Unit Operations I
(CHET3012)
Lecture No. 5
Dr. Antonio L. Mateo Jr.
Lecture 5 Proper and Coverage
• Fluid Flow Phenomena
• No slip conditions
• Viscosity
• Momentum transfer concept
• Newtonian & Non-Newtonian fluids
• Boundary layer
• Developed Flow
• Separation of boundary and wake formation
The No Slip Boundary Condition
Fluid in motion comes to a complete stop at the surface as if the fluid in direct contact with the
solid “sticks” to the surface due to viscous effects (resistance to motion). Accordingly, at the surface
the velocity of the fluid is zero. This is known as the no-slip condition.
The no-slip condition is responsible developing velocity gradients (where velocity changes
according to its position from the solid surface).
The velocity gradient is referred to as the
“Shear Rate” which represents the rate at
which deformation occurs to the fluid
layers by shearing (due to tangential force).
Viscous Effects
Viscosity: A fluid property indicating its internal resistance to flow (resistance to deformation).
It is caused by cohesive forces between molecules in liquids and by molecular collisions in gases.
The highest degree of friction due to viscous effects occur for the fluid layer at the vicinity of the
solid surface where this fluid layer sticks to the solid surface (no slip condition).
Momentum Transfer
By molecular collisions, momentum is transferred from one layer to the other, tending to speed up
the slower moving layer and to slow down the faster moving one.
Thus, momentum passes across plane C to the fluid in the layer below; this layer transfers
momentum to the next lower layer, and so on.
Hence x-direction momentum is transferred in the –y direction all the way to the wall bounding the
fluid, where u = 0, and is delivered to the wall as wall shear.
Momentum Transfer
Momentum transfer is analogous to conductive heat transfer resulting from a temperature gradient,
where the proportionality factor between the heat flux and temperature gradient is called the
thermal conductivity.
In laminar flow, momentum is transferred as a result of the velocity gradient, and the viscosity may
be regarded as the conductivity of momentum transferred by this mechanism.
Viscous Conversion Factors
Wall Shear Stress
The fluid layer in contact with the surface tries to drag the plate along via friction, exerting a
friction force (Ff) on it.
Shear Stress (τ): The friction force caused by the solid surface per its unit surface area.
Experiments showed that the wall shear stress is proportional to the velocity gradient at the
surface of the wall where the proportionality constant is the dynamic viscosity μ .
Wall Shear Stress & Newtonian Fluids
Fluids obeying this linear equation are called “Newtonian Fluids” ex:
water, air, gasoline, and oils while those unsatisfying this equation are
called “Non-Newtonian” ex: blood and liquid plastics.
At given conditions of temperature & pressure, a Newtonian fluid only
will have a constant viscosity regardless of the amount of shear rate.
A more practical way of estimating the wall shear stress is to relate it to the upstream velocity V
(representing the kinetic energy).
Non-Newtonian Fluids
Shear Thinning Fluid (Pseudo plastic): Fluid whose
viscosity decreases as the applied shear rate increases
ex: Blood, Ketchup, Molasses, Paints.
Shear Thickening Fluid (Dilatant): Fluid whose viscosity
increases as the applied shear rate increases ex: Sand in water,
Starch in water
Bingham Fluid: Fluid behaving as a rigid body and needs a
minimum amount of shear stress (Yield Stress) before it starts
to flow (to deform) (to have shear rate) ex: clay suspensions,
drilling mud, toothpaste, mayonnaise, chocolate, and mustard.
Effect of Temperature & Pressure on Viscosity
For Newtonian Fluids,
As the temperature increases, the viscosity of liquids
decreases while that of gases increases.
At low pressures, effect of changing pressure on
viscosity is negligible
At relatively high pressure (close to critical point for
gases), increasing pressure can increase the viscosity
gases.
At relatively high pressure (above 40 atm), increasing
pressure can increase the viscosity liquids.
Yunus A. Cengel, Afhin J. Ghair, "Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals and Applications", McGraw Hill, 2020
Laminar & Turbulent Flows
Laminar Flow: Flow characterized by smooth streamlines and
highly ordered motion.
Turbulent Flow: Flow characterized by velocity fluctuations and
highly disordered motion.
Transition Flow: An intermediate flow behavior between laminar
and turbulent.
Reynolds Number (Re)
The flow regime (laminar or turbulent or transition) depends on the surface
geometry, fluid properties, velocity, surface temperature, and other
parameters.
The flow regime was found to mainly depend on Reynolds number (Re).
Reynolds Number (Re): A dimensionless number representing the ratio of
the inertial forces to the viscous forces of the fluid.
O. Reynold
Re & Characteristic Length for Flow in Tubes
For flow in a circular tubes, Re is defined as:
Laminar at Re < 2300 and turbulent at Re>4000
For non-circular tubes, the characteristic length
for Re and Nu is the hydraulic diameter (Dh)
Example 1
Determine whether the following is laminar, turbulent, or transition flow.
A) Water flowing at a flow rate of 5 kg/s having a viscosity is 0.001 Pa.S in a pipe of 6 cm radius
Prove that the Re is dimensionless. Kindly solve it.
Example 2
B) Cooling Air flowing at a temperature of 10°C and 2 bar at a velocity of 12 m/s in a rectangular
duct having the dimensions of 20 cm x 25cm. The viscosity of air is 1.7x10 -5 Pa.s and its molecular
weight is 29 g/mole.
Prove that the units are consistent. Solve it.
Fully Developed Flow
Consider steady flow of a fluid through a circular pipe attached to a large tank. The fluid velocity
everywhere on the pipe surface is zero because of the no-slip condition, and the flow is two-
dimensional in the entrance region of the pipe since the velocity changes in both the radial r- and
axial z-directions.
The velocity profile develops fully and remains unchanged after some distance from the inlet and
the flow in this region is said to be fully developed.
Fully developed flow in circular pipes is 1-dimensional as velocity varies only radially (r-direction)
Velocity Boundary Layer
Velocity Boundary Layer: The region of the flow above the solid surface in which the effects of the
viscous shearing forces caused by fluid viscosity are felt.
Irrotational Flow Region: The region of flow in which the frictional effects are negligible, and the
velocity remains essentially constant.
Transition
Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow
Flow
Prandtl Boundary Layer
Development of Turbulent Boundary Layer
Boundary Layer Separation and Wake Formation
If a solid body (ex: plate, sphere,…) is turned perpendicular to the flow, a boundary layer forms on
the upstream side.
When the fluid reaches the plate's edge, it lacks the momentum to follow a sharp turn, causing it to
separate and move away from the plate.
This creates a wake—a region behind the plate filled with large, decelerated eddies (vortices)
generated by shear stresses between the wake and the separated flow.
These vortices consume mechanical energy and can cause significant pressure loss.
Boundary-layer separation occurs when the change in fluid velocity, either in magnitude or
direction, is too great for the fluid to stay attached to a surface.
It often happens with abrupt changes in the flow path, such as sudden expansions, contractions,
sharp bends, or obstacles. Reducing or preventing separation is important due to the energy losses
caused by wake formation.
Boundary Layer Separation and Wake Formation