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MEWAR INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY,

KM 21 ABUJA-KEFFI ROAD, NASARAWA, NIGERIA

COURSE: PHY 102: General Physics II

INSTRUCTOR: Mr. Jumare Fidelis Asengi
CONTACT DETAILS: email: fidelisjumare@[Link]
Mobile Number: +2349025916040
OFFICE HOURS: 10 am – 4 pm on Weekdays

How to reach me: My office is always open during school hours. Alternatively, you can reach me via
email and Telegram (using my mobile number) as I always check my email and Telegram. I’ll ensure that
I respond to your inquiries within 24 hours, or sooner.

CATALOG DESCRIPTION: “A handy introduction to General Physics II (Electricity and Magnetism)

ABOUT THIS COURSE: You are welcome to General Physics II. This semester we will be having
intensive discussions about the inter-relating theories and concepts relating to the observable physical
environment we live in. We will also study their components and applications of Physics in modern-day.
This course will be delivered through a series of lectures and as such, my responsibility is to support and
facilitate students’ understanding of the practical and natural instances of the principles we will be
studying and their applications. Generally, we would be studying Forces in nature. Electrostatics (electric
charge and its properties, methods of charging). Coulomb’s law and superposition. Electric field and
potential. Gauss’s law. Capacitance. Electric dipoles. Energy in electric fields. Conductors and insulators.
DC circuits (current, voltage and resistance. Ohm’s law. Resistor combinations. Analysis of DC circuits.
Magnetic fields. Lorentz force. Biot-Savart and Ampère’s laws. Magnetic dipoles. Dielectrics. Energy in
magnetic fields. Electromotive force. Electromagnetic induction. Self and mutual inductances. Faraday
and Lenz’s laws. Step up and step down transformers. Maxwell's equations. Electromagnetic oscillations
and waves. AC voltages and currents applied to inductors, capacitors, and resistance.

Learning Outcomes
On completion, my students should be able to:
1. Describe the electric field and potential and related concepts, for stationary charges;
2. Calculate electrostatic properties of simple charge distributions using Coulomb’s law, Gauss’s law and
electric potential;
3. Describe and determine the magnetic field for steady and moving charges;
4. Determine the magnetic properties of simple current distributions using Biot-Savart and Ampere’s law;
5. Describe electromagnetic induction and related concepts, and make calculations using Faraday and
Lenz’s laws;
6. Explain the basic physical of Maxwell’s equations in integral form;
7. Evaluate DC circuits to determine the electrical parameters; and
8. Determine the characteristics of ac voltages and currents in resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
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Teaching Philosophy: I personally aim to inspire my students to learn. I serve as a guide and have a
blend of Constructivism and Humanism as my teaching philosophy. I tend to focus on bringing out the
best from the students I lecture, as I shape their worldview using our learning experiences. I relate our
academic journey to real-life experiences to draw out ethical implications for situations beyond the
classroom. Since this university’s instructional focus is on learning rather than teaching, students are
expected to take more responsibility for their learning than might be required in a more traditional lecture
format. I will be here to help every step of the way.

Lecturer’s Expectation
I expect all my students to conduct themselves ethically by the academic standards laid out in the
Students’ Handbook
Students’ Expectation
All my students are to expect that I will guide and inspire their learning process through the duration of
this course by giving my undivided attention in responding to all questions regarding this course. I will
show up for lectures and will be available to answer questions outside the classroom so long as I am
contacted appropriately using the above methods.
Required Course Materials:
Required materials will be provided on the learning management system (LMS) and will be uploaded to
the Telegram Group for this class. Texts, Images and Videos regarding this Course will be made available
on respective platforms.
 H. D. Young, R. A. Freedman, A. L. Ford, “Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics 12th
Edition”, Pearson Education Inc., 2008. ISBN-13:978-0-321-50121-9
 M. M. Kashimbila, “Electricity, Magnetism and Modern physics”, 2007

COURSE REQUIREMENTS, GRADING, & ASSESSMENT: Students will earn a passing grade
upon successful completion of the following
1. Class Attendance – 5 Points
2. Class Participation / responsiveness – 5 Points
3. Test / Quizzes – 20 Points
4. Assignment – 5 Points
5. Group project and Presentations – 5 Points

Extra credit. Extra credit opportunities may include identifying and attending relevant professional and
scholarly activities. Students interested in earning extra credit should contact the instructor very early in
the semester.

Submission deadlines. Late assignments will not be accepted. Assignments must be submitted on/or
before the due date, unless there is a genuine reason due to unforeseen circumstances. In this case prior
permission must be obtained in time from the instructor.

Collaboration. Students can collaborate with peers on learning activities. However, it is not acceptable
for students to copy another person’s work or idea. Any act of copying or cheating will attract a failing
grade of F in addition to disciplinary measure.

Academic Honesty: Academic trustworthiness is anticipated in this course. Thus, all practice of
dishonesty, cheating, unapproved teamwork, misrepresentation of citations, slanting and falsification of
data, and refusing to accurately acknowledge literature characterize academic deceitfulness, and will be
given a failing grade of "F" in addition to other punitive sanctions. Note that every student is accountable
for abiding with the ¨academic honesty" code (Statement on Academic Honesty by faculty Senate). Every
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student is encouraged to review the Student Code of Statement on Academic Honesty by faculty Senate
and clarification of plagiarism. Again, academic dishonesty attracts a failing grade of "F" in addition to
disciplinary measures. Every student should recognize the gravity of academic dishonesty in the form of
misrepresentation of scholarly ideas, plagiarism, and cheating. Contact the instructor if you require
clarifications regarding references, citations, and academic ethics.

CLASS SCHEDULE
SESSION & DATE, READINGS, ASSIGNMENT & DISCUSSION

WEEK 1&2: ELECTRIC CHARGE

Learning Goals:
By studying this chapter, you will be able to explain:
• The nature of electric charge and how we know that electric charge is conserved.
• How objects become electrically charged.
• How to use Coulomb’s law to calculate the electric force between charges.
• The distinction between electric force and electric field.
• How to calculate the electric field due to a collection of charges.
• How to use the idea of electric field lines to visualize and interpret electric fields.
• How Gauss’s law relates the electric flux through a closed surface to the charge enclosed by the surface.
• How to use Gauss’s law to calculate the electric field due to a symmetrical charge distribution.

Sub topics:
Forces of Nature, Electrostatics (Electric charge and its properties), Conductors, Insulators and Induced
Charges, Coulomb’s Law, Electric field, Electric field strength, Charge and Electric Flux , Calculating
Electric Flux, Gauss’s Law, Applications of Gauss’s Law, Charges on Conductors.

WEEK 3&4: ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Learning Goals:
By studying this chapter, you will be able to explain:
• Electric potential energy and potential difference
• Electric potential due to point charges
• Work-Energy theorem related to charges
• How to calculate the properties of electric dipoles in an electric field

Sub Topics:
Electric Potential, Electric potential difference, Electric Dipoles, Electric-Field Calculations.

WEEK 5&6: CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS,

Learning Goals:
By studying this chapter, you will be able to explain:
• The nature of capacitors, and how to calculate a quantity that measures their ability to store charge.
• How to analyze capacitors connected in a network.
• How to calculate the amount of energy stored in a capacitor.
• What dielectrics are, and how they make capacitors more effective.
• What is meant by the resistivity and conductivity of a substance?

Sub Topics:
Capacitors and Capacitance, Capacitors in Series and Parallel, Energy Storage in Capacitors and Electric-
Field Energy, Parallel plates capacitor and energy stored.
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WEEK 7&8: ELECTRIC CURRENT, RESISTANCE AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE.

Learning Goals:
By studying this chapter, you will be able to explain:
• The meaning of electric current, and how charges move in a conductor.
• Current density, drift velocity, Conductivity and resistivity and electric field.
• How to analyse circuits with multiple resistors in series or parallel.
• Rules that you can apply to any circuit with more than one loop.
• How to calculate the resistance of a conductor from its dimensions and its resistivity
• How to analyse circuits that include both a resistor and a capacitor.
Sub Topics:
Current, Resistivity, Resistance, Electromotive Force and Circuits, Resistors in Series and Parallel, Ohm’s
Law, Kirchhoff’s Rules, Electrical Measuring Instruments, R-C Circuits.

WEEK 9: MAGNETISM
Learning Goals:
By studying this chapter, you will be able to explain:
• The properties of magnets, and how magnets interact with each other.
• The nature of the force that a moving charged particle experiences in a magnetic field.
• How magnetic field lines are different from electric field lines.
• How to analyze the motion of a charged particle in a magnetic field.
Sub Topics:
Magnetism, Magnetic Field, Motion of Charged Particles in a Magnetic Field, Applications of Motion of
Charged Particles, Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor, Magnetic force on a single charge
and direction of forces.

WEEK 10: SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELD

Learning Goals:
By studying this chapter, you will be able to explain:
• The nature of the magnetic field produced by a single moving charged particle.
• How to describe the magnetic field produced by an element of a current-carrying conductor.
• How to calculate the magnetic field produced by a long, straight, current-carrying wire.
• Why wires carrying current in the same direction attract, while wires carrying opposing currents repel.
• How to calculate the magnetic field produced by a current-carrying wire bent into a circle.
• What Ampere’s law is, and what it tells us about magnetic fields.
Sub Topics:
Magnetic Field of a Moving Charge, Magnetic Field of a Current Element, Magnetic Field of a Straight
Current-Carrying Conductor, Force Between Parallel Conductors, Earth’s Magnetic Field, Ampere’s Law,
Applications of Ampere’s Law, Magnetic Materials

WEEK 11: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Learning Goals: By studying this chapter, you will be able to explain:
• The experimental evidence that a changing magnetic field induces an emf.
• How Faraday’s law relates the induced emf in a loop to the change in magnetic flux through the loop.
• How to determine the direction of an induced emf.
• How to calculate the emf induced in a conductor moving through a magnetic field.
• How a changing magnetic flux generates an electric field that is very different from that produced by an
arrangement of charges.
• The four fundamental equations that completely describe both electricity and magnetism.
• Why transformers are useful, and how they work.
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Sub Topics:
Induction Experiments , Faraday’s Law, Lenz’s Law, Motional Electromotive Force, Induced Electric
Fields, Displacement Current and Maxwell’s Equations, Mutual Inductance, Self-Inductance and
Inductors, Inductors and Magnetic-Field Energy.

WEEK 11-12
This week we will be working on our previous knowledge and make revisions of topics previously considered.
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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM FOR FACULTY OF COMPUTING

STUDENTS

Welcome to the intriguing world of Electricity and Magnetism, the bedrock of modern technology and the
unseen forces driving the digital revolution! As students of Cybersecurity, Computer Science, and
Software Engineering, this course is not just another academic requirement; it is a key to understanding
the physics underlying the systems you design, secure, and optimize.
Electricity and magnetism are more than abstract concepts; they are the life force of every digital device
you interact with. Imagine the electric currents that course through intricate circuits, enabling processors
to execute millions of instructions per second. Think about the magnetic fields that make it possible to
store vast amounts of data on hard drives or how electromagnetic waves transmit wireless signals,
enabling global connectivity in an instant.
For cybersecurity students, understanding these principles goes beyond technical curiosity—it’s essential
for creating secure systems. Electromagnetic interference and power analysis attacks, for instance, exploit
weaknesses in hardware that are rooted in the physical properties of electricity and magnetism. This
course will help you understand these vulnerabilities and how to mitigate them.
Computer science students will gain insights into how hardware operates at its most fundamental level,
from the movement of electrons in transistors to the way logic gates create the computational building
blocks of algorithms. You'll see how these basic principles scale up to form the processors, memory
devices, and communication systems that power the digital age.
For software engineering students, a deeper understanding of these physical principles will enrich your
perspective on system design and optimization. By grasping the underlying hardware constraints imposed
by electricity and magnetism, you'll be better equipped to create software solutions that are efficient,
reliable, and scalable.
This course is more than just theory; it bridges the gap between the physics of electricity and magnetism
and their practical applications in computing. You'll explore fascinating topics like the electromagnetic
principles behind Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, the role of capacitors and inductors in circuit design, and the
exciting future of quantum computing, where the manipulation of electric and magnetic fields takes center
stage.
As we journey through this course, you’ll discover that electricity and magnetism are not just forces of
nature but the very foundations of innovation in the computing world. Prepare to explore, question, and
marvel at the science that powers your devices, secures your networks, and inspires the next wave of
technological breakthroughs. Welcome to Electricity and Magnetism—a course where the invisible
becomes visible, and the fundamental becomes revolutionary!
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ELECTRIC CHARGES AND ELECTRIC FIELD

Electromagnetic interactions involve particles that have a property called electric charge, an attribute that
is as fundamental as mass. Just as objects with mass are accelerated by gravitational forces, so electrically
charged objects are accelerated by electric forces. The annoying electric spark you feel when you scuff
your shoes across a carpet and then reach for a metal doorknob is due to charged particles leaping
between your finger and the doorknob. Electric currents, such as those in a torch light or a television, are
simply streams of charged particles flowing within wires in response to electric forces. Even the forces
that hold atoms together to form solid matter, and that keep the atoms of solid objects from passing
through each other, are fundamentally due to electric interactions between the charged particles within
atoms.
Electric Charges
The ancient Greeks discovered as early as 600 B.C. that after they rubbed amber with wool, the amber
could attract other objects. Today we say that the amber has acquired a net electric charge, or has
become charged. The word ‘electric’ is derived from the Greek word elektron, meaning amber. When you
scuff your shoes across a nylon carpet, you become electrically charged, and you can charge a comb by
passing it through dry hair. Plastic rods and fur (real or fake) are particularly good for demonstrating
electrostatics, the interactions between electric charges that are at rest (or nearly so). Figure.1a shows
two plastic rods and a piece of fur. After we charge each rod by rubbing it with the piece of fur, we find
that the rods repel each other.
When we rub glass rods with silk, the glass rods also become charged and repel each other (Fig.1b). But a
charged plastic rod attracts a charged glass rod; furthermore, the plastic rod and the fur attract each other,
and the glass rod and the silk attract each other (Fig.1c).
These experiments and many others like them have shown that there are exactly two kinds of electric
charge: the kind on the plastic rod rubbed with fur and the kind on the glass rod rubbed with silk.
Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790)
Suggested calling these two kinds of charge negative and positive, respectively, and these names are still
used. The plastic rod and the silk have negative charge; the glass rod and the fur have positive charge.
Electric charge is a physical property of a matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an
electromagnetic field.

Two positive charges or two negative charges repel each other. A positive charge and a negative charge
attract each other.

Fig. 1
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Experiments in electrostatics (Fig. 1). (a) Negatively charged objects repel each other. (b) Positively
charged objects repel each other. (c) Positively charged objects and negatively charged objects attract
each other.
To understand what happened to the charged rods, we have to look closely at the structure and electric
properties of an atom. The structure of an atom can be described in terms of three particles; the negatively
charged electron, the positively charged proton and the uncharged neutron. The protons and neutron form
a very dense core called the nucleus with dimensions of the order of10-15m. Surrounding the nucleus are
the electrons, extending out to distances of the order of10-10m of from the nucleus.
The negatively charged electrons are held within the atom by the attractive electric forces exerted on them
by the positively charged nucleus. (The protons and neutrons are held within the stable atomic nuclei by
an attractive interaction, called the strong nuclear force that overcomes the electric repulsion of the
protons. The strong nuclear force has a short range, and its effects do not extend far beyond the nucleus).

Fig. 2

In a neutral atom the number of electrons equals the number of protons in the nucleus, and the net electric
charge (the algebraic sum of all the charges) is exactly zero. The number of protons or electrons in a
neutral atom of an element is called the atomic number of the element. If one or more electrons are
removed, the remaining positively charged structure is called a positive ion. A negative ion is an atom
that has gained one or more electrons. This gaining or losing of electrons is called ionization.
Electric Charge Is Conserved
Implicit in the foregoing discussion are two very important principles. First is the principle of
conservation of charge:
The algebraic sum of all the electric charges in any closed system is constant.
The second important principle is:
The magnitude of charge of the electron or proton is a natural unit of charge.
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Conductors, Insulators and Induced Charges

Conductor:

A conductor is a material that allows the free flow of electric charges, typically electrons. Metals such as
copper, silver, and aluminum are excellent conductors due to the presence of loosely bound electrons in
their atomic structure. In conductors, electric charges can move easily in response to an applied electric
field. This mobility of charges enables the transmission of electric current through the material.
Conductors exhibit low resistance to the flow of electric current, resulting in efficient conduction of
electricity.

Insulator:

An insulator, also known as a dielectric, is a material that restricts the flow of electric charges. Examples
of insulators include rubber, glass, plastic, and wood. Insulators have tightly bound electrons in their
atomic structure, making it difficult for charges to move freely within the material. Due to their high
resistance to electric current, insulators are used to prevent the leakage or dispersion of electrical energy
and to insulate conductors from one another to avoid short circuits.

Induced Charge:

Induced charge refers to the redistribution of electric charges within a material in response to an external
electric field. When a conductor or an insulator is placed in an electric field, the distribution of charges
within the material may change. If the material is a conductor, the charges will redistribute themselves on
the surface of the conductor to cancel out the external electric field within the material. This redistribution
creates an induced charge on the surface of the conductor.

In insulators, the induced charge may also occur, but it tends to be localized and does not allow for the
free movement of charges throughout the material. Induced charge plays a crucial role in phenomena such
as electrostatic induction, where the presence of charged objects induces a redistribution of charges in
nearby conductors or insulators.

If you rub a balloon on the rug and then hold the balloon against the ceiling, it sticks, even though the
ceiling has no net electric charge.
After you electrify a comb by running it through your hair, you can pick up uncharged bits of paper or
plastic with the comb. The positive and negative charges in the material are present in equal amounts, but
the positive charges are closer to the plastic comb and so feel an attraction that is stronger than the
repulsion felt by the negative charges, giving a net attractive force. Note that a neutral insulator is also
attracted to a positively charged comb.
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Fig. 3
The charges within the molecules of an insulating material can shift slightly. As a result, a comb with
either sign of charge attracts a neutral insulator. By Newton’s third law the neutral insulator exerts an
equal-magnitude attractive force on the comb.
Coulombs law
Coulombs law was named after a French physicist Charles Augustine de Coulomb (1736–1806). The law
gives insight into the nature of invincible forces of interaction between charged particles. The law states
that:
The magnitude of the electric force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of
the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Forces between charges +

Fig. 4
In mathematical terms, the magnitude of the force (F) that each of two point charges (Q1) and (Q2) and a
distance (r) apart exerts on the other can be expressed as

=>
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Example 1:

a. Determine the magnitude of the electrostatic force Fe between two electrons separated by a
distance of 10-10m
b. What is the gravitational force Fg between the electrons?
c. Determine the ratio Fe / Fg, of the electrostatic and gravitational forces. Take the charge and
mass of an electron to be 1.6×10-19 C and 9.11×10-31 Kg, respectively and K = 9×109Nm2/C2,
G = 6.67x10-11N.m2/kg

Solution:

a. =>

b. =>

c.

Electrostatic Forces of More than two Charges.

Example 2:

If q1 = 5µF, q2 = -3µF and q3 = -2µF, Find the net force on the q3 charge?

Solution:

The force of interaction between q3 and q1 is attractive, F3,1 and

The force of interaction between q3 and q2 is repulsive, F3,2 as show bellow

The direction is same as F3,2

Example 3:
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If q1 = 5µF, q2 = -3µF and q3 = -2µF, Find the magnitude and direction of the net force on the q3
charge?

Solution:

To get the distance between q1 and q3, we use Pythagoras theorem

Applying coulombs law:

To find the components of F3,1 we use: F3,1(x) = F3,1 Cos and F3,1(x) = F3,1 Sin
But we have to find

F3,1(x) = 0.44 Cos

F3,1(y) = 0.44 Sin

Finding the net force along the x and y axis:

on q3 =
And the direction is given by:
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Exercise 1:

Three charged particles are located at the corners of an equilateral triangle as shown in the
figure bellow. Find the magnitude of the net force acting on the q3 charge and the direction of
the force.

Electric Field and Electric Forces

An electric field is a region of space surrounding electric charges or conducting objects where a force is
exerted on other charges. It is represented by electric field lines, which indicate the direction and strength
of the force experienced by a positive test charge placed in the field. Electric fields arise due to the
presence of electric charges. Positive charges create electric fields directed outward from them, while
negative charges create fields directed inward toward them.

Fig. 5
The strength of an electric field at a point in space is defined as the force exerted per unit positive
charge placed at that point.

Mathematically, it is given by the formula:

(2)

Where (E) is the electric field strength, (F) is the force experienced by the test charge, and (q) is the
magnitude of the test charge.

What happens when you put a positive and a negative charge in an electric field?
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The positive charge will feel a force that will

accelerate it towards the direction of the electric
field.

The negative charge will feel a force that will

accelerate it towards the opposite direction.
Fig. 6

Example 4:
A force of 100N is directed towards the north on a -20µC charge. What is the magnitude
and direction of the electric field at this point?
Solution:
,
=> =
Magnitude =
Direction = toward the south

Example 5:
A positive charge of +50µC is placed in an electric field of 50,000N/C directed upward.
What mass should the charge have to remain suspended in the air.
Solution:

Electric Field of a Point Charge

If the source distribution is a point charge, it is easy to find the electric field that it produces. We call the
location of the charge the source point, and we call the point (A) where we are determining the field, the
field point. Let the distance from the source point to the field point be (r),

(a) (b)

Fig. 7
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If we place a small test charge at the field point (fig.7b), at a distance from the source point, the
magnitude of the force is given by Coulomb’s law,

Example 5:
Calculate the resultant electric field strength at (x) in the set of point charges as shown on
the figure below. (x) is the midpoint between q1 and q2.

Solution:

(By principle of super-position)

Electric Field Lines

Electric field lines for three different charge distributions. In general, the magnitude of is different at
different points along a given field line.

Fig. 8
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Electric field lines can be a big help for visualizing electric fields and making them seem more real. An
electric field line is an imaginary line or curve drawn through a region of space so that its tangent at any
point is in the direction of the electric-field vector at that point.
The (fig.8) above shows some of the electric field lines in a plane containing (a) a single positive charge;
(b) two equal-magnitude charges, one positive and one negative (a dipole); and (c) two equal positive
charges.
Electric Dipoles
An electric dipole is a pair of point charges with equal magnitude and opposite sign, a positive charge (q)
and a negative charge (-q) separated by a distance (d).

+q d -q
Fig. 9
Force and Torque on an Electric Dipole

Let’s place an electric dipole in a uniform external electric field as shown in figure 10 below: The
forces and on the two charges both have magnitude , but their directions are opposite, and they
add to zero. The net force on an electric dipole in a uniform external electric field is zero.
The product of the charge and the separation is the magnitude of a quantity called the electric dipole
moment, denoted by:

Mathematical:

What happens when an electric dipole is placed in an electric field as shown in the three cases below?

Case 1: The positive charge feels a force that Case 2: The positive charge feels a force that will
will accelerate it towards the right and the accelerate it towards the right and the negative
negative charge will feel a force that will charge will feel a force that will accelerate it
accelerate it towards the left. There is a force of towards the left. There is a force of expansion here.
compression here. Fnet = 0 Fnet = 0

Case 3: The positive charge feels a force that will

accelerate it in the direction of the electric field and the
negative charge will feel a force that will accelerate it in
the opposite direction. Relative to the center, this dipole
will experience a torque.

Fig. 10
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In case 3
But

Fig. 11

Case 4: As the electric dipole has rotated by some amount,

But

Equation (6) is used to calculate the net torque of an electric dipole where the dipole axis and the electric
field line are at an angle less than 90o

Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole

When a dipole changes direction in an electric field, the electric-field torque does work on it, with a
corresponding change in potential energy. The work done by a torque during an infinitesimal
displacement is given by because the torque is in the direction of decreasing
We must write the torque as and

In a finite displacement from to the total work done on the dipole is

The work is the negative of the change of potential energy, just as in

So we see that a suitable definition of potential energy U for this system is:

The equation (7) is used to calculate the potential energy of an electric dipole
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Example 6:

An electric dipole is placed in a uniform electric field of intensity directed as shown in

the figure below. If the charges are and separated by a distance of 0.125nm,

a. What is the net force exerted by the field on the dipole?

b. Find the magnitude and the direction of the electric dipole moment?
c. Find the magnitude and direction of the torque?
d. What is the potential energy of the system?

Solution:

a. The net force on the dipole is zero, since two equal but opposite forces are acting on it.
b. The magnitude of the dipole moment is:

the negative to the positive charge.

c. The magnitude of the torque is:

d. The potential energy of the system is:

Exercise 2:

A proton is released from a point P which is from the nucleus of mercury. If the
atomic number of mercury is 80,

a. How large will the kinetic energy of the proton be when it gets far away from the
nucleus?
b. What will be its speed?

Electric Flux and Gauss’s Law

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The electric field of a surface is calculated by applying Coulomb’s law, but to calculate the electric field
distributed in a closed surface, we need to understand the concept of Gauss’s law.

Electric flux is a fundamental concept in electromagnetism that describes the flow of electric field through
a surface. It quantifies the number of electric field lines passing through a given area.

Electric flux of an area is defined as the electric field multiplied by the area of the surface projected in a
plane and perpendicular to the field.

Mathematically:
Where;

In simpler terms, electric flux measures how much of an electric field passes through a given area. If the
electric field and the area vector or the normal perpendicular to the plane surface are parallel (or anti-
parallel), the electric flux is maximized (or minimized) as in fig.12a. If they are perpendicular, the electric
flux is zero as shown in fig. 12c below.

Fig. 12

Electric flux is a scalar quantity and can be positive, negative, or zero. Positive flux occurs when electric
field lines pass outward through a closed surface (outward flux), while negative flux occurs when electric
field lines pass inward through a closed surface (inward flux). Zero flux occurs when the electric field
lines are parallel or perpendicular to the surface, resulting in no net flow of electric field through the
surface.

Electric flux has important applications in Gauss's law, which relates the total electric flux through a
closed surface to the total charge enclosed by that surface
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Gauss’s law can help us understand how electric charge distributes itself over conducting bodies. Gauss’s
law is a relationship between the field at all the points on the surface and the total charge enclosed within
the surface.
Gauss's law states that the electric flux ( ) through a closed surface is equal to the total charge
enclosed by the surface divided by the electric constant or permittivity of free space ( ).
We’ll start with the field of a single positive point charge (q) inside a sphere as shown below.

Fig. 13

The field lines radiate out equally in all directions. We place this charge at the centre of an imaginary
spherical surface with radius (R). The magnitude of the electric field at every point on the surface is given
by:

At each point on the surface, is perpendicular to the surface, and its magnitude is the same at every
point, the total electric flux is the product of the field magnitude and the total area of the
sphere.

Where
Equation (9) above is the mathematical expression of Gauss’s law

Example 7:

Using the diagram above, find the electric flux through the sphere of radius 4m that contains a
+50µC charge.

Solution:

What if the charge is an electron with a magnitude of -50µC?

Solution
Here, the electric field will be going into the sphere.
Electric Potential
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Electric Potential

Consider the figure below:

High potential
region

Low potential
region

Fig. 14

If a positive test charge is placed in an electric field, where the direction of the field is from top to
bottom, the charge will feel a force that will accelerate it in the direction of the electric field. For us to
move the positive charge from the low potential region to the high potential region as shown in fig. 14
above, we need to do some work on the test charge. As work is done, and the test charge is displaced from
low potential region to high potential region, electric potential energy (UEPE) is stored on the test charge
by the virtue of its position. This electric potential energy is termed as the electric potential, voltage or
absolute potential.

Electric Potential or absolute potential (V) can be define as the amount of work done (W) needed to
move the positive test charge (q) from a low potential region to a high potential region against the
electric field.

A general definition of electric potential (V) is the work done (W) in moving a unit positive charge (q)
from a reference point to a specific point in the electric field (from point A to point B in this case).

Mathematically:

Electric potential difference ( ) will be the difference in the electric potential between two points in the
electric field.

Here, Electric potential difference will be the

difference in the electric potential between point A
and point B in the electric field.

Fig. 15
 22

Example 8:

Find the electric potential difference across the resistor below:

From fig. 15 above, the potential difference between the point A and B is giving by:

From work energy theorem Equation above becomes:

The equation (13) above is the potential gradient in the x-direction, it is crucial for understanding the
strength and direction of the electric field in a giving region.
Electric Potential Due to point charges
The electric potential due to point charges (q) at a distance (r) from it is given by:

Example 9:

Determine the absolute potential in air at a distance of 3cm from a point charge of 50µC.

Solution:

Example 9:

How much work is required to move a -500µC charge across a potential difference of 300V?

Solution:
,
 23

Example 10

Two points A and B are distanced 30.0cm and 50 cm from a -2µC charge respectively. What
is the potential difference between these points?

Solution:

, ,

Exercise 3:

a. Find the electric potential at point A as shown in the figure below.

b. If a charge Q3 is placed at point A, What will be the magnitude and polarity of the
charge?
 24

CAPACITORS, DIELECTRIC AND CAPACITANCE

A capacitor is a passive electronic component that stores electrical energy in an electric field. It consists
of two conductive plates separated by a dielectric material. The conductive plates are typically made of
metal, while the dielectric material can be air, ceramic, plastic, or other insulating materials.

Fig. 16

When a voltage difference (potential difference) is applied across the plates of a capacitor, an electric
field is established between them. This electric field causes positive charges to accumulate on one plate
and negative charges to accumulate on the other plate, creating an electric potential difference between
the plates.

Capacitors are commonly used in electronic circuits for various purposes, including energy storage, signal
filtering, timing circuits, and voltage regulation.

Dielectric:

A dielectric is an insulating material placed between the plates of a capacitor. It serves to increase the
capacitance of the capacitor by reducing the electric field between the plates and allowing for a greater
accumulation of charge. Dielectric materials have a high resistivity and low conductivity, which prevent
the flow of electric current between the capacitor plates. Common dielectric materials include ceramics,
plastics, glass, and oils.

The presence of a dielectric material between the plates of a capacitor increases its capacitance compared
to a vacuum or air-filled capacitor. The dielectric constant ( ) of the material determines the extent to
which it increases the capacitance. The higher the dielectric constant, the greater the increase in
capacitance.

Capacitance:

Capacitance (C) is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store electrical energy per unit voltage. It is
defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the charge (Q) stored on either plate of the capacitor to the
magnitude of the voltage or potential difference ( V) between the plates:

Mathematically:

The unit for capacitance is

 25

Fig. 17

A commercial capacitor is labeled with

the value of its capacitance. For these
capacitors, 470 µF, 1000 µF and 2200 µF

Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor

The simplest form of capacitor consists of two parallel conducting plates, each with area (A) separated by
a distance (d) that is small in comparison with their dimensions. When the plates are charged, the electric
field is almost completely localized in the region between the plates, the field between such plates is
essentially uniform, and the charges on the plates are uniformly distributed over their opposing surfaces.
We call this arrangement a parallel-plate capacitor.

-Q

Fig. 18

From fig. 18 above, if ) is the charge per unit area on each plate . The electric field generated
by the plates is given by:

Since the electric field is uniform, the potential difference across the capacitor can be calculated by
multiplying the electric field (E) and the distance between the plates (d):

On substituting for E as into equation (), we have:

 26

Example 11:

The two plates of a capacitor have a net charge of +70pC and -70pC respectively. This results
in a potential difference of 20V between them.
a. What is the capacitance of the system?
b. What is the separation of the plates if the electric field intensity between the plates was
measured to be 400Vm-1?
c. For the same physical set up, if the charges of the two plates were changed to +200pC and -
200pC, how would the value of the capacitance change? What will be the new potential
difference?
Solution:

a.
b.
c. The capacitance of a capacitor remains constant
However, if the charges of the two plates were changed to +200pC and -200pC, the new P.d can
be calculated:

Example 12:

The distance between plates of a parallel plate capacitor is [Link] the potential difference of
10,000V is applied between the plates;
a. Compute the capacitance
b. Find the charge on each plate
c. Find the magnitude of the electric field in the space between the plates
Take the area of each plate to be 2.00m2
Solution:

a.

b.
c.
 27

Exercise 4:

Determine the area of the parallel plate capacitor in the air if the capacitance is 25 and the
separation between the plates is 0.04m.

Capacitors in Series and Parallel

Capacitors in Series

Consider three capacitors C1, C2 and C3, connected in series between the terminals A and D, as shown in
the figure below.

b
a

Fig. 19

When the switch in (fig. 19a) is closed, the capacitors become charged as the battery supplies an amount
of charge +Q. This charge accumulates on the plate of the capacitor C1. When equilibrium reached, an
induced charge, -Q appears of plate b. because the plates b and c and the connecting wire are isolated, the
charge on plate C must be +Q. this charge will in turn induced a charge –Q on the plate d. because the
plates d and e and the connecting wire are isolated, the charge on plate e must be +Q. finally, the charge
induced on plate f is –Q. Capacitors in series thus all have the same charge. The potential difference
across each is given by:

The total potential across the network is:

If is the capacitance of a single equivalent capacitor as shown in the (fig.19b) above then it would
have a charge Q when a potential difference across it is V

Comparing the two equations above, we get

 28

Capacitors in Parallel

Consider two capacitors (C1) and (C2) connected in parallel between the terminals (A) and (D), as shown
in (fig. 20a). When the switch (K) is closed, the capacitors, initially uncharged, become charged as the
battery supplies an amount of charge (Q). this charge is shared by the two capacitors. Hence:

If (Ceff ) is the capacitance of the single equivalent capacitor, it would have charge (Q) when the potential
difference across it is ( V), (fig. 20b).

Fig. 20
 29

Example 12:

a. Reduce the network to a single capacitor

b. Determine the charge on 4µF and 8µF capacitor when the capacitors are fully charged
by 12V battery connected to a terminal.
c. Determine the potential difference across each capacitor.

Solution:

a.

The three capacitors are in series:

b.

The total charge ; to get the charge on the we have

to find the potential difference P.d ( on the capacitor.

Now that we know the potential at we can find the charges there.

c.
across the we can find the P.d across the

Finally, the P.d across the capacitor:

 30

Energy Stored in a Capacitor

Many of the most important applications of capacitors depend on their ability to store energy. The electric
potential energy stored in a charged capacitor is just equal to the amount of work required to charge it—
that is, to separate opposite charges and place them on different conductors. When the capacitor is
discharged, this stored energy is recovered as work done by electrical forces.
The with zero initial charged stored has no potential difference across the plates, as the potential ( )
difference is slowly applied across the plates, the charge stored in the plates increases to a final value (Q)

Here, the work done or stored is given by the product of the average of the potential difference
applied and the final charge:

By substituting equation (22) becomes

Energy Stored in a parallel plate capacitor

You’d recall the following equations:

When we substitute them into equation (23a), we will get:

Equation (24) above is used for calculating energy stored in a parallel plate capacitor.

Exercise 5:

Three capacitors having capacitances of 8.0, 8.0 and 4.0 µF are connected in series across a
36.0V line.

a. What is charge on the 4.0 µF capacitor?

b. What is the total energy of all the three capacitors?
c. The capacitors are disconnected from the line and reconnected in parallel with each
other, with the positive charged plates connected together. What is the voltage across the
parallel combination?
 31

CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Electric current

We know that electrostatic condition the field strength within a conductor is zero and no net charge is
present. If this equilibrium condition is zero and no net charge is present. If this equilibrium condition is
disturbed for example, by placing a potential across the conductor, the electric field within the conductor
is no longer zero. The existence of an internal field implies that the charges will flow. The instantaneous
rate at which the positive charges pass through a surface is called the electric current through the surface.
That is:

Fig. 21

We define the current density (J) to be the current (I) flowing through unit area (A) as:

(26)

If an electric field (E) is imposed on a conductor having a cross-sectional area (A) and containing (N)
number of free electrons per unit volume (fig. 21). Because of the application of this field, a convectional
current flows to the right. In addition, the electrons experience a steady drift to the left in response to the
electric field.
Now, if the electron drift velocity is , in a time interval of , the amount of charge that passes through
the surface (S) is the contained within the volume :

Now, the current that flows in the conductor is defined to be the net amount of positive charge that passes
through the surface (S) per unit time. If the negative electrons move toward the left, the conventional
current is directed toward the right.

If
 32

Example 13:

A copper wire with diameter of 3.26mm carries a steady current of 20A. If the number of
electrons per unit volume for copper is

a. Calculate the average current density J in the wire.

b. Determine the average drift velocity of electrons in the wire.
c. Calculate the electric field strength E along the wire. Take the resistivity of copper to be

Solution:

a.

b.

c.

Ohm’s Law

When a potential (V) is applied across a conductor and causes a current (I) to flow, It is found that the
current is directly proportional to the applied voltage. That is

Equation (28) is ohms law; Where (R) is the resistance of the conductor.
Ohm’s Law states that the voltage or potential difference between two points in a conductor is directly
proportional to the current passing through it.
Resistivity and Resistance

A conductor of length (l) and cross-sectional area (A) carries a current (I). If the magnitude of the current
density and the electric field E are uniform throughout the conductor, then the total current can be written
as:
 33

Fig. 22

The potential difference between the ends of the conductor can be written as:

The equation above expresses the relationship between the resistance (R) and resistivity

If a coil has a resistance of ( ) at a temperature of ( ), then its resistance (R) at a temperature (T) will
be given by:

Where is the temperature coefficient of resistance of the material of the conductor and its unit is

Example 14:

Compute the resistance at 20˚C of a 180m length of a silver wire having a cross-sectional area
of 0.3mm2. Take the resistivity of the silver at 20˚ to be 1.6×10-8m

Solution:

, ,

Exercise 6:

A coil of wire has a resistance of 25.00Ω at 20˚and a resistance of 25.17Ω at 35˚c. What is the
temperature coefficient of the resistance?
 34

Resistors in Series and Parallel

Resistance in series and parallel are two common configurations in electrical circuits, each with distinct
characteristics:

Fig. 23

a. Resistors in Series:

When resistors are connected end-to-end as shown in the figure (23a) above, such that the current flows
through each resistor consecutively, they are said to be in series.

In a series circuit, the total resistance is the sum of the three resistors

The current through each resistor in a series circuit is the same, as there is only one path for the
current to flow.

The voltage drop across each resistor in a series circuit is proportional to its resistance. The total voltage
across all resistors is the sum of the voltage drops across each resistor:

b. Resistors in Parallel:

When resistors are connected across common nodes as shown in figure (23b), such that the voltage across
each resistor is the same, they are said to be in parallel.

In a parallel circuit, the reciprocal of the total resistance is the sum of the reciprocals of the

individual resistances:
 35

The voltage across each resistor in a parallel circuit is the same, as they are connected across the same
voltage source.

The total current in a parallel circuit is the sum of the currents through each resistor:

Example 15:

Determine:

a. The total resistance or equivalent resistance

b. The current I1, I2 and I3 for the emf and resistance value as shown on the figure below:

Solution:

a.

b. We can find the total current by using

For series,

For parallel,
 36

Kirchhoff’s Laws

When an electric circuit consists of a number of interconnected loops with several sources of emfs,
Kirchhoff’s laws provide a systematic procedure for solving such circuit problems.

Kirchhoff’s laws are:

1. The Kirchhoff’s junction rule (KJR): it states that

The sum of the currents flowing away from any point in a circuit is equal to the sum of the
currents flowing towards that point.

Thus, at the junction (b) or (e): in fig.24 below.

Fig. 24

2. Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule (KLR): It states that..

In traversing any closed path in a circuit, the algebraic sum of the emfs is equal to the
algebraic sum of the voltage drops, i.e sum of IR.

Key Points

The signs of the emf and the voltage drops to be used in applying this second rule are specified as follows:

i. An emf is counted as positive when you traverse it from negative to positive and is negative
when you traverse from positive to negative.
ii. The product is considered as positive if the chosen direction is the same as the direction of
the current and negative if it passes through the opposite direction.
iii. Current flows from high potential to low potential region i.e. from positive to negative.

From the circuit above, there are three possible loops, namely, abefa, acdfa and bcdcb. If we apply
the second rule to loop abefa along the direction shown, we have:
 37

If we apply the second rule to loop bcdcb along the direction shown, we have:

If we apply the second rule to loop acdfa along the direction shown, we have:

Example 16:

Determine in the circuit as shown below:

Solution:

At the junction b or e:

If we apply the second rule to loop abefa along the direction shown, we have:

If we apply the second rule to loop bcdcb along the direction shown, we have:

Putting 1 into 3 becomes:

 38

Solving 2 and 4 simultaneously:

Substituting for

To get lets substitute for into equation 1

Exercise 7:

Find the current , from the circuit shown below:

 39

MAGNETISM

Magnetic phenomena were first observed at least 2500 years ago in fragments of magnetised iron ore
found near the ancient city of Magnesia (now Manisa, in western Turkey). These fragments were
examples of what are now called permanent magnets.
Magnetism is a fundamental force of nature that arises from the movement of electric charges and the
intrinsic magnetic properties of certain materials. It plays a crucial role in various phenomena and
technologies, ranging from the behavior of subatomic particles to the operation of electric motors and
generators. The magnetic properties of a magnet appear to originate at its poles. In a bar magnet, these
poles are near the ends. The poles are of two kinds; the north and south poles. When no other magnet is
present, a freely-suspended magnet sets so that its north pole points approximately towards the earth’s
geographical North Pole.

Fig. 25
(a) Two bar magnets attract when opposite poles (N and S, or S and N) are next to each other. (b) The bar
magnets repel when like poles (N and N, or S and S) are next to each other.

The Earth’s Magnetic Field

The earth itself is a magnet. Its north geographic pole is close to a magnetic south pole, which is why the
north pole of a compass needle points north. The earth’s magnetic axis is not quite parallel to its
geographic axis (the axis of rotation), so a compass reading deviates somewhat from geographic north.
This deviation, which varies with location, is called magnetic declination or magnetic variation. Also, the
magnetic field is not horizontal at most points on the earth’s surface; its angle up or down is called
magnetic inclination. At the magnetic poles the magnetic field is vertical.
Geographic
North Pole

Agonic line
(Zero declination)

Geographic
South Pole

a Fig. 26 b
 40

From the diagram above, the angle between the red and black lines is called the declination. These angles
are different between different points on the globe, Magnetic declination is used to find true bearing and
it’s important for navigation.

True Bearing = Compass bearing ± Declination (East-addition and West-subtraction)

Declination is defined as the angle between the geographic meridian and the magnetic meridian.

The line joining the geographic north and south poles is called the geographic axis and a vertical plane
passing through it is called the geographic meridian while the line joining the magnetic north and south
poles is called the magnetic axis and a vertical plane passing through it is called the magnetic meridian.

Fig. 27

When you break a bar magnet, each piece will have a north and South Pole, even if the pieces are
different sizes. (The smaller the piece, the weaker its magnetism.) In contrast to electric charges, magnetic
poles always come in pairs and can't be isolated. There is no magnetic monopole.
Magnetic Fields
A magnetic field is a fundamental aspect of physics, describing the region surrounding a magnet or a
moving electric charge where magnetic forces are exerted. Originating from the motion of electric
charges, magnetic fields are characterized by their direction and strength at any given point in space.
Magnetic field lines provide visual representations, flowing from the north to the South Pole outside a
magnet, and vice versa within it (fig. 28). These fields interact with magnetic materials, such as iron and
nickel, influencing their behavior and alignment of magnetic domains.
The strength of a magnetic field (B) is measured in units of tesla (T) or gauss, with one tesla equivalent to
10,000 gauss. Similar to electric fields, magnetic field strength decreases with distance from its source,
following an inverse-square law. Magnetic fields come with pairs of poles: north and south, with field
lines moving from the former to the latter outside a magnet, and in the opposite direction within it.

Fig.28 Magnetic field lines plot for a bar magnet

 41

A current carrying wire will generate magnetic field around it and the direction of the magnetic field
depends on the direction of the current.

Fig. 29a

We can determine the direction of the magnetic field by using the first right hand rule.

b c

If the wire is held such a way that the thumb is in the direction of the current, then the curled fingers will
signify the direction of the magnetic field (fig. 29b & c).

The equation that allows us to calculate the strength of the magnetic field is given by:

Which is the permeability of free space?

(R) is a distance from a point in the region of the magnetic field.

Example 17:

A vertical wire carries a current of 45A due south. Calculate the magnitude and the direction
of the magnetic field 2cm to the right of the wire?

Solution:

2cm

The direction of B is in a clock-wise

I
 42

Example 18:

A wire carries a current of 10A, at what distance from the wire will a magnetic field of
be produced?

Solution:

Magnetic force of a current carrying wire

If a wire is carrying current directed towards the north, is placed in a magnetic field that is directed
towards the east as shown in (fig.30) below,

Fig. 30

The magnetic field will exert a force (F) on the current carrying conductor in a certain direction. The
magnitude of the force (F) can be calculated by using the equation:

Relationship between (F) and ( )

(a) (b) (C)

is maximum
No force is exerted on the wire
when (I) is
when (I) is parallel or anti-parallel
perpendicular to
to (B)
(B) Fig. 31
The direction for the force can be gotten by using the second right hand rule.
 43

Fig. 32

If the thumb is made to point toward the direction of the current and the index finger toward the direction
of the magnetic field, then the middle finger will point toward the direction for the force. The thumb,
index finger and the middle finger of the right hand should be positioned such a way that the current (I) is
perpendicular to the magnetic field (B) and the force (F) as shown in (fig.32)

In a magnetic field, out of the page and into the page refer to the direction of the magnetic field lines. If
the field lines are pointing out of the page, it means the field is directed away from the surface, and if they
are pointing into the page, it means the field is directed towards the surface.

(a) Out of the page Fig. 33 (b) Into the page

From (fig.33) above, the (a) signifies the direction of the magnetic field going away from the page and
toward the observer and (b) signifies the direction of the magnetic field going into the page and away
from the observer.
 44

Example 19:

What is the direction of force as shown in the setup below?

Solution:

Using the right hand rule, the direction of the

magnetic force will be into the page.

Example 20:

If the direction of the current in a wire is toward the east and the magnetic field is directed into
the page, what will be the direction of the force?

Solution:
I
Using the right hand rule, the direction of the
force will be directed toward the North.
B N

B
Example 21:

A 2.5m long wire carries a current of 50A in the presence of a magnetic field with strength
of . Calculate the magnitude and direction of the magnetic force on the wire?
B
Solution:

The direction of the force will be out of the page

 45

Exercise 8:

A current of 25A flows due west in a wire that experiences a magnetic force of 0.75N per meter.
What is the strength of the magnetic field which is directed due south?

Magnetic Force on a Single Point Charge

If a moving charge (q) with velocity (V) is placed in a magnetic field (B), the magnetic field will exert a
force on it. But if the charge is stationary, there will be no force exerted on it. Here, the magnitude of the
force (F) will be calculated by the equation:

But for a single charge:.

in vector form.

Relationship between the force (F) and ( )

(a) (b) (C)

is maximum
when (V) is No force is exerted on the
perpendicular to charge (q) when (I) is
(B) parallel or anti-parallel to
Fig. 34 (B)

The direction of the magnetic force (F) can also be gotten by using the right hand rule: Only that here, the
thumb will signify the direction of the velocity of the charge instead of the current as in the previous case.
But the other fingers remain the same.
 46

Example 22:
What will be the direction of the magnetic force here?
B Solution:

Using the right hand rule, the force will be directed out of the
+ page.
V

Example 23:

If the charge in the setup above is an electron, what will be the direction of the force?

Solution:

To get the direction of the force here, we simply take the opposite direction of the force in the
example 21 above, so in the case of an electron, it will be into the page.

Example 24:

A proton moves east with a velocity of in a magnetic field of directed

into the page. What is the magnitude and direction of the magnetic force acting on the
proton?

Solution: ,

V
+
B

The direction of the force is due north

Exercise 9:

A beam of protons moves at through a uniform magnetic field with magnitude

2.0T that is directed along the positive Z-axis, The velocity of each protons lies in the X-Z
plane at an angle of 30o to the positive Z-axis. Find the magnitude and the direction of the
force on the proton?
 47

Magnetic Flux and Gauss’s Law for Magnetism

We define magnetic flux through a surface just as we define electric flux in the page.

Magnetic flux can be calculated by the equation

is the angle between the magnetic field (B) and the normal (N) which is the line perpendicular to the
surface.

If the magnetic field (B) is parallel to the normal (N) and perpendicular to the surface, and
therefor

But if the magnetic field (B) is perpendicular to the normal (N) and parallel to the surface, and
therefor

Ampere’s Law

Ampere’s Law states that the magnetic field created by an electric current is proportional to the size of
that electric current, with a constant of proportionality equal to the permeability of free space.

Fig. 35

Biot-Savart Law

States that the magnetic field due to a current carrying conductor at a distant point is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between the conductor and point, and the magnetic field is
directly proportional to the length of the conductor, current flowing in the conductor.

(dl) is the length of the wire.

 48

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Almost every modern device or machine, from a computer to a washing machine to a power drill, has
electric circuits at its heart. We learned in earlier that an electromotive force (emf) is required for a current
to flow in a circuit; we almost always took the source of emf to be a battery. But for the vast majority of
electric devices that are used in industry and in the home (including any device that you plug into a wall
socket), the source of emf is not a battery but an electrical generating station. Such a station produces
electric energy by converting other forms of energy: gravitational potential energy
at a hydroelectric plant, chemical energy in a coal- or oil-fired plant, nuclear energy at a nuclear plant.
But how is this energy conversion done? In other words, what is the physics behind the production of
almost all of our electric energy needs?
The answer is a phenomenon known as electromagnetic induction: If the magnetic flux through a circuit
changes, an emf and a current are induced in the circuit. In a power-generating station, magnets move
relative to coils of wire to produce a changing magnetic flux in the coils and hence an emf. Other key
components of electric power systems, such as transformers, also depend on magnetically induced emfs.
Indeed, thanks to its key role in electric power generation, electromagnetic induction is one of the
foundations of our technological society. The central principle of electromagnetic induction, and the
keystone of this chapter, is Faraday’s law. This law relates induced emf to changing magnetic flux in any
loop, including a closed circuit. We also discuss Lenz’s law, which helps us to predict the directions of
induced emfs and currents. Electromagnetic induction tells us that a time-varying magnetic field can act as
a source of electric field. We will also see how a time-varying electric field can act as a source of
magnetic field. These remarkable results form part of a neat package of formulas, called Maxwell’s
equations, that describe the behaviour of electric and magnetic fields in any situation. Maxwell’s
equations pave the way toward an understanding of electromagnetic waves.

This phenomenon in which electricity is produced from magnetism is called electromagnetic

induction.

The induced emf can be generated by moving a magnet in and out of a stationary coil of wire
connected to a galvanometer.

Fig. 36
 49

A magnet moving toward a coil of wire connected to a galvanometer induces a current in the
coil and so the galvanometer deflects.
Observation shows that the direction of the induced current depends on the direction in which the
magnetic coil is moving. The magnitude of the induced current increases with the speed of
motion, the number of turns on the coil and the strength of the magnet.

Faraday’s Law of Induction

The condition that must be satisfied before an emf will be induced in a coil is that the magnetic
flux linking the coil must be changing with time. The magnitude of the induced emf is
determined using Faraday’s induction law.

The law states that the induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic
flux, or field lines, linking the circuit:

The constant of proportionality k in equation above has the value of -1. Thus, Faraday’s law can
be expressed as

The negative sign expresses Lenz’s Law.

Lenz’s law states that the motion of an induced current is always in such a direction that its
magnetic field opposes the magnetic field that is causing the current.

If we have a coil with N identical turns, and if the flux varies at the same rate through each turn, the total
rate of change through all the turns is N times as large as for a single turn. If is the flux through each
turn, the total emf in a coil with N turns is
 50

Example 25:

A loop of wire is placed in a magnetic field B = 0.0200i T. Find the angle between B and A if
its area vector is A = 30i + 16j + 23k cm2. What is the magnetic flux?

Solution:

To find the angle between B and A:

The flux will be:

Example 26:

A circular loop of wire with a diameter of 12cm is in a 1.8T magnetic field. The loop is
removed from the magnetic field over a time of 0.25s. What is the induced emf in the loop?

Solution

Exercise 10:

A 50 – loop circular coil has a radius of 30mm. If it’s oriented so that the field lines of a
magnetic field of a magnetic field are parallel to the normal to the area of the coil. Supposed
that the magnetic field is varied, so that B increases from 0.10T to 0.35T in a time of 2minutes.
Find the average induced emf in the coil.
 51

Maxwell’s Equations

Maxwell's equations are a set of four fundamental equations in classical electromagnetism that describe
the behavior of electric and magnetic fields. They were formulated by James Clerk Maxwell in the 19th
century and are a cornerstone of classical electrodynamics. Maxwell's equations summarize the
relationship between electric fields (E) and magnetic fields (B), as well as their sources, charges and
currents (J), in vacuum or in materials.

The four equations are typically written in differential form, which describes the local behavior of fields
at each point in space and time in other words used to calculate electric field at a single point in space,
and in integral form, which describes the behavior of fields over a region of space is used to calculate
symmetric problems such as the electric field of a charged sphere, charged cylinder, or charged plane.

Differential form Integral form

Gauss’s Law for Electricity
Gauss’s law

Gauss’s Law for Magnetism

Faraday’s Law of Induction

Ampère's Law with Maxwell's Addition

This equation relates the magnetic field to the

electric current and the rate of change of the
electric field. It incorporates Maxwell’s addition,
which accounts for the displacement current term
), allowing for the consistent treatment of
time-varying electric fields.

Maxwell's equations are fundamental in understanding and predicting the behavior of electromagnetic
phenomena, including the propagation of electromagnetic waves (such as light), the operation of antennas
and communication systems, and the behavior of electric circuits. They are central to classical
electromagnetism and form the basis of modern electrodynamics and electromagnetic theory.
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PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. You measure an electric field of at from a point charge. There is

no other source of electric field in the region other than this point charge. What is the
electric flux through the surface of a sphere that has this charge at its center and that has
radius ?
2. Two –point charges are located on the x-axis of a coordinate system: . 0n C is at
, and is at .What is the total electric force
exerted by q1 an q2 on a charge at . State the direction of the
resultant force.
3. Three-point charges are arranged along the x-axis. Charge is at the
origin, and charge is . Charge . Where
is q3 located if the net force on q1 is in the – x-direction?
4. Two-point charges are located on the y – axis as follows: charge at
, and charge at the origin . What is the total
force (magnitude and direction) exerted by these two charges on a third charge
located at ?
5. Three particles having charges of – are placed at the corners of an
equilateral triangle of side a, as shown below. The net force on the particle with charge
due to the other two charges is in the plane of the page and directed
a. Vertically upward
b. Vertically downward
c. Horizontally to the right
d. Horizontally to the left
e. Toward the charge –Q

Find the magnitude of the force on the particle with charge +q due to the other two charges.

6. A point charge is placed at each corner of a square with side length a. The charges all
have the same magnitude q. Two of the charges are positive and two are negative, as
shown below. What is the direction of the net electric field at the center of the square due
to the four charges, and what is its magnitude in terms of q and a?
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7. If two electrons are each from a proton, as shown in below, find the
magnitude and direction of the net electric force they will exert on the proton.

8. (a)An electron is moving east in a uniform electric field of directed to the west.
At point A the velocity of the electron is toward the east. What is the
speed of the electron when it reaches point, of point A? (b) A proton is
moving in the uniform electric field of part (a). At point A, the velocity of the proton is
east. What is the speed of the proton at point B?
9. Three negative point charges lie along a line as shown below. Find the magnitude and
direction of the electric field this combination of charges produces at point P, which lies
6.00cm from the –2.00µC charge measured perpendicular to the line connecting the three
charges.
10. You measure an electric field of at 0. from a point charge. There is
no other source of electric field in the region other than this point charge. (a) What is the
electric flux through the surface of a sphere that has this charge at its center and that has
radius ? (b) What is the magnitude of this charge?
11. A very long uniform line of charge has charge per unit length and lies along
the x-axis. A second long uniform line of charge has charge per unit length –
and is parallel to the y – axis at What is the net electric field (magnitude
and direction) at the following points on the y-axis: (a) y = 0.200m and (b) y = 0.600m?
12. A point charge q1 = +2.40µC is held stationary at the origin. A second point charge q2 = -
4.30µC moves from the point x = 0.150m, y = 0 to the point x = 0.250m, y = 0.250m.
How much work is done by the electric force on q2.

13. A small particle has charge –5.00µC and mass 2.00X10-4kg It moves from point A, where
the electric potential is VA = +2.00V, to point B, where the electric potential is VB =
+8.00V. The electric force is the only force acting on the particle. The particle has speed
5.00m/s at point A. What is its speed at point B? Is it moving faster or slower at B than at
A? Explain.
 54

14. An electric conductor designed to carry large currents has a circular cross-section 2.50
mm in diameter and is 14.0m long. The resistance between its ends is 0.104Ω.
(a) What is the resistivity of the material?
(b) If the electric field magnitude in the conductor is 1.28V/m, what is the total current?
(c) If the material has 8.5× free electrons per cubic meter, find the average drift
velocity under the condition in part b.
15. A person with body resistance between his hands of accidentally grasps the terminals of a
14-kV power supply.
(a)If the internal resistance of the power supply is what is the current through the
person’s body?
(b)What is the power dissipated in his body?
(c) If the power supply is to be made safe by increasing its internal resistance, what
should the internal resistance be for the maximum current in the above situation to be
1.00mA or less?