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materialsEditor letters, sampled

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• Writing
• Text type expectations
• Opinion column / letter to the editor
• Editor letters, sampled

The text type 'Letter to the Editor' covers a vast, baggy range of approaches - rather like the text
type 'Article', in fact. However, certain common, basic features can be observed, and these
should be sufficient to guide how we teach (and examine) 'Letters to the Editor' for English B
purposes.
The basis of this page consists of three Letters to the Editor. They all relate to an article
published in the New York Times by a woman called Kimberly Probolus, arguing that men
should listen more carefully to women. You can see the original article by going to the
page Why men should listen - the two pages are designed to be used in tandem, although you
can of course use them independently.
(I call the original an 'article', as it is called elsewhere in the NYT, but actually it was published
under 'Letters' - so what distinctions can we make between the two text types? Moot point...)
These are real Letters to the Editor... or rather, they are what really appeared in publication, since
we know that such letters are very often edited for reasons of space, economy of means, etc. So,
it is worthwhile analysing how they are structured, so as to extract guidelines for the students to
follow. You will see that the exercise in the worksheet focuses on exactly such analysis.
However, this exercise raises a couple of tricky questions:
Will the examiners expect this restricted format, or will they expect a full formal letter
format? I honestly can't say at present (in March 2020), because the detailed list of expected
conventions for the text types has not yet been agreed between senior examiners. I believe and
hope that this restricted format shown in these samples will become the new norm - but I am
pretty certain that there would be no penalty for using a full formal letter format (with addresses,
opening and closing salutations, etc).

• So, the safe option, at present, is to tell students that they should use the full format.

These letters are short - but surely the English B Paper 1 (at HL, anyway) expects
considerably more length? Indeed - at HL students are expected to write between 450 and 600
words, which is more than double the length of these examples. Well, yes... these letters are
short, because letters that are short and clear have more chance of being published - but
newspapers do publish longer letters if they think the length is worthwhile. And anyway, in the
end students should do what the exam requires, whether or not the length is strictly 'realistic'.
After all, how many e-mails run to as much as 450 words?

• In short, tell them to follow the basic structural elements as shown in the 'structural analysis'
exercise (see below) - but write at greater length, explaining each point in slightly more
detail.

Anyway, here is the handout, with the texts...

Handout
Letters to the editor
.

The worksheet exercises

Here are the answers that I would expect.

Structural analysis
All three letters contain certain features which are normal or conventional in Letters to the
Editor. Skim through the letters to work out what features they have in common. Then, in the
chart below, fill in the three columns on the right, with Y (Yes) or N (No).

Letter Letter Letter

Conventions / Features
A B C

Sender’s full address N N N

Recipient’s full address N N N

 Salutations – ‘Dear Sir’ & ‘Yours sincerely’ N N N

Writer’s name, and home town Y Y Y

Reference to original article / author Y Y Y

Link to original article (online letter) N Y N

Detailed summary of original article N N N

Statement of letter-writer’s point of view Y Y Y

Explanation of reasons for letter-writer’s point of view Y Y Y

Proposal or recommendation Y Y Y

Note that the elements in red are those that I think are the essential features that students should
attempt to include - in whatever way: there can be nothing rigid about this kind of system.

Point of view / stance

The letters seem to have been selected to give a range of responses to the original article –
whether for or against, to put it simply.
Skim the articles, and decide which letter’s point of view falls into the categories shown in the
chart below - then fill in the three columns on the right, with Y (Yes) or N (No).

Letter Letter Letter

Point of view / stance
A B C

Basically agrees with the original article Y Y? / N? N

Basically disagrees with the original article N N Y

Makes a balanced comment on the original article N Y N

Some of the answers here are debatable (letter B, for instance) - so by all means debate with the
students, requiring them to provide evidence from the text as to why they might make a different
interpretation.
Emphasise as well the three basic approaches - 'agree' / 'disagree' / 'balanced comment' (usually
'agree, but...').
.
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materialsArticle
•
• Writing
• Text type expectations
• Article

KEY FEATURES
context, audience, purpose -
* the context of the article will usually be set out briefly in the question: e.g the
background to the subject matter of the article
* the audience will usually be indicated by where the article will be published: e.g. 'your
school magazine'
* the fundamental purpose of any article is to inform or to report - but we may also include
'interest', 'explore', 'study'. Note that strong opinions or attitudes would probably not be
expected - such purposes would probably come under 'opinion column' (qv)
register and tone -
* will have a semi-formal to formal register
* will have a tone appropriate to task e.g. suitably serious
conventions -
* will have a relevant headline/title
* will have an introduction intended to catch the readers’ attention
* will use techniques that engage and interest readers e.g. direct address

But what is an 'article'?

The 'Article' text type evidently covers a vast range of approaches and styles. Selecting the most
appropriate approach will depend on how the task is defined.

Format and Approach discussed

The term 'article' clearly carries the notion of a journalistic discourse, but the context – which
includes where it is to be published, and to whom it is to be addressed – will have a powerful
influence on how it is written (see NB, below).
The key element of 'journalistic discourse' which should be taught to the students is that
journalism sets out to inform ... but that all journalists recognise that if you want to inform
effectively, you have to interest and engage your audience. This means that the various aspects
listed under 'approach', below, should be explored and emphasised in teaching.
Basic Format
- Headline / title
- Sub-headline, summarising
- Byline (author, date, location)
- Short paragraphs (possibly)
- Sub-headings (possibly)
Here is a possible template for an 'article' - of course, this is generalised and would necessarily
have to be adapted to precise subject matter / context / audience. (Try projecting this, using
Presentation mode.)
.
Approach
> 'Duty to inform' ? A defining element of any 'article' is that it sets out to inform – does
the script actually tell people something? It is worth stressing that 'inform' does not
necessarily mean 'factual information' - or rather, factual information should be seen as
'supporting evidence' which helps to illustrate and clarify the general ideas and arguments
presented. (Useful to contrast with the News Report, where factual information is the
primary focus, and general ideas and arguments should be seen as secondary and
subordinate.)
> Precise nature of task ? Is the main purpose to :
 Inform ? In which case, is the flow of information methodical and clear?
Discuss ? In which case, is there a reasonably balanced coverage of different points
of view?
Give opinion ? In which case, is a clear point of view presented? And is it coherent /
consistent?
> Opening & closing? Is the opening, in particular, attractive / attention-catching ?
> Address? Is there a sense of effective address to the public ? The type of
'effective address' will be defined by the intended audience.
NB A basic problem of the 'article' as a task is that articles appear in many contexts, and these
contexts may define style and approach. Unless the question specifies publishing context very
carefully, one should beware of jumping to conclusions – for instance, a 'school magazine' may
be written in many different ways, from jokey / colloquial to formal / serious. Usually, accept
any approach which is credible and consistent.

Relevant writing purposes

Consult above all ... Explanation ... + ... Argument ... but Description and Narration may also
be useful.

Materials & models

> Using quotes ... based on an extract from an article in IB World, this text is an example of
how to build up an explanation by skilful selection of quotes ... 'article' as overlapping with
'interview'
> How to be a populist ... the text which forms the basis of this page is an example of the
'comment' or 'opinion' type of article ('op-ed') ... there are two extracts, Populist politics 1 which
is clearly polemic commentary, and Populist politics 2 which provides explanation of a series of
populist techniques, in the form of a set of guidelines
> Making money globally ... the handout 'Rastani press reactions' on this page provides a couple
of 'background'-type articles, which combine information with comment, in usefully contrasting
ways
> Sitges and Sitges evocative ... the texts that form the basis of these two pages can usefully be
contrasted to illustrate the differences between factual / informative articles and articles which
set out to evoke and entertain
> Acampados ... 'eyewitness' article (from my blog about a Barcelona demonstration) ... useful for
teaching basic format + critical reading worksheet, requiring assessment of stance / slant.
> Short People ... the 'online article' provided in the supporting information handout on this page
is a model of the type of concise, witty article that provides the background to a story
> Paper 2 Article (H) ... this student's script provides a very useful model of how to handle an
article: it has a clear, efficient 'angle' on the task, and combines being informative with being
entertaining
> Dismaland ... the text is an example of a 'feature' article, in that it sets out to provide an
overall explanation of an event through the careful selection of details, describing the experience
of the journalist

Recent 'old-style' exam tasks

Many of your friends have decided to have tattoos, but you disagree as this could have future
negative consequences both socially and professionally. Write an article for the local
newspaper’s Teen Talk section explaining your thoughts. (SL M13)
Many languages are spoken by a small number of people, and some are in danger of dying out.
Write an article to be published in your school magazine on why and how minority languages
should be maintained. (HL N13)
Last year, you celebrated the New Year in an English-speaking country. You decided to write an
article to be published in your school’s “end of year” newspaper edition in which you describe
the event, and how similar or different it was to the New Year celebrations in your own country.
(SL N13)
Many teenagers in your community feel insecure about the way they look. Write an article to be
published in a youth magazine in which you outline the reasons why teenagers have those
insecurities and suggest solutions. (HL M14)
The government department concerned with Health and Safety in your country has banned the
provision of toothpicks on restaurant tables, as they are considered “dangerous”. As a journalist
for your local magazine, write an article discussing this recent law. (SL M14)
You feel that many students have an unbalanced diet. Write an article to be published in your
school magazine on how this may affect their performance at school and make suggestions for
improvements. (HL N14)
You and your friends recently discussed how what the younger generation believes is important
in life is different from what the older generation believes is important. You feel your ideas are
of general interest. As the junior reporter for the local newspaper, write an article describing
some of these differences and why they might exist. (SL N14)
You watched a film in which the main characters did not have a common language but still
managed to work collaboratively. Write an article for your school magazine describing how the
characters communicated with each other and reflecting on how necessary it is to share a
language. (HL M15)
You recently read a news report which claimed that all cars will run on electricity in 15 years’
time. Write an article for your school magazine in which you consider the possible advantages
and disadvantages of such a future. (SL M15)
 Last summer you worked for an organization that provides healthcare in developing countries.
Write an article for your school magazine about what you did and why you feel the work of this
organization is important. (HL N15)
Many students at your school are fixated on physical appearance. Write an article to be published
in your school magazine in which you explain the issue and describe how young people can
avoid the negative consequences connected with such obsession. (HL M16)
Your school is attended by students from many different cultures and you are very proud of this
fact. As the president of the Student Council, you have decided to write an article for your
school magazine in which you explain the benefits of attending a multicultural school. (SL
M16)
Your school is to be featured in the next issue of an international education magazine. Write the
article that will appear in this magazine, which describes the different ways in which your school
assists students who are learners of English to develop their communication skills in this
language. (HL N16)
Several months ago, your school started to implement relaxation classes. As the editor of your
school newspaper, write an article describing the activities carried out in these classes and
discussing the benefits they have had on students’ well-being. (SL M18)
A national celebration that you feel is important will take place next month. However, some
students at your school feel this celebration is a waste of time. Write an article for your school
magazine in which you describe the celebration, highlight its importance and state how enjoyable
it can be. (SL M19)

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Blog
materials

•
• Writing
• Text type expectations
• Blog

KEY FEATURES
context, audience, purpose -
* the context will usually be set out in the question e.g. the issue which is to inspire the
blog entry
* the audience may be assumed to be people interested in the subject matter OR
(youngish?) internet-interested people
* the generic purpose of blogs is to interest / entertain / amuse / be provocative &
stimulating - in general, NOT solemn
register and tone -
* will use a semi-formal to informal register
* the usual tone will be personal - chatty, direct and unpretentious
conventions -
* will include first person statement and/or narration
* will seek to engage the reader, eg through direct address, a lively and interesting style etc
* will use 'typical blog techniques' e.g. a provocative closing statement, leading to an
invitation to comment / response
* will have an interesting, catchy title for the entry
.

But what exactly is a 'blog'?

While the diary is a text type which has been around forever, the blog is an extremely recent type
of text. To be more precise, the Wikipedia 'diary' entry claims that Marcus Aurelius'
'Meditations' (second century AD) is the first recognisable diary - while Wikipedia on 'online
diaries' cites Claudio Pinhanez's "Open Diary" as the first blog in 1994.
But is a blog the same thing as a diary ? A distinction: both text types typically present personal
experience and comment, but a blog is more of a public statement, whereas a diary is more of
a private reflection. Beyond that, there is a problem: are there conventions for the relatively
new blog - or for the anarchically personal diary ?
.

Format and Approach discussed

Basic Format
- Heading : a Blog will have a title (perhaps quirky, witty) - there will be a title for the
blog as a whole, but also (more significantly) a title for the individual entry
- Conclusion : a Blog will usually end with a request for comment / responses from the
readers ; Diary - nothing conventional (possibly something along the lines of "more
tomorrow"?)
- Lucid paragraphing : While one can think of real examples of blogs which ignore
basic paragraphing, students writing an exam script should be expected to show
that they understand that sensible paragraphing aids clarity.
Approach
> address : blogs set out to have regular readers, so are likely to have touches of direct
address ("As you regular readers know ...")
 > register : informality enriched with sophistication - if both text types are personal,
some informality can be expected in register and rhetoric, but higher marks will go
to exam scripts which combine colloquialism with dashes of complex phrasing and
effects.
> organisation - What should govern the effective organisation of a blog?
- if a blog is a 'public statement', ideas can be expected to be organised to
show some evident + consistent purpose
> since blogs very often present an opinion or an argument, the ideas should
be (reasonably) methodically organised
> where the opinion is based on an anecdote or experience, this should be
narrated clearly
> style - the three aspects described above all add up to the notion that a good blog should
have a recognisable and expressive personal style. Put another way, this means a
recognisable and engaging 'voice' - see the page Developing 'voice' for further ideas about
this.

Relevant writing purposes

Given that blogs can deal with practically anything, all the writing purposes might apply, but if
we accept that ...
... a blog is usually about presenting a point of view for public response,
then Argument and Explanation will be most useful
.

Materials & models

> Blog: PR as blog ... this student wrote the Section B Personal Response task in the form of a
blog - and it's actually a pretty exemplary handling of the text type ... worth using as a model of
both a blog and of how to deal with the PR
> Blog: About blogging ... an analysis of four sample blogs extracted from the novel
Americanah by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie points to a total of six ways of approaching a blog -
different types of discourse which may be adapted to subject matter.
> Blog: Midsomer Murders Comments ... two comments related to news story (see news report,
below) ... most emblematic is #1 Peter Stothard blog - paragraphing + approach + personal
comment ... with worksheet + see also whole page for background
> Blog: The pleasures of hating ... an example of the 'controversial' or 'deliberately provocative'
kind of blog
... and you might consider trawling through my own blog on the Home page of this site. There
are a whole range of different types of blog approaches there, such as ...
#romeo&juliet ... the quirky reflection on a curious idea
 Post-truth ... meditation on a set of words
Life's a beach 2 ... the anecdote, or short story approach
Somewheres & Anywheres ... the essay, exploring an idea
1984 revisited ... the commentary on contemporary events
...and so on.

Recent exam tasks ('old' style)

Blog
On one of your recent travels, you were asked to take part in a traditional dance. Post an entry on
your personal blog describing your experience and what you thought about it. (HL N13)
You recently read a blog in which the writer claimed that all sectors of the population of a
country should celebrate the same festivals. Write a blog entry in response stating your opinion
on the matter. (HL M14)
During your recent holiday, you came across what seemed to you an unusual custom. However,
the more you spoke to the local people, the more you understood the reason for this custom.
Describe and explain this custom in your blog. (SL M14)
You recently heard a news report that all scientific experiments in school laboratories might be
replaced by virtual experiments. You decide to write a blog entry reflecting on how this might
change your science classes and whether or not you think this would be a good development.
Write the blog entry. (SL N14)
You recently read an article in which the author claimed that natural sciences (such as chemistry,
biology or physics) are not as beneficial as social sciences (such as economics or history) in the
21st century. Write a blog entry in which you discuss the claim and give reasons for your
opinion. (HL M15)
Your school is closed for a mid-term break and you and your friends have decided to clean up
and develop an ugly, abandoned area of your town for the benefit of the local residents. Write a
blog describing your goals and the progress your group is making. (SL M15)
Last year you were staying in an English-speaking country when Halloween was celebrated.
Write a blog for readers in your country describing the custom of Halloween and saying what
you and your friends did on that day. (HL N15)
The inappropriate behaviour of young people at a formal event you recently attended led you to
comment on it in your personal blog. Write your blog entry and include a set of guidelines to
describe how young people should behave during formal functions (such as weddings or
conferences). (SL N15)
Many teenagers in your neighbourhood prefer virtual games to spending time with peers and
claim it helps them bond with each other. Write a blog entry in which you discuss the pros and
cons of playing games online and whether true bonding occurs when playing such games. (HL
M16)
You entered a photography contest run by a national magazine hoping to win the top prize of a
trip to your favourite city. Unfortunately, you did not win and now your dream of visiting that
city is shattered. Write a blog entry to share your feelings with your online followers. (SL
M16)
Social media are changing the ways in which we interact with each other. Write a blog entry
describing a recent development in social media and explaining some of the ways it is altering
our manners and customs. (HL N16)
You are happy that, over the course of your IB experience, your English has improved
significantly from when you started. Write a blog entry describing an important moment or phase
in your language development that you experienced during this time. (SL N16)
You recently volunteered at a local hospital where you tended to children recovering from long-
term illnesses. Write a blog entry describing the experience and explaining the factors other than
medicine and medical treatment that, in your opinion, helped those children recover. (HL M17)
You have just read an article which claimed that home-schooled children tend to be more highly
motivated and therefore perform better academically. Write a blog entry reflecting on your own
school experience and whether you think you would have benefited from home schooling. (SL
M17)
You read an article that argued that the way you dress influences what others think about you.
Write a blog entry in which you discuss to what extent you agree or disagree with this claim and
give reasons for your views. (HL M18)
Your school is thinking of banning students who have piercings from entering the school
campus. You have strong views on this situation. Write a blog entry in which you either agree or
disagree with the school’s proposal, giving reasons for your opinion. (SL M18)
A recent national survey has found that a majority of teenagers believe online gaming should be
classed as a sport. Write a blog entry in which you discuss to what extent you agree with this
view, giving reasons for your opinion. (HL N18)
You recently read an article which stated that, nowadays, what shapes our future the most is
technology. This has inspired you to write a blog entry discussing what you think will be the
most important technological advance in the next five years and why you think this would be the
case. (SL N18)
You went on holiday to a country you’ve always wanted to visit. Nothing went as you planned,
and you came back home feeling disappointed and frustrated. Write a blog entry describing what
you had initially planned, explaining how it went wrong, and reflecting on what you have
learned from the experience. (HL M19)
Your local town is planning to build bike lanes to encourage local residents to keep fit by cycling
around. You believe this is a good idea. Write a blog entry in which you describe the initiative
and explain the benefits that it would bring. (SL M19)
A computer scientist has predicted that robots will begin replacing teachers in the classroom
within the next ten years. Write a blog entry in which you discuss both potential benefits and
 drawbacks of such revolutionary technology, and stating whether you think this would be a
positive change. (HL N19)
.

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Brochure, leaflet, etc

materials

•
• Writing
• Text type expectations
• Brochure, leaflet, etc

KEY FEATURES
context, audience, purpose -
* the context will usually be set out in the question e.g. the problem to which the pamphlet
is going to propose a solution
* the audience will usually be pretty clearly defined by how context and purpose are linked
e.g. if the context is the need for healthy exercise among young people and the purpose is
to promote a new sports centre, the audience will be... young people (who may or may not
be interested in exercise!)
* the basic purpose of these text types is publicity - and this can be divided broadly
into 'inform' (e.g. health information) and 'promote' (e.g. selling something)... although
typically both elements are required in different proportions
register and tone -
* will use a semi-formal to formal register
* the tone will tend to be simple and direct - i.e. to convey the sense of honest address
conventions -
* will have an engaging title, which attracts attention
* will identify ideas with format techniques such as sub-headings, bullet points, numbering
etc
* will include practical aspects of the brochure like “contact us”, or “a phone number
and/or an email address”.
* will have a short introduction and a conclusion
NOTE: Graphic design as such is not marked
Not so much a text type, more a list...
Just to clarify, printers distinguish these different types of publication by their physical form :
a flyer is a single sheet ... a leaflet is a single sheet, folded ... pamphlets and brochures are
multiple sheets, usually stapled together into a 'booklet' format ... and advertisments are...well,
anything at all, really.
What all of these formats have in common is that they are concerned to disseminate information
quickly and concisely. The task may define an emphasis on informing (e.g the health leaflet) or
on promoting (e.g. the publicity brochure).

Format and Approach discussed

Basic Format
- Main heading (informing), or slogan (promoting)
- Use of multiple sections : identified by bullet points, lines, stars, etc
- Subheadings : used to show the steps/stages of the argument
- Succinct explanation : individual concepts / ideas are presented clearly and quickly
- Background information : e.g. 'Contact us' + phone number / email
Design & layout - All of these types of text depend heavily on visual impact. However, please
note that English B Paper 2 is a language exam, not a graphic design exam. In short, there is
nothing specific in the marking criteria which will reward skilful drawing - at best, a laboriously-
worked layout might earn the top mark because the leaflet is "clearly recognisable". There is
nothing wrong in students with artistic talents doing attractive layouts, but the emphasis in
teaching should be on the "multiple sections" and "lucid overall structure of argument"
mentioned in the summary in the box at the top. Such sections and overall structure can be
indicated perfectly effectively in pure text. A way of putting it to the students might be to tell
them to imagine that they are writing the draft copy which will be given to a professional
designer.
The page Leaflets & pamphlets discusses this issue in detail.
Approach
> 'address' - all of these text types include the idea of a form of direct address to a
target audience … are there indications that the student understands this, and
expresses such address? Direct address most usually involves personal
pronouns: "If you are a student, you need to know that..."
> 'promotional language' – usually, these text types are all hortatory: they
encourage the target audience to agree with what is being presented, to 'buy the
idea' … so to what extent does the style + rhetoric achieve this effect?
> lucid step-by-step overall argument : individual points are linked together into a
convincing sequence of ideas
Relevant writing purposes
Above all, students should be taught the skills of effective Explanation - and this may also
involve producing competent Description and, depending on the task, Argument in order to
present a case forcefully.

Materials & models

> How to write a pamphlet ... a model example of a skilfully designed promotional text -
written by an English B teacher!
> Leaflets & pamphlets ... analysis of a pair of student-written pamphlets, illustrating the
strengths and weaknesses of each
> BOOK ... skilful parody of publicity for selling technology - but actually used to promote the
old-fashioned book!

Recent exam tasks ('old' style)

Stress is one of the reasons why many students do not do well in their exams. Write a pamphlet
to be distributed to students at your school in which you explain the possible symptoms as well
as causes of stress, and suggest ways in which they can be avoided. (HL M13)
You and your classmates are going on a week-long expedition. As the team leader, you have
researched the area well, including possible dangers and risks. To help your team members, write
a pamphlet giving advice on how to stay healthy and safe during the expedition. (SL N13)
Your local council recently decided to start actively supporting young people who would like to
stop smoking. You have been set the task of writing a pamphlet which will include information
on the dangers of smoking and tips on how to give up this habit. Write the pamphlet. (SL N14)
Recent research has shown that modern teenagers do less physical exercise than their parents did.
You find this shocking! Write a leaflet to be put on the school noticeboard in which you suggest
fun ways for young people to incorporate exercise into their daily lives. (SL M15)
The capital of your country is actively marketing the city to English-speaking tourists and all
local schools have been invited to take part in this important venture. Write a promotional
pamphlet covering aspects from both the past and the present of the city. (HL N15)
Your school is organizing an art exhibition in which a number of different customs and traditions
will be celebrated. To promote the exhibition, write a brochure to be handed out at the
exhibition’s entrance, describing the different exhibits and explaining how they represent
customs and traditions. (HL M16)
A local fast food restaurant has started making special offers for students at your school. You are
worried about the negative effects this may have on their health. As a member of the Student
Council, write a brochure to be distributed at your school, giving advice on how to enjoy fast
food responsibly and warning them against the negative effects of this kind of food. (SL M16)
 As part of your school activities, you designed a summer programme for your peers that aims to
create better understanding of the different cultures in your community. Write a brochure in
which you promote the programme and describe the different activities in which students will be
participating. (HL M17)
You love going to the cinema. You have decided to create a film club to discuss and share films
with other cinema fans in your local area. Write a leaflet giving information about the club and
encouraging people to join. (SL M17)
A local newspaper report alerted the people of your town that there has been an outbreak of an
infectious disease. You are worried about this news. Write a leaflet for your fellow students
drawing attention to the dangerous effects of this disease and suggesting how they can protect
both themselves and others from it. (SL N17)
Many students at your school are exercising too much because they think it is the only way to
remain healthy. As the captain of the athletics club, you would like to raise awareness about this
problem. Write a pamphlet to be distributed to your schoolmates, defining what too much
exercise is, outlining its dangers and suggesting alternative ways in which they can improve their
health. (HL M19)
Next month, your school will celebrate diversity by holding a concert featuring students from
different cultural backgrounds. Your task is to advertise the audition to select the performers.
Write a leaflet in which you give information about the concert and the audition, and persuade
students to audition. (HL N19)
Many of your fellow students use their cell phones in public places, such as shops, buses and
cafés, without thinking about the people around them. Write a leaflet to be distributed in your
school, describing the issue and suggesting how cell phones can be used in public without
disturbing or offending others. (SL N19)

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materialsHow to write a pamphlet

•
• Writing
• Text type expectations
• Brochure, leaflet, etc
• How to write a pamphlet
 .
This page is based on a real pamphlet. What struck me about this pamphlet was that it conveyed
exactly the sort of information any sensible reader would want to know, precisely, economically,
and efficiently - that it was, in fact, a model of how to write a pamphlet. Which is perhaps to be
expected, since it was written by an English B teacher!
It was produced by Rebecca Greenway (Ecole Bilingue Jeannine Manuel in Lille), along with
Bart Dankaerts (American School of the Hague) and Catherine Hunter (who handled the
design). The pamphlet aims to promote the ambitious and creative project of a conference of
CAS teachers in support of a rural community in Nepal. You can see the pamphlet, with all the
main details of the project, by opening the file below:-

CAS in Nepal pamphlet

... and by the way, this is an ongoing project. The first summit, as promoted in this
pamphlet, was "a great success", says Rebecca, and the plan is to repeat the idea in
future years. If you want to find out more, why not contact Rebecca or Bart -
you'll find their email addresses in the pamphlet.

A pamphlet template
The value of Rebecca's pamphlet, from the point of view of teaching, is that it may provide a
pattern, or a recipe, or a template for the writing of any pamphlet. Such a template would look
like this:-
Consider the ingredients here:-
Eyecatching title - a very short phrase which makes people stop and notice
Interesting slogan - and once people have actually stopped and noticed, provide them
something with more meat
Direct address - now you've got the audience's attention, speak to them directly so as to
build a relationship, and involve them
Question(s) > information - imagine the questions that people will naturally ask, and
provide the key, vital information: this is where you really communicate the project, as
succinctly, and yet persuasively, as possible
Closing summary - balance the opening title + slogan with something that connects back
and completes the overall pattern of the idea you are selling... in a similarly 'eyecatching'
way
So there's the template. It will be worth stressing to the students that this is not a rigid 'correct'
formula - it should be reviewed and adapted creatively to meet the needs of the precise task in
hand.

About 'audience'
The key to any form of persuasive writing - whether a pamphlet, or a proposal, or a speech - is to
put yourself into the audience's mind. This involves an effort of imaginative empathy: to think
how other people will react to your ideas, and thus how you can adapt and sequence your
arguments in order to persuade effectively.
I recall a fragment from a documentary about advertising, in which the client was discussing a
new advertising campaign with the publicity agency. The client leaned forward over the table
and said "Why should I buy! I want you to tell people why they should buy!" - in a nutshell, that is
what persuasion is, whether it involves selling a product or selling an idea.
In the case of this pamphlet, who is the target audience? Well, IB teachers, obviously enough,
but exactly what sort of IB teacher, with what sort of attitudes? Presumably, 'curious' ...
adventurous ... unconventional ... energetic ... committed ... idealistic ... and...?
Of course, no pamphlet is going to reach everybody. There will be plenty of people who will
look at this proposal and shudder at the thought of spending New Year in some remote
backwoods village! Fine - that doesn't matter if the pamphlet captures enough people who really
do fit the profile of the target audience that has been decided.

The handout
In order to familiarise students with how the template works in practice, I have extracted the text
of the real 'Nepal' pamphlet, and presented the various sections in random order on the second
page of the handout. The task is for students to work out which bits of text (identified with
letters) fit into which of the boxes of the template presented in the first page of the handout. A
simple exercise, but it does require students to understand exactly how each chunk of text works,
and how it fits into the overall pattern of the template.
Note the phrase "chunk of text". It is worth reminding students that, in the exam, graphic design
as such has no impact on the marking - what matters is the language used. That said, part of
using language well is to use an effective structure... which is what the template above is
intended to emphasise.
You can check the correct answers by opening the file of the full pamphlet given at the top of
this page... and you can of course project the full pamphlet using Presentation Mode.

Finally...
The final task in the handout asks students to identify all adjectives in the text, and then to
consider the effect of those adjectives - how do they help to sell the idea? The answer expected,
of course, is that they all have positive connotations, thus stimulating enthusiasm for the idea.
Handout
 Nepal CAS pamphlet worksheet
.

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materials Diary (private) / journal

•
• Writing
• Text type expectations
• Diary (private) / journal

KEY FEATURES
context, audience, purpose -
* the overall context may be assumed to be the writer's own life - but the question will
probably set some particular situation around which the entry should be invented e.g. 'you
have had an argument with a good friend'. (In exams, whether or not the "writer's own life"
is the student's real one, or is completely invented, does not matter at all - it merely has to
be credible.)
* the question of 'audience' is the key distinction perceived by IB between 'diary' and
'journal' - a diary is assumed to be essentially private i.e. written for the author's eyes
only; whereas a journal may be written for possibly public reading (e.g. a scientist's
journal of experiments and data-collection).
* the purpose will generally be to 'record' some experiences of personal significance - but
what sorts of experiences are required will be indicated in the question. One way of stating
the distinction between the two text types is that a diary is anecdotal (dealing with intimate
personal feelings) while a journal is intellectual (dealing with personal reactions to more
public concepts and arguments).
register and tone -
* will use a generally informal register
* the tone will be personal, frank and open - e.g. emotions may be described clearly and
with feeling
conventions -
* will use first person narration
* will have a closing statement to round off the entry
* will avoid self-evident explanatory phrases or sentences, e.g. will use “I saw Alicia”, not
“I saw Alicia, my best friend”
 * will include the date and/or day

But what exactly is a 'diary'?

While the diary is a text type which has been around forever, the blog is an extremely recent type
of text. To be more precise, the Wikipedia 'diary' entry claims that Marcus Aurelius'
'Meditations' (second century AD) is the first recognisable diary - while Wikipedia on 'online
diaries' cites Claudio Pinhanez's "Open Diary" as the first blog in 1994.
But is a diary the same thing as a blog ? A distinction: both text types typically present personal
experience and comment, but a blog is more of a public statement, whereas a diary is more of
a private reflection. Beyond that, there is a problem: are there conventions for the relatively
new blog - or for the anarchically personal diary ?
And what about the 'journal'...?
The arrival of the new Subject Guide 2018 has introduced the 'journal entry' as a newly
significant text type. My understanding (in October 2018) is that the 'journal entry' is likely to
appear in future Written Production Paper 1s ... but what exactly is a 'journal entry'?
I found the following online (I find that I carelessly didn't copy the site address)...
noun
1A ... newspaper or magazine that deals with a particular subject or professional activity.
‘medical journals’ ; in names ‘the Wall Street Journal’
2A ... daily record of news and events of a personal nature; a diary.
‘while abroad he had kept a journal’
2.1 ... Nautical A logbook.
2.2 ... the Journals - A record of the daily proceedings in the Houses of Parliament.
2.3 ... (in bookkeeping) a daily record of business transactions with a statement of the accounts to
which each is to be debited and credited.
Examples (notice how these selected samples emphasise the recording of practical information)
‘Put your goals on paper and keep a running journal.’
‘Vicki sighed and traced his phone number in her journal with her mechanical pencil.’
‘I was probably now just a little page in her journal of boyfriends.’
‘During World War Two, military personnel were strictly forbidden to keep journals or
diaries.’
‘The journal is a little treasure chest of data about your data.’
I am not aware of an official IB definition (no more than there are official definitions of any of
the other text types), and so I propose to define the 'journal entry' more fully in this page when
discussion among examiners has provided something solid on which to base such a definition. So
watch this space...
However, in the meantime, I think it is possible to make basic distinctions between the following
related and overlapping text types:-
Journal entry = private writing about the development of one's own ideas - as opposed
to...
Diary entry = private writing reflecting on the events of one's own life and times
Blog = public writing discussing ideas in a lively and provocative way in order to promote
debate ... and to attract audience of course (opinion is primary)
Article (online or not) = public writing explaining ideas in order to inform the public
(opinion is secondary)
These are just my own personal distinctions, but I would argue that they are substantially true.

Format and Approach discussed

Basic Format
- Heading : a diary entry will use include a date; or dates, if multiple entries ('Dear Diary'
is unbelievable!)
- Conclusion : there is nothing conventional to end a diary entry (possibly something
along the lines of "more tomorrow"?)
- Lucid paragraphing : While one can think of real examples of diaries which
ignore basic paragraphing, students writing an exam script should be expected to
show that they understand that sensible paragraphing aids clarity.
Approach
> address : being essentially private, diaries have no convention of address, but the best
examples give a sense of the writer conversing with himself / herself ("As usual, I'm
thinking of..."; "Why do I always...")
> register : informality enriched with sophistication - since diaries are personal,
some informality can be expected in register and rhetoric, but higher marks will go
to exam scripts which combine colloquialism with dashes of complex phrasing and
effects.
> organisation - What should govern the effective organisation of a diary?
- even if a diary is a (more) private reflection, an exam script can still be
expected to show a clear and organised flow of ideas. This may include :-
> control of narration – the diary is usually set to address a narrative of
some sort, so effective explanation and control of the events is
expected
 > narration plus comment – what distinguishes the diary from other
forms of narrative is that the diarist reflects on the events and draws
personal conclusions.
> style - the three aspects described above all add up to the notion that a good diary
should have a recognisable and expressive personal style. Put another way, this means a
recognisable and engaging 'voice' - see the page Developing 'voice' for further ideas about
this.

Relevant writing purposes

Given that blogs and diaries can deal with practically anything, all the writing purposes might
apply, but if we accept that ...
... a diary is most often about reflection on personal experience,
then Narration and Description will be primarily useful, with Argument following closely

Materials & models

> Diary: in the Paper 2 Project, Script F ... skilful student script, expressing enthusiasm within the
necessary diary frame of narration + comment ... good as model in itself, but also useful as
marking exercise
> Diary: Bullfight afternoon ... elegantly-handled student writing, evoking a precise and
representative moment ... could serve as models for either diary or writing narrative
> Diary: Sydney & sleep ... two short texts which are not originally diary entries as such, but
which illustrate how to write up observation vividly (the 'Sydney' text), and how to tell an
entertaining anecdote (the 'sleep' text)
> Diary: About a diary ... extract from a sophisticated autobiography, recounting the
significance of the author's diary ... raises the issues of why people write diaries, and what effect
such a diary might have

Recent exam tasks ('old' style)

The town you live in lost electricity for two days! Write a diary entry describing your life during
these two days and reflecting on your experience. (SL N13)
While on a school exchange in an English-speaking country, you attended a conference on the
difficulties faced by communities trying to maintain customs and traditions in a rapidly changing
world. Write a diary entry in which you record and reflect on the ideas presented at the
event. (HL N17)
You are on a school exchange in an English-speaking country with one of your friends. Although
you are enjoying the experience, your friend feels left out because they feel different from their
peers. Write a diary entry reflecting on this situation and considering ways in which you can help
them. (SL M18)
.
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E-mail / letter
materials

•
• Writing
• Text type expectations
• E-mail / letter

NOTE: The e-mail and the informal letter have been grouped together - since the basic
approach of both involves an informal, personal address to a known individual. The formal
letter is dealt with separately because, in contrast, that text type usually involves objective
impersonal communication about general issues, addressed to an organisation or an office rather
than an individual known personally.
See also the specialised formal letters included in the pages Opinion column / letter to the
editor and Personal statement / cover letter

(informal) E-mail & letter

KEY FEATURES
context, audience, purpose -
* the question will usually describe a background situation, which the writer wishes to
communicate to...
* ... a specified friend / acquaintance (note that e-mail tasks usually require individual
communication with one person only, as opposed to some kind of general message to a
collective audience)
* the purpose will usually be to express and explore personal attitudes and experience:
usually of the writer, but perhaps involving advice to the reader
register and tone -
* will adopt a consistently informal register
* will adopt a lively, engaging tone and style, perhaps with some “youth-speak” eg “I’m
good”, “Can’t wait” etc
conventions -
* will maintain clear sense of address to a specific person
* will have an appropriate opening salutation
* will have an appropriate closing salutation.
Format and Approach discussed
The email is a relatively new form of text, and no generally-agreed codes of formal expectations
have yet evolved – quite apart from the fact that there are vast variations in how the type is used
in practice. That said, for marking purposes there are a few ground rules that can be advanced,
based on a common-sense approach to the communicative function of the type.
The basis of the following suggested 'rules' is that any email produced in an English B exam will
be produced in response to a question, and that question will always have a specific task –
candidates will never be asked simply to produce idle chat.
Basic Format
- standard heading of 'from / to / date ...etc'
- informal opening and closing salutations (many and various)
Approach
> 'address': To what extent is it clear that the email is addressed to a specific
person? This may be extended to include a sense of 'dialogue' – direct
questions, comments which require an answer – since it is inherent in the
email form that replies can be received very rapidly.
> focus on task – Since the question will always propose a task, does most of the
message deal with the task? And if so, how effectively?
> control of digression - One key could be to assess whether the 'digressions' are
purposeful or accidental – for instance, chatty asides, jokes, personal references (see
concept of 'dialogue' under 'address', above) may actually indicate good control of
attention, if handled clearly and with discipline.
> register: To what extent is there evidence that the candidate has command
of a range of register - informal combined with formal … colloquial with
sophisticated ? ('command' means 'moving deliberately from one register to
another')

Relevant writing purposes

It is evident that e-mails may be written for many different purposes - and indeed that a
single e-mail may contain several different purposes, as the writer jumps from one idea
to another in a free, informal manner. So, really, all the communicative purposes may
be relevant - with Narration and Description perhaps slightly more common
than Explanation and Argument

Materials & models

Help! ... based on an actual scam e-mail, appealing for help in order to extract money under false
pretences ... pretty accessible ... tasks suggested will lead to writing emails in reply
Nigeria 419 Scams ... more email scams, more complex, and illustrating mistakes in register,
tone and approach ... should help to define what is an effective email, and what is not
The e-spot ... short little piece suggesting how an informal letter written by Winston Churchill
might be translated into 'emailspeak' ... lightweight, but makes a compare/contrast point...

Recent exam tasks ('old' style)

You have visited an information technology fair and you were impressed by the recent advances
in this field. Write an email to a friend in which you describe what you saw and encourage
him/her to attend the fair. (HL N13)
A friend of yours has emailed you a link to an interview with a sports figure who argued that
sports should not be played for leisure. Write an email to your friend in which you express your
views on the subject. (HL M14)
To celebrate different traditions, your town council is holding a costume party in which all those
who attend must wear traditional costumes. Write an email to a friend describing what your
chosen costume is and why you have chosen it. (HL M15)
You regularly read both electronic and hard-copy books. Your friend has never read books
electronically. He/she has contacted you by email asking what the differences and similarities
are of reading electronically and on paper, and which type of reading you would
recommend. Write the email response to your friend. (SL M16)
Last week, you helped to organize a children’s party. Your responsibility was to invent a fun
game in which children could compete for prizes. Write an e-mail to your friend, describing how
the game went and reflecting on the experience. (SL N16)
To protect students from cyberbullying, your school introduced a surveillance system that allows
it to monitor everything students do online during school hours. As the President of the Student
Council, write an email to your school principal explaining why senior students at your school
oppose the use of this surveillance system, and suggesting alternative ways in which the school
can protect students from cyberbullying. (HL M17)
You downloaded a new application (or “app”) for your mobile phone that you enjoyed but it had
some problems. Write an email to the app creator in which you describe your experience of the
app and what improvements you would recommend. (SL M17)
You are currently on holiday in an English-speaking country, and you are impressed by the ways
in which this country enables people with disabilities to participate fully in society. Write an
email to an English-speaking friend explaining what you have observed and why you are so
impressed. (HL N17)
You recently read a book that discussed how acceptance of different ethnicities in a community
can strengthen that community. You want to recommend the book to a friend who you know is
interested in this topic. Write an email to this friend telling him or her about the book and
expressing your opinion about its main argument(s). (HL M18)
You recently attended a one-day workshop organized by your student council entitled: “Health
and Wellness for Students.” Write an email to a friend in which you describe the activities you
participated in and evaluate their benefits. (HL N18)
You are living in an English-speaking country and your school will be enrolling 25 refugee
teenagers next month. Write an email to the principal of your school with your ideas about how
the school community can help these new students integrate smoothly into school life. (SL N18)
On a holiday to an English-speaking country, you attended a traditional ceremony that has been
modernized to suit the 21st century, and you found the modernized version fascinating. Write an
email to a friend, describing the ceremony and how it was modernized, and explaining what you
liked about the modernized version. (HL M19)
Your friend is worried about receiving low grades at school so spends all his/her spare time
studying. You are concerned that the worry and stress of studying is making your friend ill.
Write an e-mail to your friend explaining why you are concerned and suggesting other ways
he/she could act in this situation. (SL N19)
*************

(formal) Letter

KEY FEATURES
context, audience, purpose -
* the question will usually provide the context - a background situation, which causes
some kind of issue, about which the writer wishes to communicate some significant idea
* the audience will be identified, but may well not be known personally (in contrast with
the usual audience of an e-mail) - the letter is likely to be addressed to a post or
administrative position, rather than a known individual (as exemplified by the use of 'Dear
Sir/Madam')
* the purpose will usually be to present an argument or state a position, most probably
about some general social procedure or system - to illustrate, #1: complaining about poor
service in a shop; or #2: suggesting how the Town Hall can serve the public better. The
writer may have personal emotions to express, but these are subordinated to the impersonal
technique of objective, convincing argument
register and tone -
* will adopt a consistently formal register
* will adopt a suitably serious and respectful tone
conventions -
* will have a clear sense of address to a specific person
* will have an appropriate opening salutation
 * will have an appropriate closing salutation
* will clearly identify the recipient (by name, and/or address, and/or role/title etc.)
* will have a date (and sender’s address)

Format and Approach discussed

Note that the fundamental distinction between 'formal and 'informal' letters is that in
the formal type, the purpose of the letter is more important than the relationship with the reader -
whereas in the informal type, the relationship between writer and reader is at least as important
as the purpose.
Basic Format
- sender's address
- date
- opening/closing salutations ('Dear Mr/Ms ...' / 'Yours sincerely...' etc)
> register : nature of 'formal' tone - what address + attitude to the
recipient is expressed ?
- recipient's address (very optional)
Approach
> relevance: The text should be focused throughout on the set task / purpose,
with no irrelevance or digression
> development of explanation: The ideas should be carefully selected to be
directly related to the purpose ... clearly explained in detail ... and
methodically organised to make a convincing argument
> efficiency of expression: How succinct + clear/forceful is the presentation
of the ideas?

Relevant writing purposes

Students should be taught the skills of effective Explanation (which may also involve sound
basic factual Description) ... combined with Argument in order to present a case forcefully.

Materials & models

> Basic formal letter ... includes writing frame + imaginative example

> Senior citizen ... a somewhat ironic formal letter, involving a complaint - provides a model of
structure + examples of formal phrasing + practice in understanding ironic phrasing
> The IB Threat ... the third handout 'Beard reply' contains an actual 'letter to the editor'
responding to an attack against the teaching of the IB in the US
 > Dam Beavers ... pretty challenging and sophisticated, but plays humourously with 'formal tone'

Recent exam tasks ('old' style)

The local government in your town has decided to give free medical care to people who do not
smoke; however, people who do smoke will be required to pay for all their medical care. Write a
letter to your local government representative expressing your viewpoint on this matter. (SL
M13)
Your local council recently received some money to improve the health services. You feel
strongly about a certain teen health problem. Write a letter to the chairperson of your local
council describing the problem and suggesting ways in which the money could be spent to
address it. (SL N13)
An international health charity is looking for teenagers willing to be interviewed in a
documentary about teenage health issues. You want to take part in this project. Write a letter to
the documentary makers describing the ideas or experiences you would like to share, and
explaining why you would be a suitable candidate for the interview. (HL N19)
** These are the only recent 'formal letter' tasks - all other tasks which
specify a letter in an obviously formal context are 'letter to the editor'
tasks. See the page Opinion column / letter to the editor
*************

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Opinion column / letter

materials

to the editor
•
• Writing
• Text type expectations
• Opinion column / letter to the editor

NOTE: These two text types are significantly different in that an Opinion column is presumed to
be written by a professional journalist, while a Letter to the Editor is presumed to be written by a
non-professional member of the public - but what they both have in common is that they should
concentrate on expressing a clear point of view, as forcefully and interestingly as possible.
So, the two types are analysed separately below - but note the frequent similarities.

Opinion column
KEY FEATURES
context, audience, purpose -
* the question will usually provide the context - a general situation, which results some
kind of issue, on which the writer chooses to take a particular stance or judgement
* the audience will be defined by the publication context - but can also be assumed to be
reasonably informed about the issue in question, and to have the developed intelligence
and the language skills to be able to handle quite complex argument
* the purpose of such columns is to discuss in a provocative and stimulating way -
and explore the issue in some depth
register and tone -
* will have a semi-formal to formal register
* will have a tone appropriate to task e.g. suitably serious... or possibly, provocative and
amusing, depending on the approach to the task required, or taken
conventions -
* will have a relevant headline/title
* will have an introduction intended to catch the readers’ attention
* will use techniques that engage and interest readers e.g. direct address
* will probably use first-person statement, but not necessarily
*************

Letter to the Editor

KEY FEATURES
context, audience, purpose -
* the question will usually provide the context: typically, that the the Editor has published
something with which the writer of the letter strongly agrees/disagrees
* the principal audience is the Editor, to whom the letter should be clearly addressed.
However, there is an assumption that the letter may be published, and so the letter may
also be written so as to be persuasive to the general reader
* the prime purpose of such a Letter is to present the writer's particular, personal point of
view - as persuasively and convincingly as possible, and probably in contrast to other
controversial points of view
register and tone -
* will adopt a semi-formal to formal register
* will adopt an appropriately serious tone
conventions -
* will refer to the original article/issue raised
* will set out to give interesting opinions in an engaging style
* will include appropriate opening and closing salutations

Format and Approach discussed

Note that the format of the 'Letter to the Editor' is essentially the same as the format of the
Formal letter, as set out in the page E-mail / letter .
Note also that the fundamental distinction between 'formal and 'informal' letters is that in
the formal type the purpose of the letter is more important than the relationship with the reader,
whereas in the informal type, the relationship between writer and reader is at least as important
as the purpose.
Basic Format
- sender's address
- date
- opening/closing salutations ('Dear Mr/Ms ...' / 'Yours sincerely...' etc)
> register : nature of 'formal' tone - what address + attitude to the
recipient is expressed ?
- recipient's address (very optional)
Approach
> relevance: The text should be focused throughout on the set task / purpose,
with no irrelevance or digression
> development of explanation: The ideas should be carefully selected to be
directly related to the purpose ... clearly explained in detail ... and
methodically organised to make a convincing argument
> efficiency of expression: How succinct + clear/forceful is the presentation
of the ideas?

Relevant writing purposes

Students should be taught the skills of effective Explanation (which may also involve sound
basic factual Description) ... combined with Argument in order to present a case forcefully.
Materials & models
> Basic formal letter ... includes writing frame + imaginative example
> Senior citizen ... a somewhat ironic formal letter, involving a complaint - provides a model of
structure + examples of formal phrasing + practice in understanding ironic phrasing
> The IB Threat ... the third handout 'Beard reply' contains an actual 'letter to the editor'
responding to an attack against the teaching of the IB in the US
> Dam Beavers ... pretty challenging and sophisticated, but plays humourously with 'formal tone'

Recent exam tasks ('old' style)

A recent article in a national newspaper highlighted the fact that more and more young people
are having health problems because they spend many hours on the computer. Write a letter to the
editor of the newspaper in which you express your opinion about this issue. (HL N13)
Your local newspaper has published an editorial that states that too much time, publicity and
money are spent on celebrations of cinema awards and suggests that these could be better used
for charitable causes. Write a letter to the editor giving your opinion on this matter. (SL M14)
Your local newspaper has published an article proposing that students from any country should
be allowed to attend your country’s universities free of charge. Write a letter to the editor of
the newspaper, in which you give your opinion on the matter. (SL M15)
You recently read an article in your local newspaper in which the author claimed that teen
cliques, or exclusive friendship groups, affect teenagers negatively. Write a letter to the editor of
your local newspaper in which you either agree or disagree with the claim and give reasons for
your opinion. (HL M16)
You are currently living in an English-speaking country and your local newspaper has published
an article in support of a custom or tradition of the country that you do not agree with. Write a
letter to the editor, explaining why you do not agree, and what alternative custom or tradition
could take its place. (SL N17)
You read an article in your local newspaper which suggested that, because of teenagers’ sleep
patterns, it would be beneficial to start the school day at a later time. Write a letter to the editor in
response to this article, giving your opinion on the topic and the reasons for your views. (SL
N18)
A recent newspaper article claimed that governments do not do enough to help immigrants
integrate into society. You feel strongly about this issue. Write a letter to the editor of the
newspaper in which you express your opinion on the issue and give reasons for it. (HL M19)
Your local paper recently published an article arguing that, although social media is a useful tool
for spreading information quickly, all news items should be banned because the information
cannot be trusted. Write a letter to the editor of the paper, giving your opinion on this topic. (SL
N19)
 .

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materialsProposal, modelled
•
• Writing
• Text type expectations
• Proposal
• Proposal, modelled

.
Writing a proposal is actually quite a complex process... well, writing a good proposal is
complex: any idiot can dream up crazy, no-hope fantasies (look at certain politicians). It's also
quite a challenging task for English B students in the writing paper, which is why relatively few
candidates in the real exams choose 'proposal' questions, and even fewer do them well. This is
understandable because it ranks high for 'Text type complexity' and 'Need for invention' - see the
analysis provided in the page Section A design.
Finding helpful examples, or models, of proposals is difficult. A search on the internet has only
produced examples that are too complicated and/or too long - remembering that in the writing
paper, students are required to produce a text of around 450 words, which is tiny in comparison
with most real proposals. This is a pity, because the technique of writing a good proposal (or at
least suggesting something convincingly) is arguably an important and complex skill.
The complexity of proposal thinking arises from the need to construct clear logical chains - i.e.
you have to analyse clearly an existing reality ... imagine a way of improving the situation ...
work out the practical application of your improvement ... and show logically and convincingly
why it will improve things.
That is the process of proposal thinking - and then there is the technique of proposal format. The
purpose of this page is to show how thinking and format work, and how they are closely linked.

Proposal thinking
Here is a screencast, laying out the basic pattern of proposal thinking - i.e. how to approach a
proposal methodically:-
So, there we are... and now, let's see such an approach in action.

Proposal sample
This sample has been written as a response to a real HL Paper 2 task, from May 2018. You will
see that it illustrates two fundamental elements of good proposal writing: the use of a clear and
methodical format, and the use of appropriate tenses. These two elements are dealt with in more
detail below.
Here is the handout of the sample, for you to share with the students.
Handout

Proposal handout

Format for Proposals

Here is the basic structure of the sample provided above, with annotations to emphasise the key
elements of format. If students can remember to apply these fundamental elements, they will
score highly under Criterion C.
You can project this graphic, using Presentation mode.
.

The value of the format features

You might want to run through the graphic above with the students, explaining what each of the
features is intended to do.
Main title - this should immediately explain what the proposal is about - it doesn't have to
explain everything, but it should show the general area.
Section headings - the point of using headings is to make clear the step-by-step, logical
structure of the argument...
Numbering - adds to this sense of a clear sequence of ideas, and...
Numbered sub-sections - ... give even more detail - although such detailed numbering is
really only of use in very big complicated documents (consider laws, constitutions, etc)
 Bullet points - an alternative to numbering: less structured and more like a list, but work
well if the bullet points are each short, sharp and clearly phrased, since they become more
easily remembered
And a final additional point about the structure of this text: note the sub-headings 'Introduction /
context' and 'Advantages / conclusion'. These are structured deliberately, thus:-
'Introduction / context' - A proposal will usually be proposed to some person or some
group, so this heading indicates that first there would be some kind of address to the target
audience, followed by the survey of the context or situation
'Advantages / conclusion' - This sub-heading implies a reverse of the 'Introduction /
context' - the 'Advantages' are a finishing-off summary of the proposal itself, followed by a
closing address to the target audience, usually along the lines of "...thank you for your
attention... hope you like the proposal..."

Appropriate tenses for proposals

In reading the sample, draw the students' attention to the linguistic tone and to the use of tenses.
Tone - the function to be used should be, basically, polite and courteous suggestion -
although the proposal should be quite firm and decided at the same time
Use of tenses - point out the use of modals (should, would, could) ... and how these refer
to, and imply, 2nd Conditional structures such as "(If you were to decide...) we would be
able to... "
And then, point out the use of 'will', specifically in sub-section 5 'Costs and benefits' - why
is 'will' mainly used here, and not 'should'? Well, because these are definite consequences
which will follow if the proposal is adopted, so these are not really 'conditional' ... or
perhaps they are, in the 1st Conditional sense if 'If it rains, we will get wet'.
.

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materialsReport (official)
•
• Writing
• Text type expectations
• Report (official)

KEY FEATURES
context, audience, purpose -
 * the basic context will be explained in the question - and the student will then have to
invent the details of the report, expanding on the basic background provided.
* the audience will, again, be specified in the question i.e. the specific person or group of
people who have asked for the report. Ideally, information should be given in the question
about why the report is needed, and what kind of information is expected.
* the fundamental purpose is to provide an objective, reliable account of some situation or
event - methodically, clearly and efficiently. Personal and subjective reactions would not
be considered appropriate.
register and tone -
* will adopt a generally formal register
* will have a tone which aims to be impersonally authoritative
conventions -
* will have a title
* will use a neutral/objective style (eg presents ideas and facts plainly)
* will have a clearly structured layout (eg a clear introduction, sub-headings, short brief
paragraphs/sections, etc)
* will have a conclusion; or a recommendation if this has been required.
NOTE: an official report may be presented within the framework of a letter / email
- provided the features above are present.

Format and Approach discussed

The essence of this text type is the ability to present a clear explanation of a given subject –
which involves (i) analysis, (ii) summary and (iii) organisation. What is meant by 'official' would
presumably be defined in the question / task, but the fundamental skill in handling this text type
must be to organise explanation in a cool, objective, lucidly logical way.
The key to handling an Official Report (as with a Proposal, actually) is to emphasise the clear
and methodical structure of the ideas presented through careful and helpful use of conventions
such as headings, numbered paragraphs, etc. It should be easy to direct attention to any precise
point in the text by referring to e.g. "Have a look at section 2.1.3..."
Basic Format
- overall subject title
- main headings
- sub-headings, bullet points, numbered sections
- explicit clear organisation : determined by the precise nature of the task, but these main
elements should probably be recognisable :
 background … overall description … description of important details … concluding
summary.
Approach
> register : use of (basically) formal language
> 'address': How well does the script direct the information to a specific audience?
> 'audience' : What does the audience not know - and therefore need to know - and why ?

Relevant writing purposes

The two fundamental purpose-skills needed here are Description (especially methodical
factual description), and Explanation (especially the use of lucid and coherent sequences as in
sets of instructions). Argument is likely to be secondary, in that one is mainly interested in
presenting facts rather than interpretations ... in contrast with the Proposal text type, in
which Argument is primary.

Recent exam tasks ('old' style)

You took part in an exchange programme to an English-speaking country and participated in a
typical outdoor or sport activity. Write a report for the head of your school describing the
activity you took part in and explaining how this could benefit the outdoor or sport activity
programme at your school. (SL M16)
Every year your school organizes an excursion to an English-speaking country to learn about its
customs and traditions. However, the trip this year lacked the cultural element. Write a report of
the trip for the school management, explaining why you felt the cultural aspects were missing
and suggesting some changes for future excursions. (SL M17)
Your Principal would like to know how technology is being used to help learning in each class at
your school. You have been asked to write a report on your English B class. Write the report,
giving information about how technology is currently used in this class, and to what extent it is
benefiting learning. (SL M18)
Your local government has recently banned all petrol and diesel vehicles from your city centre,
allowing access only to electric vehicles. As a local resident, you have been invited to give
feedback on this scheme by submitting a report. Write the report, describing the impact this
scheme has had on the community, and suggesting modifications. (HL N18)
A travel agency where you work part-time has asked you to stay in a new “eco-friendly” hotel in
your town and to report on your experience. Write a report for the agency describing the hotel
and their services, and whether you would recommend the hotel as an “eco-friendly” hotel. (SL
N19)
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Review
materials

•
• Writing
• Text type expectations
• Review

KEY FEATURES
context, audience, purpose -
* the question is likely to propose a general context (e.g."a recently released film... which
you love / hate...") - but the review itself should contain informative context (invented)
about the specific subject of the review
* the audience will usually be decided by where the article will be published: e.g. 'your
school magazine'
* the prime purpose of a review is to stimulate interest ... then to inform ... and finally to
offer some kind of judgement (although this is likely to be a continuation of the purpose of
stimulating interest)
register and tone -
* will adopt a semi-formal register
* will use a tone and style intended to engage the reader
conventions -
* will include the name of the reviewer
* will have an attractive, catchy title
* will use a style which will attract and interest the reader

Format and Approach discussed

This text type is really a journalistic form, which aims to combine objective information with
subjective opinion. The (dominant) element of 'opinion' should involve analysis and evaluation –
while the journalism context usually demands that the overall impact should be interesting and
entertaining. A review is not the same thing as a commentary (which implies an academic
context).
Basic Format
- Headline / title
 - Sub-headline, summarising
- Byline (author, date, location)
- Short paragraphs (possibly)
- Sub-headings (possibly)
Approach
> 'address' - lively, direct communication that will interest the audience. [This is
likely to involve a semi-formal register (for clarity and concise explanation) with
dashes of informality to convey the personal tone + vivid comment / rhetoric.]
> 'Angle' – the script has a clear overall point of view / attitude, and this informs the
structure of the argument

Materials & models

> On writing reviews ... This page provides three models of reviews (of restaurants and a hotel)
with guidelines about what to include and how to structure the text
> Roast Beef, reviewed ... model restaurant review, with worksheet that concentrates on point of
view + use of details & vocabulary & phrasing ... should lead on to students writing about their
home culture food
> Eat Pray Love review ... example of film review, analysed + worksheet + checklist of possible
elements
> Film review, student's ... example of actual student writing, with strengths and weaknesses ... the
page also analyses a range of different approaches to the 'review' text type

Recent exam tasks ('old' style)

Your school organized an art exhibition for the works of the IB visual arts students. You visited
the exhibition and were impressed by the variety and quality of the works presented. Write a
review of this exhibition to be published in your school magazine. (HL M13)
Your school hosted a Culture Day in which students from different cultures celebrated their
customs, cultural practices and/or traditions. Write a review of the event to be published in your
school newspaper. (HL M14)
Your school recently organized a social event where international students cooked and presented
samples of food from their countries. You found the range of the dishes impressive and the
information about them interesting. Using both of these aspects, write a review of the event to be
published in your school magazine. (HL N14)
You recently attended a fundraising concert at your school at which a former student, now a
famous musician, took part. Write a review of the event to be published in your school
newspaper. (HL N16)
 You recently watched a documentary that you thought was both entertaining and informative. As
a junior reporter for your local newspaper, write a review of this documentary describing it and
explaining how it was both entertaining and informative. (HL M17)
You recently watched a film that starred your favourite actor. Unfortunately, the performance of
this actor was unsatisfactory. Write a review of the film for your school magazine, describing the
film and the reasons for your disappointment. (SL N18)
A gamers’ website has asked readers to send reviews of new video games. Write a review of a
video game that you have recently played giving your views about it and stating who might find
it most appealing and why. (SL M19)

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Set of instructions,
materials

guidelines
•
• Writing
• Text type expectations
• Set of instructions, guidelines

KEY FEATURES
context, audience, purpose -
* the question will set up a context that requires telling people exactly what to do in
precisely which circumstances: such a context will probably be fairly commonplace, but
will require thoughtful and detailed analysis of what is required
* the audience will be specified in the task, but is likely to be the Average family -
competent in language and understanding, but not necessarily very sophisticated
* the purpose of both of these text types is the same: to analyse behaviour in a given
situation, in order to break it down into clear and detailed advice - with the difference that
the 'set of instructions' will follow a step-by-step sequence, whereas guidelines will
attempt to give a coherent overview of more generalised advice
register and tone -
* will adopt a semi-formal register
* will adopt a tone which is direct, clear and supportive
conventions -
* will have a clear and focused heading / title
 * will include a short introduction and conclusion
* will set out the guidelines clearly, using techniques such as bullets, sub-headings,
numbering, etc
* will directly address the intended audience

Format and Approach discussed

The essence of these two related but distinct text types is that they both aim to give precise
guidance as to how to handle a practical situation. The key to good instructions is that they give
concrete explanation in a precise sequence, whereas the key to good guidelines is that they give
general explanation, which may or may not involve precise sequence.
Basic Format
- main heading / title
- secondary headings (guidelines)
- numbered sections (instructions)
- short paragraphs
Approach
> control of language - * plain & clear i.e. functional and efficient * explanation of
technical terms – where technical terms have to be used, are they explained / defined ?
> clear sequence (for instructions) – a sense of logical steps
> attention to detail + control of essential, useful information
> anticipation of difficulties – understanding which parts of the process may cause
problems for the uninformed
> empathy with audience – most easily detected by the ability to anticipate difficulties,
(e.g. explanation of technical terms, above), but may also involve use of encouraging,
helpful comments

Relevant writing purposes

Above all, students should be taught the skills of effective, methodical, step-by-
step Explanation - which in turn needs to be based on the careful observation and analysis that
is involved in sound factual Description)

Materials & models

> Model Instructions ... sample student script + projection + activities

> Instructions, marked ... two more student samples, same task as above - showing range of
approaches
 > Instructions 1 ... classroom activity practising the organising and expressing of practical
instructions
> Bricks ... description of Chinese acrobatics ... methodical explanation of the apparently
impossible!
> Step by step Explanation ...concentrates on the techniques of assembling clear chains of
logic, with an entertaining exercise in thinking up exotic excuses!
> Gap years proposal ... provides a couple of models of concise advice in the handouts Gap
years overall plan and Gap years Advice
> Gap years 2 ... the handout Gap Year Knowledge forms the basis for practising the devising
of lucid guidelines, in this case particularly about appropriate behaviour in a different culture.
> Adapting to English B ... much of this page of overall advice is actually a model of Dos and
Don'ts guidelines in action

Recent exam tasks ('old' style)

A friend from a different country and culture has written to tell you that he/she has been invited
for a weekend to celebrate a special event in your country but has no idea what will happen!
Write a set of guidelines explaining what will take place and what he/she should do. (SL M13)
Write a set of guidelines for your fellow students who use social media accounts such as
Facebook or Twitter. This is to be uploaded on the school’s website and will describe ways in
which these accounts can be useful but will also show how they can be harmful. (SL M14)
Visitors to other countries are often advised to find out about the local customs in order to fit in
well and not to give offence unintentionally. To help foreign students in your school to achieve
both aims, write a set of guidelines about customs in your country. (HL N14)
The inappropriate behaviour of young people at a formal event you recently attended led you to
comment on it in your personal blog. Write your blog entry and include a set of guidelines to
describe how young people should behave during formal functions (such as weddings or
conferences). (SL N15)
Many of your classmates will be applying for part-time jobs in an English-speaking country this
summer. Write a set of guidelines to be posted on your school website, giving tips on what to do
and what not to do when they attend an employment interview. (SL N16)
Your English B class is planning to go on a month-long exchange visit to an English-speaking
country. Write a set of guidelines for the class, describing what customs or traditions they will
find different there and explaining what is acceptable or should not be done in the host culture.
(SL N18)

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 Speech, presentation,
materials

debate
•
• Writing
• Text type expectations
• Speech, presentation, debate

KEY FEATURES
context, audience, purpose -
* the context will describe a situation in which a particular type of message is to be
communicated orally - this situation will not only specify the type of audience, but also the
expected behaviour of the audience (e.g. whether the audience expects simply to be
informed, or to be challenged, or required to make a choice...etc). The subject matter, and
how it is best presented, will also be influenced by this general context
* the audience can generally be assumed to be reasonably educated and informed, and
capable of understanding sophisticated language (unless some particular audience is
specified in the task)
* the purpose of the text will be some mixture of 'inform' and 'persuade' (with perhaps a
good dash of 'amuse & entertain' for rhetorical purposes!)
register and tone -
* will use a semi-formal to informal register
* will have an appropriately serious tone
conventions -
* will address the audience and keep contact with them throughout (eg use of “we” and
“you” etc)
* will set out to catch the audience’s attention at the beginning, and leave a clear
impression at the end
* will include elements of speech rhetoric eg rhetorical questions, repetition etc.

Format and Approach discussed

This text type involves the written form of a discourse to be presented orally. The task may
emphasise clear explanation (talk, presentation), or convincing argument (introduction to debate,
speech).
Once again, we have a 'text type' which actually reads more like a list. To clarify, I offer my
interpretation of what the different labels mean in practice :
Introduction to debate - no-one actually seems to know what precisely is meant by this
term, but I assume it means 'the opening statement in a formal debate': in other words, a
speech that takes one side of an issue.
Speech - distinguished from the 'debate' speech above in that it may be a speech
advocating any point of view at all, rather than one side of a debate: in other words, one
does not have to take a polarised stance, but may argue "on the one hand...on the other..."
Talk - speaking to a specific audience about a specific topic: usually containing both
factual information and advice
Presentation - the emphasis here I take to be that the focus is on presenting information -
advice or a moral stance may be involved, but is considered secondary
It is worth studying the actual wording of questions, as listed in the Tasks box below. Note that
the first three above all apear in one form or another, but 'presentation' has not appeared so far.
The best advice for students is to read the question carefully and follow instructions thoughtfully.
Basic Format
- 'address' established : direct address to audience at the beginning
- 'address' maintained : use of the pronouns 'you' and 'we' to maintain direct links with the
audience ? … and/or, how consistently?
- clear opening / introduction : statement of purpose
- appropriate closing / conclusion : summary of case / point
Approach
> 'MAP' Does the student aid the audience's understanding by giving an early summary, or
'map', of what is going to be said?
> lucid development: How clearly does the script present ideas in order to explain, and/or
impress? This will be based on sensible paragraphing, but the paragraphs should be
emphasised and supported by 'oral paragraphing' i.e. cohesive phrases which will convey
structure in speech. See below...
> cohesive devices: How clear is the use of sequence markers to guide the audience?
Consult the page Sequence markers .
> opening & closing: How forcefully does the script catch the audience's attention at the
beginning, and leave a clear impression at the end?
> rhetoric: To what extent, and how effectively, are common rhetorical techniques used?
Such as – rhetorical question … references … metaphorical tropes … irony …
exaggeration (understatement?) ... etc etc

Relevant writing purposes

The most useful skills are those studied under Explanation and Argument
Key tips - for both writing and the Oral
> When a clear statement, or position, is required by the task (e.g. in a debate speech), advise the
students to make clear from the start as to whether they have chosen to be 'for' or 'against' - make
stance / position obvious. If they don't do this (as required in the questions) they could lose a lot
of marks under Criterion B
> Include some direct address to the audience at the beginning - but (i) avoid being too formal,
and (ii) move on from polite opening to direct contact with the subject - a stimulating form of
address might be to ask a direct question to the audience...?
> Note that 'address to the audience' is commonly recognisable in three main ways: (i) direct
greeting at the beginning and direct signing-off at the end, (ii) use of pronouns such as 'you' and
'we' throughout the text, and (iii) rhetorical effects such as direct / rhetorical questions. Ideally,
the students could use all of these, but (ii) is the most important and convincing.
> It is not essential, but certainly helpful in terms of marks, to give some sort of 'MAP' at the
beginning of any oral presentation - i.e. "first I'm going to deal with A, then B, and finally
C" This should aim to make clear why it is helpful to use the sequence A > B > C ... (This is
particularly significant in the Oral Interviewer, to help the examiner understand the structure of
the presentation)
However, in Paper 1 Writing, there is not time or space for a lengthy MAP, but one can do
these sorts of thing :
(i) simply use the three key words, thus : "... ignorance, intolerance and indifference. Let
us take each of these words in order." - leading to a paragraph on each.
(ii) OR slightly more complex : "... ignorance, intolerance and indifference. Television
can easily deal with ignorance through news programmes, but intolerance and
indifference are more difficult. Let us take the easy part first ..." - leading to a paragraph
on 'ignorance', and then more paragraphs discussing the difficulties of 'intolerance and
indifference'.
> Clear and rational flow of ideas - students should think out their ideas logically and
methodically to start with, and then link each step of the argument clearly ... which all means
thoughtful planning before you start writing (and should also make the MAP more obvious)

Materials & models

> Political speech ... extract from a classic political speech, highlighting the notion, and skilled
use, of rhetoric
> Speeches by students ... three examples of speeches, analysed in some depth, with comments
on how to improve
> Paper 2 Speech (B) ... an example of the handling of an exam task (HL N14) - middling
performance, illustrating both strengths & weaknesses
Recent exam tasks ('old' style)
You are taking part in a class debate on the motion: “When people move to another country and
wish to adapt well, they should adopt its culture and forget about their own”. Write the text of the
debate’s opening speech, either agreeing or disagreeing with this motion. (HL M13)
Parents who attend their children’s competitive sports events are the best of fans, yet it could be
argued that this puts more pressure on the children. As the captain of a sports team, you have
been asked to speak at the Parent-Teacher Association’s monthly meeting about this situation.
Write your speech. (SL M13)
Money plays an important role in sport today. You have been asked to give a speech to your
classmates on the negative aspects of this situation. Write the text of your speech. (HL N13)
Your school board has proposed that students should use only English while on campus. As the
president of the student council, you have been asked to give a speech at the next board meeting,
either agreeing or disagreeing with this proposal. Write the text of your speech. (SL N13)
You are participating in a class debate on the motion: “Science experiments should not involve
the use of animals”. Write the text of your opening speech either agreeing or disagreeing with
this motion. (HL M14)
In order to use more renewable energy in your country, there is a plan to build a dam to provide
electricity. However, the resulting lake would cover a village, and all the people living there
would have to be moved. You decide to give a speech at a public meeting called to discuss the
project. Write your speech either for or against the plan. (HL N14)
Your local government has proposed to cut financial support to the only theatre in your town.
The public is asked for feedback in a public hearing. You decide to go to this hearing to speak in
support of ongoing government funding. Write the text for your speech. (SL N14)
Young people in your town are increasingly too reliant on dietary supplements (such as
energy boosters, bodybuilding supplements or weight loss supplements). To raise awareness
about the issue, your principal asked you to give a talk to your schoolmates in which you discuss
the severity of the issue and suggest how it can be overcome. (HL M15)
You are taking part in a class debate on the motion: “Robots should not be used in factories
because they take jobs from people.” Write your speech either agreeing or disagreeing with this
motion. (HL N15)
Many students at your school are addicted to playing video games. Your principal has asked you
to give a talk to younger students at your school describing the dangers of this addiction and how
it can be avoided. (SL N15)
Some of your classmates are unaware of the dangers associated with loss of privacy while using
social networks. Your principal has asked you, as the president of the student council, to give a
talk to your fellow students in which you discuss these dangers and suggest ways in which
students can protect themselves. (HL M16)
You are taking part in a class debate on the motion: “Sport is essential to health and happiness”.
Write the text of your opening speech either agreeing or disagreeing with this motion. (HL N16)
 Your teacher has set this as the topic of your next English B class debate: “Works of art represent
their creators, not the culture in which they were created”. Write your opening speech either
agreeing or disagreeing with the statement. (HL M17)
A recent survey conducted at your school revealed that many students are not getting enough
sleep. Your teacher has asked you to give a talk to your classmates explaining the importance of
sleeping well and suggesting ways in which sleeping habits can be improved. Write the text of
your talk. (SL M17)
Your English teacher has asked you to give a presentation on the topic: “Advances in science can
both benefit and damage society”. Write the text of your presentation describing one such
scientific advance, and explaining why you think it is a good example of this dilemma. (HL
N17)
You are very enthusiastic about your hobby and have been invited to give a talk about it to other
students at your school. In your talk, describe how this hobby has contributed to your personal
development and why you would encourage others to also take up this hobby. Write the text of
your talk. (SL N17)
The principal of your school is proposing to reduce the length of the school’s main holiday. This
matter will be debated at the next Parent Teacher Association meeting. As one of those invited to
present a student perspective, write the text of your opening speech to be given at the meeting,
either supporting or opposing the principal’s proposal. (HL N18)
You have been learning sign language for a year and find that this activity is both enjoyable and
important. You wish that all your fellow students could learn sign language too. Write the text of
a presentation you will give to the school management asking for sign language to be included in
the school curriculum and explaining the benefits this could bring. (SL N19)

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materialsAudience
•
• Subject Guide overview
• Conceptual understandings
• Audience
 .
.
That language is used to communicate to an audience is obvious - but given that basic idea,
tricky questions arise. Which audience? How do texts relate to an audience? And how do we
identify an 'audience'? Let us try to explore the complex implications of the supposedly simple
concept of 'audience'.
This page provides a set of probing questions intended to stimulate student discussion - project
these to guide the students' attention (using Presention mode). Each question comes with a
hidden set of possible answers: click on the little icon to reveal these answers for further
discussion.
Let's start with the definition provided in the Subject Guide:-

Audience

… language should be appropriate for the

person(s) with whom one is communicating

So, what is meant by "appropriate"?

> language that the presumed audience will understand

> language that the presumed audience will find interesting /

attractive / engaging
> language that expresses the ideas accurately ? ... this overlaps
with 'Meaning'

How do we detect the basics of 'appropriate language'

when we are reading a text?
> choice of vocabulary ... common or sophisticated or specialised
(e.g. technical or slang)

> choice of phrasing ... combining vocabulary

> choice of grammar structures ... simple (easy to follow) > complex
(challenging to follow)

But there's more to language than the basics of vocabulary

and grammar - there is the whole style of how the basics
are used. How do we recognise indications of an
'appropriate voice' in the text?
> register ... formal / informal (e.g. a formal essay for an examiner
to see - or an informal e-mail to a friend)

> address ... personal? or impersonal? - and what are the

consequences / effects of this?

What about the way the message is presented? This

relates to how the language is used as well...
> assumptions of knowledge ... does the text assume that the
audience knows a lot about the subject - or only a little?

> games of communication (e.g. rhetoric, humour, etc) - is the

audience expected to be able to play these games?

Finally, what is the audience supposed to think about

the author?
> every communication implies a communicator - the text presents
some kind of picture of the author

> the author may be seen as close and personal ... or distant and
impersonal

> the audience's idea of the author affects the authority of the text
- is the author convincing?

How do we choose 'appropriate language' when writing?

> language that the audience will expect

> an address that will be attractive and involve the audience

> ideas organised so as to make up a message that the audience can

follow

'Audience' analysis, summarised

Here are the same ideas, presented in a simple diagrammatic format.
.
Now, like all diagrams, this is an over-simplification. Real reading is much more complex, and
much less linear, than the neat pattern of arrows and boxes shown here.
Above all, there is a great deal of 'feedback'. We may start with looking at vocabulary and
grammar, because that is what immediately strikes us: language is the material of a text. But
there may well be aspects of the choice of vocabulary, say, which we only understand when we
have got to grips with the Voice of the author, or the details of the Message ... and then, in turn,
our new understanding of the choice of vocabulary may lead us back to re-think our
understanding of the Message and how it is presented.
A concluding thought - what is the relationship between 'author' and 'authority'? Is it that we
relate respect for a convincing message to respect for the person who created the text?

The diagram, re-thought

The diagram above suggests a sequence which is about digging down into a text - you start with
the surface and move deeper into it. Here is a version which suggests rising up through a text -
 you start at the bottom, with the basics, and then rise to more sophisticated levels and finally
reach a full overview of the text.
.

Do you see what I mean? And more ... notice how 'see' means 'understand' - the visual language
that we use affects the way we grasp the concepts involved.

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materialsContext
•
• Subject Guide overview
• Conceptual understandings
• Context
.
That communication happens in a context would seem to be a truism - language, like all human
behaviour, happens within an environment. The issue is to be more precise about what we mean
by 'context'. What aspects of the environment are significant for language? How do we
recognise the influence of context in how language is handled?
At a very basic level, 'environment' is made up of space and time, so it may help to
know where language is used and when. However, language is not so much part of the physical
environment but more a fundamental component of the human intellectual environment -
therefore it most helpful to define 'context' in terms of society and culture. Language is affected
by, and affects, our collectively-produced vision(s) of the world (and that takes us directly into
the heart of TOK!). Now, we should try to pin these general ideas down more precisely, in terms
of clear indicators.
This page provides a set of probing questions intended to stimulate student discussion - project
these to guide the students' attention (using Presention mode). Each question comes with a
hidden set of possible answers: click on the little icon to reveal these answers for further
discussion.
Let's start with the definition provided in the Subject Guide:-

Context

… language should be appropriate to the situation

in which one is communicating
What elements of 'context', or 'situation' can affect how
language is used?
> society ... both the specific audience (qv), and the general
surrounding social background

> events ... specifically, what has recently happened (e.g.

personally, or in current affairs)

> purpose ... what you want to do, to achieve, in the given situation

> culture ... overlaps with 'society', but indicates particularly

values/norms/expectations

> medium of communication ... the conventions of the medium in

which the language is used

How can the society in which we live affect how language

is used?
> 'bad' language - words which are considered rude

> polite language - expressing courtesy

> language of respect - phrasing to those who have power and/or

authority

> conventional exchanges - "How do you do?" doesn't really expect a

detailed answer!
What sort of current events can influence what language
is considered 'appropriate'?
> personal events - e.g. knowing that someone has failed an exam as
opposed to if they have passed

> political events - e.g. if you know someone supports a totally

different party to yours

> sporting events - e.g. expressing enthusiasm or criticism

> gossip events - e.g. whether a famous person is 'good' or 'bad'

> fashion events - e.g. whether a particular style is 'fantastic' or

'horrible'

Which different kinds of purpose can affect how you use

language?
> being attractive ... if you've just met someone you really like!

> being aggressive ... to demonstrate that no-one can push you
around

> asserting yourself ... insisting, politely but firmly, on what you
believe

NOTE - this list concentrates on tactics of purpose: how language

responds directly to immediate situations. For
deliberate strategies of purposes, see the whole concept of
PURPOSE.
In what ways does culture control how language is used?
> 'moral / immoral' attitudes - and the vocabulary that normally
goes with these

> what can be spoken about and what should not - cultural barriers

> 'politically correct' language ... the attempt to control attitudes by

controlling language

> proverbs - reflecting collective wisdom in an easily repeated form

> clichés - second-hand words which save the bother of thinking

How can the conventions of different media of

communication affect the use of language?
> enthusiastic language - e.g. in adverts, language always tends
toward exaggeration

> excited language - e.g. in television chat shows and game shows

> formal and impersonal language - e.g. in scientific journals, where

formal language means 'authority'

> direct, informal language - e.g. in e-mails to friends

> fragmented language - e.g. the codes and abbreviations (and

emoticons) in Watsapp, chats, etc
'Context' analysis, summarised
Here are the same ideas, presented in a simple diagrammatic format.

Wider issues
Here are a few questions which could be used to expand from the ideas explored above.
What do you understand by 'socio-linguistics'? ... Really, what we mean by 'context' is 'society',
and so the whole field of socio-linguistics is the relevant academic discipline. Do students know
what socio-linguistics involves? Or indeed, how research is carried out? Or what conclusions can
be drawn from socio-linguistics? A useful area to explore, if appropriate, in relation to TOK in
language.
Is History an 'event' that influences language? ... While writing this page, History started out
as an element of Context, but was then removed in favour of "current events". This is because (a)
arguably, very few people have much clear historical knowledge, in general terms let alone about
the history of language (e.g. the history of the word 'gay'); and (b) the main influence of History
on language passes through Culture (e.g. the history of religions mainly makes itself felt through
the force of cultural values).
 Which other Conceptual Understandings are related to context? ... Well, actually, all of them,
really! Purpose is mentioned above; Audience must be presumed to be an inherent part of any
context; Message must be significant as what you want to communicate in the given context; and
all of these result in Variations of types of language. It will be worth stressing that all of the
Conceptual Understandings overlap with most of the others most of the time - but that we can
focus on the central meaning of each in turn, in order to understand how each works.
.
.

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materialsPurpose
•
• Subject Guide overview
• Conceptual understandings
• Purpose

.
What do we mean by the 'purpose' of language? It is evident that we choose to speak in order to
achieve something - even if what we achieve is simply to let off steam, or to avoid an
embarrassing silence! As with the concept of meaning, 'purpose' is very likely to exist in
different ways, on multiple levels - some conscious, some unconscious, and some even socially
defined.
Let us propose that 'purpose' can be divided into two main areas: explicit, primary purposes, and
implicit, secondary purposes. 'Explicit' purposes are conscious and obvious - for example, direct
commands such as 'Open the window'. However, these direct expressions may be phrased
differently in order to achieve 'implicit' purposes, to suggest subtle interpretations - for example,
we may still want the window opened, but saying "I wonder if it might be a good idea to open
the window" (i) is likely to establish a relationship of politeness with the audience, and (ii) is
therefore more likely to persuade the audience to agree to close the window!
This may be a good way to teach students how language has core meaning and associated
meaning (denotation and connotation); and real command of the language comes when you can
control and combine effectively the two elements.
This page provides a set of probing questions intended to stimulate student discussion - project
these to guide the students' attention (using Presention mode). Each question comes with a
hidden set of possible answers: click on the little icon to reveal these answers for further
discussion.
Let's start with the definition provided in the Subject Guide:-

Purpose

… language should be appropriate to achieve a desired

intention, goal or result when communicating

Can you suggest examples of when we use language for a

direct explicit purpose?
> selling ... e.g. a jacket that you don't want any more ... a plan for
what to do this evening ... even yourself (in an interview)

> negotiating ... e.g. persuading parents that you really really need
an iPad

> preventing ... e.g. shouting 'Stop' when you see someone in
danger ... convincing your friend not to start a relationship with
that idiot

> and ... ?

What indirect implicit purposes may we have for choosing
the language to achieve a purpose?
> to impress people... the "Wow! that's clever!" reaction

> to express how we feel ... "I really hate that, so stop it!"

> to persuade effectively ... the Sweet Talk approach

> to adapt to the social context ... when asking politely is more
likely to work than asking aggressively

> and ... ?

How many functions of language can you think of?

For example:-

Discussing & debating

Summarising & reporting

Requesting & demanding

Exploring possibilities

Expressing attitudes & feelings

Interacting

and... ?
[Note that these are more general categories of functions ... which are explored in much more
detail in the page Essential functions, reviewed ]
It is useful to introduce the term and concept of 'functions' and it will be good for the students'
vocabulary to explore the wide range of verbs needed to express the many functions of language.
Emphasise that 'functions' covers the things that language can do - they should be consciously
aware of the many different kinds of effects and transactions that are enabled through language.
You might find it useful to use the page Essential functions, reviewed - which provides a take
on important functions for English B students.

'Purpose' analysis, summarised

Here are the same ideas, presented in a simple diagrammatic format.