroplast etc.
5) Evolution of Multicellular Eukaryotic Organism and Diversity
Formation of eukaryotic cell led to a dramatic increase in the complexity and diversity of
life forms on earth.
During evolution, eukaryotic cell became specialized into tissues, which in turn formed
organs for many different functions. These multicellular forms then adapted themselves
to life in a great variety of environment.

Fig 24.1 Two hypothesis on the evolution of the eukaryotic cell.

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QUESTIONS RELATED TO ABOVE ARTICLE
Explain endosymbiont hypothesis for origin of eukaryote cells.
How did eukaryotes evolve from prokaryotes? (LHR 2017, LHR 2021, MTN 2021)
Explain the evolution of eukaryotes by endosymbiotic hypothesis and membrane
invagination hypothesis? (GRW2021, SWL 2022)
Describe the details of engulfment of aerobic bacteria and cyanobacteria by a
prokaryotic cell to develop a eukaryotic cell? (SGD 2022)
How did evolution proceed from prokaryotes to eukaryotes? (Exercise Question iv)
24.3 INHERITANCE OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERS
Presentation
This concept was presented by Jean Baptist Lamarck (1744-1829). He was in charge of
invertebrate collection at the Natural History Museum in Paris. He published his theory
of evolution in 1809, the year Darwin was born.
This theory is considered wrong, as there is no inheritance of somatic structures.
(acquired characteristics)
Mechanism
He proposed two ideas about evolution.
1) Use & Disuse of Organs
Lamarck argued that those parts of the body, which are used extensively to cope with the
environment become larger and stronger, while those that are not used deteriorate.
Example
Examples given by Lamarck were
 Blacksmith developing a bigger bicep in the arm that works the hammer.
 Giraffe stretching its neck to new lengths in pursuit of leaves to eat.
2) Inheritance of Acquired Characters
According to this concept of Lamarck, modifications which an organism acquires during
its lifetime can be passed along to its offsprings.
Example
Example is long neck of giraffe as given by Lamarck.
Lamarck reasoned that long neck evolved gradually as the cumulative product of a great
many generations of ancestors stretching higher and higher.
QUESTIONS RELATED TO ABOVE ARTICLE
Describe the inheritance of acquired characteristics.
Explain the theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics. (SGD 2019)
What is Lamarckism? Differentiate it from Neo – Darwinism. (MTN 2022)
24.3.1 CHARLES DARWIN
Introduction
Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, in Western England in 1809. He joined the
expedition on Beagle to South American coastline.
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Observations
During his voyage, he observed and collected thousands of specimens of diverse faunas
and floras of South America.
 He noticed that the fauna and flora of the different regions of the continent had a definite
South American stamp, very distinct from the life forms of Europe.
 South American fossils were different from modern species but showed many
resemblances with living plants and animals of that continent.
 Most important observations were related to Galapagos Islands. Most of the animals of
Galapagos Island were not found anywhere else in the world but they showed some
resemblances with species living on South American mainland. It was thought that
animals and plants from mainland diversified and colonized on these islands.
 Among the birds, Darwin collected about 13 types of finches. Although they showed
some resemblances but were different species. Some were unique to individual islands,
while other species were distributed on two or more islands that were close together.
Conclusion
After returning to Great Britain in 1836, Darwin perceived origin of new species and
adaptations as closely related processes.
 According to Darwin, a new species would arise from an ancestral form by gradual
accumulation of adaptations to different environment, separated from original habitat by
geographical barriers.
 Over many generations, the two populations could become dissimilar enough to be
designated as separate species.
Essay & Theory
 In early 1840s, Darwin had worked on major features of his theory of natural selection as
mechanism of evolution.
 In 1844, he wrote a long essay on the origin of species and natural selection.
 Before publication of Darwin’s theory, Alfred Wallace, working as naturalist in East
Indies, developed a theory of natural selection essentially identical to Darwin’s.
 Wallace’s paper alongwith extracts from Darwin’s unpublished 1844 essay, were
presented to the Linnaean Society of London on July 1, 1858. Darwin quickly finished
the “origin of species” and published it the next year in this book.
ORIGIN OF SPECIES BY NATURAL SELECTION
In his book, Darwin developed two main points about evolution.
1) Descent with Modification
Darwin believed in perceived unity of life with all organism related through descent from
some common ancestor. He believed in perceived unity of life.
According to Darwin, history of life is like a tree with multiple branching and
rebranching from a common trunk all the way to the tips of living twigs, symbolic of
current diversity of organisms. At each fork of the evolutionary tree is an ancestor
common to all lines of evolution branching from that fork.
2) Natural Selection and Adaptation
Darwin suggested that different species are adapted to their local environment through
natural selection. Darwin’s theory of natural selection was based on following points.
a) Struggle for Existence
Production of more individuals than the environment can support leads to a struggle for
existence among individuals of a population, with only a fraction of offsprings surviving
each generation.

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b) Survival of The Fittest
Survival is not random and depends upon hereditary characteristics of individual.
Individuals with better heredity material fit for environment are survived and produce
more offsprings, while others don’t.
c) Evolution of New Species
This unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce leads to gradual changes in
population with favourable characteristics accumulating over the generations, which
ultimately leads to evolution of new species.
QUESTIONS RELATED TO ABOVE ARTICLE
Explain Darwin’s Theory of Natural selection. (LHR 2019)
Describe the main point of theory of natural selection. (GRW 2019, BWP 2021)
Write down the contributions of Darwin in evolution. (GRW 2021)
24.3.2 Neo-Darwinism—the Modern Evolutionary Synthesis
The Origin of Species convinced most biologists that species are products of evolution.
An important turning point for evolutionary theory was the birth of population genetics.
With progress in population genetics in 1930s, Mendelism and Darwinism were
reconciled, and the genetic basis of variation and natural selection were worked out and
lead to a comprehensive theory.
This theory was further known as Neo-Darwinism or Modern Synthesis.
It is called a synthesis because it integrated discoveries and ideas from many different
fields including paleontology, taxonomy, biogeography and population genetics.
QUESTIONS RELATED TO ABOVE ARTICLE
Write a short note on Neo-Darwinism. (DGK 2019, SWL 2021)
24.4 EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
Evolution leaves observable signs. Darwin supported his theory with evidences from
geographical distribution and fossil record. Later on, many evidences were presented to
support this theory. Some of the evidences are described below.
24.4.1 Evidence from Biogeography
Definition
It is geographical distribution of species.
It was first evidence that suggested idea of evolution by Darwin.
Relation with Evolution
According to Darwin, islands have many species of plants and animals that are endemic
but closely related to species of the nearest mainland or neighbouring island.
Example
Armadillos (armored mammals) live only in America. Evolutionary view of biogeography
predicts that contemporary armadillos are modified descendants of earlier species that occupied
these continents. Fossil records also confirm existence of such ancestors.
24.4.2 Evidence from Fossil Record
Definition
Fossils are either the actual remains or traces of organisms that lived in ancient geological
times.
 Organisms may be embedded in sand, resin or ice.
 An impression or cast is made of body parts. Tissues being replaced or petrified by silica
or calcium carbonate minerals.
Most fossils are found in sedimentary rocks.

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Relation with Evolution
The succession of fossil forms is a strong evidence in favour of evolution. It provides a
visual record in a complete series showing the evolution of an organism.
Example
 Oldest known fossil is of prokaryote (bacteria). It indicates prokaryotes as ancestors of all
life forms including eukaryotes on earth.
 Chronological appearance of the different classes of vertebrate animals in the fossil
record is also best example. It presents fossil fishes the earliest vertebrates, with
amphibians next, followed by reptiles, then mammals and birds.
 The evolution of horse provides an example of such a history.
24.4.3 Evidence from Comparative Anatomy
Definition
 Such organs, which are functionally different but structurally similar are called
homologous organs and similarity in characteristics resulting from common ancestry is
known as homology. They are considered to be evolved by divergent evolution.
 Such organs, which are functionally alike but structurally different are called analogous
organs. They are considered to be evolved by convergent evolution.
 Such organs, which are historical remnants of structures that had important functions in
ancestors but are no longer essential are called vestigial organs. These are oldest homologous
structures.
Relation with Evolution
Anatomical similarities between species grouped in the same taxonomic category bring
another support to the theory of descent with modification.
Comparative anatomy supports that evolution is a remodeling process in which ancestral
structures that function in one capacity become modified as they take on new functions.
Example
Example of Homologous Structures
 Same skeletal elements make up forelimbs of humans (arms), cats (forelegs), whales
(flippers), bats (wings) and all other mammals although these appendages have very
different functions.
 The flower parts (sepals, petals, stamens, carpals) of flowering plants are homologous.
They are considered to have evolved from leaves.
Example of Analogous Structures
Wings of bat, birds and insects are examples.
Examples of Vestigial Structures
 Pelvis in whales and leg bones in snakes.
 Vermiform appendix in carnivores.
 Ear muscles in man.

Fig 24.2 The whale retains pelvic and leg bones as useless vestiges.

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24.4.4 Evidence from Comparative Embryology
Definition
The study of animal development from fertilized egg to formation of all major organs is
called embryology.
Relation with Evolution
Comparative embryology can often establish homology among structures, such as gill
pouches, that become so altered in later development that their common origin would not
be apparent by comparing their fully developed forms.
Example
All vertebrate embryos go through a stage in which they have gill pouches on the sides of
their throats. At embryonic stage of development, similarities between fishes, frogs,
snakes, birds, humans and all other vertebrates are much more apparent than differences.
As development progresses, the various vertebrates diverge more and more, taking on the
distinctive characteristics of their classes.
In fishes, for example, the gill pouches develop into gills; in terrestrial vertebrates these
embryonic structures become modified for other functions such as Eustachian tube that
connect the middle ear with the throat in humans.

Fig 24.3 Homologies among vertebrates are clearly evident early in development, as
the photos reveal. Embryo (a) turtle (b) mouse (c) human (d) chick
24.4.5 Evidence from Molecular Biology
Definition
The study of biochemical structures and functions of organisms at molecular level is
called molecular biology.
Relation with Evolution
Evolutionary relationships among species are reflected in their DNA and proteins, in their
genes and gene products. If two species have genes and proteins with sequences of
monomers that match closely, the sequences must have been copied from a common
ancestor.
Molecular biology provides strong evidence in support of evolution as the basis for the
unity and diversity of life.
Example
 A common genetic code brings evidence that all life is related.
 Humans and bacteria have some common proteins.
 Cytochrome c, a respiratory protein, is found in all aerobic species.
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QUESTIONS RELATED TO ABOVE ARTICLE
Describe comparative anatomy as evidence of evolution. (LHR 2018)
How comparative embryology support the process of evolution? (LHR 2018)
Discuss migration and Genetic drift as factors affecting gene frequency.
(BWP 2019)
Explain the evidences of evolution by fossil record and comparative anatomy.
(LHR 2021)
Describe comparative anatomy and fossil record as evidences of evolution.
(GRW 2018, MTN 2019, LHR 2019, BWP 2019, FSD 2022)
Describe evidences of evolution from any five branches of biology.
(Exercise Question iii)
24.5 NATURAL SELECTION AND ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
Adaptation and Variations
Adaptations are the changes acquired by organism by its own actions. These are not
heritable. These changes, adaptations or variations are thus non-hereditary. An adaptation
in one situation may be useless or even detrimental in different circumstances.
Only heritable variations are important in transferring changes from one to next
generation. Natural selection is based on hereditary variation.
Artificial Selection and Natural Selection
 Humans have modified other species over many generations by selecting individuals with
the desired traits as breeding stock. The plants and animals, we grow for food, bear little
resemblance to their wild ancestors. Domestication of these animals and plants to get
desired results is called artificial selection.
 From the changes achieved by artificial selection within a relatively short period of time,
Darwin postulated that natural selection operating over vast spans of time could account
for the entire diversity of life. Natural selection is regional and timely.
An example of natural selection is the evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria.
24.5.1 Population, Gene Pool, Allele & Genotype Frequency
Population
A population is a localized group of individuals belonging to the same species.
Features
 A species is a group of population that have the potential to interbreed in nature.
 A population may be isolated from others of the same species, exchanging genetic
material only rarely e.g. populations of separate islands, unconnected lands or mountain
ranges.
 Individuals of different centers in same population interbreed with themselves than others.
Allele
Alternative form of gene having similar locus is called allele.

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Gene Pool
The total aggregate of genes in a population at any one time is called the population’s
gene pool.
Features
 Population’s gene pool consists of all alleles, at all gene loci, in all individuals of
population.
 For a diploid species, each locus is represented twice in the genome of an individual, who
may be either homozygous or heterogyzous.
 If all members of a population are homozygous for the same allele, that allele is said to be
fixed in the gene pool.
Genotype Frequencies
More often, there are two or more alleles for a gene, each having relative frequency
(proportion in gene pool. It is called genotype frequency or allelic frequency.
Example
Consider a wildflower population with two varieties contrasting in flower colour.
 Allele for pink flower A is dominant over allele for white flower a.
 Suppose there are only two alleles for this locus in population i.e. each member is
dominant.
 Our imaginary population has 500 plants. 20 are homozygous recessive for white flower
(aa). 320 are homozygous pink (AA) and 160 are heterozygous pink (Aa).
Now we consider the allelic frequencies of this population.
 500 diploid plants mean 1000 alleles for flower colour in population. This is gene pool.
Dominant alleles account 800 and recessive allele 200.
 Frequency of ‘A’ allele is this gene pool is 80% or 0.8 and ‘a’ allele is 20% or 0.2.
Related to these allelic frequencies are genotype frequencies. In our model
 Genotype frequency for homozygous pink i.e. AA is 64% or 0.64 (320/500).
 Genotype frequency for heterozygous pink i.e. Aa is 32% or 0.32 (160/500).
 Genotype frequency for homozygous white is 4% or 0.04 (20/500).
24.5.2 Hardy-Weinberg Theorem
The frequencies of genotypes of non-evolving populations are described by Hardy-Weinberg
theorem.
Presentation
This theorem was presented by two scientists Hardy and Weinberg who presented it separately
in 1908.
Statement
It states that
“The frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a population’s gene pole remain constant
over the generations unless acted upon by agents other than sexual recombination.”
So shuffling of alleles due to meiosis and random fertilization has no effect on the overall
genetic structure of a population.

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Fig 24.4 The Hardy-Weinberg theorem. The genetic structure of a non-

evolving population remains constant over the generations. Sexual
recombination alone will not alter the relative frequencies of alleles or
genotypes. (p = frequency of A; q = frequency of a).

Hardy-Weinberg Equation
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
 This equation is in fact binomial expansion i.e. (p + q) 2 = p2 + 2pq + q2
 This equation is used for calculating the frequencies of alleles and genotypes in
populations at equilibrium.
Explanation with Example
In a population where only two alleles occur for a gene, ‘p’ represents one frequency of
one allele and ‘q’ of another allele.
 Consider an imaginary wild flower population.
p = 0.8
q = 0.2
Thus p+q=1
The combined frequencies of all possible alleles must account for 100% of the genes for
that locus in the population.
If there are only two alleles and we know the frequency of one, the frequency of other
can be calculated.
If p+q=1
Then 1–p=q
Or 1–q=p
 When gametes combine to form a zygote, then their genotype becomes p 2 for gene pair
(suppose AA).
In the wild flower population;
p = 0.8 p2 = 0.64 (Frequency for homozygous dominant AA)
q = 0.2 q2= 0.04 (Frequency for homozygous recessive aa)
2pq = 2 0.8 × 0.2 = 0.32 (Frequency for heterozygous Aa)
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Now if we add all these frequencies, it will be equal to 1.
Consider equation;
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
0.64 + 0.32 + 0.04 = 1
24.5.3 Factors Affecting Gene Frequency
Many factors can alter gene frequency and out of these five-affect proportion of
homozygotes and heterozygotes enough to produce significant deviation from proportion
claimed by Hardy-Weinberg principle.
1) Mutation
 It is ultimate source of all changes.
 Single mutation alone does not change allele frequency much.
2) Migration
 It is a very potent agent of change.
 Emigration and immigration of members of a population cause disturbance in the gene
pole.
3) Genetic Drift
 It is change in frequency of alleles at a local that occur by chance.
 In small populations, such fluctuations may lead to loss of particular alleles.
4) Non-random Mating
 Inbreeding is its most common form.
 It does not alter allele frequency but lessens the proportion of heterozygote individuals.
5) Selection
 Some individuals leave behind more progeny than others, and the rate at which they do so
is affected by their inherited characteristics.
 Selection can be natural or artificial.
 In natural selection, environment plays role, thus affecting the proportions of gene in a
population.
In artificial selection, the breeders select for the desired characters
QUESTIONS RELATED TO ABOVE ARTICLE
Discuss factors affecting gene frequency.
Describe Hardy-Weinberg Theorem with the help of example. (MTN 2019)
Define Hardy-Weinberg Theorem. Discuss the various factors affecting gene frequency.
(SWL 2019)
Describe the factors affecting gene frequency of a population.
(LHR 2017, (MTN 2021)
Discuss any four factors affecting gene frequency. (FSD 2021, RWP 2021)
p + q = 1 Argue that this balance shown in theorem may not vary for a non-evolving
population? (LHR 2022)
Discuss natural selection and artificial selection. (RWP 2019, SGD 2021, LHR 2022)
Explain factors affecting gene frequency in relation to p + q = 1. (DGK 2022)
Many factors can alter the gene frequency. Discuss various factors responsible for
evolutionary change. (GRW 2022, RWP 2022)
State and explain Hardy Weinberg theorem. (Exercise Question ii)
Analyze the Darwin’s theory of natural selection as mechanism of evolution.
(Exercise Question v)

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24.6 ENDANGERED SPECIES

Definition
 An endangered species is in imminent danger of extinction throughout its range (where it
lives).
 A threatened species is likely to become endangered in the near future.
Causes of extinction
Various causes involved are;
i) Habitat destruction
ii) Climate change
iii) Pollution
iv) Invasions from foreign species
Out of all these, habitat destruction is most important.
Number of Extinctions
Accurately estimating the number of extinctions is impossible in areas like rain forests,
where taxonomists have not even described most species.
Commonly Affected Habitats
Tropical rain forests are the most threatened areas on earth. They have been reduced to
44% of their original extent. In certain areas, like Ecuador, forest coverage has been
reduced by 95%.
Other affected habitats are grassland, marshes, deserts and coral reefs.
Conservation of Endangered Species
Preservation of endangered species depends on a multifaceted conservation plan that
includes the following components;
i) A global system of national parks to protect large tracts of land and wildlife corridors that
allows movement between natural areas.
ii) Protected landscapes and multiple use areas that allow controlled private activity but also
retain value as wildlife habitat.
iii) Zoos and botanical gardens to save species whose extinction is imminent.
Endangered Species in Pakistan
Extinct species
Cheetah, Tiger, Asian lion, Indian rhino, Cheer pheasant, Crocodile and Gavial has been
declared extinct in Pakistan
Endangered species
Indus dolphin, Blackbuck, Common leopard, Great Indian bustard, Houbara bustard,
White-headed duck and Marbled teal are among the animal near to extinction.
 Deserts, Sub-mountainous tract and Wetlands are habitats in peril.
Endangered species of plants have been recorded to more than 500.
QUESTIONS RELATED TO ABOVE ARTICLE
Discuss about “The Endangered Species”. (GRW 2017)
Write a note on endangered species with their methods of conservation. (BWP 2022)
What are endangered species? What measures could be adapted for their
preservation? (Exercise Question i)
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KEY POINTS
Reducing and oxidizing environments
The old environment of the earth was reducing. It uses hydrogen and produce oxygen.
This oxygen accumulated in the environment. Thus this environment becomes oxidizing.
They started using oxygen.
Acquired characters
Modification in structure or function acquired by an organism during its life, caused by
environmental factors. With respect to higher organisms, there is no evidence that such
changes are transmissible genetically-the view associated with Lamarckism but, among
protozoans and bacteria, certain induced changes are heritable.
Hydrothermal vent
The bottom of the ocean is without light and oxygen. Here temperature is much higher
(120C). These are called hydrothermal vent. First archaeobacteria were formed in these
hydrothermal vents.
Population genetics and natural selection
Population genetics believes that the variations are present within the population. So
natural selection takes place at population level. This selection does not take place at
specie level. Therefore, population is the unit of evolution.
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation of small particles and subsequent
cementing of minarets or organic particles on the floor of oceans or other bodies of water
at the Earth’s surface.
Neo-Darwinism
This is an altered explanation of Darwin’s theory with regards to modern synthesis of
natural selection and Mendelian genetics. The main force driving speciation is the
gathering of genotypic variations in a gene pool. Sometimes this theory is also referred to
as the Modern synthetic theory of natural selection.

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EXERCISE
Q1
Fill in the blanks. Ans i) 120˚C ii) 1.5 billion
i) Archaebacteria can tolerate high iii) Darwin iv) Wallace
temperature upto ___________. v) Prokaryotes
ii) The first eukaryote appeared about vi) Cytochrome c vii) Gene pool
______________ years ago. viii) Stable or non-evolving
iii) _____________ presented the theory ix) Evolution x) Genus
of the origin of species by means of xi) (p + q)2
natural selection. xii) Endangered xiii)Population
iv) ______________ developed a theory xiv) (H2S) xv) Malthus
of natural selection essentially identical Q2 Encircle the correct answer from
to Darwin’s. the multiple choices.
v) _______________ are considered to i) The gill pouches of mammals and
be ancestors of all life. birds embryos are:
vi) A respiratory protein called (a) Support for ‘ontogeny
_____________ is found in all recapitulate phylogeny’
aerobic organisms. (b) Homologous structures
vii) Total aggregate of genes in a (c) Used by the embryos to breath
population at any time is called its (d) Evidence for the degeneration of
__________. unused body parts
viii) Hardy Weinberg theorem describes a ii) Darwin’s theory, as presented in
____________ population. ‘The Origin of Species’, is mainly
ix) ____________ is a series of ch anges in concerned:
the genetic composition of a population (a) How new species arise
over time. (b) The origin of life
x) Level of classification between (c) How adaptations evolve
species and family is called (d) How extinctions occur
____________. (e) The genetics of evolution
xi) Hardy Weinberg equation is iii) The smallest biological unit that
binomial expansion of can evolve over time is:
_____________. (a) A particular cell
xii) An _____________ species is in (b) An individual organism
imminent danger of extinction (c) A population
throughout its range. (d) A species
xiii) A ____________ is a localized (e) An ecosystem
group of individuals belonging to the iv) A gene pool consists of:
same species. (a) All the alleles exposed to natural
xiv) The first photosynthetic organisms selection
used ________ as source of (b) The total of all alleles present in a
hydrogen for reducing carbon population
dioxide to sugars. (c) The entire genome of a
xv) __________________ published an reproducing individual
essay on ‘The Principle of (d) The frequencies of the alleles for
Population’. a gene locus within a population
(e) All the gametes in a population

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v) In a population with two alleles for iii) Define population genetics.
a particular locus, B and b, the Ans. Study of genes and their interactions
allele frequency of B is 0.7. What at population level is called
would be the frequency of population genetics. It recognizes the
heterozygote if the population is in importance of quantitative
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium? characters.
(a) 0.7 (b) 0.42 iv) How does fossil record provide
(c) 0.49 (d) 0.09 evidence of evolution?
(e) 0.21 Ans. Fossils are either the actual remains
or traces of organisms that lived in
vi) In a population that is in Hardy-
ancient geological times. They show
Weinberg equilibrium, 16% of the relation of past organisms with
individuals show the recessive trait. present day organisms. It provides a
What is the frequency of the visual record in a complete series
dominant alleles in the population? showing the evolution of an
(a) 0.84 (b) 0.36 organism.
(c) 0.60 (d) 0.4 v) Explain the term homology with a
(e) 0.48 suitable example.
vii) Selection acts directly on: Ans. Similarity in characteristics resulting
(a) Phenotype from common ancestry is known as
(b) Genotype homology, and such anatomical
(c) The entire genome structures are called homologous
(d) Each allele structures. Homologous organs are
(e) The entire gene pool functionally different but structurally
Answer key alike.
Example: The forelimbs of human,
i a vi c cats, whales and bats.
ii a vii c vi) What are vestigial organs? Give
iii d two examples.
iv b Ans. Vestigial organs are historical
v b remnant of structures that had
Q3 Short Questions. important functions in ancestors but
i) What are hydrothermal vents? are no longer essential presently.
Ans. These are underwater hot springs, Example: The skeletons of whales
deep in the oceans and are and some snakes retain vestiges of
considered to be related with origin the pelvis and leg bones of walking
ancestors. Vermiform appendix in
of life on earth. These vents could
carnivores.
have supplied the energy and raw
vii) How are evolutionary
material for origin and survival of relationships reflected in DNA and
early life forms. proteins?
ii) State endosymbiont hypothesis. Ans. If two species have genes and
Ans. According to endosymbiont proteins with sequences of
hypothesis, different organelles have monomers that match closely, the
been produced due to symbiotic sequences must have been copied
association between different from a common ancestor. For
prokaryotes residing inside the cells. example, a common genetic code
This idea was proposed by Lynn brings evidence that all life is
Margulis. related.

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viii) State Hardy Weinberg theorem. Q5 Extensive Questions.
Ans. It states that the frequencies of alleles i) What are endangered species?
and genotypes in a population’s gene What measures could be adapted
pool remain constant over the for their preservation?
generations unless acted upon by Ans (see article 24.6)
agents other than sexual ii) State and explain Hardy Weinberg
recombination. theorem.
ix) What is difference between Ans (see article 24.5.2)
endangered species and threatened iii) Describe evidences of evolution
species? from any five branches of biology.
Ans. Ans (see article 24.4)
 An endangered species is in iv) How did evolution proceed from
imminent danger of extinction prokaryotes to eukaryotes?
throughout its range (where it Ans (see article 24.2)
lives). v) Analyze the Darwin’s theory of
 A threatened species is likely to natural selection as mechanism of
become endangered in the near evolution.
future. Ans (see article 24.3.1)
x) Name any five species declared
extinct in Pakistan.
Ans. Cheetah, Tiger, Asian Lion, Indian
Rhino, Cheer Pheasant, Crocodile
and Gavial.

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