PRESENT

PRESENT SIMPLE

– facts / general truths

– routines or habits (+ adverbs of frequency: always, usually, often, sometimes,
rarely/seldom/hardly ever, never)
– permanent states
– timetabled events in the future
– narrative

PRESENT CONTINUOUS

– actions in progress of the speech event

– in progress around the time of speaking, but not right now
– temporary situations
– an annoying habit (used with always, continually or constantly)
– whats happening in a picture
– plans / arrangements for the future
– situations that are changing or developing in the present

VERBS BOTH STATIVE AND ACTION

stative active
at the moment ; not
BE usual
normal

EXPECT think or believe wait for

HAVE own / posses experience

THINK have an opinion consider

SEE understand meeting

LOOK seem search

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

– smth started in past and continued until now

– smth happened in the past, but doesnt know or doesnt say exactly when
– smth happened in the past has a result that affects the present
– action has just finished
– experiences and achievements
– action that happened several times and repeatedly in the past
– superlatives and expressions of first or second times
 PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOS

– actions in the past that are still in progress now or have happened repeatedly until now
– actions happened repeatedly in the past and have finished recently but have results in the
present
– emphasize on how long actions have been in progress for
– recent or unfinished actions

P.P.S VS P.P.C

We use the pps to talk about smth we have done or achieved, or an action that is complete. Is also
used to say how many times something happened.
We use the ppc to talk about how long smth has been happening. Its not important whether it has
finished or not.

PAST
PAST SIMPLE

– smth that started and finished in the past

– past routines and habits (often with adverbs of frequency)
– past states
– actions that happened one after the other in the past, for example telling a story

Note. Some common time expressions used with the past simple are yesterday, last
night/week/moth/summer, a week/month/year ago, twice a week, once a month, at the weekend, in
March, on Monday, on Tuesday, in the morning/afternoon/evening...

PAST CONTINUOUS

– actions that were in progress at a specific time in the past

– two or more actions that were in progress at the same time in the past
– giving background information in a story
– an action that was in progress in the past that was interrupted by another action
– temporary situations in the past

USED TO & WOULD

We use USED TO + bare infinitive for:

– actions that we did regularly in the past, but that we dont do now
– states that existed in the past but dont exist now

We use WOULD + bare infinitive for actions that we did regularly in the past but we dont do now.
We dont use it for past states.
 PAST SIMPLE VS P.P.S

We use the past simple for actions that happened at a specified time in the past and for actions or
situations that finished in the past.
We use p.p.s for actions that happened at an unspecified time in the past and for actions or
situations that began in the past and are still in progress.

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE

We use the past perfect for an action that finished before another action, situation or time in the
past.

Note. Some common time expressions often used are before, after, when, already, for, for a long
time, for ages, just, never, once, yet...

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

– actions that started in the past and were still in progress when another action started or when
smth happened
– actions thar were in progress in the past and had an effect on a later action

Note. Some common time expressions that are often used with past perfect continuous are all
day/night/week, for years/a long time/ages, since. We can use how long...? in questions and for
(very) long in questions and negative sentences.

PAST SIMPLE VS PAST PERFECT

When we cant to show in which order actions happened in the past, we use the past perfect for the
action that happened first in the past and we use the past simple for subsequent actions in the past.
(She had been working as a waitress when a famous Hollywood agent discovered her and
made her a star).

FUTURE

FUTURE SIMPLE

– decisions made at the time of speaking

– predictions
– promises
– threats
– talk about future plans
– after verbs like think, believe, be sure, expect, etc and words like probably, maybe, etc.
– offer to do smth for someone
– ask someone to do smth

Note. We use shall with I and we in questions when we want to make a suggestion or an offer.
 BE GOING TO

– future plans
– predictions for the near future based on present situations or evidence

Note. Some common time expressions that are often used with it are this week/month/summer,
tonight, this evening, tomorrow, tomorrow morning/afternoon/night, next week/month/year, at the
weekend, in January, in a few minutes/hours/days, on Thursday...

FUTURE CONTINUOUS

– actions that will be in progress at a specific time in the future

– plans and arrangements for the future

Note. Some common expressions used with it are this time next week/month/summer, this time
tomorrow morning/afternoon/night, etc.

FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE

– smth that will be finished by or before a specific time in the future

– the length of time that an actions will have lasted for at a point of time in the future

Note. Some common expressions used with it are by the end of the week/month/year, by this time
tomorrow, by tomorrow morning, etc.

TEMPORALS

When we use temporals such as when, before, after, until, once, by the time, etc to talk about future,
we use them with a present or a present perfect tense. We do not use them with a future tense.
After I have paid the deposit, ill move in to my flat
By the time I get home, I'll be exhausted

We use the present perfect simple to emphasise that the first actions is finished before the other one
starts.
You can buy a car when you've got into uni. (You'll get into uni first and the you can buy a car)
Once you've signed the contract, the property is yours (You will sign the contract and then you will
own the property)

COUNTABLE NOUNS

Most nouns are countable and have singular and plural forms.

We usually use a or an with a singular countable nouns. (a road, an avenue)

We can use some, any or a number with plural countable nouns. (There are some parks in the city,
Are there any green areas in town?)

We use singular o plural verb forms with countable nouns depending on whether we are talking
about one or more items. (An auto is necessary when you live in a big city, autos are noisy)

UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

Some nouns are uncountable. They do not have plural forms.

We dont use a or an with them. We can use some and any. (I need some money, I havent got any
luggage with me)

We always use singular verb forms with uncountable nouns. (Pollution is a huge problem, city
traffic drives me crazy). There are some uncountable nouns that end in -s, so we have to remember
to use a singular verbs with them. (The news he gave us was bad, Physics is the most difficult
subject).

We can use phrases describing quantity with uncountable nouns to say how much we have. The
most common of these phrases are:

QUANTIFIERS

We use some with both uncountable and plural countable nouns in affirmative sentences and in
requests or offers. (I bought some clothes during the sales, could I have some info, please?, would
you like some help when you move house?)

We use any with both uncountable and plural countable nouns in negative sentences and in
questions. (I dont have any free time, have you seen any good films lately?)

We use a lot / lots of with both uncountable and plural countable nouns. (Lots of students live in
the city, I have a lot of furniture in my flat)

We use little with uncountable nouns and a few with plural countable nouns in affirmative
sentences. (There was a little rain this morning, there were a fer commuters on the platform)

We use much with uncountable nouns and many with plural countable nouns in negative sentences
and in questions (how much money do you have?, there arent many green spaces in town)
CAN & COULD

We use CAN + bare infinitive

– to talk about general ability in the present and the future
– for request
– for permission
We cannot use can + infinitive to show that we are sure that smth isnt true.

We use COULD + bare infinitive

– to talk about general ability in the past (past form of can)
– to talk about possibility
– for polite requests
– to make suggestions

MAY & MIGHT

We use MAY + bare infinitive

– to talk about possibility in the future
– for polite requests (with I and WE)
– for polite permission

We use MIGHT + bare infinitive

– to talk about possibility in the future
– as the past sentence of may

MUST

We use MUST + bare infinitive

– say smth is necessary
– talk about obligations
– show that we are sure that smth is true
– recommend smth

We use MUSNT + bare infinitive to talk about smth that is not allowed.

SHOULD

We use SHOULD + bare infinitive to give advice and ask for advice. Ought to can also be used to
give advice, but it is not usually used in the question form.
WOULD

We use WOULD + bare infinitive for actions that we did regularly in the past but we dont do now
and for polite requests.

NEEDNT

We use NEEDNT + bare infinitive to say smth is not necessary (You neednt print the report; just
email). We can also use need as an ordinary verb. It has affirmative, negative and question forms
and it is usually used in the present simple and past simple. Ir is followed by a full infinitive. (They
need to update all of their software, you dont need to buy a new printer, does Sue need to read?)
BE ABLE TO

We use BE ABLE TO to talk about general ability and a specific ability in the past (could cannot
be used her) (The scientist was able to prove his theory)

HAVE TO

We use HAVE TO to say that smth is necessary and to talk about obligation,

MUSNT & DONT HAVE TO

There is an important difference between musnt and dont have to. We use musnt to say that smth is
not allowed, whereas we use dont have to to show that there is no obligation or necessity.
(Scientists musnt lie about the result, we dont have to drive to work; we can take the bus)

PERFECT MODALS

MAY / MIGHT HAVE

We use MAY/MIGHT + past participle to show that we are not sure about smth in the past.
(Umberto might have taken your calculator, but im not sure)

SHOULD HAVE

We use SHOULD HAVE + past participle to show that smth we were expecting did not happen and
to criticize our own or someone else's behavior (The results should've been announced by now, you
should've asked an expert to fix the computer)

COULD HAVE

We use COULD HAVE + past participle to show that we are not sure about smth in the past and to
say that smth was possible in the past but that it didnt happen (Albert could have taken your
umbrella, Tony could have been a champion)

WOULD HAVE
We use WOULD HAVE + past pasticiple to say we were willing to do smth, but that we didnt do it
(I would've helped you with your project, but you didnt ask me)

CANT / COULDNT HAVE

We use CANT / COULDNT HAVE + past participle to show that we are sure that smth is not true
about the past. (Bill cant have operated the machine as he doesnt know how to use it)

MUST HAVE

We use MUST HAVE + past participle to show that we are sure that smth is true about the past.
(Flying the first airplane must have been very exciting)
NEEDNT HAVE

We use NEEDNT HAVE + past participle to say it want necessary to do smth but you did it
anyway. (We neednt have taken a taxi as the museum was very close)

GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES

GERUNDS

We form gerunds with verbes and the -ing ending. We can use gerunds as nouns, after prepositions
and after the verb go when we talk about activities.

We also use gerunds after certain verbs and phrases:

INFINITIVES

FULL INFINITIVES

We form full infinitives with to and the verb. We use them to explain purpose, after adjectives such
as afraid, scared, happy, glad, pleased, sad, etc and after the words too and enough (We went to the
gym to ask about aerobics, my trainer was pleased to see that I was improving, it was too cold to go
swimming, it wasnt warm enough to go)
We also use full infinitives after certain verbs and phrases:

BARE INFINITIVES

We use bare infinitives after modal verbs, had better to give advice and would rather to talk about
preference. We often use the word than (I would rather watch soccer than American football)

Note.
1. We use LET + object + bare infinitive when we want to say that we give permission for
someone to do smth and it is only used in the active voice. In the passive we can use the
verb to be allowed to. (The coach let them take a short break, the team was allowed to take
a shot break)

2. We use MAKE + object + bare infinitive when we want to say that we force a person to do
smth in the active voice, but in the passive its followed by a full infinitive (The referee made
me take the free kick, I was made to take the free kick)

GERUND OR INFINITIVE
Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or a full infinitive with no change in meaning. Some
common verbs are begin, bother, continue, hate, like, love and start.

(The fans began cheering/to cheer when they saw the teams, I hated playing/to play sport at
school, Don't bother getting/to get tickets for the game; they're sold our)

There are other verbs that can be followed by a gerund or a full infinitive, but the meaning changes.
Some common ones are go on, forget, regret, remember, stop and try.

– I forgot buying that sports magazine. (didn't remember that I had bought that sports
magazine.)
– I forgot to buy a sports magazine this week. (I didn't remember to buy a sports magazine, so
I don't have one.)

– The hikers went on walking as it snowed (they continued to walk)

– The hikers went on to walk across a field. (they had been walking somewhere else, and then
started walking in a different place - across a field.)

– I regret not watching the basketball final. (I didn't watch the final, but now I wish I had.)
– We regret to inform our viewers that we will not be broadcasting the game. (We're sorry
that we have to tell you this.)

– My grandfather remembers seeing Pele play for Brazil. (He saw Pele and now he
 remembers seeing him.)
– I remembered to take my goggles with me when I went swimming (I remembered first and
the I took my goggles)

– We stopped walking because we were tired (we didnt walk anymore)

– We stopped to take a break (we stopped doing smth so we could take a break)

– Try booking the concert tickets online (go online and see if you can book the tickets)
– I'll try to find tickets at the box office (I'll make an effort to get tickets at the box office)

PASSIVE VOICE
Past simple = to be (past) + past participle

Greta Thunberg gave a speech – A speech was given by Greta Thunberg

Present perfect = have been

Many governments have sent their leaders to the summit – Many leaders have been sent to the
summit

Future = will + infinitive

People will change their daily habits from now on – Daily habits will be changed from now on

Modal = modal + infinitive

We must do something before it is too late – Something must be done before it is too late

THE PASSIVE WITH GET AND HAVE

– accidental happenings / events

My car got burnt in a fire
My mobile phone got damaged

– have / get something done

causative meaning (passive): I cause someone to do an action for me.

1. Sarah decorated her room (sarah did it)

2. Sarah had her room decorated (another person did it) causative passive

3. I must get another key made. This one doesn ́t open the door.
THE PASSIVE WITH DITRANTIVE VERBS: GIVE

Two possible constructions (2 objects):

– Rose gave her mother a nice present (active)

– Her mother was given a nice present (passive)
SUBJECT: RECIPIENT

– A nice present was given to her mother (passive)

SUBJECT: THE GIVEN THING

Other verbs grant, hand, offer, lend, pass, pay, promise, sell, tell, show, teach.
– They have sold me a broken watch
– She is teaching her students algebra.

THE PASSIVE WITH REPORTING VERBS

1. Scientists say/have announced climate change is a fact although Trump denies it.
– It is said/has been announced that climate change is a fact.
It + passive (reporting vb)+ finite clause (that...)

– Climate change is said/has been reported to be a fact

Subject+ passive (reporting vb)+ To infinitive

With certain verbs:

2. The committee decided to ban smoking

– It was decided to ban smoking
It + passive (reporting vb) + To infinitive

ACTIVE FORMS WITH PASSIVE MEANING

– GERUND:
– The windows need painting (= to be painted)
– The shirt needs ironing
– The bicycle needs oiling

– TO INFINITIVE:
– We have got some letters to write (=to be wriiten)
– I have got an exam to study

– ADJECTIVE + TO INFINITIVE:
– This piano is heavy to move (= to be moved by a single person)

– MAIN ACTIVE VERBS WITH PASSIVE MEANINGS:

– This book reads well (= it is easily read)
– The mobile sells well (=it has been sold very well)