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Solar Photovoltaic Cell Basics
When light shines on a photovoltaic (PV) cell – also called a solar cell – that
light may be reflected, absorbed, or pass right through the cell. The PV cell is
composed of semiconductor material; the “semi” means that it can conduct
electricity better than an insulator but not as well as a good conductor like a
metal. There are several different semiconductor materials used in PV cells.
When the semiconductor is exposed to light, it absorbs the light’s energy
and transfers it to negatively charged particles in the material called
electrons. This extra energy allows the electrons to flow through the material
as an electrical current. This current is extracted through conductive metal
contacts – the grid-like lines on a solar cells – and can then be used to power
your home and the rest of the electric grid.
The efficiency of a PV cell is simply the amount of electrical power coming
out of the cell compared to the energy from the light shining on it, which
indicates how effective the cell is at converting energy from one form to the
other. The amount of electricity produced from PV cells depends on the
characteristics (such as intensity and wavelengths) of the light available and
multiple performance attributes of the cell.
An important property of PV semiconductors is the bandgap, which indicates
what wavelengths of light the material can absorb and convert to electrical
energy. If the semiconductor’s bandgap matches the wavelengths of light
shining on the PV cell, then that cell can efficiently make use of all the
available energy.
Learn more below about the most commonly-used semiconductor materials
for PV cells.
SILICON
Silicon is, by far, the most common semiconductor material used in solar
cells, representing approximately 95% of the modules sold today. It is also
the second most abundant material on Earth (after oxygen) and the most
common semiconductor used in computer chips. Crystalline silicon cells are
made of silicon atoms connected to one another to form a crystal lattice.
This lattice provides an organized structure that makes conversion of light
into electricity more efficient.
Solar cells made out of silicon currently provide a combination of high
efficiency, low cost, and long lifetime. Modules are expected to last for 25
years or more, still producing more than 80% of their original power after
this time.
THIN-FILM PHOTOVOLTAICS
A thin-film solar cell is made by depositing one or more thin layers of PV
material on a supporting material such as glass, plastic, or metal. There are
two main types of thin-film PV semiconductors on the market
today: cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium gallium
diselenide (CIGS). Both materials can be deposited directly onto either the
front or back of the module surface.
CdTe is the second-most common PV material after silicon, and CdTe cells
can be made using low-cost manufacturing processes. While this makes
them a cost-effective alternative, their efficiencies still aren't quite as high as
silicon. CIGS cells have optimal properties for a PV material and high
efficiencies in the lab, but the complexity involved in combining four
elements makes the transition from lab to manufacturing more challenging.
Both CdTe and CIGS require more protection than silicon to enable long-
lasting operation outdoors.
PEROVSKITE PHOTOVOLTAICS
Perovskite solar cells are a type of thin-film cell and are named after their
characteristic crystal structure. Perovskite cells are built with layers of
materials that are printed, coated, or vacuum-deposited onto an underlying
support layer, known as the substrate. They are typically easy to assemble
and can reach efficiencies similar to crystalline silicon. In the lab, perovskite
solar cell efficiencies have improved faster than any other PV material, from
3% in 2009 to over 25% in 2020. To be commercially viable, perovskite PV
cells have to become stable enough to survive 20 years outdoors, so
researchers are working on making them more durable and developing
large-scale, low-cost manufacturing techniques.
ORGANIC PHOTOVOLTAICS
Organic PV, or OPV, cells are composed of carbon-rich (organic) compounds
and can be tailored to enhance a specific function of the PV cell, such as
bandgap, transparency, or color. OPV cells are currently only about half as
efficient as crystalline silicon cells and have shorter operating lifetimes, but
could be less expensive to manufacture in high volumes. They can also be
applied to a variety of supporting materials, such as flexible plastic, making
OPV able to serve a wide variety of [Link]
QUANTUM DOTS
Quantum dot solar cells conduct electricity through tiny particles of different
semiconductor materials just a few nanometers wide, called quantum dots.
Quantum dots provide a new way to process semiconductor materials, but it
is difficult to create an electrical connection between them, so they’re
currently not very efficient. However, they are easy to make into solar cells.
They can be deposited onto a substrate using a spin-coat method, a spray, or
roll-to-roll printers like the ones used to print newspapers.
Quantum dots come in various sizes and their bandgap is customizable,
enabling them to collect light that’s difficult to capture and to be paired with
other semiconductors, like perovskites, to optimize the performance of a
multijunction solar cell (more on those below).
MULTIJUNCTION PHOTOVOLTAICS
Another strategy to improve PV cell efficiency is layering multiple
semiconductors to make multijunction solar cells. These cells are
essentially stacks of different semiconductor materials, as opposed to single-
junction cells, which have only one semiconductor. Each layer has a different
bandgap, so they each absorb a different part of the solar spectrum, making
greater use of sunlight than single-junction cells. Multijunction solar cells can
reach record efficiency levels because the light that doesn’t get absorbed by
the first semiconductor layer is captured by a layer beneath it.
While all solar cells with more than one bandgap are multijunction solar cells,
a solar cell with exactly two bandgaps is called a tandem solar cell.
Multijunction solar cells that combine semiconductors from columns III and V
in the periodic table are called multijunction III-V solar cells.
Multijunction solar cells have demonstrated efficiencies higher than 45%, but
they’re costly and difficult to manufacture, so they’re reserved for space
exploration. The military is using III-V solar cells in drones, and researchers
are exploring other uses for them where high efficiency is key.
CONCENTRATION PHOTOVOLTAICS
Concentration PV, also known as CPV, focuses sunlight onto a solar cell by
using a mirror or lens. By focusing sunlight onto a small area, less PV
material is required. PV materials become more efficient as the light
becomes more concentrated, so the highest overall efficiencies are obtained
with CPV cells and modules. However, more expensive materials,
manufacturing techniques, and ability to track the movement of the sun are
required, so demonstrating the necessary cost advantage over today's high-
volume silicon modules has become challenging.