How do Organisms reproduce

What is Reproduction?

Reproduction is a biological process by which an organism reproduces an offspring that is biologically

similar to the organism. Reproduction enables and ensures the continuity of species, generation after
generation. It is the main feature of life on earth.

Do Organisms Create Exact Copies of Themselves?

DNA and Reproduction

• Similar Body Designs: Organisms with similar appearances suggest shared design sources,
indicating that reproduction creates these designs.

• Chromosomes and DNA: The nucleus contains chromosomes made of DNA, which carries
hereditary information and instructions for protein synthesis.

• DNA Copying: Reproduction involves creating a copy of DNA, which is crucial for passing
traits to the next generation. This copying process also involves replicating cellular
machinery.

• Cell Division: DNA replication is followed by cell division, resulting in two cells with their own
set of DNA and cellular apparatus.

• Variations and Reliability: DNA copying is a biochemical process that can introduce
variations. While cells may not be identical to the original, they remain similar. Non-viable
DNA copies can lead to cell death, ensuring that only cells with functional DNA survive.

The Importance of Variation

• Maintaining Body Design: Consistent DNA copying during reproduction ensures that
organisms retain their specific body designs and effectively occupy their ecological niches.

• Stability and Adaptation: Reproduction plays a crucial role in maintaining population stability.
Variations among individuals become important when environmental changes occur.

• Survival Through Variation: If an environment changes drastically, organisms with variations

may have a better chance of survival. For example, if bacteria living in temperate waters face
rising temperatures due to global warming, some heat-resistant variants might survive and
thrive, while others may not. Without such variations, the entire species could face
extinction.

• Importance of Variation: Variations allow species to adapt to new conditions and continue to
exist over time, highlighting the role of genetic diversity in survival and adaptation.

Types of Reproduction

There are basically two types of reproduction:

1. Asexual Reproduction: Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction by which offspring

arise from a single organism, and inherit the genes of that parent only. It does not involve
the fusion of gametes.
 2. Sexual Reproduction: In this, male and female gametes are formed to produce an offspring.
These gametes (sex cells) fuse together and produce the offspring. This process is usually
slow and complex compared to asexual reproduction. The organisms so produced are
genetically diverse. Thus, they can evolve along with the changing climatic conditions.
Humans and many multicellular organisms exhibit a sexual mode of reproduction.

Difference

1) Fission:
It can further be classified into
a) Binary Fission
b) b) Multiple Fission

a) Binary fission is a type of asexual reproduction wherein a cell divides itself to

produce two identical cells. Each of these two cells has the potential to grow to the
size of the original cell. Organisms that reproduce by binary fission are
predominantly bacteria.

Types: Based on the plane of cytokinesis, binary fission is of three types:

(i) Irregular or simple binary fission: Here cell division may take place along any plane e.g.,
Amoeba.

(ii) Longitudinal binary fission: Here cell division takes place along the longitudinal axis e.g.,
in Leishmania, cell division takes place in a definite plane (longitudinal) with respect to
flagellum at its end. Leishmania causes a disease called kala-azar (black fever).

b) Multiple fission

It is that type of asexual reproduction in which the parental body divides into many
daughter cells simultaneously. During the unfavourable conditions to increase the chances
of survival of daughter cells. A cyst or protective wall is formed around the cell. Inside the
cyst, the nucleus splits several times to form many smaller nuclei. Little bits of cytoplasm
gather around them and cell membrane develops. In this way. Many daughter cells are
formed inside the cyst. When favourable conditions arise, the cyst breaks and all daughter
cells are released. E.g. plasmodium is a protozoan that causes malaria in humans.
 2) Budding:
This is a process where a protuberance-like outgrowth which is called a bud grows by
repeated cell division at a specific site and then detaches from the parent body to develop
into a separate individual organism. E.g. hydra and yeast.
 3) Spore Formation:
Most of the fungi (Rhizopus, mucor, etc)
and non-flowering plants like mosses and
ferns reproduce by spore formation. The
parent plant produces hundreds of
microscopic units called spores. They
have tiny thread-like structures with a
blob called sporangia. These contain cells
or spores that eventually develop into
new individuals. The spores are very light
and covered by a thick wall to protect
them. When conditions turn favourable,
then spore case bursts. Spores are
dispersed into the air and when they
come in contact with a moist surface,
they start to grow.
Example – Rhizopus (bread mould)

4) Regeneration
This is a process where some fully differentiated organisms can be cut or broken
into pieces and each of their body parts can grow into a new individual. The process
of getting back a full organism from its body parts is called regeneration.
Example – simple animals like Planaria, Hydra.

The cells of cut body parts divide rapidly. they adjust within themselves to form various
organs and body parts. They change their shape and become specialised. In this way, a
complete organism is regenerated.
Important: Regeneration is in organisms having simple body structure. In complex
multicellular organisms, cells are made of tissues, tissues are made of organs and organs
make organisms. They have a very high degree or organisation in their body. Therefore it is
not possible to regenerate in multicellular organisms.

5) Fragmentation
This is a process where an organism simply breaks up into smaller pieces when they are
mature. Each
of the
fragments or
broken pieces
grows into a
new individual.
There should
be a cell that is
capable of
growing into a
new individual
in such
organisms.

Example - Spirogyra.

6) Vegetative Propagation
This is the mode of reproduction by which plants reproduce asexually. In this mode, new
plants are developed from a plant’s vegetative parts like stem, leaf, and root. Different
methods of vegetative propagation are carried out in plants which are as follows:
a. Stem Cutting: This involves cutting the stem into small pieces having internodes and
axillary buds. These are then planted in the soil to propagate into new plants. This method is
used in sugarcane, money plant, rose, hibiscus, drumsticks, etc.
b. Layering: This is a method where the young stem of a plant is bent and buried in the
soil to develop roots and thus a new plant. Once the new plant develops, the stem is
detached from the parent plant. This is used in jasmine and bougainvillaea.
c. Leaf buds: This is a method in which the buds in the notches of leaves develop into
new plants. This can be seen in bryophyllum.
d. Potato tuber can be used for vegetative propagation in potato plants.
Advantages of the Vegetative Propagation, are as follows: a) The plants that are grown by
vegetative propagation bear flowers and fruits earlier as compared to the plants produced
from seeds. b) All plants that are produced this way are genetically similar to the parent
plant and have all its characteristics.
 Sexual Reproduction
• Involves Two Organisms: Sexual reproduction requires both a male and female to
produce offspring, combining their genetic material.
• Genetic Variation: This mode of reproduction creates greater genetic diversity by
mixing DNA from two individuals, resulting in unique combinations of traits.
• Gene Pool Mixing: It enhances the genetic variability within a population,
contributing to the survival and adaptability of the species.
• DNA Management: Each parent contributes germ cells (gametes) with half the
number of chromosomes. When combined, these restore the full chromosome count
in the offspring.
• Specialised Gametes: In complex organisms, gametes are specialised—female
gametes are large and nutrient-rich, while male gametes are small and motile. This
specialisation influences the reproductive systems and body differences between
males and females.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

• The process of sexual reproduction in plants involves the fusion of gametes to
produce offspring. The reproductive parts in angiosperms (plants that flower and
produce fruits and seeds) are located in the flower. The parts of a flower consist of
sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils.
• The reproductive parts of the flower are the stamen which contains the male gamete
and the pistil containing the female gametes.
 a. Stamen: This is the male reproductive part and is also known as the androecium. It
consists of a filament and an anther that encloses the pollen grains. The pollen grains
produce the male germ cells or gametes.
b. Pistil: This is the female reproductive part of the flower and is also known as
gynoecium. This is made of three parts, namely, stigma, style, and ovary. The enlarged
portion at the bottom of a pistil is the ovary which contains an ovule with an egg cell. The
middle long part of the pistil is the style and the terminal sticky part is the stigma.
Based on the presence of the stamen or pistil, flowers can be classified as:
a. Unisexual: These are the flowers that contain either stamens or pistils. These are also
called incomplete flowers. Examples - papaya, mulberry, watermelon, etc.
b. Bisexual: These are flowers that contain stamens as well as pistils. Examples -
Hibiscus, mustard, rose, etc.
• The process of sexual reproduction in plants starts with the fusion of the male and
the female gametes, followed by the formation of a zygote that eventually develops
into a new plant. The process is explained as follows:
a. Pollination:
• The process of sexual reproduction in plants starts with the transfer of pollen grains
from the anther of the stamen to the stigma of the pistil. This process is termed
pollination.
• This is facilitated by pollinating agents like wind, birds, animals, water, etc. which
transfer the pollen grains.
• There can be two types of pollination as follows:
[Link]-pollination: This involves the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of
the same flower. Example - wheat, peanut, etc.
[Link]-Pollination: This type of pollination involves the transfer of the pollen grains from the
anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower of the same species. Example - apples,
pumpkins, etc.
b. Fertilisation:
• Through the process of pollination, the pollen is deposited in the style of the pistil.
For the next process in reproduction, it needs to reach the female germ cells which
are present in the ovary.
• To facilitate this, a tube grows out of the pollen grain and reaches the ovule in the
ovary of the pistil.
• Here in the ovule the male germ-cell fuses with a female germ-cell to form a zygote.
This process of fusion of the gametes is termed fertilisation.
• After the process of fertilisation, the zygote thus forms and divides repeatedly to
form an embryo inside the ovule. The ovule later develops into a seed.
• Meanwhile, the ovary grows and ripens into a fruit and the other parts of the flower,
namely the petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma may be shed off.
• The seed present inside the fruit encloses the future plant in its embryo.

c. Germination:
• The seed that contains the new plant or embryo develops into a seedling when the
conditions are suitable. This process is termed as germination. Certain conditions like
nutrients, water, and proper temperature are necessary for the process of
germination.
• The embryo gets its food from the reserve food material stored in the cotyledons. It
also has a protective outer covering known as a seed coat.