a

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AGRI
CULTURE
FORM ONENOTES
(
amos
obi
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com)

BySi
rObieroAmos
FORMOREE-MATERI ALS
What
sApp(+
254)0706851439

I
NTRODUCTI ONTOAGRI CULTURE
Thewor dAgr icul
turei sderivedf rom twoLat inwordsAgerwhichmeansf ield
andculturet hatmeanscul ti
[Link] or
eagr i
cul
tur
ecanbedef i
nedas
fi
eldculti
vation.
Li
vestockar eall t
hedomest icatedani mals.
Defi
niti
onofagr icul t
ure:
Agri
culturei sdef i
nedast hear tandsci enceofcropandliv
estockproduction.
Asanar t
I
nvolvesuseofl earnedski l
lsandper f
or mingthem manual
ly(byhand).E.g.
Til
lingofl and.
Const ructionoff ar
m st r
uct ures.
Measur ingdi stances.
Machi neoper ati
ons.
Har vest i
ngofcr ops.
Feedi ngandhandl i
ngani mal s.

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Mar ketingofAgr i
cultural produce.
Asasci ence
I
tinvolvesexper iment at
ionandappl icati
onofsci entif
icknowledgee. [Link]
ar
eassuchas:
Soil science( pedol ogy )--
-studyofsoi l.
Croppat hol ogy —St udyofcr opdi seases.
Ent omol ogy ---Studyofi nsect sandt heircont rol.
Agr icultur alEngi neer i
ng- -
-soi landwat erconser vati
onandf ar
m power .
Genet i
cs—Pl antandani mal breeding.
Product ion- --Ar eact ivi
tiest hatincreaset hequal it
yandquant it
yof
somet hing.
Cr
oppr oduct ionact iviti
esi nclude: l
andpr epar ati
on, planti
ng,fer
ti
li
zerand
manureappl i
cat ion, weedi ng, pestcont rol
,diseasecont rolandharvest i
ng.
Li
vestockpr oduct ionact i
viti
esi nclude:
Select ionandbr eeding.
Feedi ng.
Rear i
ngt hey oungst ock.
Par asiteanddi seasecont rol.
Housi ng.
Obt ainingpr oduct sfrom ani mals.
Branchesofagr icult
ur e
Croppr oduct ion: [Link] el
dcr opf arming, pomol ogy ,
Flori
cul
ture,
olericult [Link].
Livest ockpr oduct i
on: [Link] cult
ure,Poul tr
ykeepi ng,[Link]
c.
Soil science.
Agr icultur alEconomi cs.
Agr icultur alEngi neer i
ng.

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Cr
opf ar mi ngorAr ablef armi ng:I sthecul tivationofcr opsoncul ti
v at
edl and.
E.
[Link] est ands( monocr oppi ng)ormi xedst ands( int ercr opping) .
Incl ude:
Fiel dcr ops: Arecr opsgr ownonl argear easofl [Link] eei therAnnual
cropsl ikecer ealsandpul sesorper enni al cropse. [Link] fee,tea,sisal,
caneet c.
Hor ticul t
ur al crops: Areper ishablecr opsandar eexpor tedt oearn
for eignexchange.I nclude:
Flor icul ture: Gr owingoff lower se. g.t uberr ose,roses, andcar nati
ons.
Ol ericul tur e:Gr owingofv eget ablese. [Link] enchbeans, cabbages,
tomat oes. etc..
Pomol ogy : Growi ngoff ruitse. [Link] ocado, mangoesandci t
rus.
Li
vest ockf ar mi ng:I nclude:
Past or alism ( mammal i
anl ivest ockf ar mi ng).Isther ear ingoff ar
m
ani mal sonpast ures.E. [Link] tl
e, goat s, pigs,sheep, camel sandr abbi t
s.
Fishf armi ng( Aquacul ture) ;Isther ear ingoff ishinf [Link] shi sa
cheapsour ceofpr oteins.
Beekeepi ng: (Api culture) ;
Ist her ear i
ngofbeesi nbeehi [Link]
prov ide; HoneyandWax, i
ncome, Medi ci ne,polli
nat ionoff [Link].
Poul trykeepi ng;Ist her earingofbi rdsf ormeatandeggs, manur e,
i
[Link] [Link] assesofbi rdssuchaschi cken(mostcommon) ,
Ducks, geese, Ost ri
ch, pigeonandTur key set c.
Agricul tur al Economi cs: Deal swi thut ili
zat ionofscar cer esour [Link]
l
and, l
abour ,capi talandmanagement .Itaimsatmaxi mi zingout putwhi l
e
minimi zingcost s.
Agricul tur al Engi neering; Deal swi thuseandmai nt
enanceoff armt ools
andequi pment ,farm machi ner yandf arm st ruct ur
es.

3
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FARMI NGSYSTEMS
Af ar
mi ngsy stem i sanor gani
zat
ionofthefar
m andal
ltheenter
pri
sesi
n
rel
ationt oeachot her.
I
tcanbeext ensi veori ntensive.
Extensi vesy stem
Charact er i
stics
Lar get r
act sofl and.
Lowcapi t
al investmentperuni tar
ea.
Lowl abourperuni tar ea.
Lowy iel
dsperuni tar ea.
I
ntensivesy stem
Character i
st i
cs
Smal ltract sofl and.
Highcapi tal peruni tarea.
Highl abouri nvestmentperuni tar
ea.
Highy ieldsperuni tar ea.
Ext
ensiv eori ntensi vefar mingcanbecar r
iedoutonsmal
lorlar
gescaleof
l
and.
Thescal eofpr oduct i
ondependson:
Lev el oft echnol ogy .
Landav ailabi l
i
ty.
Capi tal availabili
ty.
Skilledl abourav ai
lable.
Lar geScal eFar ming
Character i
st i
cs
Lar get r
act sofl and.

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Heav ycapi tal i

nv est ment .
Skil
ledl abourandqual if
iedmanpower .
Highl evel ofmanagement .
It’
sforcommer cial pur pose.
Lowoper ati
oncost speruni tofpr oductionsinceitmakesuseof
economi esofscal e.
Dependsonef fi
ci entt ranspor t.
Requir esgoodmar ketsy st em.
Mostoft hewor ki smechani zed.
Providesmor eempl oy ment .
I
tincl
udespl antationf ar mi ngandRanchi ng.
Plantat i
onf armi ng.
Charact er i
sti
cs
Larget ractsofl and.
Product ionofonl yonecr [Link] antati
onsinKiambuandKer icho,
Coffeei nKi ambu, Sugar canei nMuhor oni,Sisal
inMombasa, Pineapple
i
nThi ka.
Ranchi ng: I
st hekeepi ngofl i
vestock(beefani mals)inmarginalrange
areas.
Iti
sani mpr ov edpast or al-nomadi sm because:
Animal sar eencl osedi nanar ea.
Diseasesar econt rolled.
Pastur esar eimpr ov ed.
Supplement ar yfeedsandwat erarepr ovided.
Pestsandpar asi tesar econt r
olled.
Therei spr ovisionofext ensi onst aff.
N.
BThel i
vest ockcar ryingcapaci tyislowbecauseofl i
mitedpasture.

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Ranchi ngi sbecomi ngmor eandmor ecommoni nKenyabecauseof :

Highmeatdemand.
Highpopul ationpr essur eonhi ghpot enti
alareas.
Arabl ef ar mi ngi sbecomi ngsmal l
er.
Smal l Scal eFar mi ng
Char acteristics
Smal l pieceofl and.
Useofi mpr ov edt echnol ogy .
Product ionofcr opsandl iv
estocki sspreadt hr
oughouttheyear .
Goodsar epr oducedf orsubsistenceorcommer ci
alpur
poseI ,
esaleof
surplusgoods. .
Doesnotr equi reheav ycapitalinvestment.
Adv antages
Litt
lecapi tal isr equi red.
Sour ceofl iv elihoodt osmal lscal efar
mer s.
Met hodsofFar mi ng
MixedFar mi ng
Thisi sthegr owi ngofcr opsandr earingofanimal sonthesamef arm.
Adv antages
I
tisamet hodofdi v ersificati
onwher ebyshouldoneent erpri
sefai
l,the
farmercanbenef itf rom t heot her.
Ther eismut ual benef itbet weent hecr opsandl i
vestockwherecropspr ov
ide
feedf orlivest ockandani mal sprovidet hem withfar
my ar
dmanur e.
Ther eismaxi mum ut i
li
zat i
onofr esour ces.
Disadv antages
Labouri ntensi ve.
Highi nit
ial capi tal requi red.
Farmer ’sat tent i
oni sdi v i
ded.
Nomadi cPast oral i
sm
6
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Pastor ali
sm: Thisi st hepr act i
ceofr ear ingl ivestockonnat uralpastures.
Nomadi sm:Thi si st hepr act i
ceofmov i
ngf rom onepl acetoanot her.
Pastor al–nomadi sm i st hereforethemov ingofani mal sfrom onepl aceto
anotheri nsear chofpast ureandwat er .
Thisiscommoni nt hear i
dandsemi -ar i
dar eas.
Shif
tingCul tiv ati
on
Far mingonapi eceofl andcont inuousl yuntili
tisexhaust edafterwhich
t hef ar mermov est oanewmor ef ertil
el and.
Iti sappl icablewher e;
Landi sabundant
Popul at ioni sspar se
Numberofl i
v estockperuni tareai sl ow.
Landi scommunal lyowned.
Advant agesofshi fti
ngcul ti
v ati
on
Ithasl owcapi talrequirement
Ther ei snopest sanddi seasesbui l
d-up
Soi lstruct urei smai ntained
Nol anddi sput esasl andowner shipi snoti ndividuali
zed.
Disadv ant agesofshi f
t i
ngcul ti
vation
Tot aly ieldsperuni tarei slow
Far mer shav enoi ncent i
vet odev elopl andandconser v
ewat erandsoi l
Al otoft imei swast edwhent hef ar meri sshi f
ti
ngandbui ldi
ng
st ruct ures.
Notappl icablei nar easofhi ghpopul ationdensi tyorwher ethereishigh
popul at ioni ncrease.
i
v) Agr ofor est ry
Agrofor estry-I nvolvesgr owi ngoft reesandcr opsandkeepi ngofani mal
s
onthesamepi eceofl andatt hesamet ime.

7
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Suitabl
et reespeci esf oragr oforest r
y
Leucaenal eucocephal a
Gravill
ear obust a
Calli
andr acat othr ysus
Mangi ferai ndi ca
Sesbani asesban
Lantanacamar a
Cajanuscaj an
Advant agesofAgr ofor estry
Savesl aboursi ncesomeoper ationscanbedoneatoncef orboth
pl
ant sandt r ees
Giveshi ghercombi nedy i
eld
Providewi dev ariet yofagr iculturalpr oduce
Reducest her isksoft ot alfai
lure
Cropsbenef itf r
om ni trogenf ixi
ngt r
ees.
Treeshel pinhol di ngt hesoi lfir
ml y
Somet reesactasl i
vest ockf odder .
Providesawi derv ar i
etyofagr iculturalproduce.
Disadvant agesofAgr of orest ry
Mechani zationi sdi ff
icul t
.
Useofpest icidesandf erti
li
zermaybedi ff
icul
t.
Product i
v i
tymaysuf ferbecauset heski l
lsformanagi
ngt
hedif
fer
ent
tr
ees

FACTORSINFLUENCI
NGAGRICULTURE
HUMANFACTORS.
Theyar
efact
orsi
nhumanbei
ngsorthewayhumanbei
ngsdot
hings.

8
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Thef ollowi ngi sal istofhumanf actorsthatinfl

uenceagr i
cult
ural
product ion.
Lev elsofeducat ionandt echnol ogy
Thi sist ransl atedast heabi lityofapr oducerwhoi saf armertoappl y
appr opr iatemet hodsandt echni quesinpr oducti
onusingav ai
lable
resour cesf orexampl e,Farmerwei ghinglivest
ockfoodt oensur e
efficiency
Goodeducat i
onl ev elmakesaf armerabl etounderstandandt ranslate
techni cal languagei nfarmi ng.
Heal thoft hef armer s
Aheal thynat ioni sapr oduct i
venat i
on
Thef ol l
owi ngar esomeoft hedi seasest hatcontr
ibutetolower i
ng
agr i
cul turalpr oduct ivi
ty
Mal ar i
a,
Tuber culosis,
Typhoi d,
Pneumoni aandHI V/AIDS
Effect sofHI V/ AIDSonf armi ng
Lossofski l
ledl abour
Timespentcar i
ngf orthei nfect ed
Moneyspentont reat ment
Stat eofeconomi cdev elopment
Thecapi talear nedf r
om economi cactivi
ti
essuchasf armingisusedt o
raiseeconomi cgr owt hint hecount r
y.
Transpor tandcommuni cationnet work
Goodandef ficienti nfrastruct ur ei
simpor tantfort
hesmoot hflowof
farm pr oducef rom t hefar mt ot heconsumer .

9
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Thei mpr ovementoft echnol ogyincommuni cat ionhasi mpr oved

farmer saccesst oi mpor tantinformat i
onf rom t her esearchst ati
ons
andot herf ell
owf armer s
Gov ernmentpol icyonagr icult
uralinputandpr oducet axation
Thegov ernmentofKeny a,throughdi ff
erentmi nistri
esf ormulates
guidelinest obef ol l
owedbypr oducersofdi ff
erentpr oduct [Link]
guidelinesandpr oposal sar elegislat
edt heybecomepol i
cies
Av ai
labi l
ityofst or agef aci l
it
ies
Cul t
ural andr el i
gi ousbel iefs.
Local andI nternat ional mar ketforces
HumanFact orswhi chi mpr ov eproduction
Goodheal thoft hef armer
Av ai
labi l
ityofmoney
Hight axat iononi mpor tedagr icul
turalproduce
Av ai
labi l
ityofr eadymar ketf oragricult
ural produce
Av ai
labi l
ityofst or agef aci l
it
ies
Liberalizedmar ket
HumanFact orswhi chl owerpr oducti
on
Rest ri
ctivecul tur al andr eli
giousbel i
efs
Poorr oadnet wor k
BIOTI CFACTORS.
Thesear elivi
ngor ganismst hataffectagricultural production.
Bioticfact orsi nfluenci ngagr i
cult
urecanbedi videdi ntothef oll
owing
classes.
Croppest s:stalkbor erdamagi ngmai zei nt hef i
eld
Decomposer s: Causer ot ti
ngofor ganicmat t
ert herebyr eleasing
nut r
ientsf orcr opgr owt h.

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Theyhel pini mpr ovingsoi lstr

ucturethroughi ncor poratingor ganic
mat terintot hesoi l.
Nitrogenf ixi
ngBact eria:Nitrogenf ixi
ngbacter i
aar ef oundi nr oot
nodul esofl egumi nouspl [Link] ovecroppr oductiont hrough
i
ncr easi ngsoi lnitrogencont entwhi chcropsr equireforpr opergr owth.
Livest ockpar asi t
es: suckbl oodandt ransmitdi seasest oani mal s
Pollinat ors:Beepol l
inat i
ngmai [Link]
inat i
onincr oppr oduct i
on
i
ncr easesy i
eldsandv iabili
tyofseeds.
Predat ors:Eagl escaneatchi cken,rabbit
samongot herl i
vest ock.
Eagl ecanal soeati nsect sandpest sforexampl erat
s, molesandbi rds
whi chdest roycr ops.
Pathogens: Causesdi seasesi nliv
estockandcr opst herebyl ower ing
qual i
tyofpr oduce.I ncr easecostofpr oducti
onwhencont rolmeasur es
arei mpl ement [Link] oxi csubstancesi ntoagr icul
tural products
therebyl ower i
ngt hequal i
tyoft hepr [Link] ht ocr ops
andani mals.

Eff
ectsofBi oti
cFact orsonAgr icultur
alProducti
on
[Link]
Feedoncr opsther ebyloweringquant i
tyofagri
cul
tur
alproduce.
Feedongr ainstherebyaf f
ectingviabil
i
tyoftheseeds
Actasdi seasev ectors
Lowerpal atabil
i
tyofcr oppr oduce
Increasecostofpr oducti
onwhencont rolmethodsareappli
ed
Creat eentrypoi
nt sfordiseasecausi ngorgani
sms
[Link]
Irr
it
at el
ivestock

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Causesanemi ai nliv estock

Somebl ockal i
ment arycanal
Lowerr at eofpr oduct ioninlivestock
Increasecostofpr oduct i
onwhencont rolled
Somel owerqual it
yofhi desandski ns
Someabsor bfoodmeantf orthel i
vestockt herebyl oweri
ngt helevelof
product i
on.
Somef orexampl et ickst ransmi tdiseasecausi ngor gani
sms.
CLI MATI CFACTORS.
Cl
i
mat i
cf act orsi nclude:
Rainf all
Poorr ainfall di
str i
but ionr esultstowi l
ti
ngofcr ops
Excessr ainfallcancausesoi lerosion
Excessr ainfallcanr esultt ocropf ail
ureduet of l
ooding.
Thef ouraspect sofr ainf al
lwhi chaf f
ectagr icultural pr
oductioninclude:
-
Rainf allAmount
Rainfallamountr ef erst oquant it
yofr ai
nfallr eceivedi nagivenar eafora
peri
odofoney [Link] nfallamounti smeasur edusi ngar ai
ngaugei n
mill
imet [Link] ainfalldet erminesthecr ops
growni nanar ea.
Rainf alldist r
ibution
Thisref erst ot hespr eadofr ainfalloverthey [Link] nf
alldi
stri
butionis
verypoori nKeny aandt hereforeirr
igati
oni snecessar ytosupplementt he
shortsuppl y.
Rainf allreliabil
ity
Thisref erst ot hecer t aintywi thwhi chagi venamountofr ai
ni sexpected
inagi venpl acei nthey ear.

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Rai nfall Int ensi ty

Thisr eferst ot hest rengthwi t
hwhi chr ainfall
s; i
ti st hereforemeasur edin
ter
msofamountperhour .
Rainfal lofl owi ntensi tyispr eferr
edasi timprov eswat erinfi
lt
rat
ioninto
thesoi l andcausesl esssoi lerosion.
Temper atur e
Temper at ur ei st hecol dnessorhot nessofapl ace.
Temper at ur ei smeasur edi ndegr eesCel siususi ngat hermomet er.
Temper at ur ei si nfluencedbyal ti
tudeandt opogr aphy .
Temper at ur edecr easeswi thincreasei nalti
tude, sucht hatforevery
300met er sr i
sei nal tit
udeabov eseal eveltemper at uredecreasesby 1.
7
-2.2degr eesCel si us.
Eachcr ophasat emper aturerangewi thi
nwhi chi tcangr owreferr
edt o
ast hecar dinal r
angeoft emper ature.
Forcr opst ogr owwel landpr oducehi ghyields, theyr equireanar r
ow
temper at urer angewi thint hecardinal ranger efer redtoasopt i
mum
rangeoft emper at ure
Effectsoft emper at ureonagr i
cult
ure
Lowt emper at ure
Slowgr owt hr ate.
Hi ghi nci dencesofdi seasesuchasCDBi ncof f
ee.
Impr ovementofqual i
tyi ncropssuchast eaandpy rethrum.
Hight emper atur e
Hi ghev apor ationr atehencewi l
ti
ngi ncr ops.
Hast ent her ateofmat ur i
tyduet oi ncreasedgr owt hrate.
Impr ovementofqual i
tyi ncropssuchaspi neappl esandor anges.
Incr easei nci dencesofdi seasessuchasl eafr usti ncof fee.

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I
ncr
easedi
nci
dencesofpesti
nfest
ati
onsuchasaphi
dsi
nveget
abl
es.

Effectsofal tit
udeonagr iculture
Keny aisdi v i
dedi ntothr eeecological zoneswhi chi ncl
ude;
Lowal t
itudezoneo-1500met ersabov esealev el
Medi um al ti
t udezone1500-2500met ersabov eseal evel
Highal tit
udezoneabov e2500met ersabov eseal ev el
Cropsper f
or m di fferentlywhengr owni neachoft heseecol ogicalzonesand
thereforeeachcr ophasi tsmostsui tablezonef ormaxi mum per f
ormance
asi l
lustratedbel ow.
Wi nd
Wi ndr ef erst oai ri
nmot ion.
Belowi sal istofef f
ect sofstrongwi ndonagr icult
ur alproduction.
Blowi ngandbr i
ngingr ainbear i
ngcl ouds
Dest ruct i
onoff arm st ructur
es
Strongwi ndmaycour sel odgingi nweakpl ants.
Wi nder osiononbar eland
Increasesr at eofmoi stureevapor ation
Increasespr eadofpest sanddi seases
Agentofdi sper sal.
Pollinationi ncr ops.
Light
Lighti st hesour ceofener gywhi chpl antsrequir
ef orphot osynthesi
s.
Dur ingphot osy nthesis, pl
antsmanuf acturefoodusi ngwat erand
carbondi oxidei nthepr esenceofsunl i
ghtandchl orophy l
l.
Aspect sofl ightt hatinfluenceagr icultur
e
i). Li ghti nt ensity.

14
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Thisist hest rengt hwi thwhi chl ighthit

st hesur faceoft heear t
h.
i
i) Li ghtdur ation
Thisist heper i
odoft i
met hepl ant sareexposedt olightr ecordedusi ng
aCampbel lsunshi ner ecor der
Photoper iodism
Thisist her esponseofpl antst owar dlightdur ation.
Longdaypl ants
Thesear epl ant swhi chr equiremor ethan12hour sofl ight ingtof lower
andpr oducef ruitsorseedse. [Link] arieti
es
Shortdaypl ant s
Thesear epl ant swhi chr equirel essthan12hour soflight i
ngt of lower
andpr oducee. gMai ze
Dayneut ralplants
Thesear epl antswhi chpr oducef l
ower sregar dlessoft hedur ationof
l
ightingt heyhav ebeenexposedt [Link].
i
ii
)Lightwav elengt h:
Thisr eferstot het y peorqual ityofl i
[Link] elengt hist hedi stance
betweent wocor respondi ngpoi ntsofal ightwav e.
Chlorophy l
labsor bscer tainwav elengthsofl i
ghtwhi char enotpr esent
i
nar tifi
cial l
i
ghtunl essi tisul t
rav i
oletorinfrar ed.
NB/Gr eenhousescanbeusedt ocont rolthet emper at
ur e,r elati
ve
humidityandl i
ghtdur at i
onandi nt ensity.
RelativeHumi dity.
Thisist heamountofwat erv apourhel dbyai ratagi vent emper ature.
Athighhumi dityther ateofev apor ati
oni slowandv icev ersa.
EDAPHI C/ SOILFACTORS
Soili
sami xtureofweat heredr ockanddecay edor gani cmat t
er.

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Itsuppor tspl antgr owt hbypr ovi

dinganchor agenut ri
entsandwat er.
Topsoi l cov ersmostoft heear t
handi tcontainsmi nerals, organic
mat ter,air ,wat erandl ivingor ganisms.
SoilFormat i
on
Soil i
sf ormedt hrought hepr ocessofweat hering.
Weat her ingi st hebr eakdownandal t
erati
onoft hepar entr ockneart he
earth’ssur face.
Par entr ocki sf ir
stbr okeni ntosmal l
erfragment sandev entuallyint
o
i
ndi vi
dual const i
tuentmi nerals.
Thei ndi vidual mi neralscombi net oformt hesoi l.
Weat her ingi sacont inuouspr ocessandi ttakeshundr edsofy earsto
form acent imet eroft hesoi l.
Weat her ingi nv olvesbr eakdown( disi
ntegration)andbui l
dingup
(synthesi s) .
Weat her ingpr ocessi si nfl
uencedbyt hef ol
lowi ngfactor s.
Climat e.
Par entmat eri
al .
Topogr aphy .
Livi
ngor gani sms.
Time.
Agent sofTheWeat her i
ngPr ocess.
Phy sicalagent s.
Inthiscasenochemi cal changesar einvolved.
Thesei ncl udewi nd,wat er,mov ingiceandt emper ature.
Strongwi ndscar rymat er i
alswhi chhitagainsteachot herandbr eak
i
nt osmal lerf ragment s.
Raindr opshi tt hegroundwi t
hsomef orcecausi ngsoil erosion.

16
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Mov ingi cecausesr ockst odi sint egr ate.

Hight emper atur esi nt hear i
dar eascauset her ockst oatdi fferentrates.
Duringt heni ght , temper aturesdr opmaki ngt her ockt ocont [Link]
rocksur facecont ractsf astert hant [Link] sunequal cont r
acti
on
causest her ockst odi sintegrat e.
Inplaceswi thv er ylowt emper atur e, waterget si ntot hecr acks, f
reezes
andbecomesi [Link] ert urnsi ntoice, i
tincr easesi nv olume
pushi ngt her ockapar thencedi si ntegr at
ion.
Biologicalagent s.
Thisi nv olv esl ivingor gani sms.
Largeani mal sl i
keel ephant sandcat tl
eexer tpr essur eonr ocksast hey
mov ecausi ngt hem t obr eak.
Mansact i
v iti
essuchasmi ning, quar ry
ing,roadconst ructionandear t
h
mov ingbr eaksr ocksi ntosmal lerf ragment s.
Bact eriaandf ungi helpi nt hebr eakdownofpl antandani mal tissues
(decomposi tion) .Thesemat erialsar eincorpor atedi ntot hesoi l.
Termi tesandmol esbr i
ngt ot hesur facelargequant i
tiesoff ine
mat [Link] spr omot esweat her ingbyaer at
ingl owerl ay ersoft he
rocks.
Root sofpl ant sf orcet heirwayt hr oughr ocksmaki ngt hem t o
disi
nt egr at [Link] sopr oduceaci dsdur ingr espirationwhi ch
dissolv esr ockmi [Link] edr ootsmaymi xwi thwat erf orming
organi caci dswhi chdi ssol vesr ockmi nerals.
Chemi calagent s.
Thisi st hedecayordecomposi tionoft her ocks.I tinv olvest he
foll
owi ngpr ocesses.
Carbonat i
on.

17
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Ast her ainf all

st hrought heat mospher e,i
tdi ssolvessomeCo2f orming
weakcar bonicaci d.
Ov ert imet hisaci dreact swi tht her ockmi ner alspar t
icularl
ycal cium
car bonat ecausi ngdecomposi ti
on.
Rai nwat er + car bon( i
v )oxide
Car boni caci d.
Car boni caci d + Li mest one Calci
um
bicar bonat e
Thecal ci um bicar bonat ef ormedi nt hisreactioni ssolublei nwat er
causi ngwat ertoev entual l
ydi ssolvet heent ir
er ock.
Oxi dat i
on.
Oxy genr eact swi thmanyel ement sf oundi nr ockscausi ngt hem t o
disint egrate.
Sol ution.
Hy dr olysis.
Hy dr ati
on.
Fact or sInf l
uenci ngSoi l Format i
on
Par entr ockmat erial
Thi si nfl
uencest hephy sicalandchemi cal proper t
iesoft hesoi lsuchas
Thet ext ureoft hesoi [Link] anitegiv escoar segr ainedsoi l
.
Mi ner alcomposi ti
onoft hesoi [Link] ainingcalcite,feldspar
andf erro- magnesi um mi ner alspr oducedeepheav ysoi l
sr i
chi n
nut ri
ent s.
Ther ateofsoi lfor matione. g.l imest onei seasi l
yweat heredinwar m
humi dr egionsandt hecar bonat esar eeasi lysolubl e.
Sincet hepar entmat erial i
nfluencest hephy sical andchemi cal
proper t
iesoft hesoi l
,i
tt heref orecont r
olsthet ypeofv egetationi nan

18
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area.
Climat e
Hight emper aturespeedupt her ateofchemi cal r
eactions.
Wi ndact sasat r
anspor tagentandcar ri
est heweat her edmat erials
from onepl acet oanot her .Wher eal otofweat heredmat erialsare
deposi t
ed, thesoi lsar edeepandr i
chinnut ri
ents.
Rainfallprov ideswat erwhi chi sani mpor tantr eagentdur ingt he
weat heringpr [Link] otofr ainmaycauser ockstobr eakhast eni ng
theweat heringpr ocess.
Topogr aphy (Rel i
ef)
Thisist heshapeoft hel andi nrelationtot heunder ly
ingr ockoft he
ear t
h’ssur f
ace.
Itmayqui ckenorsl owt heweat heringpr ocess.
Thesl opeaf fectst hedept hoft hesoi landki ndofv eget ationgr owi ngin
anar ea.
Soilsfoundi nf l
atlandandl owl yingar east endt obemor ef er
til
et han
thosef oundonhi ghersl [Link] eashav edeepersoi ls.
Onast eepsl ope,er osioni shi ghandsuchar eashav eshal l
owsoi ls.
Livingorgani sms( Bioticf act ors)
Thepr esenceoft hev ariousagent sofbiologi calweather ingspeedsup
thepr ocessofsoi lformat i
on.
Time.
Thepr ocessofsoi lformat ioni sv eryslowandt akesal otoft i
me.
Deepmat uresoi lsar ef oundwher esoi lformi ngprocesseshav et aken
placeov eral ongper iod.
Ifthepar entmat er i
al isresi stanttoweat heringagent s,mor et i
mei s
requiredf ort hesoi ltomat ure.

19
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Ar
easwi
thsev
eresoi
ler
osi
onhav
eapoor
lydi
ff
erent
iat
edsoi
lpr
ofi
l
e.

SOILPROFI LE
Thisist hev erti
calarrangementofthesoilhorizons(lay ers).
Thehor izonsshowsoi ll
ayer
satdiffer
entstagesofdev elopment .
Soilformi ngpr ocessesareconti
nuousandt hesoildev elopsi ndept
h
resulti
ngi nt heformat i
onofthedisti
nctsequenceofsoi l
lay er
s.
Thel ayersdi ff
erfrom eachotherintermsofcol our,organi cmat t
er
content, chemi calcompositi
on,porosi
ty,depthandt hear rangementof
soilparticles.

Thehor i
zonsar e;
Superficiall
ay er.
It’
sathi nlayerconsisti
ngofdeaddecay i
nganddecayedorganicmat
ter
coveri
ngt hesoil.
Topsoi l(HorizonA).
Itl
iesbeneat ht hesuperfi
ci
allayer.
Itcontainsal otofhumushencei t’
sdarkerthant
heotherl
ayers.
It’
swell aeratedandcont ai
nsact i
veli
vingorgani
sms.
It’
swell drai
nedandr i
chinplantnutri
ents.

20
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Mostoft her oot sar efoundher e.

Subsoi l(Hor izonB) .
Foundbeneat ht het opsoi l.
Mor ecompact edandl essaer atedt hant opsoi l.
Maycont ainani mper meabl elay ercalledt hehar dpanwhi chmay
prev entdr ainageandr ootpenet r
ation.
Mi neralsl eachedf rom t opsoi laccumul at eher ehencet hislayeri
s
referredt oast hel ayerofaccumul ati
on.
Ithascl aydeposi ts.
Subst ratum/ weat her edr ock( Hor i
zonC) .
Madeupofpar t
lyweat heredr ocks.
Hasnohumus.
Har dandi mper meabl etowat er.
Root sofbi gt reesmayr eacht hi slayeranddr awwat erf rom itduri
ng
thedr yseason.
Par entrock/ Bedr ock( HorizonD) .
It’
sf oundbeneat ht heweat her edr [Link] lisf ormedf rom t hi
srock.I
t
maycont ainpondsofwat er.
NB/.Bet weenanyt wobor deringsoi l l
ayer s, therei sat ransi t
ionalzone
wherebyonel ay ergr adual l
ymer gesi ntot henextonei ntheser i
es.
Thesoi lprof il
ei nfl
uencesagr icultureinthef ollowingway s.
Topsoi l contai nsmostoft hesoi lnutri
ent s, well aeratedandhassoi l
mi croorgani sms.
Awel ldev elopedpr of i
lehol dsmor emoi st uref orpl antuset hana
shal l
owone.
Loosel ypackedsubsoi lall
owseasyr ootpenet ration,drainageand
aer ati
on.

21
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Nat ureandcomposi ti
onoft hebedr ockdet er minest hemi neral
component soft hewhol esoi l
.
SOILCONSTI TUENTS
Miner almat ter .
Themi neral composi t
ionoft hepar entr ockdet erminest hemi neral
const i
tuentsoft hesoi l.
Themi neral mat t ermakest hef ramewor koft hesoi l.
Itholdst her oot sf irml yi nthesoi lgivinganchor aget opl ants.
Bet weent hepar ticlesar espaceswhi charef il
ledwi thwat erandai r.
Diagram
Organi cmat t er.
Whent hedeadmat erialsrot, theyar edecomposedbybact eri
aand
fungi toformt hesoi lor ganicmat t
er .
Humusi sdeador gani cmat terwhi chi si
nt hest at eofcont i
nuous
chemi cal decomposi t
ion, t
ransf or mat ionandconst ruction.
Humusi nt hesoi l impr ovest hesoi lstructure.
Humuscont ai nspl antnut r
ient ssuchassul phat es,nitrates, phosphates,
calcium, magnesi um, pot assi um et c.
Air.
Thesoi lcontai nsal l thegasessuchasni trogen, oxygen, Co2andt he
raregases.
Av ail
abil
ityofai rint hesoi lisi nfluencedbyt het ypeoft hesoi land
amountofwat eri nt hesoi l.
Oxy geni sneededbypl antsdur ingr espirati
on.I tisal sor equi r
edby
micr oorganismsi nt hesoi ldur ingdecomposi ti
onandni trogenf ixati
on.
ExcessCo2i nt hesoi lispoisonoust oplantsandmi cr oor ganisms.
Forbestcr opper formance, abal anceofsoi lwat erandsoi lairhast obe

22
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mai ntained.
Wat er.
Soil cont ainswat [Link] erexistsi nthreef orms;
Super fluouswat er.
Thisi swat eroccupy inglar geai rspaces( macr opor es).
Thi swat eri sl oosel yheldbyt hesoi landt hereforeeasi lylost.
Thewat erisr eadi l
yav ail
abl et opl antsbutnotusef ulbecauseexcess
wat eri nt hesoi lbr i
ngsaboutpooraer at
ion.
Alotofwat eri nt hesoi lcausesl eachi ngofnut ri
ents.
Capi ll
arywat er.
Thisi swat eroccupy ingsmal lpores( micr ospores) .
I
tishel dwi thgr aterforcebysoi lparticl
es.
I
tisav ailabl et opl antsandact sasasol v entforpl antnut ri
ents.
I
tisal sor ef erredt oasav ailabl ewat er.
I
tleav esmostoft hemacr opor esempt yal l
owi ngaer ationoft hesoil
.
Hy groscopi cwat er.
Thisi swat ert hatf ormsat hinf il
m ar oundt hesoi lpar t
icles.
I
tisf i
rml yhel dbysoi lparticlesmaki ngi tnotav ail
abl etopl ants.
Claypar ticleshav ealotofhy groscopi cwat erbutsandysoi lscontai
n
veryl i
ttlehy groscopi cwat erbecausesandypar ti
cleshav eweaker
forces.
I
mpor t
anceofwat ertoplant s
Asol ventf orpl antnut ri
ents.
Rawmat erialsf orphot osy nt hesis.
Dur i
ngt ranspi rat i
onpl antsl oseal otofwat erhenceacool ingeffecton
them.
Wat ermakespl antcel l
st ur gidhencesuppor t.

23
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Livi
ngor gani sms( bi
ot i
cf actor s)
Theyar eimpor t
anti nt hesoi l i
nt hepr ocessofdecomposi t
ion.
Theyar edi videdi nt o;
Soilmi croor gani sms
Theyi ncludebact eri
a, fungiandpr [Link] pindecomposi t
ion
process.
Somebact eriae. [Link] zobium spphel psinnitrogenf i
xationi nlegumes.
Somemi cr oor gani smsar ehar mf ulbecauset heycausedi seases.
Soilmacr oor gani sms
Theyar elar geror ganismsf oundi nthesoi lsuchasmol es, earthworms,
termites, ant sandpl antroot s.
Theybur rowi nt hesoi laeratingthesoi landmaki ngi tl
oose. .
PHYSI CALPROPERTI ESOFTHESOI L
Soilstruct ure
Thisref erst ot hephy si
cal appear anceofsoi laccordingt ohowt he
i
ndiv i
dual soil particlesar ear ranged, packedoraggr egated.
Thesoi lst ruct uret ypei sdet er minedbyt hegener alshapeoft he
aggregat es.
Soilstruct urecl assi sdet ermi nedbyt hesi zeoft heaggr egat es.
Thesoi lst ruct uregr adei sdet erminedbyt hest abil
i
tyorcohesi veness
oftheaggr egat es.

Typesofsoil
str
uctures
Singl
egrai
nedstr
ucture.
Thereisnoaggr
egati
onatal
l.
Parti
cl
esarenotcementedt
oget
her
.Thepar
ti
clesar
enon-
por
ousand
spheri
cal
.

24
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Most l
yf oundi nt het opsoi lofsandysoi ls,ari
dcl i
mat esandal kali
ne
soils.
Crumbysoi lst ruct ure.
Theaggr egatesar esmal l,softandpor ousi r
regulari nshape.
Aggr egat esar enotcl osel yfittedtoget her .
Granul arsoi lst ruct ure.
Theaggr egateshav ei rregularshapecal ledgr anules.
Soil i
sv er ypor ouswhenwet .
Structurei sf oundi nt het opsoi l
ofcul t
ivatedsoi l
sandi nt hesubsoi l
of
soilsundergr assorbush.
Prismat icsoi lst ruct ur e.
Aggr egat ear ear rangedv er t
ically
.
Thev erti
cal axi sofeachaggr egatei slongert hant hehorizontal axi
s.
Whent het opsar er ounded, theyar esai dt obecol umnarandwhent hey
hav ef l
atendst heyar epr ismat i
c.
Platysoi lst r
uct ur e.
Theaggr egatesar ear r angedont opofoneanot heri nthi
nhor izontal
plates.
Thest r
uct urehaspoorper meabi li
ty, drainageandr ootpenet rati
on.
Structurei smost lyf oundi ntophor izonofsoi lsint heforestandi nclay
soils.
Blockysoi lstruct ur e.
Aggr egat esar ear rangedi nr ectangul arbl ocks.
Aggr egat eseasi lyf ittoget heral ongv erticaledges.
Impor tanceofSoi l Struct ureonCr opPr oduction
Soil str
uct urei nfluences:
Soil aeration.

25
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Soil drai nageandwat erholdingcapaci ty

.
Plant sr ootpenet rabili
tyandanchor age.
Micr obi al activiti
esi nt hesoil.
Circul ationofgasesi nt hesoi l
.
Thef ollowi ngf ar
mi ngpr act
icesimpr ovet hesoil
struct
ure
Appl icat ionofi norgani cmanur eint
ot hesoil.
Til
lingt hel andatt her i
ghtmoi sturecont ent
.
Cropr ot ation.
Mini mum t il
lage.
Cov ercr oppi ng.
Mul chi ng.
Soil text ure
I
tr efer st ot her elat i
vepr oporti
onoft hev ari
oussizesoftheminer
al
particlesofsoi l
.
Alsodef inedast hecoar senessorf i
nenessoft hesoilwhenf
elt
betweent hef inger s.
Differentsoi l particleshav edi f
ferentsizesasshownbel ow.
Par ti
cl e Si ze( Di
amet er)inmm

Stones Abov e2.00mm

(Grav el
)
Coar sesand Bet ween0. 20–2.
00mm
Finesand Between0. 02–0.
20mm
Silt Between0. 002–0.
02mm
Clay Below0.002mm
Det
ermi nat i
onofSoi
lTexture
Thiscanbedonet hrough;

26
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Mechani cal analysis.

Chemi cal analysis.
Mechani cal analysis
Apparat us
Gardensoi l
,sievesofdi fferentmeasur edmeshdi amet er,containersand
weighingbal ance.
Procedur e
Putaknownamountofsoi l sampl ei ntoacont ai
ner .
Cr usht hesoi llumpswi thoutbr eakingt hepar t
icles.
Passt hesoi lthrought hesi ev ewitht hel argestmeshdi amet er(2.00
mm)andshakev igor ousl y.
Wei ght hesoi l t
hatr emai nsont hesi eveandr ecord.
Repeatt hepr ocessusi ngot hersiev eswi thmeshdi amet ersof0.2mm,
0.02mm and0. 002mm al way susingt hesoi lthatpassest hroughthe
pr ev ioussi eve.
Observat ion
Soi l parti
clesl eftonf irstsiev eofmeshdi amet er2.00mm ar ecall
ed
gr av el.
From t hesecondsi ev eof0. 20mm; coar sesandpar ticl
es.
From t het hirdsiev e( 0. 02mm) ;f
inesandpar ticl
es.
From t hef ourthsi ev e( 0.002mm) ; sil
tpar ti
cles.
All thepar ti
clest hatpasst hr ought hef our t
hsi evearecl aypar t
icl
es.
Impor t anceofsoi ltext ureoncr oppr oduct ion
Inf l
uencessoi lferti
lity.
Af fect stheor gani cmat tercont ent.
Inf l
uencest hedr ainageoft hesoi l
.
Inf l
uencessoi laerat ion.

27
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Influenceswat erhol dingcapaci ty

Influencest hecapi llarityormov ementofwat eri
nt hesoi l
.
NB/Basedont exture, soil canbecl assi
fiedas;
Sandysoi l
.(50- 80%sand, 20-50%si l
tandclayand0. 1-3%organi
c
mat t
er ).
Aremadeupofl argel ysandpar ti
cles(coarsetextured).
Hav el argeai rspaceshencepoori nwat erretent
ion.
Easyt ot ill(l
ightsoi ls)
Lowf er t
ilit
yduet oleachi ngofmi nerals.
Easi l
yer oded.
Freedr aining.
Thesesoi l
scanbei mpr ov edbyaddi ti
onofor ganicmat t
erand
fertil
izer s.
Siltyloam ( 20-30%sand, 70- 80%si ltandclayand0. 1-4%organic
mat t
er ).
Finet ext ured
Wel l dr ained
Goodwat erhol di ngcapaci t
y.
Moder at elyf er
t i
leandaer ated.
Areaaci di ct omoder atepH.
Clay eyl oam soi ls.(20- 50%sand, 20-60%si l
tandcl ayand0. 1-6%
organi cmat ter).
Poor lydr ai nedandaer ated
Finet ext ured
Highcapi ll
ar i
tyandwat erhol dingcapaci t
y.
Slight lyaci dictosl ight l
yal kaline.
Richi npl antnut r
ients.

28
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Diff
iculttowor konwhendr yorwet .
Aresuitabl ef orf l
oodi rrigationofcr opsl iker i
ce.
Clayeysoi ls.(>40%cl aycont ent)
Madeupofl argel yclaypar ti
cles.
Hav esmal lpor espaceshencegoodi nmoi stureretenti
on.
Diff
iculttot il
l (heav ysoi l
s)
Poor l
ydrai ned.
Expandwhenwet ,crackwhendr y.
Highcapi ll
ar i
ty .
Richinpl antnut rients.
Aresuitabl ef orf l
oodi rrigation.
Theycanbei mpr ov edbydr ai nage.
Loamysoi ls.( 30-50%sand, 50-70%si l
tandcl ayand0. 1-4%or gani
c
mat t
er).
Moder atelyt ext uredanddr ained.
Sli
ghtlyaci dic.
Donoter odeeasi ly.
Easyt owor kon.
Hav eagoodwat erhol dingcapaci ty.
Theyar et hemostsui tablef orcr oppr oduct ionsincet heycontaingood
amount sofpl antnut ri
ent sandor ganicmat ter.
Theycanbei mpr ov edf urtherbypl antingcov ercropst omaintain
fert
il
it
yandbyaddi ngmanur esandf ertil
izers.
SoilColour
Thisdependsont hemi neral composi ti
onoft herockandt heorganic
mat t
ercont ent .
Soil
scont ainingal otofi ronar ebr owni sh,yellowi
shorr eddi
shincolour
.

29
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Soilswi thal otofsi l

icaar ewhi te.
Soilswi thal otofhumusar edar korgr ey .
Soilcolouri nf luencest hesoi ltemper ature.
Darksoi l
sabsor bandr etainmor eheatt hanl i
ghtcol ouredsoi ls.
Relativelyhight emper at uresi nt hesoi lenhancemi crobi alacti
v i
ty.
SoilpH
Thisr eferst ot heaci dityoral kal i
nityoft hesoi lsoluti
on.
Iti
sdet erminedbyt heconcent rationofhy drogeni ons( H+)ort he
hydroxy lions( H-)i nthesoi l
ssol ution.
pHi smeasur edusi ngt hepHscal ewhi chrangesf r
om 1- 14.
ApHofl esst han7meanst hatt hesoi lsolutionisaci dic.
ApHofmor et han7meanst hatt hesoi lisalkaline.
pHof7i sneut ral.
Ast hehy droxy lionsi nt hesoi lincr ease,thesoi lbecomesmor ealkal
i
ne
andv icev ersa.
I
nfluenceofSoi lpHonCr opGr owt h
Determi nest het ypeofcr opt ogr owni napar ti
cularar ea.
Affectst het y peoff ertili
zert obeused.
Affectst heav ailabi
li
tyofsomenut ri
entse. [Link] ous
andmol y
bdenum ar el essav ai
labl ewhi lehighpHmakesmanganese,
potassi um, iron, boronandzi ncl essav ai
lable.
Veryaci dicorv er yalkalinecondi tionsaf fectactivit
iesofsoi l
microor gani sms.
ModifyingSoi lpH
Thefoll
owi ngar eappl i
edt ot hesoi linor dertoloweri tspH( Increasesoil
aci
dit
y )
Applicat i
onofsul phur.

30
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Applicat
ionofacidi
cferti
l
izerssuchassulphat
eofammoni a.
I
nrai
singitspH(i
ncreasealkali
nit
y)thefol
lowi
ngisdone.
Applicat
ionofl
imewhi chisabasi ccompoundwhichrai
sesthesoi
lpH
aftersometime.
Applicat
ionofbasicfer
til
i
zers.

Agr
icul
tur
alEconomi
cs
Agr i
cultur aleconomi csisdefinedasanappl iedsci encet hatai msat
max imi zingout putwhi l
emi ni
mi zingcost s,bycombi ningt helimi t
ed
resour cesofl and, capi t
al,l
abourandmanagementt opr oducegoodsand
servicesf orusebyt hesoci et
yov eraper i
odoft i
me.
BasicEconomi cConcept s
Scarcity .
Thef act orsofpr oduct i
onsuchasl and, capit
al ,labourandmanagementar e
scarceorl i
mited.
Thef ar mert her eforemustdeci deonhowt oal locatethef ew/ scarce
resour cest ot hemanycompet i
ngpr oducti
onneeds.
PreferenceandChoi ce
Sincet heav ailabler esourcesar el i
mi t
edandpr oductionneedsar emany ,a
farmerhast omakeachoi ceofhowt oall
ocat et heser esour ces.
Af armert heref orehast ochooseoneorsev er alenterprisesf rom v er
ymany .
Thechoi cemadei sdet erminedbyf actorssuchasneedsoft hesoci et
y,
farmer ’spr eferenceandecol ogical conditi
ons.
Oppor tuni tyCost
Sinceachoi cehast obemadef rom v erymanycompet i
ngent erpri
ses,some
revenuehast obef [Link] e,api eceofl andmaybesui t
ablefor
thepr oduct i
onofmai zeandwheat .
Ifafar merchoosesogr owmai z e,thereturnst hatthef armerwoul dhav e
obtainedf rom wheati sforegone.

31
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Theforegoneret
urnsarecalledtheopportunit
[Link]
tycostist
he
rev
enuef or
egonefrom thebestalt
ernat
ive.
Farm Records
Thesearedocument skeptinthefar
m showi ngfarm act
ivi
ti
esov eraperi
od
ofti
me.
Theyshouldbeneat,conciseandcompleteshowi ngactualamount s,
weights,
measurementsordat es.

Usesoff
armr
ecor
dst
oaf
armer
Helpt odet ermi nethev alueoft hefarm/det ermi neassetsandl i
abil
it
ies.
Providehi storyoft hef arm.
Assistinpl anningandbudget inginvar i
ousf ields.
Helpst odet ectl ossesort heftinthef ar
m.
Assistswhenshar i
ngl ossesorpr ofi
ts(div i
dends)f orcommunal
ownedf arms/par tnershi p.
Helpt oset tl
edi sputesi nt hef ar
m amonghei rs.
Helpt osuppor tinsurancecl aim e.
[Link] nstf i
reandt hef
t.
Providel abouri nformat ionl i
keterminal benef it
s, NSSFdue, Saccodues
forallempl oyees.
Helpt ocompar etheper formanceofdi f
ferentent erpri
seswithinaf ar
m
orotherf arms.
Helpint heassessmentofi ncomet axt oav oidov erorundertaxat i
on.
Recor dshel ptoshowwhet herthefarm busi nessi smakingpr ofi
tor
l
[Link] sinfor mationhel psinobtainingcr edit.
Ty
pesofFar m Recor ds
ProductionRecor ds
Theyshowt het otalyieldandt hey i
eldperuni tofeachent erprisesuch
asthet ot alnumberofl i
tresofmi l
kfrom t hewhol eher dandfrom each
cow.
Name Day si nthemont h TOTA

32
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/No. LS
ofcow 1 2 3 et
c
A P. A. P A P
M M M M M M
1
2
3
4
et
c
Tot
als

I
nventor
yrecords
Theyshowalltheassetsont
hefarm e.
g.l
ivest
ock,machiner
y,
bui
ldi
ngs,cr
opset c.
Theyarediv
idedintotwo;
Consumablegoodssuchasanimalfeeds,f
erti
l
izer
s,f
uel,
pestici
deset
c.
Permanentgoodssuchasmachinery,f
armtoolsandequipment,
bui
ldi
ngsetc.
ConsumableGoodsI nvent
ory

Recei
pts Issues
Dat
e Commodi
ty/
Item Quanti
ty Dat
eIssued Quant
it
y Balance
to in
Stock

33
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Per
manentgoodsI
nvent
ory

Dat
e Commodi
ty/
Item Quant
it
y Wr
it
ten Bal
ance Comment
of
finStock

Fiel
dOper ati
onsRecor ds
Theyshowal ltheacti
viti
esbeingcar r
iedinthefi
eldsuchasdat eof
ploughi ng,pl
ant i
ng,f
ertil
i
zerusedet c.
Theyhel ptowor koutthecostofpr oduct i
onforeachfiel
dattheendof
theseason.
Breedi ngRecor ds
Theyar ekepttoshowt hebreedingact i
vi
ti
esandpr ogrammesf or
vari
ousani malsont hefarm.
Ther ear edif
ferentbreedingrecordsdependingont heanimalsbei
ng
reared.
Feedi ngRecor ds
Theyshowt het y
peandamount soff eedsusedtof eedtheanimals.

Dail
yfeedi
ngrecordforthemonth
of…………………………………………………………
Enter
pri
se……………………………………………………………………………………...
Typeoffeed…………………………………………………………………………………….
Date [Link] Amount Amount Bal ance Remar
ks
Animals Recei v
ed Used inStock
(kg) (
Kg) (Kg)

Heal
thRecor
ds
34
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Theyshowt hehealthcondi t
[Link]
act
ionssuchasv accinationsanddewor mingaretobedone.
Theyhelpintheselecti
onoft hebr
[Link]
sohel
pin
cal
culat
ingthecostoft reatment.
Date Disease Animal (s) Dr ugs Costof Remarks
sympt om af fected used t r
eatment

Marketi
ngRecords
Theyshowt hecommodity,quant
it
y,amountsol
d,dat
e,rat
eperuni
tof
thecommodi t
y,tot
alv
alueandwher esold.
Commodit
y……………………………………………………………
Date Amount Pr iceper Tot al Where Remarks
sold unit Value sol
d
(kshs) (ksh)

LabourRecor ds
Theyshowt het ypeofl abour,dateofemployment ,
rat
eofpay ment,
ski
lledandunskilledlabour.
Theyar edi
videdint otwo;
Must erRol
l–t hi
scheckst henumberofday sworkedforandt her
efor
e
determinehowmucht obepai dtoawor ker.
Thisrecordshowst henameoft heworker,payr
ollnumber,days
workedf or
,rateofpay ment ,
theamountofsal aryandsignature.
Must erRol
l
Name Pay Days Day s Rat e Tot al Signature
of Rol l Wor ked of Pay of
Person No. Pay ( Kshs) Wor kers.

35
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obi
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12345 (kshs)
Mr
.X 08 25 @100/ 2,
500/
-
-
Mr
.Y 09 25 @100/ 2,
500/
-
-

-LabourUt
il
isat
[Link] abouri
sutil
izedonthefarm
andhelpstodeterminelabourall
ocati
on;
labourrequi
rementforthepurpose
ofbudgeti
ngwhenl abourisinpeakdemandorwhent olayoffunproduct
ive
l
abour .

Noof Livest
ock Crop Machi
nery Dat eof Remar
ks
hour
s Producti
on Pr
oduct
ion Mai
ntenance Wor
king
Worked

Total
cost

CROPPRODUCTI ON1
LANDPREPARATI ON
Landpreparati
oninvol
vesal
ltheact
ivi
ti
est
hatmakel
andsui
tabl
efor
pl
anti
ngsuchas
–ploughing/
diggi
ng
-
harrowing

36
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-ri
dgi ng
-rolli
nget c
Apieceofl andt hathasbeenpr epar edf orplanti
[Link]
seedbedt hepl ant i
ngmat eri
alsger mi nateandgr owt omat urit
yandar e
harvest edf rom samepl ace.
IMPORTANCEOFLANDPREPARATI ON
-Toki l
lt heweeds.
-Encour agewat erinfil
trati
oni ntot hesoi l
.
-Toaer at et hesoi l
.
-I
ncor por atemanur eandot heror ganicmat teri
ntothesoi l
.
-Todest royst agesofcr oppest ssuchaseggs, larvae,pupaoradul t
s
bur yingt hem, exposi ngt hem t ot hesunsheatorpr edatorsandst ar
ving
them.
-Toencour ager ootpenet rationi ntot hesoil
.
-Tomakesubsequentoper ationspossi bl
[Link]
ng,fert
il
izer
appl icat i
on, r olli
ngandr i
dgi ng.
OPERATI ONSI NLANDPREPARATI ONS
Theyi ncl ude;
Landcl ear i
ng.
Pr i
mar ycul tiv ation.
Secondar ycul tivation.
Ter tiaryoper at ions.
LANDCLEARI NG
Thisist her emov al ofv egetationcov erfrom thesurfacebeforetil
[Link]
i
sdonet opr epar el andf orcultivationandasmet hodoflandr ecl
amat i
on.
Landcl ear i
ngi snecessar yundert hef oll
owingcondit i
ons.
Whenopeni ngupav ir
gi nland.

37
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Wher east alkgr owi ngcr opwaspr evi

ouslypl antedsuchasmai ze.
Wher el andwasl eftfall
owf orlongt i
me.
Wher et hei nter val betweenpr i
mar yandsecondar ycul t
ivationisl ong
sucht hatt hel andhasr ev ertedt otheor i
ginal vi
rginst ate.
MethodsofLandCl ear i
ng
Treef elli
[Link], pangasandpowersawsar eusedt ocutdownt rees.
Bul ldozer sandr ootr akersar eusedi nfell
ingt r
eesonal argescal e.
Remov al ofst umpsandt rashl aterfoll
ows.
Bur [Link] eget ati
oncov erissetabl [Link] hodshoul dbe
discour agedasi tdest royst hesoi lorganicmat t
er ,
soi lmi croorgani sms
andpl antnut rients.
Slashi [Link] si sdonet ocutsmal lbushesandgr assesusi ngsl ashers,
pangasort ract ordr awnmower s.
Useofchemi cal [Link] calsusedt okill
weedsar ecal ledher bicides.
Primar yCul tivat i
on
Thi
sfol lowsl andcl ear ing,
Smal lscal ef armer susej embesorf orkjembesdur inghanddi ggi ng.
InLar gescal ef rami ngpl oughingi sdoneusi ngmoul dboar dordi sc
plough.
Ot herf ar mer suseoxpl oughs.
Primar ycul ti
v ationshoul dbedonebef oret heonsetoft her ai
[Link] s
ensur est hatal l othersubsequentoper ationsar edonei ngoodt ime.
I
mpor tanceofPr imar yCul ti
v ati
on
Tor emov eweeds.
Tobur yor gani cmat terforeasydecomposi ti
on.
Tof acili
tatewat erinfil
trationandaer ati
on.
Todest roysoi lbor nepest sbyexposi ngt hem topr edator sandt hesun.

38
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Tomakepl ant i
ngeasy .
MethodsofPr i
mar yCul t
ivation
Handdi [Link] si sdonebyuseofj embes, mat t
ocksandf or
kjembes
tocutandt urnt hesoi l sli
ces.
Mechani calcul t
[Link] si stheuseoft ractordr awnimpl ements
suchasmoul dboar danddi scpl [Link] lers,cul
tiv
atorsand
chisel pl oughsar eusedt obr eakt hehar [Link] li
ngist heprocess
ofcul tivatingt hesoi lwi t
ht hepur poseofbr eaki ngupt hehar dpan.
Har dpansmaybef ormedduet ocont i
nuoususeofheav ymachi nery
ont hel and.
Impor t anceofsubsoi l
ing
Breaki ngupt hehar dpanhencei mprov i
ngdr ainage.
Impr ov ingsoi laer ation.
Bringingt ot hesur facel eachedmi nerals.
Impr ov er ootpenet ration.
Useofanoxpl [Link] sistheuseofpl oughsdr awnbyoxen, donkeys
orcamel [Link] hodi sf asterandmor eeff i
cientthanhand
culti
v at i
on.I t’
scommoni nar easwher elandi sf air
lyfl
at.
Thefoll
owi ngaspect sshoul dbeconsi deredwhencar ryi
ngoutpr imary
cul
ti
vation.
TimeofCul tivation
Landshoul dbepr epar edbef oret heonsetoft herainssoast o;
Giveenought imef ortheweedst odr yupanddecomposei ntoorganic
mat ter .
Toal lowCO2andot hergasest odi f
fuseoutoft hesoilwhil
ebei ng
replacedbyoxy gen.
Giveenought imef orsubsequentoper ationst obedonehencegi vi
ng

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wayt oear l
ypl ant i
ng.
DepthofCul t
ivat i
on
Thi
sisdet er
mi nedby ;
Typeofcr opt obepl ant [Link] l
owr ootedcr opsdonotdeep
cult
ivat
[Link] oot edcr opsr equiredeepcul ti
v ati
on.
Typeoft hesoi [Link] ysoi l
sar ehardwhendr ymaki ngjembesandf or
k-
j
embest odi gshal lowl y .
Theimpl ement sav ai l
abl [Link] actordrawni mpl ement sgivedeeperdept h
thanhandoper atedt ool s.
Choiceoft heCor r
ectI mpl ement s
Thi
sisdet er
mi nedby :
Conditi
onoft hel and.I ft hel andhasal otofst onesandst umps, adisc
ploughispr efer r
edbecausei troll
sov ertheobst acleswi t
houtbr aki
ng.
Typeoft het i
lthr equi [Link] yf i
netil
threquiresdi ff
erenttypesof
i
mpl ement s.
Depthofcul [Link] t
ivati
oni sr equi r
edheav y
i
mpl ement sar [Link] ghti mpl ement sareusedwhenshal l
ow
cult
ivat
ioni sneeded.
Topographyoft hel [Link] act ordrawni mplement scannotbeused
wherethesl opei sv er yst eep.
Implement sav ailabl [Link] ar mercanonl yusewhati slocal
lyav ai
l
able.
Shapeoft hel [Link] andshapesmaynotal lowt r
actordrawn
i
mpl ement stobeusedef fi
cient l
[Link] ether ear eacut ecorners.
Sizeofthel and.
Secondar yCul ti
v ati
on
Thisfol
lowspr imar yt i
llage.
Thisinvolvest her efinementoft heseedbedbef or eplanti
ng.

40
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Itisal sor eferredt oashar rowi ng.

Smal lscal ef ar mer scanusepangas, jembes, fork-j
embes, andgar den
rakest obr eakt hesoi lclodsandpul verizet hesoi l
.
Largescal ef ar mer susef act orsdr awnhar rowssuchasdi schar rows,
spiket oot hedhar r
ows, spr ingt inehar rows.
IMPORTANCEOFSECONDARYCULTI VATI ON
Tor emov eanyweedst hatmi ghthav eger minat edimmedi atelyaf t
er
primar ycul tivation.
Tobr eakt hesoi lclodsi nt osmal lpi ecesf oreasypl ant i
ng.
Tol ev el thef ieldsoast oobt aint heuni f
or m dept hofpl anting.
Incor por at eor ganicmat teri ntot hesoi linor dert oencour age
decomposi tionbef orepl ant ing.
Factor sdet ermi ningt henumberoft imessecondar ycul t
ivationi sdone.
Sizeoft hepl ant ingmat er [Link] lseedsr equireaf inet il
t hthanl ar
ge
seeds.
Slopeoft hel and.I fthel andi shi ll
y ,lessnumberofsecondar y
culti
v at i
onsar epr eferredt odi scour agesoi lerosion.
Moi stur econt entoft hesoi l
.indr ysoi l
sl essoper at
ionsar epref err
ed
soast oconser vet hesoi lmoi stur e.
Condi t
ionoft hel andaf terpr i
mar ycul ti
v [Link] t
erpr imar y
culti
v at i
on, alotoft r
ashi sl ef t,mor ehar rowi ngoper ationsshoul dbe
carriedoutsoast oincor por at ethet rashi ntot hesoi l
.
Tertiar yOper at i
ons
Theyar ecar r
iedoutt omeett heneedsofcer taincrops.
Theyar econduct edaf t
erl andcl ear i
ng, primar yandsecondar y
culti
v at i
[Link] nclude;
Ridging

41
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Thisi st hepr ocessofdi ggi ngsoi linacont i

nuousl ineandheapi ngi ton
onesi det of or m ar i
dge( bund)andaf ur
r ow.
Theser idgesar eusedi nplant i
ngcr opssuchasI rishpot atoes, cassav a,
groundnut set c.
Ridgesf aci l
itatet uberexpansi onandeasyhar vestingoft her ootcr ops.
Furrowsar emadewhenpl ant ingsugar cane.
Theyhel pt oconser vesoi landwat er.
Rolling
Thisi sdonet ocompactt hesoi l
whi chi sl ooseoroff inetilth.
Thisi sdonet opr ev entsmal lseedsf rom bei ngbl ownawaybyt hewi nd
andt opr ev entsoi lerosion.
Thisal soi ncreaseseedsoi lcont act.
Heav yr oller sar eusedi nlar gescal e.
Lev eling
Thisi smaki ngt hesoi lsur facef l
atanduni formt opr omot eeasy
germi nat ionofsmal lseededcr ops.
Rollingensur esuni form ger mi nat i
onofseeds.
MINI
MUM TI LLAGE
Thi
sist heuseofacombi nationoff armi ngpr act i
cest hatdi st
ur bsoil t
he
l
[Link] ar mi ngpr acticesi ncl ude;
Appl icat ionofher bicidesi ncont rolli
ngweeds.
Timi ngcul ti
v ati
on/ t
imel yweedi ngoft hepr eviouscr op.
Mul chi [Link] chpr ev entsweedsf rom gr owi ng.
Rest rictingcul tivat i
ont ot hear eawher eseedsar et obepl [Link]
inther estoft hef ieldar econt roll
edbysl ashi ng.
Establ ishi ngacov ercr opont hef i
eld.
Upr oot ingorsl ashi ngweedsi nper ennial crops.

42
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Reasonsf orcar ryi

ngoutmi nimum t il
lage
Reducet hecostofcul t
iv [Link] educi ngt henumberofoper at
ions.
Tocont rol soilerosi on.
Tomai nt ainsoi lstruct ure.
Toconser vesoi lmoi stur [Link] inuouscul ti
v ationexposest hesoi lto
sun’ sheathenceev apor at i
onofsoi lmoi sture.
Topr ev entr ootandunder gr oundst r
uct uresdi sturbance.
Topr ev entexposur eofhumust oadv ersecondi t
ionssuchassun’ s
heatt hatcausev olatil
izat ionofni tr
ogen
SoilFer ti
li
tyI : (Organi cManur es)
SoilFer ti
li
ty :Thi sist heabi l
ityoft hesoi ltopr ov i
det hecr opswi tht he
requirednut rient sinpr operpr opor t
ionsf orhi ghpr oduct ion.
Charact erist i
csofFer til
eSoi l
s
GoodDept h:Deepsoi lgi vespl antsgr eaterv ol umet oobt ai nnut r
ients
andal sopr ovideanchor age.
Goodwat erholdingcapaci ty:Thi sensur est hatwat eri sret ainedwel l
forpl antuse.
Pr operdr ainage:Wel ldr ainedsoi l
sar ewel laer atedf acil
it
at ingheal thy
rootdev elopment .
Cor rectsoi [Link] f
f erentcr opshav edi fferentnut rientrequi r
ement s.
Adequat enut rientsuppl y .Itshoul dsuppl ythecr opswi tht henut rients
theyr equi reinadequat eamount s.
Freef rom excessi veinf est ationofsoi lbor nepest sanddi seases.
HowSoi lLosesFer til
ity
Leachi [Link] ubl emi neral sar ecar r
iedt olowerhor izonsbey ondt her eachof
plantroot s.
Monocr oppi [Link] owi ngonet y peofcr opcont inuousl yf oral ongt i
mel eads
totheexhaust ionofcer tainmi ner alsthatt hepl antuses.
Changeofsoi [Link] nt hesoi lpHaf fectt heact ivityoft hesoi l

43
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mi cr oor gani smsandt heav ail

abili
tyofcer t
ainsoi lnut ri
ent [Link]
fertilizer scanchanget hesoi l pH.
Cont inuouscr oppi [Link] opst akeupal otofnut rient sdur ingt hei rgrowt h
whi char enev err et urnedt ot hesoi l
.Thi smakest hesoi l deficientoft hese
plantnut rients.
Bur ni ngofv eget at i
oncov [Link] sdest roy stheor gani cmat terhence
dest ruct ionoft hesoi lst r
uct ure.
Soi ler osi [Link] hef ertil
et opsoi li
scar r
iedaway , t
hesoi llosesi ts
fertility .
Accumul at i
onofsal [Link] sisasr esul tofirregularr ainfallandi nsuf fi
cient
remov al ofsal t
sf r om t hesoi lespeci allyinthear i
dandsemi ar idar eas.
Accumul at i
onofsal tsi scal ledsal inisat i
on
Mai nt enanceofSoi l Fer ti
li
t y
Cont rolofsoi lerosi ont oenhancesoi linfil
tr
at i
onont othesoi l andr educe
sur facer unof f.
Weedcont rolt opr ev entcompet it
ionf ornut [Link] erspaceandl ight
withcr ops.I talsor educespest sanddi seases.
Car ry ingoutcr opr ot ation, thishel pst ocont rolaccumul ationofcr oppest s
anddi seasesont hef arm.I tal sohel pst oensur emaxi mum ut il
izationof
nut rient s.
Useofi nor ganicf er ti
lizershel pst oaddnut r
ientst ot hesoi [Link], DAP,
Ureaet c..
Useofor gani cmanur ehel pst osuppl yor ganicmat tertot hesoi l.
Mi nimum t i
ll
agewhi chhel pst omai ntainsoi lstruct ureandpr ev entsoi l
erosi on.
Inter cr oppi ng( Mi xedcr oppi ng)ofl egumi nousandnon-l egumi nouscr opsfix
nut rient sandi mpr ov ef ertili
ty.
Properdr ainagebybr eaki nghar dpansorcr eat i
onofwat erchannel st his
ensur espr operaer at ion.
Cont rolofpHt oal mostneut ral toensur epr operf unct i
oni ngofmi cro-
or gani smswhi chhel pi ndecomposi ti
onofor gani cmat ter.

44
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OrganicManur es
Theyareobt ainedf rom pl antandanani mal r
emai nsaf terdecomposi ti
on.
Role/Impor tanceofOr gani cMat ter
I
mpr ovessoi lst ruct ur e–aer ation,dr ai
nageabsor ptionandr et
ention.
Impr ovewat erhol dingcapaci tyoft hesoi l.
Increasessoi lfer til
itye. [Link] bonni trogenet c.
Itprovidesf oodandshel tertosoi lmi croorgani sms.
Helpt okeepPHofsoi lst able( Bufferssoi lpH).
Reducest oxici tyofpl antpoi sonst hathav ebuildupi nthesoi lasa
resultofcont inuoususeofpest i
cidesandf ungi cideset c.
Humusgi v essoi ldar kappear ancemaki ngt hesoi l t
oabsor bheat .Thi
s
moder atessoi ltemper at ure.
ProblemsAssoci at edwi tht heuseofOr gani cManur es
Bulkiness–t heyhav el ownut riti
vev alueperuni tv olumehence
requiredi nl ar gev olumes.
Labor i
ousi nappl icationandt ranspor tati
on–t hi sisduet otheir
bulkiness.
Theyspr eaddi seases, pest sandweeds–i .
[Link] heyar emadef rom
mat erialst hatar econt ami nated.
LossesofNut rient s–i ft heyar epoor lystored, sol ublenutr
ientsar e
easilyleachedandsomebecomev ol
at i
li
zedwhenexposedt othehot
sun.
Ifusedwhennotf ullydecomposedt hepl antdoesnotbenef itfrom
them.
TypesofOr gani cManur es
Theyareoft hreet ypes:
GreenManur e.
Farm Yar dManur e( FYM)
CompostManur e.
GreenManur e

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Iti
smadeofgr eenplantswhicharelef
ttogrowuntilf
lower
ingandt
hen
areincor
porat
edintothesoi
l t
hroughploughi
[Link]
i
nclude;cowpeas,gr
oundnuts,Lucer
ne,beans,sunf
loweret
c.
Characteri
sticsofPl antsusedasGr eenManur e
Shouldbel eafyorhighlyv egetative.
Shouldhav ehighni t
rogencont enthencel eguminousonesar e
preferred.
Shouldhav eaf astgrowt h.
Mustbecapabl eofr ot
tingqui ckly.
Shouldbehar dyi .
[Link] eofgr owi ngi npoorcondi t
ions.
ReasonsWhyGr eenManur eisnotCommonl yUsed
Mostcropsusedf orgreenmanur earef oodcr ops
Takestimef orthemanur etodecomposedel ayingplanting
Mostoft henut ri
entsar eusedupbymi cro-organismsi nt hepr ocessof
decomposi ngt hegr eenmanur e
Greenmanur emi ghtusemostoft hesoi lmoi stureandl eav ever yli
tt
lefor
thenextcrop
Farm YardManur e(FYM)
Thisismi xtureofani mal wast e( urineanddung)andcr opr emainsused
asani mal beddings.
Thequal i
tyofFar m YardManur eisdet erminedbyt hef ol
lowingf actors.
Typeoft heani malused–
Dungf r om f att
eninganimal shasahi ghl evelofnutrientst hanthatf r
om
adai r
ycow.
Nonr umi nant ssuchashensandpi gsgi vev eryri
chdungi nt ermsof
nutri
ent s.
Typeoff oodeat en-nut ri
tiousfeedst uffsgi v
emanur ewi thmor e
nutri
ent s.
Typeofl i
tterused–woodshav ingsandsawdustar esl owt o
decomposeandcont ainv eryli
ttlenut rientsascompar edt olegumi nous

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oneswhi chgi vemanur er i

chi nnut rients.
Met hodofst orage–f ormanur et or etainit
snut r
it
ivest
atus,i
tmustbe
stor edi nplacewi thal eakpr oofr oofandaconcr etefl
oor.
Ageoft hef army ar dmanur e–wel lrottenmanur eisri
chinnut r
ients
andi seasyt oappl y.
Prepar ationoft hef arm Yar dManur e
Pr ov idemat erialssuchasgr assorwoodshav i
ngsintheanimal house
toser veasbeddi ng.
Ani mal sdeposi tt heirdr oppi ngsandur i
neont hebeddingandmi xthem
byt rampl i
ng.
Aftersomet imeCol l
ectt heusedani mal bedding/l
it
terandotherrottenplant
residues;
Storecol lectedmat erialsunderr oof/shedt opreventleachi
ngand
oxidizationofnut r
ient s;
Turnov ert hemat erialsr egul arly;
Sprinklewat erifdr y;
Leav et hemat er ial t
or otcompl et elybef or
euse
CompostManur e
Thi si sat ypeofmanur emadef rom decomposedmat eri
alssuchas
kitchenr efuse, plantandani mal remai ns.
Thef ollowingf act or sar econsi der edwhensel ecti
ngthesiteformaki ng
compostmanur e.
Wel ldr ainedpl ace–t hisav oidswat erl
oggingwhi chmaycause
leachi ngofnut rient s.
Direct i
ont hepr ev aili
ngwi nd–t hisai msatpr eventi
ngbadsmel lsfr
om
bei ngbl ownt ot hehomest ead.
Sizeoft heFar m –t hesi teshoul dbecent r
all
yplacedont hefarm.
Accessi bil
ity–t hismakest ranspor tati
onoft hemanur epossible.
Prepar ationofCompostManur e
Ther ear etwomet hodsofpr eparingcompostmanur e;
Indor eMet hod( pitMet hod)
47
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FourHeapSy stem (StackMet hod).

I
ndor
eMet hod( pitMet hod)
Api t1. 2m longby1. 2m wideand1. 2m deepi smade.
Temat erial
st obecompost edarepl acedi nlayersinthef ol
lowingorder
;
Fibrousmat er i
alssuchasmai zest alksformt hef oundat i
on.
Theyar efollowedbyal ayerofgr ass, l
eavesoranyki tchenr efuse
mat er ial.
Al ay erofwel lrott
enmanur eisthenappl iedt oprov i
denut r
ientsf
orthe
mi croor ganisms.
At hinl ayerofwoodashi sappl i
edt oimpr ovet helevel ofphosphorous
andpot assium i nthemanur e.
Al ay eroft opsoi listhenaddedt ointroducemi croorgani smst hatar
e
requi redt odecomposet heor ganicmat erial
s..
Theabov esequenceofl ayersisrepeat edunt i
lthepiti sfull
.
Al ay erofsoi li
saddedt ocoverthepi t
.
Dur ingt hedr yseason, t
hemat er
ialsshouldbekeptmoi stbyadding
wat er .

Fi
vepi
tsar
edugi
nser
iesandmat
eri
alsf
il
ledasf
oll
ows:
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Pit
sI ,
II,
II
IandIVarefi
ll
edwi ththemat er
ial
sasdescri
bedabove.
After3-4weeks,t
hemat erialsinpitIVar etr
ansfer
redt
opitV,mater
ial
s
i
npi tI
IItoI
V,inpi
tIIt
opi tIIIandi npitItopitI
I.
Processisrepeat
edunti
l themat eri
alsarewellrot
tent
hentakent
othe
fi
l
edascompostmanur e.

Pi
tI Pi
tII Pi
tII
I Pi
tIV Pi
tV

FourHeapSy stem ( St ackMet hod)

Inthismet hodf ourheapsar eused.
Themat erial
susedar esi mi lartot hoseusedi nt hepitmet hod.
Construction
Veget ationi scl ear edfrom t hegr ound.
Post s2m hi ghar ef i
xedataspaci ngof1. 2by1.2m f ormi ngt hecorners
oft heheap.
Woodpl anksar ef ixedont hesi dest oformt hewal lsandmat eri
alsare
arrangedasi nt heI ndoremet hod.
Mat erialsar epl acedi nt heheapsl abeledXandaf ter3- 4weekst heyare
transferredt opi tY.
Af t
eranot her3- 4weeks, thecompostmat eri
alsar etransferredt opitZ
wher et heyst ayf orsome3- 4weeksbef oretheybecomer eadyt obe
takent ot hef ield.
Themanur eshoul dbet ur nedoccasi onall
ytof acil
itat
eai rcirculati
on.
Ast ickisdr i
veni ntothest ackanangl etocheckt hetemper ature.
Ifthet emper atur einsidei shi gh,itiscorrect
edbyaddi ngwat er.
Diagr
ams

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WATERSUPPLY, IRRI GATI ONANDDRAI NAGE

WATERSUPPLY
TheHy drol ogi calCy cle
Wat erf rom t hesur f aceev apor
atesuptheatmosphere,coolsand
condensest of orm cl ouds.
Satur at edcl oudsf alldownt ot
heearthaspreci
pit
ati
oni nform ofr
ain.
Thiswat err eturnsbackt otheatmospheresthr
oughthepr ocessof
evapo- transpi rati
on.
Theci rcul ati
onofwat erfr
om theearth’
ssurf
acetotheat mosphereand
backagai niscal ledt he
Hy drol ogi calCy cle
SourcesofWat er
Theyi ncl ude; surfacewat ersources,
undergr
oundwat ersourcesand
rai
n.
Sur facewat ersour ces
Theyinclude;
River s, streamsanddams.
Lakes
Under gr oundwat ersour ces
Theyinclude:
Spr i
ngs.
Wel ls.
Bor ehol es.

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Assignment .
Makeshor tnotesont hev arioussour cesofsur f
aceandunder groundwater.
Rainwat er.
Thisiscol l
ectedfrom roof t
opsandst oredi [Link] alsobedugt o
col
lectther [Link] erisv erypur ecompar edtotheothersources.
WaterCol l
ecti
onandSt or age
Dams.
Adam i sabar ri
erconst r
uctedt ost orewat [Link]
earthorconcr et
e.
Grassshoul dbepl antedont heembankmentt opreventsoiler
osion.
Weirs.
Weirsar eusedtor aiset hewat erlev elinar i
vertofaci
li
tatepumping.
Wat ertanks.
Thesear emadeofconcr ete,stone, met alsheets,pl
asti
corr ubber
.They
shoul dbecov eredtopr ev entwat ercont ami nati
on.

Pumpsand PumpingofWat er
Pumping i
sthelift
ingofwaterf
rom
onepoint toanotherbyuseof
mechanicalf
orce.
Ty
pesof waterpumps
Centr
if
ugal/r
otardy
namic
pumps.
Piston/reci
procat
ingpumps.
Semi -r
otarypumps.
Hy dram.
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ConveyanceofWat er
Thisisthepr ocessofmov ingwat erf r
om onepoi nt(sourceorstorage
point)towher ei twillbeusedorst [Link] hr
ough;
Piping
Inthiscasewat ermov est hroughpi pes.
Typesandchoi cesofpi pes
Met alpipes
Thesear eexpensi vebutdur abl [Link] thstandhi ghpressure.
Plasti
cpi pes
Theyar echeapandeasyt oinst all
.Howev ert
heycanbur stunderhigh
waterpressur e,canbr eakwhenexposedt othesunandcanbegnawedby
rodentssuchasmol es.
Hosepi pes
Theyar eeithermadeofr ubberorpl asti
[Link] emor e
expensiveandmor edur ablet hant heplasticones.
Useofcont ai
ner s
Containerssuchasj errycans, drumsandpot sareusedt odrawwat erand
arecarri
edbyv ariousmeanssuchasbi cyclesandani mal s.

Useofcanal s
Wat erisconv eyedfrom ahi ghpointt
oalowerpoi
ntal
ongasl
ope
especiall
yf orirr
igat
ionpur poses.
Gener alUsesofWat eront heFarm
Domest i
cuse–cooki ng,dri
nki
ng,washi
ng
Cool i
nganimal s
Rear i
ngfish
Wat eri
ng/irri
gationplants
Cleaningcalfpens, milki
ngsheds
Wat eri
nglivestock/dr i
nking

52
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Diluti
ng/di ssol
vingchemicalusedtocontr
olpest
s,par
asi
tesand
weeds
Mixingconcr etei
nconstructi
on
Cooli
ngandr unningmachineengines
Processingfarm produceegcof f
eehides,car
rot
s
Recreati
onegswi mmingpools
WATERTREATMENT
Impor t
anceofWat erTr eatment
Kil
ldiseasecausi ngmi croorgani sms.
Remov echemi cal impur iti
essuchasexcessf l
uoride.
Remov ebadsmel l
sandbadt ast es.
Remov esedi ment sofsol i
dpar t
iclessuchassoi landsand.
ProcessofWat erTr eat ment
StageI: Fi ltr
at ionofwat erintake.
-Wat erfrom Sour ceRi v erismadet opasst hr
oughaser iesofsi eves.
-Largepar ti
clesofi mpur it
iesar et rappedbythesi eves.
-Wat erthenent er sintot helargepi petobedirectedt othemi x
ing
chamber .
StageII: Sof teni ngoft hewat er
Wat ercir
culatesi nthemi xingchamberanddosesofsodaasht osof tenthe
water.
StageIII
:Coagul ati
onandsedi ment ati
on
Wat erispassedt hroughcoagul at
iont ankwher efr
eshai renterst oremov e
badsmel l
/chl ori
deofl i
meused.
Wat erstaysfor36hour st hussol i
dpar t
icl
essettl
eandbi l
harziascausi ng
organismski l
led.
Alum isaddedt ocoagul atesol i
dpar ti
cleswhi chsett
leatt hebot tom.
StageIV:Fi ltr
at ion
Wat erispassedt hroughf ilt
rationt ankwi t
hlayersofsandandgr aveltofil
ter
53
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i
t.
Waterleavi
ngthefil
trat
iontankisclean.
StageV:Chl ori
nation
Waterispassedthroughchl or
inat
iontankwher
echlori
neisadded.
Micr
o-organi
smsi nthewat erarekil
l
edbychlor
ine.
StageVI:Storage-Thet reat
edwat eri
sst
oredinlar
geoverheadt
anks
beforedi
str
ibuti
onanduse.

Di
agr
am

Wat
erTreatmentbyBoi
l
ing
Boi
lingki
ll
sgermsinwat
ersuchast
hosecausi
ngbi
l
har
zias,
chol
era
andt y
phoi
d.
I
RRIGATI ON
Thisisthear ti
fici
alappli
cationofwatertothesoi
ltosuppl
ycropswi
th
suffi
cientmoi stureforgrowt h.
Iti
susual lypracti
ced;
Indryareas.
Duringdr yperiods.
Inthegr owingofpaddyr i
ce.
Gener ali
mpor t
ance’sofI r
ri
gation.
Enablecr oppr oductionduringdryseason
Reclaim aridandsemiar idlandforf ar
ming
Supplementr ainf
allincropproduct i
on
Helppr ovidesenoughwat ertocr opsthatr
equir
ealotofwaterl
ikeri
ce
54
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Createsf av our abl etemper aturef orpr operplantgr owt h

Enablesuppl yoff ertil
izerini r
ri
gat ionwat er
Makepossi bl et ogr owcr opsi nspeci alstructuresl ikegr eenhouse
TypesofI rrigat ion
Factor sconsi der edwhenchoosi ngt ypeofi rri
gationsy st em
Capitalav ailabi lity-thisdet ermi nest het ypeofi rr
igat ionsy stemst obeused.
Dri
pandov er headi rrigationsy stemsr equirehighcapi t
al forinst
allati
onand
maint enance
Topogr aphy -Sur facei rr
igat i
onr equi resf latareas
Waterav ail
abi li
ty -Sur facei rrigationr equi resal otofwat [Link]
overheadi rr i
gat ionr equi resl esswat er
Thet ypeofsoi l-Sur facei rrigationi sbestsui tedf orcl aysoi l
sbecauset hey
ret
ainwat erf oral ongt ime.
Thet ypeofcr op/v al ueoft hecr op/benef i
tanaly [Link] opt obei r
r i
gated
shouldbeofhi ghv aluet oj ust i
fyt hei rri
gat i
oncost
Theav ail
abi l
ityofcl eanwat er–dr ipandov erheadi rri
gat i
onr equir
escl ean
watert opr ev entbl ockageoft hesy stems
Sur f
aceI rrigation
Wat eri sbr oughtt othecr opf i
eldsf rom thesour cebyuseofcanal sor
[Link] ollowi ngmet hodar eusedher e; FloodI rri
gati
on, Furr
ow
I
r r
igationandBasi nI rr
igat i
on.
Thef ol lowi ngf act orsar econsi der edwhenchoosi ngt hemet hodt ouse
i
nsur facei rri
gat ion.
Topogr aphy -Sur facei rrigationr equi resflatar eas
Wat erav ailabili
ty -Sur facei rri
gat ionr equiresal otofwat er.
Thet ypeofsoi l-Sur facei rri
gat ioni sbestsui t
edf orcl aysoil
sbecause
theyr et ainwat erf oral ongt ime.
FloodI r
rigat i
on
Theent i
r ef ieldi sfloodedwi thwat er.
Themet hodi scheapt oest abl i
shandmai ntainbutt hereisunev en
distri
but ionofwat ert ocr opsandal otofwat eri swast ed.
55
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Fur rowI rrigat ion

Irr
igat ionwat erflowsf r
om canal sint ofurrows. .
Fur rowsshoul dbemai ntainedbyr epairingwhener odedorwor nout,
remov i
ngt heweedsandsi lt.
Adv ant ages
Cheapt oest ablishandmai ntain.
Requi resl i
ttleski lltomai ntai n.
Reducesf ungal diseasessuchasbl ightsi ncet hereisnowet nesson
thel eav es.
Disadv ant ages
Soi ler osi onmayoccur .
Al otofwat erisl ostt hr
oughev aporat i
onandseepage.
Basi nI rrigat i
on
Anar eaencl osedbywal l
scal ledembankment s/leveesisfl
[Link]
met hodi scommoni nther icegr owingar [Link] e,
Aher o, Buny alaet c.
Sub- Sur faceI rri
gat ionandDr i
p/TrickleIrri
gat i
on
Thi si nv olv esl ayingper forat edpipesunder groundt oall
owwat erto
passoutt hrought i
nyhol esandwett hesoi laroundt hezonesoft he
crop.
Advant ages
Mi nimi zesl abourr equirementespeci al
lyinchangi ngofwaterpipes.
Mi nimi zespossi bl etheftofwat erpipes.
Economi zesont heuseofwat er.
Canbepr act icedonbot hsl oppyandf l
atland.
Ther ei snosoi l
er osion.
Nogr owt hofweedbet weent her ows.
Wat erunderl owpr essur ecanbeusedasl ongasi tcanflowalongt he
pipes.
Cont rolsf ungal diseasessuchasbl ightbecausewat erdoesnot

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accumul at eont hel eav es.

Ther ei snoneedofconst ructi
ngdy kes, lev elingormaki ng
Disadv ant ages
Expensi vet oi nst all.
Pipescanbebr okendur ingweedi ngorl andpr eparation.
Noz zlescangetbl ockedmaki ngi rr
igationi nef fi
cienthencet hemet hod
requi rescl eanwat er.
Ov er head/ Spr i
nkl erI r
rigat ion
Int hiscasewat eri sappl iedt othepl antsi nf orm ofspr ayusing
spr i
nkl ersorwat er ingcans.
Thespr i
nkler sandpi pesusedmustbemai nt ai
nedasf oll
ows.
Lubr icat ingt her ot atingpar tstoreducef riction.
Repai ringanybr okenpar ts.
Cleani ngt ounbl ockt henozzl es.
Advant agesofspr inkleri r r
igat ion
Therei sev endi stribut ionofwat eroverthear ear equi r
ed
Lesswat eri sr equi red/l esswat erwast age
Canbepr act i
cedonsl oppyl and
I
tispossi blet oappl yf ol iarfer tili
zerswi t
hi rr
igat ionwat er/ferti
gati
on
I
rri
gat ionpi pes/spr i
nkl er scaneasi lybemov edf rom onear eatoanot her
I
rri
gat ionwat ercl eansof fdustf rom pl
antl eav esf orbetterfuncti
oning
Helpst ocont rol aphi ds.
Disadv ant ages
Expensi vet oi nst all.
Encour agesf ungal diseasessuchasbl ightandcof f
eeber r
ydisease
duet owet ti
ngoft hel eav es.
Cancausesoi l erosi oni fnotwel lcontrolledespeci all
yonsl oppy
gr ound.
Mayr equi ret heest ablishmentofawi ndbr eak.
Mai nt enancei sexpensi v easi trequi r
esal otofski l
l
Factorsconsi der edi nchoosi ngi rri
gati
onwat erpi pes
57
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Dur abi li
ty-Shownbyt hequal i
tyoft hemat erialst hepi pesar emadeof
Lengt hoft hepi pes-Thi si sdet er minedbyt hesi zeoft hef arm andt he
sour ceofwat er/wat ersuppl ypoi nt.
Diamet eroft hepi pe-Det er minest hev olumeofwat ertobeconv ey edinthe
pipes
Wat erpr essur e-Hi ghwat erpr essur erequi resst rongpi pestopr event
bur sting
Resi stancet oheatf rom t hesun-Pi pescr ackandbecomebr itt
lesi fexposed
tot hesun
Resi stancet opestdamage-Pl ast icpi pesar eeasi l
ydamaged/gnawedby
rodent s
Costoft hepi pes-Al umi nium pi pesmaybeexpensi v ewhenusedf or
i
rrigat ion
Drai nage
Thi sist her emov al ofexcesswat erfrom wat erloggedl and.I tisdonet o
reclaim mar shyar easf oragr i
cul t
ur alpr oduct ion.
Impor tanceofDr ai nage
Toi ncr easesoi laer at i
[Link] eri sremov edf rom t hesoil
,
plantr oot sgetenoughai rf orgr owt h.
Incr easesoi lv [Link] ainagei ncr easest heamountofsoi laroundt he
rootzonemaki ngi tpossi bl ef orpl antst oobt ainnut r
ients.
Rai sesoi ltemper atur [Link] ainagei mpr ov est hear teatwhi cht hesoi l
becomeswar mf ormaxi mum pl antgr owt h.
Incr easemi cr obialact ivi
[Link] operaer ationasar esultofdr ainage
i
ncr easest henumberofmi croor gani smsi nt hesoi l.
Reducesoi ler osi [Link] l drainedsoi lshav ehi ghwat erhol dingcapaci t
y
whi chhel pst or educesur facer un-offi ncreasi ngt heinfil
trationr ate.
Remov et oxicsubst [Link] her ei swat er-l
ogging, salts
accumul atet ot oxi cl evelsi nt hesoi l
.Dr ainager emov essuchsal t
s
from t hesoi l
.
Met hodsofdr ainage

58
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Useofopendi t
ches/channels/furr
ows.
Dit
chesaredugf orwat ertoflowbygr avit
yloweringthewat ert abl
e.
Useofundergroundpipes
Perf
oratedpipesarelaidunder groundandwat erseepsi nt
ot hem, then
fl
owst oawat [Link] pesar emadeofpl astic,
met al(
st eel)or
cl
ay.
Fr
enchdr ai
ns
Dit
chesaredugandf i
ledwi t
hst onesandgr avelandthencov eredwith
soi
l.
Waterfrom t
hesur r
oundi ngareaseepsi ntotem theflowstoawat er
way.

Camberedbeds
Raisedbedsareconstr
uct
edincombi
nati
onwi
thdi
tchesi
nthepoor
ly
drainedsoi
lsuchasthebl
ackcott
onsoi
l
.

Mechani
call
ypumping
I
nthelowlyi
ngareaswher
etheot
hermet
hodsofdr
ainagecannotbe
pr
act
iced,
wateri
smechanical
l
ypumpedoutoft
hesoil
.

59
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Plant i
ngofTr ees
Treessuchaseucal yptuscanbepl ant edi nwat erl oggedar easast hey
l
oseal otofwat ert hrought ranspi ration.
WaterPol lution
Thi
sist hei ntroduct ionofhar mful subst ancesi ntot hewat er.
Agri
cultural Pract icest hatPol lut
eWat er
Useofi nor gani cf ertil
izer s
Fertili
zer susedgetl eachedt hr ought hesoi landar ecar ri
edtowat er
bodi es.
Useofpest i
ci des
Excesspest ici desseepi ntot hesoi l andf i
ndt heirwayt othewat er
bodi escausi ngpol lution.
Poorcul tivationpr [Link] act icesinclude:
Ov ercul [Link] scausessoi ler osi onhencesi ltat
ioninwat er
bodi es.
Ov ergrazi [Link] sal socausessoi l erosi onhencepol l
utioninwat er
bodi es.
Cul ti
vational ongt her [Link] socausessoi l erosionhence
sil
tat i
oni nwat erbodi es.
MethodsofPr ev ent ingwat erPol lution
Soil conser vationmeasur est omi ni mi zesoi lerosion.
Fenci ngofwat ersour cest omi nimi zepol l
uti
onbyani mals.
Enf orcingi ntegr atedway sofcont rolli
ngpestandweedst hatdonot
usechemi calssuchor ganicf armi ng.
Plant i
ngv eget ational ongt her i
verbankst oav oidsi lt
ation.
Usingadequat est or m cont rol met hodsi nthear easexper i
encingheav y
rai
ns.
FARM TOOLSANDEQUI PMENTREVI SIONQUESTI ONS
1 Thedi agr amsbel owar eoff armt ool sandequi pment .Studyt hem and
answert hequest ionst hatf ollow
60
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i
) I denti
fythetools 1mk
i
i)Giv
eonef uncti
onaldi
ff
erencebetweenthet
oolsabove. 1mk
2. Thedi agram belowshowf arm equi
[Link] t
oanswert
he
quest
ionsthatfoll
ow.

a)Identi
fytheequipment
sM andL. (1mk)
b)Statethefuncti
onaldi
ff
erencebetweenM andL. (
2mks)
c)StateTWOcommonmai ntenancepract
icescar
ri
edoutonbot
hM
andL. ( 2mks)
3. Thedi agram bel
owshowsaf ar
m equipmentstudyi
tandanswer
sthe
quest
ionsthatfol
low.

61
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[
a] I denti
fytheequipment. [
1mk]
[b] Namet hepartsl
abeled. [
2mks]
W;X; Y;Z
[
c] Whati st hefunct
ionofthepar
tlabel
ledZ. [
1mk]
4. Studythedi
agr amsbelowandanswert hequest
ionst
hatfol
l
ow.

(a) Identi
fythet ool s. A- B-C-D
(2mks)
(
b) Statethecor rectuseofeachoft hetool
sabove.
(2mks)
(c)Givetwomai nt enancepracti
cescarri
edoutontoolDf oref
fi
cient
use. (1mk)
5 (
a) Namef ourty pesoft ool
susedi nsmoothingwood.
(2mks)
(b) Givethreer easonswhyf armt ool
sandequipmentshouldbewel l
1
maintai
ned.( 1/ 2mk )
6. Bel owisadi agram off ar
m [Link]
thatf
oll
ow.

62
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a)I denti
fytheequi pment . (½ mk)
(b)Statetwor easonsf oryourchoi
cein(a)abov
e
(1mk)
b)St atetheuseoft heequipment (1mk)
c)Namet hepar tslabell
edG,EandF. (1½mks)
d)I denti
fytwodr awbacksi nusingthi
sequipmentcomparedt
oother
s
thatmaybeusedf orthesamepur pose. (
2mks)
7. Identi
fythef armt ool andequipmentil
l
ustr
atedi
nthediagr
am l
abel
edk
andLandgi v eoneuseofeachequi pment.

Equi
pment I
dent
it
y
Use
(a)K
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
...
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
L .
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.
(
b)Gi
vethecar eandmai ntenanceofL (
1mk

63
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8. Observet
het
ool
sXandYi
l
lust
rat
edbel
owandanswert
hequest
ions
thatf
oll
ow:
-

a)I
dentif
ythetool
s. X;Y (2mks)
b)Stat
eoneuseofeachoft hefoll
owi
ngt ool
s. X;Y(2mks)
c)St
atethreemaint
enancepracti
cescarr
iedoutont
ool
X. (3mks)
[Link] bel
owill
ust
rat
eawor kshoptool

I
dentif
ythetool…………………………………………………………………. ..
..
.(
1mk)
Namet hepartslabeledS,TandU
(3mks)
Stat
etheuseoft het ool
(1mk)
10. Studythediagramsofliv
est
ockpr
oduct
iont
ool
sbelowandanswer
questi
onsthatfoll
ow.

64
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a)Identi
fyt
het
oolsE,F,GandH. (4mks)
b)Statetwomaint
enancepract
iceoft
heequi
pmentE.(2mks)
11. Bel
owar edi
agr
amsofwor kshoptool
s.

Statet
hefunct
ionsoftool
s. (
4mks)
(i
)………………………………………………………………………
(i
i
)……………………………………………………………………………
(i
i
i)……………………………………………………………………………
(i
v)……………………………………………………………………………
b)Whatisthenamegi v
entothemetall
i
cbr
ushwhi
chisusedtoclean
outwoodchippingsf
rom t
ool(i
)above.
Studythedi
agramsofgardentool
sshownbel
owandanswerthe
questi
onthatf
ollo

65
Formor
ehi
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chool
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(
i)Statetwof iel
dconditi
onsunderwhichtoolAwouldbemor esuit
abl
e
f
orusei ncrop
Production (
2mks)
(i
i) Givethefunct
ionofthetooll
abell
edC. (1mk)
(i
i
i)Statetwomai nt
enancepracti
cesofthetooll
abelledB.
(
2mks)
13. Studythediagramsbel owl
abeledP,Q,
RandSr epresenti
ngsome
workshopt ool
sandt henanswerthequesti
onsthatfoll
ow.

a)i
dent
if
ythet
ool
s 2mks
Tool Name
P ………………………………………….

66
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Q …………………………………………
R …………………………………………
S …………………………………………
b)Giveoneuseoft ool
sPandRi ntheconst
ructi
onofawoodenfeed
tr
ough.1mk
P………………………………………
R……………………………………….
c)Howwoul dthet ooll
abel
l
edQbeusedi nt
heconst r
uct
ionofacal
f
pen?½mk
d)Givetwomai ntenancepr
acti
cescarri
edoutont ool
S. 1mk
14. Studythediagram belowoffar
mt oolsandequipmentandanswer
quest
ionsthatfoll
ow.

(i
) I denti
fyt
oolM andN (
1mk)
M……………………………………………………. .
N………………………………………………………
(i
i) Stateonefuncti
onaldif
ferencebetweenM andN (
1mk)
(i
ii) St
atetwomaintenancepracticesoft
oolM. (
1mk)
FARM TOOLSANSWERS
1A)
Tenon/backsaw
Cross–cutsaw/r ipsaw/handsaw (
1mk)
b) Tenonsaw-Forcut t
ingtenonjoints/fi
nesawi
ngr ej
ectcut
ti
ngjoi
nts

67
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alone
Crosscut -sawcut t
ingacrossthegr ainsofwood (
2mks)
2a)M –mi l
kingbucket/pai l(
rej
ectmi l
kbucket/pai l)
L-Mi lkchur n/can( rej
ectmil
kingchur n) 2x½=1mks
b) M –usedf orholdi
ngmi lkduri
ngmi lking 2x1=2mks
L–Usedf orholdingmi l
kduringt ranspor tati
on
c)i)Washi ngt horoughlywithhotwat er 2x1=2mks
ii
)St eri
li
zingusingr ecommendeddet ergent
4. (
a) A-gardent r
owel
B-elastr
ator
C-Pl umbbob/pl umbl i
ne
D-Jackpl ane (
½
x4)
(b)
Tool use
A -forliftingseedl ingsf r
om
thenur ser ydur i
ng
transpl ant ing.
B -forappl ying/fixingthe
rubberr i
ngdur ing
cast rationdocki ngor
dehor ning
C -checkst hev erti
cal
straight nessofast one
wal ldur i
ngcast ration.
D -forsmoot heningr ough
woodsur faces.

68
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(c)
Sharpeni ngthebladesr egularly
Replacingbr okenhandl esandknob
Tighteningloosepar ts(scr ews)
Adjustingappr opr
iatelythel evercap. (½x
2)
6. a) - St i
r-uppump.√½
b) - Spr ay i
nglivestock√1
c) - E- Tri
gger√½
- F- Nozzle√½
- G- (Brass)lance.√½ 1
½mk
d) - Needt wopeopl etooperate.√1
- Noteasyt ocarryaboutdur i
ngoperati
on.√1
1x2=2mk
Equipment Identify Use
K…………………. . -Hy poder mic -I
nject
syri
nge/sy ri
nge Ani mal sto
Andneedl e i
ntroduce
Drugorv acci
ne
L -Adj ustable -Holdingdiff
erent
spanner si
zesofnut sand
bolts
(Acceptt i
ghteni
ng
/loosening)

9.(
i)Augerbi
t (
1x1=1mk)

69
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(i
i)S–shank
T-Twi stthr eads
U-Spur (3x1=3mks)
(i
ii
) Maki nghol es(bor i
nghol esont hewood (1mk)
12(i)Condi ti
onsunderwhi cht ool labeledAi sused
Har dgr ound/soi l
s
Ast onyf i
eld
Fieldwi thr hizomes/ st olons/r oots
Af ieldwi t
hst i
ckysoi ls(2x1=2mks)
(i
i)Funct ionsoft het ool label edC
Cut ti
ngpr uni ngundesi rabl ebr anches/st emsoft r
ees/fr
uit
s/coff
ee/
Cut ti
ngpr uni ngexcessi vev egetativeparts(1x1=1mk)
(i
ii)Mai ntenancepr act icesoft oollabeledB
Clean/ r
emov esoil/tr
ashaf teruse
Straightent heprongsi fbend
Repl acet hehandl eifbr oken
Fixt hehandl efir
ml yont her ake(2x1=2mks)
13.
a)
Tool Name
P Trysquar e
Q Spir
itlevel
R Tenonsaw/ backsaw
S Coldchisel
½x4=2MKS
Useoft ool sPandRi ntheconst ruct i
onofawoodenf eedtrough
P-Measur ingangl es/l ayoutofangl es/measur i
nglengths
R-Cut ti
ngt i
mbert omakej oi
nts/usedf orj
oinerywork
-Finecut ti
ng/sawi ng

70
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½
x1=1/
2mk
UseofQi ntheconst
ruct
ionofacalfpen
Todeterminei
fthefl
oorlev
el/thewal
l
sar
ever
ti
cal
.

½x1=½ mk
Mai
ntenancepr
act
icesontoolS
-
Sharpeni
ngthecut
ti
ngedge
-
Remov i
ngthemushroom head

½x2=2mks
i)M-hacksaw
N-handsaw
ii
)Funct ionaldiff
erencesbetweenM andN
-hacksaw( M)isusedf orcutt
ingmetalr
odsandpl
ateswhi
l
e(N)
handsawi susedf orcutt
ingwood/ t
imber
(1x1=1mk)
ii
i)mai ntenancepr acti
ces
ti
ghtenloosescr ewsandnut s(ref.
bol
t)
repl
acewor noutbl ade
regul
arcleani ng
hangpr operlytoav oi
dpossi bl
edamage
mai ntaincor r
ecttensionoftheblade

OTHERREVISI
ONQUESTI ONS
a)
.WhatisAgri
cult
ure?
b)
.Stat
etherol
esplay edbyagr
icul
tureinnat
ionaldev
elopment
d)
.i)Bri
efl
youtl
inetheprobl
emst hathavehi
nderedagricul
tur
al

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dev elopment
i
nKeny a.
ii)Suggestway si nwhi cht hesepr obl emscanbeal leviated
a)i )Whatar et hechar act eristicsofshi ftingcul ti
vati
on?
i
i)St atet hepr oblemsassoci at edwi t hshi ftingcultiv
at i
on.
Whati spast or al i
sm?
Stat
et hef act or st oconsi deri nchoosi ngat y peoff ar m
Whati sar ablef armi ng?
i
)Statet headv ant agesofmi xedf ar mi ng
i
i)St atet hel i
mi tat i
onsofmi xedf armi ng
i
)Givet het ypesoff ar mingpr act isedbysmal l scal efarmer s
Namet het y pesofl ar gescal efar mi ng
Whydoest heKeny agov ernmentputal otofemphasi sonr anchi
ng?
Statet hecommonf eat ur esofr anchi ngasaf armingsy stem:
i
)Statet headv ant agesofpl ant ationf armi ng
t
atethedi sadv ant agesofpl ant at i
ons.
Statet hemaj orchar act eristicsofpl ant ationf arming.
a)Li stt heecol ogi cal fact orsaf fect i
ngagr iculture.
Mentiont heaspect sofr ainfal lwhi char eimpor tanti ncroppr oduct i
on
i
)Whati sopt imal temper ature?
i
i)St atet heef fect sofhi ght emper atur eoncr opproduct i
on.
Stat
et henegat iveef f ectsofwi ndt ocr ops.
a).[Link] inet het er
m soi l
i
i).Namet heway sinwhi chsoi lisimpor tantt ogrowi ngpl ants.
b).i )St atet hef actor swhi chi nf luencet hesoi lformingpr ocess
i
i).Whatbi ol ogical agent si nfluencet hespeedoft hesoi l
f ormingpr
ocess?
i)Def i
net het erm soi lProf il
e
ii
)Howdoessoi lpr ofil
ei nf l
uencepl antgr owt h?
i)Listt heconst ituent sofaf ertil
esoi l.
ii
)Whatr oledomi cr o-or gani smspl ayi nsoi l
?
72
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i
)Whati ssoi l struct ure?
ii
)St atet hef ar mingpr acticest hatimpr ov esoi lstructur
e.
ii
i)Whyi sagoodsoi lstructur edesireablef orgr owi ngcrops.
i
)Whati ssoi l textur e?
Statet hepr oper tiesofsoi lthatar ei nfl
uencedbyi tst extur
e.
Gi vet het y pesofsoi l basedont exture.
a)Stat et headv ant agesofusi ngf ar mt ools.
Li
stt hef actorst hatdet er
mi neaf ar mer’schoiceoft oolsandequi pment.
i
)Whyshoul dt oolsandequi pmentt omai ntainedwel l
?
ii
)Howshoul dt oolsandequi pmentbemai nt ained?
Li
stt hesaf etypr ecaut ionsnecessar yfort oolsandequi pment
Namet hecat egor iesoff armt oolsandequi pment .
a)St at et hei mpor tanceofl andpr eparation.
b)i )Whati spr i
mar ycultivation?
ii
)Whi chf act orsi nfl
uencechoi ceoft oolsf orpr i
mar yculti
vat
ion.
i
)Whati ssecondar ycul t
ivation?
ii
)Gi ver easonsf orsecondar ycul t
ivati
on?
i
)Def inemi nimum t i
ll
age
ii
i)St ater easonsf orpr act i
singmi nimum t il
l
age.
Namet hef act or st hatdet ermi net henumberoft i
ll
ageoper ati
onsduring
seedbedpr epar ation.
a)Listt hesour cesofwat eront hef arm.
Howi swat erconv ey edf r
om onepoi ntt oanot her?
i
)Namet het ypesofwat erpi pes.
i
i
i)Whatf eat ur esar econsi deredwhenbuy i
ngpl asticpipes?
Namet het ypesofwat erpumpst obeusedont hef ar m.
i
)Whyshoul dwat erbet r
eat edbef oreuse?
ii)St atet hemet hodsoft reatingwat eront hef arm.
iii
)Howi swat erusedont hef arm?
a)i)Whati sirrigat ion?
73
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i
i)Li stt hef actorst oconsi deri ndeci dingtoirri
gatecr ops.
b)Li stthemaj orty pesofi r
rigat i
on
a)i )Whatar et heusesoff armr ecor ds
Listtypesofr ecor dskeptonmi xedf arms.
Listtypesofr ecor dskeptbycr opf armer s.
,goat ,pi gs, bees, fi
sh, donkey ,camel
10b)i )Expl ai nt her oleofl i
vest ocki nhumanl if
e
i
i)Listf act or st hataf fectlivest ocki ndustryinKeny a.
c)i)Li stdai r
ybr eedsofcat t
le
i
i)St atet hei rchar act eristi
cs.
i
)Namebeefcat tl
ebr eeds.
i
i)Whatar et hechar acter i
sticsofbeefcat tl
e.
Namet hei mpor tantr abbi tbreedsi nKeny a.
Namet hemaj orbr eedsofsheepi nKeny aandi ndicatethepur posetheyare
keptf or
Namei mpor tantgoatbr eedsandt heiruses
Namei mpor tantpi gbreedskepti nKeny a.
i
)Gi v ethemeani ngsofexot i
candt oi ndigenousbr eeds.
Statet hechar acteristicsofexot i
ccat tlethatmaket hem bettersui
tedto
mar gi
nal areast hanexot iccat t
lebr eeds.
Whatar et headv antagesofkeepi ngaJer seycowi nsteadofFr i
esi
anfor
product i
onofmi lk?
i
)St atet hegener alchar acteristicsofexot iccattl
ebr eeds.
i
i)Gi vet hechar acter i
sticsofi ndigenouscat t
le
11. Bel owi sadi agram ofanur ser yforr ai
singtheseedl ings.

74
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(a) St atet woadv antagesofhav i

ngthepar tlabeledJ
(2mks) *Nr k*
(b) St ateany3managementpr acti
cest hatshouldbecar ri
edouton
t
henur seryfrom t heti
meseedl i
ngsemer getot hestageoftranspl
ant
ing
3mks) *
Nrk
12.a)i )Whati ssoi lfer
til
it
y?
Statet hechar acteristi
csofaf erti
lesoil.
Howcanaf erti
lesoi ll
ossitsf erti
lit
y
i
v).St atetheway sofmai ntainingorimpr ov i
ngsoilf
er t
il
it
y
i)Whatar eplantnut ri
ents?
ii
)Namet hemaj orplantnut rients(macr o-nutri
ent
s)
St atet her olesanddef iciencyoft hef oll
owi ngnutr
ientsinplant
s.
i)Ni trogenuses
Def iciency .
Excessi vesuppl y
Phosphor ousused.
Deficiency
Pot assi
um uses.
Deficiency .
i)Whati ssoi lsampl i
ng?
Listthemet hodsofsoi lsampl ing.

75
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Statet her easonsf orsoi ltesting:

Explaint hepr ocedur eofsoi l sampl ing:
Statepr ecaut i
onsnecessar ydur i
ngsoi lssampl ing
Namet hemet hodsofdet ectingnut r
ientdef iciencyi ncrops:
Stat et hei mpor t
anceofsoi lPHt oacr op:
13a)i )Di ffer enti
at ebet weenmanur eandf er t
ili
zer:
Li
stt hecommonor gani cmanur es
b).i )Whati sor gani cmat ter?
Statet hei mpor tanceofor ganicmat ter
Howcanor gani cmat t
erbeaddedt osoi l?
c)i )Descr ibehowt omakef ar m Yar dmanur e:
ii
)St atet hef actor sdet ermi ningqual ityoff army ardmanure
ii
i)Gi v etheadv ant agesofusi ngFar m Yar dManur eoverf
erti
li
zer
:
Givet hedi sadv antagesofusi ngf army ardmanur e
d)i )St atet hef actor stoconsi derwhenci tingacompostpi t
.
Descr ibehowt omakecompostmanur e
i)Howi sgr eenmanur ingdoneont hef ar m?
Listt hechar acteristi
csofgr eenmanur ecr ops:
Whatar et headv antagesofgr eenmanur ing?
14a)Cl assif yf erti
li
zer sbynut rientcont ent.
b)i )Namet hecommonni trogenousf ertil
izers.
Statepr oper tiesofni trogenousf er t
il
izers/( char acteri
sti
cs)
Whenar et heyappl iedandwhyatt hatt i
me?
c)i )Namet hecommonphosphat icferti
lizers:
Whenar et heyappl iedandwhyatt het i
me?
i
)Namet hecommonpot assi cf ertil
izers
Charact eristics:
i
)Whati sf ertilizerappl icati
on?
Li
stt hemet hodsoff ertil
izerappl ication:
Whati st opdr essi ng?

76
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i
)Cal cul at et heamountofK2O( pot assium chl or i
de)cont ainedi n400kgofa
compoundf ertil
izer25: 10: 5–5kgofK2Oi scont ainedi n100kgof25: 10:5
Af armeri st oappl yacompoundf erti
li
zer20: 30: 10onav egetabl eplot
measur ing5met resl ongby4met reswi de,att herateof200kgper
hect ar e.
Calculatet heamountoft hef er
tilizerthef ar merwoul drequi refort heplot.
(showy ourwor king)
Whatdot hef igur es20, 30and10i nt hef erti
li
zerst andf or
Howmuchofaf er t
il
izerl abel ed( [Link] 10)shoul dbeappl iedt oapl ot
whi chr equi res30kgP2O5?
15.a)i )St at ethei mpor tanceoft heni tr
ogency cl
e
Descr ibet heni trogency cle:
Whathappenst oni tr
ogeni nt hesoi l
?
b)i )St at et hei mpor tanceofcar boncy cle
Describet hecar boncy cle
Howi scar bonl ost ?
Howcancar bonber estor edt ot heat mospher e?
16.a)i )Def i
necr oppr opagat i
on.
Whatar et hemet hodsofcr oppr opagat i
on?
b)i )Li stt hedi fferentmet hodsofv eget ati
vepr opagat ion:
Stateadv ant agesofv eget at i
vepr opagat i
on.
Stateitsdi sadv ant ages.
i
)Whataret headv ant agesofseedpr opagat i
on
Statethedi sadv ant agesofseedpr opagat i
on
i
)Gi
vetheadv ant agesofear lypl anting
Statet hef act orst oconsi derwhensel ect i
ngseedsorot herpl ant i
ng
mat er ialsf orpl anti
ng
Whatar et her easonsf orseedsel ection?
Whatpr act icesar ecar r
iedoutf orseedst oensur et hattheyger mi nate?
i
)Li
stthemet hodsofpl anti
ng
Statetheadv ant agesofr owpl ant ing.
77
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Stat
et hefactorswhi chi nf
luencepl anti
ngdept h.
Whatf actorsdetermi necropspaci ng?
Stat
et headv antagesofcor r
ectspaci ng
Whyi scor r
ectplantpopul ationnecessar y?
Namethetreatment snecessar yonpl antingmat er
ialsbef
orepl
ant
ing?
17a)Whati sanur ser y
?
Stat
et hereasonsf orusinganur sery .
Statethenur seriesmanagementpr act
ices.
Explai
nt hefoll
owi ngnur serypracti
ces.
i) Pri
ckingout .
Hardeningof f.
Rogueing.

78
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Ona
ddi
ti
onc
ont
act0714497530f
or
√We
llde
sig
nedhi
ghs
chool
not
es
√Upda
tedCPA&CI
FAnot
es
√T
eac
hings
che
mes
√KCS
Epa
stpa
per
s
√I
nspi
rat
iona
lnov
els
√Mot
iva
tiona
lnov
els
√Re
li
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