4.

DEFLECTION OF BEAMS

An initially straight beam deflects when subjected to transverse load creating an effect of
shear force and bending moment and its axis bends in a curve, which is known as elastic
curve, or deflection curve. The deflected shape of the beam after bending can be expressed
in terms of the lateral displacement a point moves and the corresponding slope or tangent
of the deflected curve at the same point after bending with reference to the original un
deformed position of the beam. While designing a beam the designer is not only concerned
with the stresses produced, by the loads acting on the beam but also the deflection of the
beam resulting from the loading should be computed and checked not to exceed specified
tolerable limit.

Basic differential equations for the deflection of beams will be developed in this chapter.
Only deflections caused by forces acting perpendicularly to the axis of a beam are
considered.

4.1 Strain- Curvature and Moment- Curvature Relations

The fundamental assumption that “Plane sections remain plane during deformation” is
assumed in the development of theory of beam deflection. Consider a segment of initially
straight beam in a deformed state where bending about one of the principal axes of the
cross-section is assumed


x

x 
Deflected shape
O (Elastic Curve)
Spontaneous
Center

, radius of curvature
Neutral axis d
y
du
y y

dx

1
 The characteristic/nature of the deflected shape or elastic curve of a beam can
mathematically be defined as a function in terms of the displacement  of a point and its
corresponding location along the longitudinal axis of the beam. One of the parameter
defining the nature of elastic curve is its curvature. Mathematically curvature of a curve is
defined as a reciprocal of radius of curvature. The radius of curvature is a radius of a circle
drawn at spontaneous center defined by the intersection of two radii subtending differential
arc length ds.

The differential angle d, measured in radian and subtending a differential segment dx of
a deflected beam can be expressed as:

dx du  M M
d   ; du   dx ;    y  du  y dx
 y E EI EI
dx M y dx M dx
  
 EIy EI

1 M
  (1)
 EI

The above equation relates the bending moment M and flexural stiffness EI to the
curvature 1/ of the deflected shape (elastic curve).

4.2 The Governing Differential Equation for Deflection of Elastic Beams

In mathematics on analytic geometry it is shown that in Cartesian Coordinates (x,)

curvature of a line is defined as:

d2
1 dx2 M
  ( 2)
   d  2

3
2 EI
1    
  dx  

Where x and  are the coordinate of a point on the elastic curve, i.e x denotes the distance
of a point considered along the longitudinal axis of the beam and v represents the
deflection of the same point from the original unreformed position.

In most of the practical cases, beams are proportioned to be strong/rigid enough to limit
the resulting deflection to small value not to exceed some tolerable limit and in general the
deflected shape is expected to be gentle curve whose slope or tangent measured in radian
is very small. Therefore the term (d/dx)2 in equation (2) is regarded to be very small
compared to unity and can fairly be neglected in which case the governing differential
equation reduces to:

d 2v M
 (3)
dx 2 EI

2
Note that the positive direction of the displacement is taken to have the same sense of
positive direction of the applied load and the sense of curvature corresponds to the induced
curvature caused by the applied moments. If the positive slope d/dx becomes more
positive as x increases, the curvature 1/ = d2/dx2 is positive.

4.3 Alternative Differential Equations of Elastic Beams

The definite relations among shear, moment and the applied load that have been
formulated in the previous chapter can be combined with equation (3) for deflection and
slope of the elastic curve to be equivalently defined in terms of the shear force or load
intensity function as follows:

d 2v M d 2 dM
2
  EI 2  EI  ' '  M ; But V  , V  Shear force
dx EI dx dx
d  d 2  d 3 dV
  EI 2   EI 3  EI  ' ' '  V ; But q  , q  load
dx  dx  dx dx
d  d  d 2  d 4
   EI   EI  EI  ' ' ' '  q
dx  dx  dx 2  dx 4

Therefore for beams with constant flexural rigidity EI, the three alternative set of
differential equations for deflection of loaded beam are summarized as follows:

d 2
EI  EI  ' '  M ( x) ( 4a )
dx 2
d 3
EI 3  EI  ' ' '  V ( x ) ( 4b )
dx
d 4
EI 4  EI iv  q( x ) ( 4c )
dx
Where:

 = Deflection of the elastic curve

 = d/dx = slope of the elastic curve
M(x) = bending moment
V(x) = shear force
q(x) = load intensity function
I = Moment of inertia of beam’s x-section
E = Modulus of elasticity

3
Boundary Conditions

For solution of beam deflection problems, in addition to the differential equations,

boundary conditions must be prescribed. Boundary conditions in beams are classified in to
two groups.

i) Static Boundary Conditions (S.B.C)

Such boundary conditions specify the value of static functions of load, shear and bending
moments (q,V, M) at some point on the beam.

ii) Kinematic Boundary Conditions (K.B.C)

In these group of boundary conditions the kinematic parameters (deflection  and rotation
 = d/dx) at some points on the beam are specified.

The useful boundary conditions in beam problems are usually obtained at the ends of the
beam where the supports are provided and based on support condition, the following
boundary conditions can be specified.


A = (0) = 0 , K.B.C
(i) Hinge/Roller support A x MA = M(0) = 0 , S.B.C


A = (0) = 0 , K.B.C
(ii) Fixed support x A = ’(0) = 0 , K.B.C
A


VA = V (0) = 0 , S.B.C
(iii) Free end x MA = M(0) = 0 , S.B.C
A

VA = V(0) = 0 , S.B.C
(iv) Guided support x A = ’(0) = 0 , K.B.C

4
4.4 Solution of Beam Deflection by Direct Integration

Beam deflection problems can be solved by directly integrating either of the basic
differential equations expressed in equation (4). For example if we consider the fourth
order differential equation (4c), one can solve beam deflection problems by integrating this
equation four times.

d 4
EI
dx 4
 EI iv EI
dx
   q( x)
d '''

x
EI  '''   q( x )dx
0
 C1  V ( x)

x x
EI  ''   dx  q( x)dx  C1 x
0 0
 C2  M ( x)

x x x
C1 x 2
EI  '   dx  dx  q( x )dx
0 0 0

2
 C2 x  C3   ( x)

x x x x
C1 x 3 C2 x 2
EI    dx  dx  dx  q( x )dx
0 0 0 0

6

2
 C3 x  C4   ( x)

If instead one started with the 2nd order differential equation (4a), then the solution of
rotation and deflection of beams after two successive integration becomes:

x
EI  '   ( x)   M ( x)dx  C3
0
x x
EI    ( x)   dx  M ( x)dx  C3 x  C4
0 0

The constants of integration C1, C2, C3 and C4, corresponding to the homogenous solution
of the differential equation, must be determined from the appropriate boundary conditions.
Usually the constants C1and C2 are the initial values (values at x = 0) of the static function
for the shear force and bending moment respectively; and the constants C3/EI and C4/EI
correspond to values at initial points (at x= 0) for the kinematics functions of rotation and
deflection respectively.

Mostly the second order differential equation in terms of the bending moment is used for
the computation of rotation and deflection of beams. But one should note that the
expression for the bending moment may not be a continuous integrable function due to
most often encountered case of discontinuity of loading along the full span of a beam. In
such cases moment equations in each segment of load changes can be written and
successive integration can be performed in each segment, which may be a little bit
cumbersome or time taking. However such length procedure can considerably be
shortened by systematical writing a single moment equation to be applicable for all
segments with the concept of singularity function (half range function).

5
Singularity Function

Mathematically the singularity function, sometime also referred as half range function is
written as follows with pointed brackets:

f n ( x )   x  a n

Where n is an integer and a any positive real number

For positive values of n, the function is defined as follows and obeys the following rules of
differentiation and integration.

  x  a  n  0 for x  a

  x  a  n  ( x  a ) n for x  a

 a n  1 ,
d
x  a n  n x for n  1
dx
x  a n  1
 x  a  n dx 
n 1
, for n  1

The application of singularity function to define single and continuously integrable

expression for the moment equation can qualitatively be demonstrated by considering the
following simply supported beam.

 b
a w
P
A B C D x

Deflected R2
R1
Shape
L

The moment equations for each segment can be written as follows:

M AB  R1 x
M BC  R1 x  Px  a 
( x  b) 2
M BC  R1 x  Px  a   w
2

From the above equations, it can be seen that the equation for MCD will also be valid for
both MAB and MBC provided that the terms (x – a) and (x – b)2 are neglected for values of x
less than a and b respectively. In other words the terms (x – a) and (x – b)2 are non existent
for values of x which reduces them to negative values. Therefore, with the aid of
singularity function one continuous and integriable moment equation for the entire span of
the beam can be written as follows:
 x  b 2
M ( x )  R1 x  P x  a  w
2
Examples

6
4.5 Moment – Area Method

The moment area method is an alternative method of determining deflection of statically

determinate beams and it is suited to conditions in which there are discontinuities in
loading and variation of flexural rigidity along the span of the beam. The method is usually
used to compute displacements at some points on the beam and no advantage is obtained
as compared to the direct integration when used to determine equation of the elastic curve.

Derivation of the Moment – Area Theorems

Consider the basic 2nd order differential equation formulated in the previous section

d 2 d  d  d M M
      d  dx
dx 2 dx  dx  dx EI EI

This equation represents the rate of change of slope of the elastic curve along the
longitudinal axis of the beam as a function of M/EI. If the M/EI diagram is drawn as
qualitatively shown in fig (a) below. The quantity (M/EI)dx represents an infinitesimal
area of the M/EI diagram over the differential length dx. Integrating both sides of the
above equation between two points on the axis of a beam (say from point A to point B):
B B B
M M
 d   EI dx   B  A   EI dx
A A A

The left hand side of the above expression represents the change in slope of two points and
the right hand side represents the area of M/EI diagram between the two points, This can
be generalized as the first theorem of moment –area method as follows:

Theorem 1

“The change in angle measured in radian between the tangents at any two
points A and B on the elastic curve id equal to the area of M/EI diagram
bounded by the ordinates through at the two points A and B.”

M/EI diagram
M/EI +(M/EI)dx

(a)
x
dx

A’ d
dt (b)
d

7
The contribution of small angle change d over a differential segment dx to the
deformation of the elastic curve is shown in fig.(b). If the small angle change d of the
differential element is multiplied by the distance x from an arbitrary reference point, the
vertical distance dt of the reference point on the elastic curve from the tangent at the
deferential segment will be defined as follows:

M
dt  xd 
x dx
EI
Integrating the above equation between any two points A and B on the axis of a beam;

B B B
M M
 dt   EI x dx  t AB   EI x dx
A A A

The above expression represents the second moment area theorem which can be stated as
follows:

Theorem 2

“The tangential deviation of point A on the elastic curve of deflected beam

from a tangent at an other point B also on the elastic curve is equal to the
statical or first moment of the M/EI diagram between the two points about the
ordinate axis through point A.”

Note that in most cases, the tangential deviation in itself may not be the desired deflection
of a beam, and hence in applying the moment area – method, a carefully prepared sketch
of the elastic curve is always necessary. Curvature of the elastic curve can be inspected
from the moment diagram

M/EI diagram

-tAB -tBA

+ A’ B’
A B
A B
_
A’ B’
+tAB +tBA
M/EI diagram

8
 Moment Diagram by Parts

The application of moment –area method for the computation of beam deflection requires
properly drawn and simplified bending moment diagrams whose areas and cenroid can
easily be determined. The computation of areas and locating centroid of bending moment
diagrams can considerably be simplified by drawing the bending moment diagrams by
parts for each case of loading about any suitable focus or point of reference. Then the
superposition of all the bending moment diagrams for all individual loads gives the
complete bending moment diagram. To make computation simple, the bending moment
diagram with respective area and location of centroid for most commonly encountered
load types are given bellow:

Mo
1. Couple Moment equation: M = -Mo
L
Area A = -Mo L
Centroid xc = L/2
-Mo c
xc

P
2. Concentrated
L Moment equation: M = -Px
Load
Area A = -PL2/2
Centroid xc = 2L/3
c
-PL
xc

w
3. Uniformly Moment equation: M = -wx2/2
L
distributed Load Area A = -wL3/6
Centroid xc = 3L/4
c
-wL2/2
xc

w
4. Triangular Moment equation: M = -wx3/6L
Loading L
Area A = -wL3/24
Centroid xc = 4L/5
c
-wL2/6
xc

Examples