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Unit-2 Foundations of Individual Behaviour: Determinants, Models and

Perceptions

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UNIT 2 FOUNDATIONS OF Organisational
Behaviour: Meaning,
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR: Features, Significance
and Models
DETERMINANTS, MODELS
AND PERCEPTIONS*
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Biological factors
2.3 Ability
2.4 Personality
2.5 Determinants and models
2.6 The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
2.7 Perceptions
2.7.1 Factors that Influence Perception

2.7.2 Process of perception

2.8 Conclusion
2.9 Glossary
2.10 References
2.11 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you should be able to:
• Understand the factors that affect individual behaviour;
• Understand the determinants of personality;
• Appreciate the usefulness of MBTI instrument; and
• Understand the importance of and factors affecting perceptions.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Organisations are much more than a mere group of human beings. However,
there is no doubt that human beings are a vital part of all organisations, and as
such human psychology has considerable impact on organisational behaviour.
Since no two humans are alike, one notices a variety of behavioural pattern
within an organisation. Some of these will be in sharp contrast to others,
leading to possible conflicts. To be effective in an organisation, one ought to
possess knowledge about different types of human behaviour. This will help in
augmenting personal satisfaction and organisational effectiveness. There are
several factors that contribute to differences among individuals.
23
*
Contributed by Dr. Lishin Moothery Joshy, Associate Professor, SCMS Cochin School of Business, Cochin.
Concept and
Relevance of
2.2 BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
Organisational We are a product of our genes and the environment in which we grow up.
Behaviour
Thus, both ‘nature’ and ‘nurture’ influence our behaviour. Biology affects
human behaviour through genetically regulated heredity. How much of
our behaviour is a product of biological factors and how much is due to the
environmental context is still an open question. Biological factors control the
flow of neurotransmitters (chemicals that transmit messages from one nerve
cell to another) in the brain. Hereditary, on the other hand, refers to the aspects
pre-determined at conception. Inherited factors account for matters like height,
complexion, strength etc. Some researchers suggest that it is in the molecular
structure of the chromosomes that determine the nature of one’s personality.
A few studies about identical twins separated at birth indicate that there are
several similarities in personality and behaviour of the separated twins even
when they are raised in totally different environments. This result would not
have been obtained, had there been no effect of hereditary factors on behaviour.
However, genes do not account for all the similarities/dissimilarities in behaviour
of human beings; human behaviour is also influenced by life experiences and
environment. In fact, all things that happen around us shape our personality and
condition our responses to them. The behaviour of our parents, the value system
imparted to us, the education that we received, the kind of friends that we have,
the society that we grow up in etc., are factors that influence our personality and
behaviour.

2.3 ABILITY
Ability means the mental or physical capacity to do something. It follows
that an organisation cannot achieve its stated objectives in the most efficient
manner without the support of its ‘able’ members. A person’s abilities are also
determined by both genetics and environmental factors. Imagine someone who
has the genes required to be a great sportsperson. However, he needs to nurture
his inborn talent if he really has to become a sportsperson. Thus, although he is
born with an advantage, it will get wasted if the environment is not conducive
to his growth. The opposite is also true. A person who is not a born-athlete can
also do wonders on the sports arena through continuous training and practice,
especially since many who are naturally gifted do not turn up on the field due to
lack of a conducive environment.

2.4 PERSONALITY
Personality is a set of characteristics or qualities that form a person’s distinctive
character. This set comprises behaviours, thoughts, ideas, habits, perceptions
and emotional patterns that originate from biological and environmental factors.
The word ‘personality’ has been derived from the Latin word “persona” which
means “mask” used by actors to change their appearance. Gordon Allport (1937)
defined ‘personality’ seven decades ago as the “dynamic organisation within the
individual of those psychological systems that determine his unique adjustment
to his environment”. Kurt Lewin considers personality as “a dynamic totality
of systems”. According to American psychologists Randy Larsen and David
Buss, “personality is a stable, organised collection of psychological traits and
24 mechanisms in the human being that influences his or her interactions with and
modifications to the psychological, social and physical environment surrounding Foundations of
them”. J.F. Dashiell regards personality as “the sum total of behaviour trends Individual Behaviour:
Determinants, Models
manifested in social adjustments” (Aggarwal, 2014). and Perceptions
The concept of ‘personality’ is understood by both the common man and the OB
practitioners alike. Lay people often refer to this concept when talking about
people who have dashing ‘personalities’ or about people who have charming
‘personalities’. For OB practitioners, the concept of personality is crucial to
understand and manage the workforce. It allows them to analyse why their
employees are behaving in a particular fashion and why some of them are good
organisational citizens and why some are not.

2.5 DETERMINANTS AND MODELS

Personality research identifies the determinants of personality as ‘nature’ or
biological heritage/hereditary and ‘nurture’ or life experiences/ environment.
Nature/Biological Personality Nurture/ Life experiences/
heritage/ Hereditary Culture

A ‘trait’ is a particular component of personality. Researchers have, over the

years, prepared long lists of personality traits. A trait describes whether a person
is shy or outgoing, has an open or closed nature etc. Since a very large number
of personality traits are not of much use, neither in research nor in practical
situations, researchers have focused on five core personality traits, called ‘Big
Five’ personality traits. The following are the Big five factors: extraversion,
agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to
experience.
Extroversion: The extroversion dimension captures sociability, being
comfortable with relationships, talkativeness, being enthusiastic and
assertiveness. Extrovert persons tend to be happier when they have people
around them, rather than when they are alone. They find psychological
fulfillment from the outside world rather than from within. They like to be part
of social gatherings and it follows that they will get along well with a group in
an organisational setting. They search for chances to engage with the outside
world. Hence, such people are suitable for jobs that involve a high degree of
inter-personal communication. They are also likely to take up and succeed in
leadership roles as they generally tend to be assertive.
Introverts are quite the opposite of extroverts. They tend to be reserved and
nervous, and their quiet nature leads them to have fewer interactions with the
outside world. However pure extroverts and pure introverts are a rarity. Most
people belong to somewhere in between these two extremes. Extroversion,
rather than introversion, being one of the Big Five personality traits, we can
define introverts as people low on the extroversion scale.
Emotional stability: The emotional stability dimension measures a person’s
capability to endure stress. People with adequate emotional stability are not easily
disturbed by unfavorable environment or events at the workplace or elsewhere.
Conversely, they generally tend to be cool and composed and do not overreact
to external stimuli. The opposite of emotional stability is ‘Neuroticism’. People
25
Concept and who are high in Neuroticism get frustrated very easily and are almost always in
Relevance of a bad mood. They feel stressed at work and react aggressively and negatively
Organisational
Behaviour
at the slightest provocation. Although this can affect their performance at the
workplace to a very large extent, it is also believed that since such people have
the tendency to be critical, they are the best suited for jobs requiring critical
thinking, evaluation, quality control etc.
Agreeableness: Agreeableness is the tendency to get along well with others.
Agreeable people are empathetic and cooperative rather than being suspicious
about others. They tend to be good team players and are well liked by others.
Hence they excel in jobs that require team building and fostering of relationships.
However, they may find it difficult to do jobs that require them to be firm and
tough with others. They might find it difficult to take harsh decisions affecting
others.
Conscientiousness: Conscientiousness is the degree to which a person is
careful, cautious, self-disciplined, meticulous, dutiful, reliable and dependable.
Conscientious people achieve success through meticulous planning and its
careful execution. However, they can tend to be over-zealous perfectionists and
hence the returns that they get may not justify the efforts put in. Those who
score low on this dimension are relatively more unorganised and dependable,
but they may, at times, reap short-term benefits.
Openness to experience: Openness to experience captures the extent to
which an individual is open to be innovative and non-conforming. Openness
is generally considered a healthy trait. However different jobs require different
levels of openness to experience. A lecturer or a researcher needs to be open;
however, this trait may not suit a soldier or a policeman.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
1. ‘Both biological and environmental factors influence individual
behaviour’. Do you agree? Why?
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..
2. Define Personality. Which are the Big Five personality traits?
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..

26
2.6 THE MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR Foundations of
Individual Behaviour:
(MBTI) Determinants, Models
and Perceptions
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) instrument was developed by Isabel
Briggs Myers and her mother, Katharine Cook Briggs to help people understand
and appreciate differences in each other’s personalities and to thereby increase
productivity of teams comprised of diverse people. According to Isabel
Briggs Myers, when people differ, knowledge of the ‘type’ of each of them
reduces the friction between them and thereby eases the strain in interpersonal
relationships. She adds that it reveals the value of differences. To her, no one
has to be good at everything. According to Isabel Briggs Myers, “it is up to
each person to recognise his or her true preferences.” She says that people can
develop themselves at any age by understanding their ‘type’ and by making
appropriate use of their gifts.
MBTI instrument is the most widely used personality assessment instrument. It
assigns people to one of 16 personality types based on four bipolar dimensions:
extroverted (E)–introverted (I); sensing (S)–intuitive (I); thinking (T)–feeling
(F); and perceiving (P)–judging (J). The instrument helps one to become aware
of one’s personality preferences. A preference is what one likes. You may prefer
tea to coffee. But that doesn’t mean that you will never have coffee. Similarly,
on being pressurised, you may go out on a picnic even though you would have
preferred to stay back home. A preference is not what you actually do, but what
you want to do.
Extroverts look outward and find energy in interaction with others. By contrast,
introverts turn inwards and find energy by spending time alone. Sensors use
as-is data: they are concerned with actual physical reality that they experience
through their five senses. Intuitive people use their hunches. They recognise
patterns in what they see, they read between the lines. Thinkers make objective
decisions based on logic. Feelers are subjective and tend to consider the people
involved and the circumstances while deciding. Perceivers are flexible and they
remain open to options while dealing with the outside world. Judgers want to
get things decided and closed.
One needs to ascertain one’s preference in each of the above mentioned
categories. This will reveal the personality type, which will be one of the sixteen
types shown below:

ISTJ ISFJ INFJ INTJ

ISTP ISFP INFP INTP

ESTP ESFP ENFP ENTP

ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ

Extroverted (E)–introverted (I); sensing (S)–intuitive (I); thinking (T)–feeling
(F); and perceiving (P)–judging (J)
Personality Types 27
Concept and Each of the above refers to one of the ‘types’. ISTJ types are quietly systematic
Relevance of and logical, ESTJ types are active organisers and logical, and so on. Once
Organisational
Behaviour
you know your type you can decide which career will suit you best, what
your gifts are and where your talents lie. The MBTI instrument is used by top
organisations like APPLE, AT & T etc. Even the US Armed forces make use
of the same. It helps the organisations to put the right person on the right job
([Link]).

2.7 PERCEPTIONS
Perception is the way in which something is regarded, understood, or interpreted.
Individuals organise their sensory impressions and interpret the same to derive
meaning. Perceptions are extremely important in an organisational context as it
is perceptions, not reality, that drive human behaviour. Employees may harbor
negative attitudes about the employer, if they ‘perceive’ the employer as unfair,
irrespective of whether the employer is actually unfair or not. The employer
may reward an employee if he is ‘perceived’ to be hardworking and efficient,
even if he is neither hardworking nor efficient.

2.7.1 Factors that Influence Perception

Factors in the perceiver

• Attitudes
• Motives
• Interests
• Experience
• Expectation

Factors in the
situation

• Time
Perception • Work setting
• Social setting

Factors in the target

• Novelty
• Motion
• Sound
• Size
• Background
• Proximity
• Similarity

Source: Robbins & Judge (2017).

Factors in the perceiver

When an individual tries to interpret or perceive, that interpretation is
generally influenced by the personal characteristics of the perceiver. Personal
characteristics that influence the perception process include attitudes, motives,
28
interests, experience and expectations. An ardent supporter of a political party Foundations of
may perceive the actions of the party as ‘just’ while the opponents of the same Individual Behaviour:
Determinants, Models
party may interpret those actions as grossly unfair. Here the target is the same, and Perceptions
but perceivers are different and hence the diversity in perceptions.
Factors in the target
Characteristics of the target also influence the perception process. Target
characteristics that influence the perception process are novelty, motion,
background, proximity, similarity, sound and size. For instance well-groomed
and impeccably dressed executives may be perceived favourably, whereas
shabbily dressed people will be looked upon unfavourably. This shows how the
factor of the thing/person being perceived affects perception.
Factors in the perceiver
Similarly, contextual factors also influence the perception process. The time
at which we see the object, the location and the social setting — all have an
impact on the perception process. For instance, a young man wearing only a
pair of shorts is not a misfit at a sea beach, but the same people who have seen
him at the beach see him wearing shorts in a formal meeting will perceive him
as too casual. Here neither the target (the young man), nor the perceivers have
changed. But the situation has. This shows how perception can get affected by
the context.

2.7.2 Process of Perception

Perception involves five sub-processes: stimulus, registration, interpretation,
feedback and reaction.
1. A stimulus situation initiates the perception process. It acts as the trigger.
2. Registration involves physiological mechanism, including both sensory
and neural. The sensory organs, eye, nose, ears, tongue and skin receive
the stimulus and initiate the excitation of nerve fibres. The nerve fibres, in
turn, transfer the impulses to the central nervous system.
3. Interpretation is a very important factor in the perception process. An
individual’s interpretation of a stimulus is influenced by his attitudes,
motives, experiences and expectations.
4. Feedback is important for interpreting the target. For example, in
organisations, a superior’s change in the voice tone might influence a
subordinate’s perception about something.
5. The perception process ends when the respondent reacts, either overtly or
covertly.
Stimulus Registration Interpretation Feedback Reaction

A large number of industrial conflicts happen because of the divergence

between the perceptual interpretations of the parties involved. We can minimise
the conflict in the work setting by correctly assessing interpretation of the
perception process of both the parties. Following are some of the errors that
influence perception and hence the decision-making process: 29
Concept and Selective Perception: It is the tendency to not notice things that we do not want
Relevance of to notice because they contradict our prior beliefs, or for any other reason. For
Organisational
Behaviour
example, a team leader may have a favourite member in the team. The leader
will (subconsciously) tend to not notice the favourite member’s occasional poor
performance. It is also true that we cannot take in and understand all that we
observe; we assimilate selectively. The point is that the selection is not done
randomly; instead it is based on our preferences.
Halo effect: It denotes the tendency to draw a general impression or an overall
judgement about an individual on the basis of a single trait. It is the halo effect
that makes people believes that world-class cricketers and superstars from the
film world can also become good legislators/administrators.
Contrast effect: It causes perceptions to be affected (enhanced or diminished)
due to comparisons with stimuli that rank higher or lower on the same
characteristics. We always judge people and things relative to other people
and things. An interviewer may negatively perceive an interviewee who is
interviewed immediately after a very strong candidate is interviewed. The
opposite is also true. A candidate who gets interviewed after a comparatively
weaker candidate is likely to create a favourable perception in the mind of the
interviewer.
Self-fulfilling Prophecy: It is also called the ‘Pygmalion effect’ in which the
person’s expectation of another (target) has an influence on or is transferred to
the subject in such a way that the subject alters his or her behaviour in conformity
to the expectations. These models exemplify how a manager’s behaviour results
in self-expectancy of subordinates and thus motivates employees for registering
a better performance in the fulfillment of his responsibilities.
Stereotyping: A stereotype is an over-generalised belief about a particular
group of people. It is a fixed general image that is generally believed to represent
a particular type of person or thing. Once somebody is stereotyped it is assumed
that he will behave in a particular manner. Women are often stereotyped as
weak and men as aggressive and macho. ‘Metrosexual’ concept was an attempt
to break this stereotype. Mark Simpson who coined the term ‘metrosexual’ in
an article published in The Independent on 15 November, 1994, later described
(in 2012) David Beckham (2012) as the “the biggest metrosexual in Britain”
and defined a metrosexual man as a “young man with money to spend, living in
or within easy reach of a metropolis – because that’s where all the best shops,
clubs, gyms and hairdressers are”. A metrosexual man is especially meticulous
about his grooming and appearance, typically spending a significant amount of
time and money on shopping. However this depiction has not stuck and the old
stereotypes still continue!
With reference to perceptions, studies have shown that what the employees
perceive from their work situation influences their efficiency. Therefore,
to influence productivity, it is essential for managers to assess how workers
perceive their jobs. Factors like absenteeism, turnover and job satisfaction
are important in an employee’s perception of the job. Those individuals who
perceive their jobs as negative are likely to have increased absenteeism, more
frequent turnover and less job satisfaction. The only way to influence these
30 variables is to recognise how an employee personally perceives the workplace.
Thus, it can be stated that perception does influence decision-making within an Foundations of
organisation. Individual Behaviour:
Determinants, Models
Check Your Progress 2 and Perceptions

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
1. What is MBTI instrument? What is it used for?
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..
2. Why are ‘Perceptions’ important? What are the factors that affect
perception?
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..

2.8 CONCLUSION
Organisational behaviour is the study of both group and individual performance
and action within an enterprise. Individual behaviour can be defined as how
an individual behaves at work. Biological factors, environmental aspects and
personality traits determine how an individual behaves at workplace and in
general. Further, individual behaviour affects an organisation’s performance
to a very large extent. Hence the study of individual behaviour, in addition to
having academic importance, has great practical utility.

2.9 GLOSSARY
Myers-Briggs Type : MBTI instrument was developed by Isabel
Indicator Briggs Myers and her mother, Katharine
Cook Briggs to help people understand and
appreciate differences in each other’s
personalities and to thereby increase
productivity of teams comprised of diverse
people.

2.10 REFERENCES
Aggarwal, J.C. (2014). Essentials of Educational Psychology (3rd). New Delhi,
Vikas Publishing Pvt Ltd.
Allport, G. (1937). Personality: A Psychological interpretation. New York:
Holt.
31
Concept and Champoux, J.E. (2010). Organizational Behavior: Integrating Individuals,
Relevance of Groups, and Organisations (4th ed.). Abingolon, UK: Routledge.
Organisational
Behaviour Colarelli, S.M. & Arvey, R.D. (2015). The Biological Foundations of
Organizational Behavior. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Dwivedi, R.S. (2010). Human Relations and Organisational Behaviour: A
Global perspective (5th ed.). New Delhi: Macmillan.
Judge, T.A. & Robbins, S.P. (2017). Organizational Behavior (17th ed.). New
Year: Pearson Global Education.
Locke, E.A. (2003). The Blackwell Handbook of Principles of Organizational
Behavior. New York :Wiley Blackwell.
Luthans, F. (2011). Organizational Behavior: An Evidence-Based Approach
(12th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Robbins, S.P. (2002). Essentials of Organizational Behavior (7th ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ:Prentice Hall.
Robbins, S.P., Judge, T.A. & Vohra, N. (2014). Organizational Behavior (16th
ed.). New York: Pearson.

2.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Your answer should include the following points:
• Biology affects human behaviour through genetically regulated heredity.
• Biological factors control the flow of neurotransmitters (chemicals that
transmit messages from one nerve cell to another) in the brain.
2. Your answer should include the following points:
• Organised collection of psychological traits and mechanisms in the human
being that influences his or her interactions with and modifications to the
psychological, social and physical environment surrounding them.
• Extroversion; Emotional stability; Agreeableness; Conscientiousness; and
Openness to experience.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1. Your answer should include the following points:
• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) instrument was developed by Isabel
Briggs Myers and her mother, Katharine Cook Briggs.
• To help people understand and appreciate differences in each other’s
personalities and to thereby increase productivity of teams comprised of
diverse people.

32
 2. Your answer should include the following points: Foundations of
Individual Behaviour:
• Perception is the way in which something is regarded, understood, or Determinants, Models
interpreted. Individuals organise their sensory impressions and interpret the and Perceptions
same to derive meaning.
• Selective perception; Halo effect; Contrast effect; Self- fulfilling prophecy;
and Stereotyping.

33

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