1:1:1:1.

LENGTH:
PHYSICS Length is the distance between any two points.
Physics is a branch of science that deals with the study of It can also be defined as the distance covered by matter. It is
matter, energy and their interactions. a measurement of the extent of something from end to end.

Branches of Physics The S.I unit of length is a metre (m).

1. Mechanics: Motion and properties of matter. Other units of length include; Miles, kilometer, Hectometre,
2. Heat: A form of energy that causes rise in Decametre, Decimetre, Centimetre, etc.
temperature.
3. Optics: Light and waves. CONVERSIONS
4. Electricity and Magnetism. Example: 1
5. Modern Physics: Atomic and Nuclear Physics. Convert the following as instructed:
(i) 16.4mm to metres
Why we study Physics (ii) 20m to centimetres
 To help students develop an experimental attitude by (iii) 0.092km to metres
performing experiments and acquire skills such as (iv) 250cm to metres
observation, measuring, drawing logical conclusions.
 To understand scientific theories, principles and Solution
concepts (i) 16.4mm to metres
 To prepare students for further studies in Physics. km Hm Dm M dm cm mm
 To understand the applicability of Physics in other 1 0 0 0
disciplines like security, medicine, engineering, e.t.c 1m = 1000mm
and improve the world’s technology.
x = 16.4mm
1000𝑥 = 16.4 × 1𝑚
1 MECHANICS AND PROPERTIES 1000𝑥 = 16.4
OF MATTER 1000𝑥 16.4
=
1000 1000
𝑥 = 0.0164𝑚
1:1. MEASUREMENTS: Thus 16.4mm = 0.0164 m

Physics is concerned with measurement of physical (ii) 20m to centimetres

quantities and classifying them into groups according to Solution
their nature. 20m to centimetres
To measure is to find the value of a physical quantity using Km Hm Dm M dm Cm Mm
a scientific instrument with a standard scale. 1 0 0
1m = 100cm
Physical Quantities 20m = X
A physical quantity is a physical property that can
accurately be measured. 1 × 𝑥 = 20 × 100𝑐𝑚
𝑥 = 2000 𝑐𝑚
Types of Physical Quantities Thus 20m = 2000 cm
There are two types of Physical Quantities namely;
(i) Fundamental Quantities or Basic Quantities (iii) 0.092km to metres
(ii) Derived Quantities Solution
0.092km to metres
1:1:1. FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES OR BASIC Km Hm Dm M dm cm Mm
QUANTITIES 1 0 0 0
These are quantities from which all other quantities are 1km = 1000m
obtained. They are seven in total and these are: 0.092km = X

Fundamental Quantities S.I unit Symbol 𝑥 = 0.092 × 1000𝑚

1. 𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 Metre M 𝑥 = 92 𝑚
𝑥 = 92 𝑚
2. 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 Kilogrm Kg
Thus 0.092km = 92 m
3. 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞 Second S
4. Thermodynamic TemperatureKelvin K
(iv) 250cm to metres
5. Electric current Ampere A
Solution
6. Amount of a substance Mole Mol. 250cm to metres
7. Luminous Intensity Candela Cd Km Hm Dm m Dm cm mm
1 0 0
Note: In mechanics, we use only three fundamental 1m = 100cm
quantities; i.e length, mass and time.
x = 250cm

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100 × 𝑥 = 250 × 1𝑚 Reading of vernier calipers,
100𝑥 250 1. Record the reading on the main scale to two places in cm.
= 2. Look along the Vernier scale carefully until you see
100 100
𝑥 = 2.5𝑐𝑚 division on it which coincides with the main scale, this gives
Thus 250cm = 2.5m the second decimal place.

Examples:
Instruments Used in measuring length
(i) Tape-measure: (Accurately measures length greater
than 1metre:𝑙 > 1𝑚). E g length of a foot ball field,
length of a plot of land etc.

(ii) Metre-rule :( Accurately measures length greater than

12 centimetres but less than 1metre:12𝑐𝑚 < 𝑙 < 1𝑚).
Eg length of a desk, breadth of a window, etc.
A metre rule gives readings in cm to 1dp. Main scale = 2.40cm
Vernier scale = 0.04cm
(iii) Vernier calipers or Slide calipers : Final reading = 2.44cm
Accurately measures length greater than 1cm but less than
12 cm:2.5cm < 𝑙 < 12 cm. E.g Internal and External What readings are represented in the diagram?
diameters of test tubes and beakers, breadth of a metre rule.
etc.
A vernier caliper gives readings in cm to 2dp.

Main scale

(iv) Micrometer screw gauge: (Accurately measures

length less than 1centimetre: 1𝑚𝑚 < 𝑙 < 25𝑚𝑚). Eg
Diameter of wires, Diameter of ball beairings and
pendulum bob, etc.
Vernier scale A micrometer screw gauge gives readings in cm to 2dp.

Engineer calipers

For each turn the spindle moves through [Link]

fraction of each turn is indicated on the thimble. This has a
1
scale of 50 divisions on the thimble and represents of half
50
1
a millimeter i.e. × 0.5 mm = 0.01mm.
The distance between the jaws is after wards measured on 10
The sleeve-reading gives units to the 1st two decimal places
an ordinary scale like a metre-rule. and the thimble gives 2nd decimal place.

Example I:
How to read a vernier Caliper

Sleeve scale reading = 14.50mm

Thimble scale reading = 0.44mm
= 14.94mm
 The main scale is in centimeters, 1cm has 10 divisions
1 Example II:
each division is cm = 0.1cm.
10
1
 Vernier scale, each division is cm = 0.01cm.
100

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 2kg = X
1 × 𝑥 = 2 × 10000𝑑𝑔
𝑥 = 20,000𝑑𝑔
Thus 2 kilograms = 20000dg

(iii) 40mg to kg
Solution
40mg to kg
Sleeve scale reading = 9.5 00mm
Thimble scale reading = 0.29mm Kg Hg Dg G dg Cg mg
= 9.79mm 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1kg = 1000000mg
Precautions taken when using a micrometer screw gauge x = 40mg
 The faces of the anvil and the spindle must be cleaned
to remove dust so as to get accurate readings. 1000000 × 𝑥 = 40 × 1𝑘𝑔
1000000𝑥 40
 The reading must be checked. =
1000000 1000000
𝑥 = 0.00004𝑘𝑔
1:1:1:2: MASS: Thus 40miligrams = 0.0000kg
Mass is the quantity of matter in a substance.
The S.I unit of mass is a kilogram (kg). (iv) 20.55g to cg
Other units of mass include: Tonnes (1tonne = 1000kg), Solution
Hectogram (Hg), Decagram (Dg), Gram (g), Decigram (dg), 20.55g to cg
Centigram (cg), Milligram (mg), etc. Kg Hg Dg g dg Cg mg
1 0 0
Instruments Used in measuring Mass 1g = 100cg
(i) weighing beam balance (iv) Lever arm beam balance 20.55g = X
(ii) Digital beam balance (v) Tripple beam balance
(iii) Top arm beam balance 1 × 𝑥 = 20.55 × 100𝑐𝑔
𝑥 = 2055𝑐𝑔
Thus 20.55grams = 2055cg

1:1:1:3: TIME:
Time is the interval between two events.
The S.I unit of time is a second (s).
Other units of time include Minute (1min = 60s), Hour
(1hr=60min), Day (1day=24hrs), Week (7 days), fortnight
(2weeks), Month (1month=30days), Year (1yr=12months),
Conversions
decade, century, and a millennium.
Example 1:
Convert the following as instructed:
Instruments Used in measuring Time
(i) 100grams to kilograms
(ii) 2kg to dg  Stop clock
(iii) 40mg to kg  stop watch
(iv) 20.55g to cg  Half life of a radioactive substance eg Carbon – 14
 Shadows
Solution
(i) 100grams to kilograms 1:1:2. DERIVED QUANTITIES
Kg Hg Dg G Dg Cg Mg These are quantities which can be expressed in terms of the
1 0 0 0 fundamental quantities. Besides the seven fundamental
1kg = 1000g quantities, the rest of the Physical quantities’ are derived
quantities. Their S.I units are also called Derived units.
x = 100g
1000 × 𝑥 = 100 × 1𝑘𝑔 Examples of Derived Physical quantities include:
1000𝑥 100 Derived Quantities S.I unit Symbol
= 1. Area squaremetre m2
1000 1000
𝑥 = 0.1𝑘𝑔 2. Volume cubicmetres m3
Thus 100grams = 0.1kg 3. Density kilogram per kgm−3
cubicmetre
(ii) 2kg to dg 4. Speed and Velocity metres per second ms −1
Solution 5. Pressure newton per square Nm−2
2kg to dg metre (or pascal) (or Pa)
Kg Hg Dg G dg Cg mg 6. Force and weight Newton N
1 0 0 0 0 E. t. c
1kg = 10,000dg

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1:1:2:1. AREA: Types of areas
Area is ameasure of the size of a surface. (i) Cross-sectional area
The S.I unit is a squaremetre (m2). (ii) Surface area
Other units of area include:
𝑐𝑚2 , 𝑚𝑚2 , 𝑘𝑚2 𝑒. 𝑡. 𝑐 Figure Name Formula for
Area
Example 1: 1. Rectangle 𝐴 = 𝑙𝑤
Convert the following as instructed w
(i) 15 mm2 to cm2
l
(ii) 20 m2 to mm2
(iii) 16.4 mm2 to m2 2. Square 𝐴 = 𝑆2
Solution s (All sides
(i) 15 𝑚𝑚2 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑚2 are equal)
Km Hm Dm M dm Cm Mm 3. Triangle 1
𝐴= 𝑏ℎ
1 0 2
1cm = 10mm h
(1cm)2 = (10mm)2 b
2 2
1cm = 100mm 4. Circle 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
2
x = 15 mm r
2
100 × 𝑥 = 15 × 1𝑐𝑚
𝑥 = 0.15𝑐𝑚2
Thus 15 𝑚𝑚2 =0.15𝑐𝑚2 1
5. Trapezium
b (2 parallel 𝐴 = ℎ(𝑎 + 𝑏)
2
(ii) 20 𝑚2 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑚2 un equal
km Hm Dm M dm Cm Mm h sides)
1 0 0 0
1m = 1000mm a
(1m)2 = (1000mm)2 6. Sphere 𝑆. 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2
1m2 = 1000000mm2
20 m2 = X
7. Cuboid 𝑆. 𝐴
1 × x = 20 × 1000000mm2 h = 2(𝑙𝑤)
x = 20,000,000mm2 + 2(𝑤ℎ)
Thus 20 m2 =20,000,000mm2 or 𝟐. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝐦𝐦𝟐 w + 2(𝑙ℎ)
l
Solution 8. Cube 𝑆. 𝐴 = 6𝑆 2
(All faces
(iii) 16.4 𝑚𝑚2 𝑡𝑜 𝑚2
are equal)
Km Hm Dm M dm Cm Mm
1 0 0 0
1m = 1000mm 1:1:2:2. VOLUME:
(1m)2 = (1000mm)2 Volume is the space occupied by matter.
The S.I unit of volume is cubic metre (m3).
1m2 = 1000000mm2 Other units of volume include:
x = 16.4 mm 2 𝑐𝑚3 , 𝑚𝑚3 , 𝑘𝑚3 , 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒(𝑚𝑙), 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒(𝑙). 𝑒. 𝑡. 𝑐
1000000 × x = 16.4 × 1m2 Instruments for measuring Volume include:
1000000x 16.4
=  Measuring cylinder
1000000 1000000  Volumetric flask
x = 0.0000164m2
 Burette
Thus 20 m = 0.0000164m2 or 𝟏. 𝟔𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐦𝟐
2
 Pipette

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Volume of regular objects
Figure Name Formula for
Volume
1. Cylinder 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ

Circular 1
cone 𝑉 = (𝜋𝑟 2 )ℎ
3

2. Question:
A measuring cylinder containing some water stands on a
3. Sphere 4
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 3 scale pan. A solid ball is lowered into the water. The water
3 level rises from the 30cm3 mark to 40cm3 mark. The scale
reading increases from 100g to 180g.
4. Cuboid 𝑉 = 𝑙𝑤ℎ

5. Cube 𝑉 = 𝑆3
(All faces
are equal)

Experiment to determine the volume of an irregular

object
The volume of an irregular object can be obtained by the What is the density of the material of the ball?
Displacement method. A. 2.0 gcm−3 . B. 4.5 gcm−3 .
 Pour water into a measuring cylinder up to a certain B. 8.0 gcm . −3
D. 18 gcm−3 .
level. Record the volume of water (V1).
 Tie a thread on the irregular object and gently lower it Example 1:
into the water in the measuring cylinder. Note the new Convert the following as instructed
volume of water in the cylinder (V2). (i) 250 𝑐𝑚3 𝑡𝑜 𝑚3 (𝑖𝑖𝑖)0.032𝑘𝑚3 𝑡𝑜 𝑚3
3 (𝑖𝑣)10,000 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑚3
 The Volume of the irregular object is then equal to the (ii) 500𝑚𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑚
volume of displaced water; Thus V = (V2 – V1).
Solution
(i) 250 𝑐𝑚3 𝑡𝑜 𝑚3
Km Hm Dm m dm Cm mm
1 0 0
1m = 100cm
(1m)3 = (100cm)3
1m3 = 1000000cm3
x = 250cm3
1000000 × 𝑥 = 250 × 1𝑚3
1000000𝑥 250
=
1000000 1000000
OR 𝑥 = 0.00025 𝑚3
 Pour water in an over flow can up to the level of the Thus 250 𝑐𝑚3 = 0.00025𝑚3 𝑜𝑟 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒎𝟑
spout. Place a measuring cylinder just below the spout.
 Tie a thread around the irregular object and gently Example 2:
lower it into the overflow can. Use the match box below to answer questions that follow.
 Note the volume of water, V that collects in the
measuring cylinder. It is equal to the volume of the 5cm
irregular object.

10cm

8cm

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Find the volume Tapped zeros; zeros between significant figures i.e. zeros
(i) in cm3 [400cm3 ] between non zero digits are significant figures e.g. 6.0037
(ii) in m3 [0.0004m3] (5s.f), 0.0100034 (6 s.f).

Exercise: Trailing zeros (zeros at the right end of a number);

1. A cuboid has dimensions 2cm by 10cm. Find its width in (i) Trailing after a decimal point: These are significant
metre if it occupies a volume of 80cm3. [ 0.04m] figures. E.g 2.00 (3s.f), 0.0020 (2s.f), 0.0120700 (6s.f)
Normally these values are obtained by using an instrument.
2. (a) Find the volume of water in a cylinder of water radius
7cm if its height is 10cm.[ 1540cm3] (ii) Trailing before a decimal point: These are NOT
(b) The volume of the cylinder was [Link] a stone significant figures. E.g 20 (1s.f), 2400 (2s.f), 580100 (4s.f)
was lowered in the cylinder filled with water the volume Normally these values are obtained as a result of rounding
increased to 15cm3. Find the height of the cylinder of radius off certain numbers to the nearest tens, fifties, hundreds,
7cm. [0.078 cm] thousands, ten thousands e.t.c.
For example, if a number 348 is rounded off to 1 s.f, we get
3. A Perspex box has 10cm square base and contains water 300 and if it`s rounded off to 2 s.f we get 350. The trailing
to a height of 10cm. A piece of rock of mass 600g is zeros in these approximations (i.e. 300 and 350) are due to
lowered gently into the water and the level rises to 12cm. rounding off and therefore are not significant.
Find the;
(i) Volume of water displaced by the rock. Questions
(ii) volume of the rock in 𝒄𝒎𝟑 and 𝒎𝟑 Write the following to the stated significant figures
(iii) density of the rock in 𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑 and 𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 a) 28.8 to 3 s.f b)
2
to 2 s.f c) 4.027 x10-2 to 3 s.f
7
1:1:3. SCIENTIFIC NOTATION AND SIGNIFICANT Prefix and Surfix Symbol Exponent
FIGURES. Tera T 1012
Scientific notation or Standard form Giga G 109
Mega M 106
 A number is in scientific form, when it is written as a
vnumber between 1 and 9 which is multiplied by a Kilo K 103
power of 10. i.e when it is written in the form 𝐀 × 𝟏𝟎𝐧 . Hecto H 102
Where1 ≤ A < 10; i.e A lies between 1 and 10 with 1 Deca D 101
inclusive but 10 exclusive. n is an integer (….-2,-1,0,1,2…). Metre 𝟏𝟎𝟎
Deci d 10−1
 Scientific notation is used for writing down very large Centi c 10−2
and very small measurements. Mili m 10−3
Micro µ 10−6
Example: Nano n 10−9
(i) 598,000,000m = 5.98 x 108 m Pico p 10−12
(ii) 0.00000087m = 8.7 x 10-7 m Fermto F 10−15
(iii) 60220m = 6.022 x 104 m Atto A 10−18
Questions: Example:
Convert the following to scientific form. Value Scientific form Prefix used
(a) 0.048 = 4.8 x 10-2
3
3000W 3 × 103 W 3kW
-1
(b) = 0.75 = 7.5 x 10 4900 000J 4.9 × 106 J 4.9MJ
4
(c) 1000 = 1.0 x 103 0.00526m 5.26 × 10−3 m 5.26mm
(d) 8.72 = 8.72 x 100 0.00000125g 1.25 × 10−6 g 1.25µg
1
(e) = 0.125 = 1.25 x 10-1
8

Significant figures
 Decimal Places
The number of decimal places (dp) is the number of digits to
the right end of a decimal point. E.g. the number 3.6420 is
given to [Link] 3.6420 ≈ 3.642(3dp), 3.6420 ≈ 3.64(2dp),
3.6420 ≈ 3.6(1dp), 3 .6420 ≈ 4 (0dp).

 Significant Figures
a) None zero digits (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9) are
significant figures.
b) Zeros
Leading zeros (i.e. zeros at the left end of a number) i.e
zeros before the first significant figure; are not significant
figures e.g. 0.000456 (3s.f), 0.017 (2s.f).

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  An empty measuring cylinder is weighed on a beam
1:2. DENSITY AND RELATIVE DENSITY balance and its mass, Mo is noted.
 A liquid is added to it and it is weighed again using the
1:2:1. DENSITY beam balance;
Density is the mass per unit volume: 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓
mass 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density = ( )=( 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 ) – ( 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 )
volume 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑.
The SI unit is kg/m3 or kgm-3 other units are g/l or gcm -3
mass of liquid
Note: the density of pure water is 1000kgm-3 or 1gcm-3 Density of liquid =
volume of liquid
Changing gcm-3 to kgm-3
1gcm-3 = 1000kgm-3 (d) Air
So when changing gcm-3 to kgm-3 simply multiplies by 1000

Example:
Express 0.8 gcm -3 in kgm-3

1gcm-3= 1000kgm-3
0.8 = x
𝑥 = 0.8 × 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
𝑥 = 800𝑘𝑚−3
Thus 0.8𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 = 800𝑘𝑔𝑚−3

1:1:2:3:1. Simple density Measurements

When the mass “M” and volume “V” of a substance are (i) Measuring of mass
known; then the density is obtained from: A round-bottomed flask is weighed using a beam balance
𝒎 when full of air and after removing the air using a vacuum
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝛒 = pump. Then
𝑽
(ii) Measuring of volume
(a) For a Regularly shaped solid The volume of air is found by filling the flask with water
 The mass of the solid is measured on a beam balance and pouring it into a measuring cylinder. Then volume of air
 The volume of the solid is obtained by measuring the = volume of water transferred into the measuring cylinder.
sides of the solid using a ruler, veneer calipers or mass of air
Density of air =
micrometer screw gauge. volume of air
 The density is then got from the formula. Precautions taken
mass of solid -The flask should be dried
Density of solid = -The atmospheric pressure and temperature should be noted.
volume of solid
-The air should be dry
(b) For an irregularly – shaped solid
 The solid is weighed using a beam balance to obtain its Factors that affect Density
mass. (i) Temperature
 The volume of the solid is obtained by displacement When the temperature of a substance is increased, it expands
methods; using a displacement can. The volume of hence increasing its volume. The density then decreases.
displaced water is equal to the volume of the solid. When the temperature of a substance is reduced, it contracts
 The density is then got from the formula. hence reducing its volume. The density then increases.
mass of solid
Density of solid = (ii) Pressure
volume of solid
Pressure only affects the density of gases.
NOTE: When the pressure of a given mass of a gas is increased, the
1. For a floating object. Tie a sinker on the floating object gas molecules become squeezed and occupy a smaller
and gently dip it water. Get the volume of the water volume. This increases the density of the gas.
displaced, V1. When the pressure of a given mass of a gas is reduced, the
Then dip the sinker alone in the water and again get the gas molecules become occupy a larger volume. This
volume of water displaced, V2. decreases the density of the gas.
The volume of the floating object, V = V1 – V2
Uses of density
2. For a pin or a ball bearing. It is used to: -Identify materials for construction
-Test the purity of a substance
(c) For liquids -Choose the light gases to fill balloons
 The volume of the liquid is measured using a measuring Example 1:
cylinder and the volume, V is noted. A Perspex box has a10cm square base containing water to a
height of10 cm. A piece of rock of mass 600g is lowered
into the water and the level rises to 12 cm.
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(a) What is the volume of water displaced by the rock? 2
(iii) Find the density of the stone. [ g/cm3]
5
V = Lxwxh
= 10 x10 x (12-10)
5. A steel C.P.U below, has a mass of 560g
= 200 cm3

(b) What is the volume of the rock? 40cm

Volume of rock = volume of water displaced
= 200cm3
20cm
100cm
Alternatively,
Find its density (i) in g/cm3 (ii) in kg/m3
Volume of water before adding the rock
V1 = LxWxH
6. 200g of liquid Y of density 4gcm-3. Calculate the density
= (10cm x 10cm x 10cm)
of the mixture.
= 1000cm3
7. Liquids X and Yare mixed to form a solution. If the
density of X is 0.8gcm-3 and volume is 100cm3, density of Y
Volume of water after adding the rock
1.5cm-3 and its volume is [Link] the;
V2 = LxWxH
(i) mass of liquid X [80g]
= (10 x 10 x 12) cm3
(ii) mass of liquid Y [450g]
= 1200cm3
(iii) Density of a mixture [1.325gcm-3]
Volume of water displaced
7. In an experiment to determine the density of a pin,
V= V2 – V
100pins are gently lowered into a measuring cylinder
= (1200 – 1000) cm3
containing 12cm3 of water. The water in the cylinder rose to
= 200cm3
98cm3. Find the;
(i) volume of a pin.
(c) Calculate the density of the rock
mass 600 g (ii) density of the pin in kgm-3
−3
Density = = 3 = 3gcm
volume 200cm
1:2:2. DENSITY OF MIXTURES
Example 2: Suppose two substances are mixed as follows:
(ii) The mass of 24.4cm3 of mercury is 332g. Find the Substance Mass Volume Density
density of mercury.(=13.6 gcm-3) X MX VX MX
(iii) An 800g solid measures 10cm by 5cm by 4cm. DX =
VX
Determine its density.(= 4 gcm-3) Y MY VY MY
DY =
(iv) A glass stopper of volume 16cm3 weighs 40g. Calculate VY
its density in : (i) gcm-3 .(=2.5 gcm-3)
(ii) kgm-3. (=2500kgm-3) 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐢𝐱𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞
(v) The density of copper is 8.9gcm-3. What is the mass of 𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐢𝐱𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 =
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐢𝐱𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞
100cm3 of copper? .(=890 g)
(vi) When a piece of irregular stone of mass200g is lowered MX + MY
Density of mixture =
in a measuring cylinder, the initial and final volumes VX + VY
were 500cm3 and 600cm3 respectively. Calculate the
density of the stone.(=2gcm-3) Example: 1
(vii) An empty beaker weighs 120g in air and 180g when 100cm3 of fresh water of mass100g is mixed with 100 cm3
filled with 75cm3 of methylated spirit. Find the density of sea water of mass103g. Calculate the density of the
of methylated spirit. (=0.8gcm-3) mixture.
(viii) What is the mass of 1.5litres of water? (= 1.5kg) Solution
mass of mixture
2. The oil level in a burette is 25cm3.50 drops of oil fall Density of mixture =
Volume of mixture
from a burette. If the volume of one drop is [Link] is
the final oil level in the burette. [30cm3] Density of mixture
mass of fresh water + mass of sea water
3. A measuring cylinder has water level of [Link] will =
Vol. of fresh water + Volume of sea water
be the new water level if 1.6g of a metallic block of density
0.8g/cm3 is added.
100 + 103
4. A perspex box having 6cm square base contains water to Density of mixture =
100 + 100
a height of 10cm.
(a) Find the volume of water in the box [360cm3] 203
=
200
(b) A stone of mass 120g is lowered into the box and the 𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐢𝐱𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟏𝟓 gcm-3
level of water rises to 13cm.
(i) Find the new volume of water? [468cm3] Example 2:
(ii) Find the volume of the stone? [108 cm3]

©bagiradnl@[Link] 8
Liquid Y of volume 0.40m3 and density 90.0kgm-3 is mixed
with liquid X of volume0.35m3 and density 800kgm-3.
Calculate the density of the mixture.

Solution
mass of Y = Volume of Y × Density of Y
mass of Y = 0.40 × 90.0
mass of Y = 360kg

mass of X = Volume of X × Density of X

mass of Y = 0.35 × 800 The bottle contains exactly the same volume when the liquid
mass of Y = 280kg level is at the hole.
.Then:  mass of empty bottle M0
mass of mixture A dry density bottle with a stopper is weighed when empty
Density of mixture = using a balance.
Volume of mixture
 Mass of bottle filled with the liquid M2
Density of mixture A dry density bottle with a stopper is weighed when filled
mass of liquid Y + mass of liquid X with the liquid using a balance.
=  Mass of bottle filled with water M1
Volume ofliquid Y + Volume of liquid X
360 + 280 After removing the liquid and rinsing out the density bottle
Density of mixture = with water, the density bottle is filled with water and
0.40 + 0.35 weighed again.
640kg  The measurements are recorded as below:
= Mass of empty: = m0
0.75m3 Mass of bottle full of water: = m1
𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐢𝐱𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 = 𝟖𝟓𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝐤𝐠m-3
Mass of bottle full of liquid: = m2
Exercise: Mass of liquid: = m2 −m0
1. An alloy is formed by adding 500g of element P of Mass of water: = m1 −m0
density 5gcm-3 to 400cm3 of element Q of density 4gcm-3. 𝐦𝟐 −𝐦𝟎
Calculate the density of the alloy.[ 4.2gcm-3]  Relative Density of a liquid =
𝐦𝟏 −𝐦𝟎

2. 500cm3 of liquid X of density 2gcm-3 is combined with Note: The advantage of using a density bottle in measuring
200 g of liquid Y of density 4gcm-3. Calculate the density of the relative density of a solid is that it is accurate compared
the mixture. to other methods.

3. Liquid M of density 0.5gcm-3 is mixed with liquid N in Measurement of relative density of a solid
equal volumes. If the mixture has a density of 0.8gcm-3 ,  This can be found by weighing the solid in air and when
Find the density of liquid N. fully immersed in water.
 The solid immersed in water displaces an amount of
4. 3cm-3of water was mixed with 5cm-3 of milk of density water equal to its volume. The relative density is then
1500kgm-3. Find the density of the mixture. [1312.5kgm-3] calculated using;
 Relative density = Weight in air = Wa
5. Liquid A of volume 400cm3 and density 800kgm-3 is Weight in water Wa −Ww
mixed with liquid B of volume 600cm3 and density
1120kgm-3. Calculate the density of the mixture. Example 1
A density bottle was used to measure the density of
1:2:3. RELATIVE DENSITY (R.D) mercury. The following measurements were taken:
Relative density is defined as the ratio of the density of a  Mass of empty bottle = 20g
substance to the density of an equal volume of water.  Mass of bottle full of mercury = 360g
Density of substance  Mass of bottle full of water = 45g
Relative Density = Calculate the;
Density of equal volume of water
a. Relative density of mercury
Note: Density of pure water =1gcm-3 = 1000kgm-3 since b. Density of mercury
density = mass ⁄ Volume, Then:
mass of substance Solution
Relative Density = (i) (ii)
mass of equal volume of water m2 − m0 Density mercury
R. D = R. D =
weight of substance m1 − m0 Density of water
Relative Density = ρ
weight of equal volume of water 360 − 20 13.6 =
R. D = 1000
45 − 20 𝜌 = 13.6 × 1000
Note: Relative density has no units.
𝜌 = 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
340
Experiment: To determine the Relative density of a liquid R. D =
25
using a density bottle. R. D = 13.6

©bagiradnl@[Link] 9
Example: 2 A: 160 cm3 B: 600 cm3
3
A density bottle has mass 75g when empty, 95g when full of C: 760 cm D: 1000 cm3
water and 99g when full of a liquid. Calculate the: 12. What mass of lead has the same volume as 1600 kg of
(i) Relative density of the liquid. petrol? {Density of lead = 11400 kg m-3, Density of petrol
(ii) density of the liquid = 800 kg m-3}
Solution A. 22 800 kg C. 1600 kg
mE = 75g; mL = 99g; mW = 95g B. C. 11400 kg D. 800 kg
(i) (ii)
mL − mE Density of liquid 13. A metal cuboid of dimensions 3 cm by 2 cm by 1 cm
R. D = R. D =
mW − mE Density of water and 8.9 g cm-3 is completely immersed in a liquid of density
ρ 0.8 g cm-3. The mass of the liquid displaced is
99 − 75 1.2 = A. 53.4 g. B. 29.1 g.
R. D = 1000
95 − 75 𝜌 = 1.2 × 1000 B. C. 7.5 g. D. 4.8 g.
𝜌 = 1200𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
24 14. A tank 2m tall and base area of 2.5m2 is filled to the
R. D = brim with a liquid, which weighs 40000N. Calculate, the
20
R. D = 1.2 density of the liquid in kg/m3.
4000 4000
A. C.
2×2.5×10 2×2.5×10
Exercise:
1. A bottle full of water has a mass of 45g, when full of 40000 40000
ethanol, its massis36g. If the empty bottle weighs 20g, B. D.
2×2.5×10 2×25
calculate the density of ethanol.

2. Density bottle has a mass of 70g when empty, 90g when 1:3. SCALARS AND VECTORS
full of water and 94g when full of liquid.
Find the relative density of the liquid and its density. Physical quantities can be divided into two types namely:
i) Scalar quantity ii) Vector quantity
3. An empty 60-litre petrol tank weighs10kg. What will be
its mass when full of petrol of relative density 0.72? A scalar quantity is physical quantity which has magnitude
only.
4. A density bottle was used to measure the relative density Examples: Mass, volume, time, temperature distance,
of a liquid and the following results were obtained. pressure etc.
Mass of empty bottle : =30g
Mass of bottle full of water : =130g A vector quantity is a physical quantity which has both
Mass of bottle full of liquid : =110g magnitude and direction.
Calculate the density of the liquid. (=0.8gcm-3) Examples: Velocity, acceleration, force, momentum
displacement, Electric and magnetic field intensities.
5. An empty density bottle is 46.00g. When fully filled with
water, it weighs 96.00g. It weighs 86.00g when full of an Resultant Vector
unknown liquid. Find the density of the liquid. (=0.8gcm-3) A resultant vector is a single vector which produces the
6. A piece of aluminum weighs 80N in air and 50.37N when same effect on an object as two or more vectors acting on
completely immersed in water. Calculate the relative density the same body.
of aluminum. (=2.7) Moving from O to B along OB is the same as moving
through OA followed by AB. This shows that a single vector
7. Two solid cubes have the same mass but their surface OB produces the same effect as adding; ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OB = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OA + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB
areas are in the ratio of 1 : 16. What is the ratio of their
densities? In general the resultant force is calculated by adding all the
A. 1 : 2 B. 4 : 1 force. But when the forces are in opposite direction the
C. 64 : 1 D. 1 : 64 resultant force is calculated by subtracting.

9. A metal cuboid of dimensions 3 cm by 2 cm by 1 cm and Addition and subtraction of vectors

8.9 g cm-3 is completely immersed in a liquid of density 0.8 The addition of vector takes place so long as the directions
g cm-3. The mass of the liquid displaced is. are the same though the magnitude may differ.
A. 53.4 g. C. 29.1 g. The subtraction occurs when the directions are opposite.
B. 7.5 g. D. 4.8 g.
Example 1:
10. 0.002m3 of a liquid of density 800kgm-3 is mixed with A goat moves 13m west and continue moving west ward
0.003m3 of another liquid of density 1200kgm-3. What is the 5m. Find the resultant displacement of the got .
density of the mixture?
A. 1,000 kgm-3 B. 4,000 kgm-3 13m 5m
-3
C. 2,500 kgm D. 1,040 kgm-3 SH =13+5
=18m in the western direction
11. A bottle weighs 160 g when empty, 760 g when filled
with water, and 1 kg when filled with a certain liquid.
Calculate the volume of the liquid in bottle.

©bagiradnl@[Link] 10
Example 2: R = ±5N
Move 13m west and the move 5m east ∴The magnitude of the resultant
force is 5N
13m
5m Example 6
The figure below shows five forces acting on a 2.5kg mass.
SH =13-5
=8m in the western direction 9N

Example 3:
Three force of 3, 5N and 7N act on an object A as shown. 12N
Find single vector which can produce the same effect. 7N

3N 13N 8N
5N
7N Calculate the;
FH = (3+7) - 5 (i) resultant force on the mass
=5N towards the East (ii) direction of the resultant force
(iii) acceleration of the mass
Example 4
Three force of 3, 5N and 7N act on an object A as shown. Solution
Find single vector which can produce the same effect. (i) FH = (12 − 7)N = 5N →
FV = {(13 + 8)N − 9N} = 12N ↓
 Resultant Vector diagram
6N 3N
5N

θ
12N
15 R
N
FV =15- (6+3)
= 6N towards the South

Example 5  The magnitude of the resultant force

Two force of 3 and 4N act on an object as shown. Find Using the Pythogras theorem;
single force which can produce the same effect as the two (𝐇𝐲𝐩𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐮𝐬𝐞)𝟐 = (𝐁𝐚𝐬𝐞)𝟐 + (𝐇𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭)𝟐
forces above. (R)2 = (b)2 + (h)2
2 2
R = 5 + 122
2
R = 169
3N R = ±√169
R = ±13N
∴The magnitude of the resultant force is 13N
4N (ii)
Solution:  Direction of the resultant force
FH = 4N Direction of the From the Vector diagram;
resultant force Height
tan θ =
FV = 3N From the Vector Base
diagram; 12
tan θ =
Resultant Vector diagram Height 5
tan θ = 12
Base θ = tan−1 ( )
3 5
3N tan θ = θ =67.40
R 4
3 ∴The direction of the resultant force is 67.40 below the
θ = tan−1 ( ) horizontal (or below the 4N force)
4
θ θ =36.90
4N (iii)
∴The direction of the  Acceleration of the mass
Magnitude of the resultant force
resultant force is From F = ma
Using the Pythogras theorem;
36.90 above the 13 = 2.5a
(𝐇𝐲𝐩𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐮𝐬𝐞)𝟐 = (𝐁𝐚𝐬𝐞)𝟐 13 2.5
+ (𝐇𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭)𝟐 horizontal (or above the = a
2.5 2.5
2
(R) = (b) 2
+ (h)2 4N force) = a
2
R = 4 + 3 2 2 ∴ a = 0.48 ms −2
R2 = 25
R = ±√25 Example 7

©bagiradnl@[Link] 11
Two forces 6N and 8N act on 2kg body as shown. Calculate R = ±√169
(i) the resultant force (ii) the acceleration R = ±13N
∴The magnitude of the resultant force is 13N
6N
Example 8
300
A mass of 15kg is suspended using a string. The string is
8N
then pulled by a horizontal force F such that the string
Methode I: Using Graphical Method. makes an angle of 300 with the down ward vertical.
Procdures Calculate the;
 Choose a scale for the axes (i) Tension in the string.
 Draw the vectors at the given angle (ii) Horizontal force F.
 Complete the Parallelogram of vectors.
 Measure the length R of the diagonal Solution:
 Multiply R by the scale to get the resultant Vector.

Method II: Using the Cosine Rule.

300 T
300 T
F
6N R 15g

15kg
300 1500 300 F
W=mg=15g=15x10=150N
8N
2 2 2
a = b + c − 2bc cos θ The three forces are in equilibrium
R2 = 82 + 62 − 2(8)(6) cos 150 Step 1: forming a closed triangle
R2 = 64 + 36 − 104 cos 150 Step 2: resolving Vertically;
R2 = 100 − 104 cos 150 150 150
cos 30 = ⟺ T cos 30 = 150 ⟺ T = = 173.21N
R2 =190.07 T cos30
R = ±13.8 N Step 3: Resolving Horizontally
F
Method III: By Resolving the Forces Horizontally and Tan 30 = ⟺ 150 tan 30 = F ⟺ F = 86.6N
150
Vertically. OR
x F
sin 30 = ⟺ T sin 30 = F ⟺ F = 173sin30 = 86.6N
T
y
6N
600 Example 9
300 A block of mass 2kg is pulled along a rough horizontal
8N ground by a force of 120N, with the help of a string, which
makes an angle of 600 with the horizontal. If the friction
From the diagram; between the block and the ground is 50N, calculate the;
x (i) Resultant force on the block.
sin 60 =
6 (ii) Acceleration of the block.
x = 6 sin 60 = 6 × 0.8666 = N 120N
y
cos 60 =
6
y = 6 cos 60 = 6 × 0.5 = 3N
Then; 2kg 600
50N
FV = y = 3N
FH = x+8 = N
Solution
x

R 3N
y
120N
𝜃
300
N
600
Using the Pythogras theorem; 50N
𝟐 20N
(𝐇𝐲𝐩𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐮𝐬𝐞)𝟐 = (Ó𝐚𝐬𝐞) + (𝐇𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭)𝟐
(R)2 = (b)2 + (h)2 From the diagram;
2 2
R = 5 + 32 x
2 sin 30 =
R = 169 120

©bagiradnl@[Link] 12
 x = 120 sin 30 = 120 × 0.5 = 60N Weight of body = mass of body “m” (kg) x acceleration due
y to gravity, g. W = mg
cos 30 =
120 The S.I unit of weight is a newton “N” Weight of a body
y = 120 cos 30 = 120 × 0.8666 = 18.51N varies from place to place or from planet to planet.
Then;
FV = 18.51+ (-20) = -1.49 N Why weight of a body varies
FH = 60+ (-50) =10 N Weight of a body varies because of the following reasons:
10N
i) The shape of the earth is not a perfect sphere. so at the
θ equator the value of acceleration due to gravity is less than
that at the pole. This makes the weight of the body to be less
R
1.49N at the equator and greater at the poles.

ii) Planets have different accelerations due to gravity. A

body resting on the surface experience a reaction force R
Using the Pythogras theorem; from the surface which supports it.
(𝐇𝐲𝐩𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐮𝐬𝐞)𝟐 = (𝐁𝐚𝐬𝐞)𝟐 + (𝐇𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭)𝟐
(R)2 = (b)2 + (h)2
R 2
= 10 + 1.492
2 Normal Reaction, R
2
R = 102.2201
R = ±√102.2201
R = 10.11N
∴The magnitude of the resultant force is 10.11N

1:3:1. FORCES
A force is that which changes a body’s state of rest or Weight, W = mg
uniform motion in a straight line.
Or Differences between Mass and weight
-It is that which makes a body to accelerate. Mass Weight
-It is a push or a pull on a body.
i) S.I unit is kg SI unit is N
Force is a vector quantity. ii) Is a scalar quantity Is a vector quantity
The S.I unit is a newton, N.
iii) Is constant at all places Varies from place to place
Types of forces iv) Is a measure of quantity of Is force of gravity acting
There various types matter in a body on a body.
Gravitational force, weight, friction, upthrust force,
electrostatic force, elastic force, magnetic force, Centripetal
force, centrifugal force, Tensional force, compression force,
shear force etc. 1:3:1:2. FRICTION
Friction is the force which opposes motion.
Gravitational force It acts in the opposite direction to that of the force causing
The earth is surrounded by gravitational field which exerts a motion.
force on anybody in the field. Reaction,R

The strength of the gravitational field is the force acting on a Direction

Frictional
unit mass in the earth’s field. Experimental measurements of motion
force
show that on a unit mass on the earth’s surface, a mass of
1kg experiences a force of 0.9 N i.e. its weight is 9.8N so
the earth’s field strength “g” =9.8N/kg =10N/kg
Weight,W
1kg =10N
g = 10N/kg = 10m/s
Types of friction
Free fall is a vertical motion whose acceleration is due to These are:
gravity “g” = 10m/s2. The gravitational force is towards the a) Static friction b) Sliding or dynamic friction
centre of the earth and its magnitude on the body of mass c) Viscosity
“m” is given by mg.
a) Static Friction:
1:3:1:1WEIGHT Is friction which opposes motion between two surfaces in
Weight of a body is the force of gravity on the body. or The contact at rest.
gravitational force acting on a body. Or  It prevents motion.

Is the force a body exerts on anything which freely supports Experiment for measurement of static friction
it in the gravitational field.

©bagiradnl@[Link] 13
 Reaction,R Experiment for measurement of static friction

Direction
Frictional Reaction,R
of motion
force,F Direction
Added Frictional of motion
weights force,F
Weight,W Added
Scale weights
Pan
Weight,W
i) Adding weight on pan Scale
Know weights are added to the scale pan until the block Pan
moves with a uniform velocity. i) Adding weight on pan
Known weights are added to the scale pan and a small push
ii) The above will occur when weight of scale pan + weights is given each time until the block move with a uniform
on the pan (loads) = maximum friction, F. This maximum velocity.
friction is called limiting friction.
ii) The above will occur when weight of scale pan + weights
iii) Repeating on the pan (loads) = maximum friction, F. This maximum
The procedure is repeated by increasing weight of the block friction is called limiting friction.
“W” and obtaining the corresponding “F”
iii) Repeating
iv) Plotting a graph The procedure is repeated by increasing weight of the block
A graph of F against W (= normal reaction “R”) is plotted “W” and obtaining the corresponding frictional force F’.
.and its slope = coefficient of static friction 𝛍..
iv) Plotting a graph
F (N)
A graph of “F” against R is plotted and its slope =
∆𝐹 coefficient of sliding friction 𝛍..
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒, = =𝛍
∆𝑅
F (N)

∆𝐹
R (N) Slope, = =𝛍
∆𝑅
Frictional coefficient Normal
( )=( )×( )
force, F of friction, μ Reaction, R
F = μR R (N)

Thus Coefficient of static friction μ is the ratio of limiting c) Viscosity:

F
frictional force F to the normal reaction R. i.e μ = Is the opposition to the relative motion between layers of a
R
Note: Coefficient of friction μ has no units. fluid.

Advantages of friction
Example
i) It enables bodies to come to rest
Calculate the static friction when a body of mass 6kg rests
ii) It enables bodies to move without sliding
on a surface; given that coefficient of friction of surface is
iii) It helps in writing
0.5.
iv) It helps in making fire
Given: m= 6kg; μ = 0.5; g = 10ms-2
From; Frictional force, F = μR
Disadvantages of friction
But R = W = mg
i) causes unnecessary heat
= 6(10)
ii) reduces the efficiency of machines
R = 60N iii) Causes things like tyres, soles of shoes to wear
out.
Then From; F = μR iv) Causes parts of machines to break.
F = 0.5(60) v) Causes un necessary noise
F=
30N Reduction of friction
i) Lubrication using oil or grease
b) Sliding or kinetic or dynamic friction: ii) Using ball bearings or rollers
Is friction which opposes relative motion between two
surfaces in contact and in motion. Laws of friction
It is the force which opposes the motion of one surface -The limiting does not depend on the surface area in contact
moving with uniform velocity over another surface. but depends on the nature of the face contact.
 It slows down motion. -Frictional force is not affected by velocity with which a
body moves for sliding friction.

©bagiradnl@[Link] 14
-Friction always opposes motion
-Limiting friction is proportional to normal reaction which is 1:4. PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER
equal and opposite to the weight of the body.
-Friction always increases from zero to maximum value MATTER:
called limiting friction. Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight.

States of matter:
Exercise There are three states of matter namely:
1. Two forces of 7N and 9N act perpendicularly on a body  Solids → e.g stone, ice, e.t.c
of mass 2kg. Find the acceleration of the body.  Liquids → e.g water, paraffin, e.t.c
 Gases → e.g oxygen, nitrogen, e.t.c
2. A man starts from point A and walks a distance of 20m
due north and then 15m due east. Find his new position Property Solids Liquids Gases
relative to A. 1. Closely Fairly closely Far apart
Arrangeme packed in packed in from each
3. A parachutist falling with a constant velocity of 16 ms-1 nt of regular pattern regular other.
is blown by wind horizontally at 12 ms-1. molecules. called lattice pattern
(i) Find the resultant velocity of the parachutist.
(ii) If the parachutist jumps from a height of 500m directly
above a ground target, find the horizontal distance by which
the parachutist will miss the target on landing. [Link] Strong Weak Very
cular weak
4. forces.
UNEB 1999 Qn. 7 UNEB 1987 Qn. 23 3. Motion Vibrate within Vibrate with Move
UNEB 2003 Qn. 2 , 27, 41 UNEB 1988 Qn. 23 of the fixed position greater randomly
UNEB 2005 Qn. 12 UNEB 1991 Qn. 24 molecules. amplitude throughou
UNEB 1998 Qn. 2, Qn 18 UNEB 1992 Qn. 34 t the
and Qn. 1 Section B container,
UNEB 2007 Qn. 1, 3 and at greater
Qn11 speed
Friction: [Link] Have definite No definite No
UNEB 1997 Qn. 1, 27, and Qn. 1 Section B shape shape. definite
UNEB 1994 Qn. Take shape of shape.
container
[Link] of Very low in Low High
diffusion some solids
[Link] Incompressible Incompressibl Compressi
ibility e ble
Note:
 Solids and liquids are incompressible, meaning that
their volumes cannot be reduced by squeezing
them.
 Gases are compressible because of the large spaces
between their molecules.

Change of state
 Heating of matter
When a solid is heated, it changes to a liquid at constant
temperature called melting point. The process is called
melting or fusion.
When the liquid formed is heated further, the liquid changes
to vapour at constant temperature called boiling point. The
process is called boiling or evaporation.

 Cooling of matter
When a gas or vapour is cooled, it condenses to a liquid at
constant temperature called freezing point. The process is
called condensation or liquefying.
When the liquid formed is cooled further, it changes to a
solid at constant temperature called freezing point. The
process is called freezing or solidifying.

©bagiradnl@[Link] 15
  When the temperature of the smoke cell is increased,
Evaporating
Melting smoke particles are seen moving faster and when it is
Solid Liquid Gas reduced, they are seen moving slowly.
 Increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of
Freezing Condensing the molecules, hence they move faster than before.
 Decrease in temperature decreases the kinetic energy of
Kinetic Theory of matter the molecules, hence they move slowly.
The kinetic theory of matter states that:
 Matter is made up of small particles called molecules or (ii) Size and density of the particles
atoms that are in a state of constant random motion.  When the size of the particles is increased, Brownian
 The speed of motion of the particles is directly motion is reduced and when the size of particles is
proportional to the temperature. reduced, Brownian motion increases.

The kinetic theory of matter can be proved by using: DIFFUSION

(i) Brownian motion Diffusion is the spreading (or flow) of molecules a
(ii) Diffusion substance from a region of high concentration to a region of
low concentration.
BROWNIAN MOTION
Brownian motion is the constant random (or haphazard) Diffusion in liquids:
movement of tiny particles in fluids. Experiment to show diffusion in liquids

Experiment to demonstrate Brownian motion Drinking straw or

Experiment 1: Using Pollen grains. Thistle funnel
 When pollen grains molecules are dropped in water or
suspended in water and observed through a microscope, Glass trough
 The molecules will be seen making irregular
movements in random directions.
 This shows that particles of matter are ever in a state of Water
constant random motion.
Potassium
permanganate
Experiment 2: Using Smoke particles in air. crystal
Procedures:

Microscope  Water is placed in a clean glass trough

 A crystal of potassium permanganate is then introduced
Glass slide at the bottom using a drinking straw.

Air molecules Observation:

(Invisible)  The purple crystal of potassium permanganate dissolves
and spreads throughout the water forming a purple
Glass solution.
cell
Glass rod (lens) Conclusion:
Pollen grain or smoke  This means that potassium permanganate has diffused
Source of light (lamp) particle (Visible) through the water in the glass trough.

 Smoke is placed in a glass cell and the glass cell Diffusion in gasses:
illuminated with light from one side. Experiment to show diffusion in gases
 The smoke particles are then observed from above
using a microscope. 1m long glass tube

Observation:
 White specks of smoke particles will be seen moving in
a constant random motion.
Cotton wool
 This shows that particles of matter are ever in a state of Cotton wool White fumes
constant random motion. soaked in aqueous of ammonium Soaked in
ammonia chloride gas Concentrated
Explanation: HCl acid
The constant random motion is due to un even collision (or Procedures:
bombardment) of the invisible air molecules with the visible  Cotton wool soaked in aqueous ammonia is placed at
pollen grains or smoke particles. one end and another cotton wool soaked in concentrated
hydrochloric acid is placed at the other end of a glass
Factors that affect Brownian motion tube of about 1m long.
(i) Temperature

©bagiradnl@[Link] 16
Observation:
 White fumes of ammonium chloride forms inside the PROPERTIES OF MATTER
tube near the end with cotton wool soaked in HCl acid. (a) MOLECULAR PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Molecular properties of matter are based on the behavior of
Conclusion: the molecules. These are observed in the following;
 This means that: (i) Diffusion
(i) The gases have diffused through the air in the tube. (ii) Molecular forces
(ii) Ammonia diffuses faster than Hydrogen chloride. (iii) Capillarity
(iv) Surface tension
Note: Alternatively; (v) Elasticity
An air molecule tube is inverted over brown nitrogen
dioxide molecules tube. Molecular forces:
Observation: the brown colour spreads into the upper tube at Intermolecular forces are forces of attraction or repulsion
the same time the air molecules spread into the lower tube. between molecules of matter. The molecules may be of the
same substance or of different substance.
Experiment II: to show diffusion in gases Types of molecular forces

 Cohesion (or Cohesive) force

Hydrogen Cohesion is the force of attraction between molecules of the
gas same kind or same substance.
E.g Forces between water molecules themselves, forces
between mercury molecules themselves e.t.c.

Porous pot Water  Adhesion (or Adhesive) force

Air Adhesion is the force of attraction between molecules of
different kinds or different substances.
E.g Forces between water molecules and glass molecules,
forces between mercury molecules and glass molecules,
Manometer forces between water molecules and mercury molecules,
e.t.c.
 Connect a water manometer to a porous pot containing
air. NOTE: The magnitude of the cohesion and adhesion forces
 Pass hydrogen into the air enclosed in the porous determines the:
material as shown in the diagram above.  Shape of liquid meniscus in contact with a solid
 The water level in the left arm of the manometer falls  Ability of the liquid to wet a substance
while that in the right arm rises.  Rise or fall in a capillary tube.
 The hydrogen molecules diffuse through the porous
material into the air. This increases the pressure in the When cohesion is greater than adhesion forces, e.g mercury
porous pot, which then acts on the water surface in the and glass, then the liquid;
left arm of the manometer, thus pushing the water level (i) Does not wet glass
down wards. (ii) Forms spherical balls when spilled on a glass
surface
Factors that determine the rate of diffusion (iii) Depresses in a capillary tube
(i) Size of diffusing molecules (iv) Meniscus curves downwards.
Smaller molecules diffuse faster than larger molecules. This Mercury droplets
is because larger molecules occupy large space than small
ones. Glass

(ii) Temperature
The rate of diffusion is directly proportional to temperature. When adhesion is greater than cohesion forces, e.g water
and glass, then the liquid;
(iii) Pressure (i) Wets glass
The rate of diffusion is directly proportional to pressure. (ii) Spreads when spilled on a glass surface
This is because at a higher pressure, gas molecules are (iii) Rises in a capillary tube
squeezed, move faster and collide frequently than at low (iv) Meniscus curves upwards
pressure.
Water drop
(iv) Molecular weight Glass
Lighter molecules diffuse faster than massive molecules.
The speed of diffusion in a gas depends on the speed of
molecules in that; lighter molecules diffuse at greater rate Water spreads on the glass surface due to greater adhesion
e.g. the rate of diffusion of hydrogen gas is faster than that forces between glass and water molecules than the cohesion
of carbon dioxide because the molecules of hydrogen move forces between water molecules themselves hence wetting
at a higher speed since they are lighter than the molecules of the glass.
carbon dioxide.
©bagiradnl@[Link] 17
 CAPILLARITY: Uses of capillarity
Capillarity is the elevation (or rise) or depression (or fall) of  It helps paraffin (fuel) to rise up in wicks of stoves
a liquid a narrow porous medium e.g tube. and lamps.
Capillary action depends on cohesion and adhesion forces.  It helps water to move up tree-trunks to the leaves
 It helps blotting papers to absorb liquids
(i) When adhesion is greater than cohesion forces, e.g NOTE:
water and glass, then :  All the above uses are possible because of greater
 the liquid rises in the capillary tube adhesion forces than cohesion forces between
 the meniscus curves upwards (concave); molecules of the two substances. (i.e Fuel and wick,
 The liquid wets glass water and tree-trunk, liquid and blotting paper
respectively). Thus, the wet part of the solid goes on
Capillary tube increasing upwards.
 Damp proof material e.g polythene is put in the
foundation course of a building to stop capillary action.
Meniscus
This is because bricks, plaster and mortar are porous, so
(Curves upwards)
water can rise up through the narrow pores and weaken
the wall.

Liquid SURFACE TENSION:

(E.g. water) Surface tension is the force acting normally on a one-metre
length of a line drawn on the surface of a liquid. Its S.I unit
is Nm−1 .
(ii) When cohesion is greater than adhesion forces, e.g
Surface tension enables the surface of a liquid to behave like
mercury and glass, then the :
a stretched elastic skin (or membrane).
 liquid falls (or depresses) in the capillary tube It is due to cohesion forces between the liquid molecules.
 the meniscus curves downwards (convex);
 the liquid forms spherical balls when spilled on a Surface tension is the force on the liquid surface that causes
surface it to behave as if it is covered with a thin elastic membrane.
 does not wet glass
Molecular explanation of surface tension:
Capillary tube Unbalanced
surface molecule
Meniscus Liquid
(Curves downwards) surface

Liquid
(E.g. mercury) Resultant
inward force Balanced inner molecule
According to Kinetic theory surface tension is explain as
Effect of size or diameter of the capillary tube on capillarity follow:-
Smaller Molecules on the surface experience a net down word
Capillary tubes force on them and surface of the liquid thus tends to
contract and acquire a state of tension.
Larger  A molecule inside the surface of the liquid is
Capillary tube surrounded by equal number of molecules on all sides.
The intermolecular forces between it and the
surrounding molecules is zero.
Mercury  A molecule on the surface has very few molecules on
the upper side compared to those bellow the liquid
surface.
Water  Thus if this molecule is displaced upwards, a resultant
attractive force due to the large number of molecules
bellow the liquid surface has to be overcome.
 This force is trying to pull the molecule out of the
 Water rises higher in a capillary tube of smaller surface into the bulk. It is trying to make the surface
diameter than the one of a larger diameter. smaller, hence surface tension.
 Mercury depresses deeper in a capillary tube of
smaller diameter than the one of a larger diameter.

©bagiradnl@[Link] 18
Experiment to demonstrate existence of Surface tension  The thickness or size of the oil film is estimated from:
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐢𝐥 𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐩
Thickness of oil drop; t =
𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐢𝐥 𝐩𝐚𝐭𝐜𝐡

𝐕𝐨𝐢𝐥 𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐩
t=
𝐀𝐩𝐚𝐭𝐜𝐡
NOTE:
It is a common procedure to;
 Dissolve a known volume of a solute (e.g cooking oil or
Procedures: oleic acid) V1 in a known volume of a solvent (e.g
 A clean beaker is filled with water. Petroleum, alcohol or ether) V2 to form a solute-solvent
 A blotting paper is placed on the surface of the water. solution.
 A pin or needle is gently placed on the blotting papper  Then a known volume, V3 of the solute-solvent solution
and observed. is dropped onto the water surface covered with
lycopodium powder.
Observation:  The solvent in the drop either dissolves in water or
 After some few minutes, the blotting paper absorbs evaporates and the solute (oil) spreads forming a
water and sinks to the bottom. cylindrical oil film with a circular patch, whose
 The needle remains floating on the water surface. diameter ‘’d’’ is measured.
 The thickness or size of the oil film is estimated from:
Conclusion:
 The needle is held by surface tension. 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐢𝐥 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞
Volume of cylindrical film = ( )
𝐬𝐩𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐩
Effects of surface tension Area of Patch × Thickness (t) = Volume of oil
(i) A needle (pin) floats on water surface.
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐢𝐥 𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐩
(ii) Tents keep water, umbrellas and raincoats keep water Thickness of oil drop; t =
off due to surface tension. 𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐢𝐥 𝐩𝐚𝐭𝐜𝐡
(iii) Insects e.g pond skater can walk across a water surface.
(iv) Water drops from a tap form spherical shapes. This is However, the volume of the oil in the solution which forms
because; a free falling drop will take the shape that has the oil film is calculated as follows:
the least (minimum) area. (V1+V2) of solution =(contains) (V1) of solute or oil

Factors affecting surface tension (V3) of solution dropped V

(i) Temperature: Increase in temperature (or heating a =(contains) (volume of oil in drop)
liquid) weakens or reduces surface tension. (V1 + V2 ) × V = V3 × V1
(ii) Impurities: Impurities such as detergents, soap solution,
alcohol e.t.c reduce surface tension. V1 V3
V=
(V1 + V2 )
Estimating the thickness (or Size) of an oil molecule: 𝐕𝟏 𝐕𝟑
Volume of oil in drop , 𝐕 =
A drop of oil is able to spread into a thin film of a large area (𝐕𝟏 +𝐕𝟐 )

when placed on a clean water surface. This is because the

end of the oil molecule has greater adhesion forces than Assumption
cohesion forces for neighboring molecules. (i) All the solvent has evaporated or dissolved in water.
The size of an oil molecule is too small to be accurately (ii) The oil patch is circular.
measured. Its approximate size can only be estimated using (ii) The oil film or molecule formed is cylindrical.
an experiment. (iii) The oil film formed is one molecule thick. (i.e the
spaces between the molecules in the oil film are assumed to
Experiment to estimate the size of an oil molecule be negligible).
. (iii) The oil drop is spherical.
(iv) Volume of cylindrical film=Volume of oil in spherical drop

NOTE:
The water surface should be sprinkled with lycopodium
powder so that:
(i) The film becomes stationary.
(ii) A clear circular patch for measuring diameter is formed.

Example 1:
A solution is made by dissolving 1cm3 of cooking oil in
 Fill a clean trough with clean water and sprinkle 1999cm3 of methanol. When 0.004 cm3 of the solution is
lycopodium powder on the surface of the water. dropped on the surface of water, an oil film of diameter
 Drop a known volume, Vo of the oil onto the water 12cm is obtained.
surface covered with lycopodium powder. (i) Calculate the volume of cooking oil in the film.
 The oil spreads forming a cylindrical oil film with a (ii) Estimate the thickness of a molecule of cooking oil.
circular patch, whose diameter ‘’d’’ is measured.
©bagiradnl@[Link] 19
(iii) State any two assumptions made in (i) above. An oil drop of volume 1x10-9 m3 spreads on a water surface
Solution: to form a patch of area 5x10-2 m2. If the patch is one
Volume of solute or oil, (V1) = 1cm3 molecule thick, find the approximate number of molecules
Volume of solvent (methanol), (V2) = 1999cm3 in the drop.
Volume of solution dropped, (V3) = 0.004cm3
Volume of solute or oil, in V3 = V Solution:
Volume of oil in drop , V = 1x10−9 m3
V1 V3 1×(0.004)
Volume of oil in drop , V = = Area of oil patch, A = πR2
(V1 +V2 ) (1+1999)
A = 5 × 10−2 m2
0.004
V= Then, from A × t = V
(2000) (5 × 10−2 m2 ) × t =1x10−9 m3
1x10−9 m3
Volume of oil in drop , V = 0.000002 cm3 t=
5×10−2 m2
t = 2 × 10−8 m
Alternatively:
Volumes NOTE: Remember the oil drop is spherical thus its radius, r
𝑡
Volume of Solution Volume of Oil is equal to half the thickness, of the oil film.
2
2000 cm3 1 cm3 Thus the radius of the spherical oil drop, r is given by;,
0.004 cm3 V t 2×10-8
r= = = 1×10-8 m
2 2
2000V = 1 × 0.004 If n is the number of molecules in the oil drop, then
V = 0.000002 cm3 𝑡
n (volume of sphere of radius, ) =(volume of oil drop)
2
4
Area of oil patch, = 𝜋𝑅2 𝑛 ( π𝑟 3 ) = 1x10−9
3
12 4
= 𝜋( )2 𝑛 { × 3.14 × ( 1 × 10−8 )3 } = 1x10−9
3
2
= 3.14 × 36
Area of oil patch, 𝐴 = 113.097cm2 𝑛(4.189 × 10−24 ) = 1x10−9
1 x 10−9
𝑛=
4.189×10−24

Volume of oil drop 𝑛 =2.39 x 1014 molecules.

Thickness of oil drop; t =
Area of oil patch
Exercise
0.000002 1. In an experiment to estimate the size of an oil molecule,
t=
113.097 a volume of 0.12cm3 was placed on a clean surface and
Thickness of oil drop; t = 1.76 × 10−8 cm spread into a patch of area 0.0006cm2. Calculate the
size of the oil molecule. (𝐴𝑛𝑠:t =200 cm).
Example 2:
In an oil film, experiment to estimate the size of a molecule 2. When 0.002 cm3 of oil was dropped on the surface of
0.005cm3 of oleic acid was dropped on lycopodium powder water, an oil film of diameter 6.0cm was formed.
on a water surface. The mean diameter of the acid was 5cm. Calculate the thickness of the film.
Calculate the thickness of a molecule of oleic acid. (𝐴𝑛𝑠:t =7.08 × 10−5 cm).

Solution: 3. The volume of 100 drops of certain oil is 1.0cm3. One

Volume of solute or oleic acid, (V1) = 0.005cm3 such drop was placed on a water surface and it spread
Volume of oil in drop , V = 0.005 cm3 into a circular patch of average diameter 50cm. What is
the size of the oil molecule?
Area of oil patch, = πR2 (𝐴𝑛𝑠:t =5.09 × 10−6 cm).
5
= π( )2
2 4. If 1.8x10-4cm3 oil spreads to form a patch of area 150
= 3.14 × 6.25 cm2. Determine the thickness of the patch.
Area of oil patch, A= 19.63cm2 (𝐴𝑛𝑠: t =1.2 × 10−6 cm).

Then, from A × t = V 5. A drop of oil of diameter 0.5mm becomes a circular

Volume of oil drop(V) film of oil of diameter 30cm.
Thickness of oil drop; t =
Area of oil patch(A) (i) Find the thickness of the oil film.
(𝐴𝑛𝑠:t =9.2 × 10−10 m).
0.005
t= (ii) Calculate the number of molecules in the oil
19.63
Thickness of oil drop; t = 2.55 × 10−4 cm drop. (𝐴𝑛𝑠:n =1.6 × 1017 molecules).

Example 3:

©bagiradnl@[Link] 20
6. 1cm3 of oleic acid was dissolved in 99 cm3 of alcohol to Stiffness (toughness): Is the ability of a material to resist
form 100 cm3 of solution. A 1-cm3 drop of the solution bending or to resist forces, which try to change its shape or
was put on a water surface sprinkled with lycopodium size so that it is not flexible. A material which is more stiff
powder. The alcohol dissolved in water leaving the acid always needs a large force in order to bend e.g. wood is
which spread to form a patch of diameter 14 cm3. more stiff than rubber.
(i) Explain why lycopodium powder was used
(ii) Calculate the volume of the acid in the 1-cm3 Ductility: Is the ability of a material to deform when a force
drop of the solution. is applied.
(iii) Estimate the size of oleic acid molecule. Is the ability of a material to be
changed/rolled/hammered/pressed/bent or stretched into
7. In an experiment to determine the thickness of an oil other shapes with out breaking.
molecules the following were done; Ductile materials can be hammered, bent or drawn into
 1cm3 of oil was dissolved in 99cm3 of ether and various shapes with out breaking.
1cm3 of the solution was diluted to 200cm3 A Ductile material is one, which stretches elastically then
 0.4 cm3 of the dilute solution was dropped onto the plastically before it breaks when tensile force acts on it
surface of water.
 The diameter of film formed was found to be 7cm. Examples;
from the above. Calculate the thickness of the oil  Wet clay, plasticine, Metals, steel, e.t.c.
molecules. (𝐴𝑛𝑠:t =5.19 × 10−7 cm).
Properties of ductile material.
8. A solution was made by dissolving 1cm3 of cooking oil i) can be molded into any shape.
in 199cm3 of methanol. When 0.004cm3 of the solution ii) can be bent without breaking. Because of the above
was dropped onto the water surface, an oil film of properties of ductile materials, they can be rolled into sheets
diameter 12cm was obtained. Find the thickness of the drawn into wires or worked into other useful shapes without
oil molecule. breaking.

9. See UNEB Brittleness: Is the ability of a material to break suddenly

1987 Qn.36 and Qn.7 1987 Qn.2 without bending.
1997 Qn.13 2001 Qn.43 A brittle material is one, which bends very little, then
1999 Qn.13 2003 Qn.3 suddenly cracks without undergoing plastic deformation.
2006 Qn.19 2005 Qn.49 When a brittle material breaks, its pieces fit together almost
1992 Qn.31 1993 Qn.7 exactly and can be glued back.
2007 Qn.25 2002 Qn.45
Properties of brittle material
i) Can bend very little and suddenly break without
(b) MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF undergoing plactic deformation.
MATTER ii) Cannot be molded into any shape.

Mechanical properties of matter are the behavior of matter Examples;

under action of an external force.  Glass, chalk, stones, concrete, cast iron bricks, alloys
like brass, and bronze.
Materials are things used in the construction of structures
like buildings bridges, dams, etc. Before a material is put to Elasticity: Is the ability of a material to recover its original
use the following mechanical properties should be shape and size after a deformation force has been removed.
considered; strength, stiffness, ductility, brittleness and
elasticity. The material stretches due to the particle being pulled
further apart from one another.
Strength: It is the ability of a material to resist forces that A material, which does not recover its original shape and
want to deform it. size but is deformed permanently, is plastic.
Is the ability of a material to resist breaking when stretched,
compressed or sheared. Examples;
Force  Rubber, steel, e.t.c.
Braking stress =
Cross − sectional area
Hooke’s law:
The strength depends on Hook’s law states that the extension of a material is directly
i) Dimensions of the material, in that a large force is applied proportional to the applied force provided the elastic limit is
in order to bend a material of large diameter. not exceeded.
i.e. the material returns to its original length when the
ii) Nature of the substance stretching force is removed, provide the elastic limit is not
Materials of same size but of different substance require exceed
different force to be broken. E.g. a large force is applied to a
steel rod compared to a piece of wood of the same size. In short:𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 ∝ 𝐞𝐱𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 = 𝐤(𝐞𝐱𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧)
iii) Magnitude of force applied 𝐅 = 𝐤𝐞

©bagiradnl@[Link] 21
Where k is the proportionality constant or material constant
in Nm-1, Where, F is the stretching force in newtons and e is
the extension in metres. Experiment to verify Hook’s law.
Extension, e = New length − Original length
𝒆 = 𝒍𝒏 − 𝒍𝒐 .
- Metre rule
It is also important to note that; -
F1 F2 F 1 e1
= Or = -
e1 e2 F 2 e2 -
Where F1 is stretching force producing extension e1 and -
F2 is stretching force producing extension e2 on the same -
material. -
-
Example1: - Spring
A spring is stretched by 0.05m by a weight of 5N hung from -
one end. - Pointer
(i) What weight will stretch it by 0.03m? -
(ii) Determine the spring constant. 50g -

Solution:
Given;e1 =0.05m,e2 =0.03m, k=?, F1 =5N, F2 =?.

Then from; 5
F1 F2 F2 = × 0.03  Original length of the spring lo is noted.
= 0.05
e1 e2  Then various loads are suspended on the spring and the
F2 = 3N corresponding new length, ln of spring for each is noted.
5 F2  The extension, e produced is calculated from;
= Extension, 𝒆 = 𝒍𝒏 − 𝒍𝒐
0.05 0.03
 The readings are noted in a table below.
Load(N) 𝒍𝒏 (m) e(m)
- - -
Example 2:
- - -
A spring increases its length from 20 cm to 25cm when a
force is applied. If the spring is constant is 100N/m.
Calculate the force.  A graph of load against extension is drawn, and a
straight-line graph is obtained whose slope is equal to
Solution: the spring constant.
Given;lo =20cm,ln =25cm, k=100Nm-1 .

𝑒 = 𝑙𝑛 − 𝑙𝑜 . From Hooke’s law; Load (N)

e = 25 − 20 F = ke
e = 5cm F = 100(0.05) Slope, = spring
5 F = 5N
e= = 0.05m Constant, k
100

Exercise:
1. A vertical spring of length 30 cm is stretched to 36 cm
when an object of mass 100g is place in the pan O Extension (m)
attached to it. The spring is stretched to 40 cm when a
mass of 200g is placed in the pan. Find the mass of the
 Thus, the load is directly proportional to the extension
pan.
“e”. This verifies Hooke’s law.
2. A force of 500N extends a wire by 2mm. If the force is
A graph of load against extension
reduced by a half, what will be the new length of the
wire, if the original length is 10cm.

3. A spring constant of natural length 8.0 × 10−2 m

extends by 2.5 × 10−2 mm when a weight of 10N is
suspended on it.
(i) Find the spring constant.
(ii) Determine the extension when a weight of 15N
is suspended on the spring

©bagiradnl@[Link] 22
 stress F 𝑙𝑜
Young's modulus= =
strain 𝐴𝑒
Note: This holds only when the elastic limit of a material is
Load (N) D not exceeded.
B E
A Example 3:
A wire of cross section area 3m2 increases in length from
C 20cm to 25cm, when a force of 5N is applied. Calculate the;
(i) tensile strain.
(ii) tensile stress
(iii) Young’s modulus.
A = Proportionality
O limit
P Extension (m)
B = Elastic limit
C = Yield point (minimum stress) Solution:
D = Hecking point (maximum stress) (i) Given;lo =20cm,ln =25cm, F=5N, A = 3𝑚2
E = Breaking point 𝑒 = 𝑙𝑛 − 𝑙𝑜 ⟺ e = (25 − 20) = 5cm
OP = Permanent deformation 5
e= = 0.05m
100
Explanation (i)
Along OB, the load is proportional to extension in that the e (iii)
Tensile train=
extension increases as the load increases. 𝑙𝑜 stress
Point “B” is called elastic limit. Young's modulus=
strain
5
Tensile train= = 0.25 1.67
Beyond B (elastic limit), the graph is not a straight line 20 Young's modulus=
meaning that extension is no longer proportional to the load. (ii) 0.25
The material becomes plastic. This is indicated by a kink at F
C, which is called yield point. Tensile stress= Young's modulus=6.67Nm-2
A
5
Beyond C, the material behaves plastically. i.e. it does not Tensile stress=
3
regain its shape and size. Therefore, it undergoes plastic Tensile stress=1.67Nm-2
deformation. This goes on to the breaking point E.
Example 4:
Point D represents the maximum stress (Breaking stress) the Calculate the tensile stress when a force of 25N acts on a
material can withstand fracturing. wire of cross sectional area 5m2.

Explanation of sketch of load against extension Given; A = 5m2, F = 25N

according to kinetic theory
OB the molecules are pulled slightly farther apart but can F
move back to original position when stretching force is Tensile stress =
A
removed. The deformation is called elastic.
25
Beyond C, layers of atoms slip over each other. The Tensile stress=
5
molecule move farther apart but cannot move back to Tensile stress=5Nm−2
original position when stretching force is removed.
Question:
Tensile stress, Tensile strain and Young’s modulus. A metallic solid of mass 45kg rests on a copper rod of cross
sectional area 0.5 cm2 standing vertically as shown below,
Tensile stress:
Is the force acting per cross section area of a material. Its S.I
unit is Nm-2 or Pa.
Force F
Stress= =
Cross section area A

Tensile strain:
Is the ratio of extension to original length of a material. It
has no units.
Extension e
Strain= =
Original length 𝑙𝑜 Calculate the stress in the rod.
A. 9.0 × 102 Nm−2 B. 9.0 × 105 Nm−2
Young’s modulus: C. 9.0 × 106 Nm−2 D. 9.0 × 108 Nm−2
This is the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain.
It is the gradient of the straight line in the elastic region. Its
S.I unit is Nm-2 or Pa.

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CRYSTALS: Some of the common metals are; copper, Zinc, Lead, Tin,
Crystals have hard, flat sides and straight edges. Crystals of Nickel, Chromium. e.t.c
the same substance have the same shape. This will be
observed when salt crystals grow as water evaporates from (b) Alloys:
the salt solution on glass slide as seen through a microscope. Alloys are made by mixing one metal with one or more
other metals and in some cases non metals.
This fact suggests that crystals are made of small particles
called atoms or molecules arranged in orderly way in plates.  Steel alloys. Steel is an alloy of Iron and carbon. Iron is
Metals consist of tiny crystals. alloyed with a variety of the other materials like:-

Tensile, shear and compression force. Examples of steel

(i) Compression force  Mild steel (Iron and carbon) used in making cars, ships
Compression is when the force acts as in the diagram below. etc.
This results in the particles to be pressed more closely  Stainless steel has high corrosion resistance due to its
together. So the length of the material decreases but the composition of chromium and nickel. It is used in
thickness of the material increase. making knives, watch casing etc.
Compressional  Lead and sulphur steel. It is used in the making of
compressional screws because it is easy to cut.
Force, F Force, F
 Duralium is an alloy of aluminium and is used in the
making of aircrafts because of its lightness and strength.
(ii) Tensile force
Tensile force is when the force acts as in the diagram below.  Nickel-Chromium alloys
This result in the particle of the material to be pulled further i) Have good resistance to corrosion
apart from one another. So tensile forces increase the length ii) The electrical conductivity is independent of
of the material but its thickness decreases. temperature
iii) Have a high melting point.
Tensional Tensional
For these properties, nickel-chromium alloys are useful for
Force, F Force, F
making elements of electrical heaters.

Differences between tensile and compression force.  Invar: is a nickel-iron alloy with low expansivity. It can
Tensile force Compression force be used to make accurate measuring tape and parts of
i) Particles are pulled i) Particles are pulled close watches.
further apart together  Brass: Is copper-zinc alloy? It is ductile and with high
ii) Length of the material ii) Length of material tensile strength. It is used in stamping, pressing or
increases decreases drawing. It is used in the making plumbing fittings.
iii) Thickness of the iii) Thickness of the material
material decreases increases  Bronze: Is an alloy of copper and tin is harder and
stronger than brass. It is useful in ornamental work.
(iii) Shear force
Shear force is the force needed to fracture the material in a (c) Stony materials
direction parallel to the applied force in that one section (or  Bricks: Are made by moulding a mixture of clay and
layer) of the material slides over its neighbour. water and beating the mixture strongly.
A shear is produced when two equal but opposite forces are  Concrete: A concrete is a stony material which is a
applied to a body. The effect depends on the turning effect mixture of cement, sand gravel and water. This is left to
or movement of the force. harden in desired form.

Properties of concrete which makes it a suitable building

material
F i) It is resistant to weather
F ii) It is resistant to compression
Body after iii) It is very durable
Application Body after application iv) It is resistant to fire
Of shear force Of shear force
Concrete can be primarily subjected to compression like
Important materials used for construction. column and arches because it compression strength is high.
(a) Metals: However, concrete is relatively brittle material whose tensile
Large varieties of metals are available from which different strength is small compared to its compressional strength.
alloys or combinations of these metals are made into various This makes concrete unsuitable for use in structure
shapes. Metal can be rolled, pressed, and drawn, and are membranes which are subjected to tension like tie rods,
usually strong, rigid and elastic. beam.

©bagiradnl@[Link] 24
In order to overcome the limitation of low tensile strength, BEAMS AND STRUCTURES
steel (with high tensile strength) is interlocked and A beam is a large and long straight piece of materials with
completely surrounded by hardened concrete mass to form uniform cross-sectional area.
integral part of the membranes called reinforced concrete.
A girder is a small piece of material used to strengthen a
Reinforced concrete is a combination of steel rods, Cement, beam.
sand, gravel and water.
A beam is the simplest but one of the most important
Concrete is reinforced by interlocking and surrounding the structures. When a beam bends, one side is compressed, the
steel rods with the hardened concrete mass. other is stretched (tensile) and the centre is unstretched
neutral plane.
Advantages of reinforced concrete. B C
i) It has high compressive strength
ii) It has high tensile strength O A
iii) It has much greater ductility D E
iv) It is tough
Above is the diagram of rubber marked with lines as shown.
v) It is weather and fire resistant
When the rubber is bent as shown below,
However, the disadvantage of concrete is its volume
instability caused by shrinkage of concrete, which results in Tensional Force.
cracks.

The cracks can be filled with mixture of special tar, sand,

cement and water. B C
O A
Cement Mortar: Cement mortar is composed of sand,
cement mixed with water and left to harden. D E
Neutral Compressional
axis. Force
Reinforcement: sisal-fibre, bamboo stripes, wood strands are
also used in reinforcing concrete and cement mortars.
The lines above OA move further apart. Showing that the
The reinforcing improves on tensive strength and weather above parts are in tension.
resistance of the materials.
The lines below OA move closer showing that the below
Glass: Glass can be melted and formed into various shapes. part are in compression.

Advantages of glass which makes it useful as construction Along OA the lines are at the same distance apart as before
material. implying neutral axis.
i) It is transparent
ii) Its surface quite harder From above it can be noted that materials from neutral plane
iii) Very few chemicals react with glass. can withstand compression and tensile force due to loading.
iv) Can be melted and formed into various desired
shapes.
Flange
Safety glass: Is used motor vehicle windscreen safely glass
is made by heating plate glass cooling the two surfaces in a
stream of air. Hollow
Section Pipe
These contract and compress the glass in the middle H or I - beam
resulting a very strong glass which when hit hard enough The top and bottom flanges have the shape shown.
breaks into small fragment that are less dangerous than large
pieces. Because they are beams that have had material removed
from the neutral plane, so can with stand compression and
Wood: Wood is a poor conductor of both heat and tensile forces due to loading.
electricity.
The hardness and strength of wood varies from one sample In general, pipes for construction of structures like bicycles,
to another. bridges are made hollow for the following advantages.
 They are beams that have had materials removed
Thin sheets of wood are glued together to form a laminate
from the neutral plane so can withstand tensile and
(plywood) which is stronger than solid wood of the same
compression forces.
thickness.
 Notches cannot spread easily hence less risk of
breaking.
 Less material is used for construction
 The finished structure is lighter
©bagiradnl@[Link] 25
  Provide room for expansion and contraction. STRUCTURES:
A structure is rigid meaning that it can support weight.
The Notch effect:
Cracks and fractures: Triangular structures are more rigid than others. So a
A notch is a cut or weak point in the surface of a material. rectangular structure can be made rigid by adding a diagonal
piece so that the rectangular change into two a triangular
When a notch is made in the reinforcing material, the fibres, structure, which are more rigid. This is why doors, water
stripes and strands in the length of concrete or mortar are tanks and roofing tuffs are made with triangular shapes.
broken down.
This result in such materials to fail to withstand compression Triangular
or tensile force. shapes
Neutral
axis.

Roofing tuff
Tensional Notch Tensional Water tank
Force. spreads Force.
Struts and Ties
B C In any structure, there are parts, which are under action of
O A tensional forces and others under action of compressional
forces.
D E
Notch Neutral Ties are girders, which are under tension.
closes axis. This occurs when a girder results in the points it joins to
Glass tubes are easily broken after notch is made on the moves further apart on the removal of such girder in a tie.
side.
Properties of ties:
A notch, crack or scratch on the surface of brittle material  It is under tension
like concrete and glass, spreads more readily under tensile  When removed, the point it joins move further
force than under compression. apart.
 It can be replaced by a rope or strong string.
Reducing notch effect:
(a) For concrete and cement mortar; Struts are girders, which are under compression.
Notch effect can be reduced by; pre-stressed concrete This occurs when a girder result in the point to move closer
containing steel rods that are in tension because they were together on removal girder in struts.
stretched while the concrete was poured on them.
Properties of struts:
This is advantageous in that as well as resisting tension  It is under compression
forces they keep the concrete in concrete in compression  When removed, the point it joins move closer to
even if the whole structure is not. each other.
 It cannot be replaced by a rope or strong string.
(b) For glass: B C
Notches can be removed from glass
i) By making the surface of glass as smooth as possible. So
glass usually making smooth to reduce the breaking due
to notches. A D
E
ii) For safety glass used in motor vehicle screen is made by
heating plate glass and cooling the two surfaces in a
stream of air where they contract and compress the glass
in the middle. This is called thermal toughening.
iii) By reinforcing glass with transparent polythene. In order to determine each of the girders whether its a tie or
a strut, each of the girders is removed and the effect is
(c) For wood; noted.
Thin sheet of wood are glued together to form a laminated  If the points move further apart then the girder is tie and
structure which is able to resist notches more than solids if the points move closer together then the girder is
because for solid structures, the crack or a notch goes right strut.
through while in a laminated structure it may be stopped by  When BC is removed, point B moves close to point C
one of the layers. showing that girder BC is strut.
 When AB is removed, point A moves close to B. so
girder AB is strut.
 When AE is removed, point A moves further apart from
E meaning that girder AE is tie. Similarly, girder ED is
tie.

©bagiradnl@[Link] 26
For structures A: reinforced B: in tension
When BE is removes point B move further apart from E C: pre stressed D: in compression
meaning the girder BE tie.
4. see UNEB
F B C
1993 Qn.10 and Qn. 26 2007 Qn. 40
CD is a tie 1997 Qn.19 1987 Qn. 9
BF is a tie 1989 Qn. 10 1990 Qn. 5
1994 Qn. 4 1994 Qn. 5
G A BC is a tie 1996 Qn. 21 2002 Qn.47
D
E CE is a strut 2006 Qn. 8
AD is a strut
DE is a strut
Load AE is a strut

When BF is removed, the structure turns about point G. B

will move further away from F hence BF is a tie.
When BC is removed, the structure will bend at E. Thus, C
will move in the direction of the load, far away from B. This
means BC is under tension and hence it is a tie.

When CD is removed, point D moves down wards with the

load. Point D moves away from C, so CD is a tie.

When DE is removed, CD will be vertical due to the load.

Thus, point D moves nearer to E meaning that girder DE is a
strut. Similarly, girder EG is a strut.

When CE is removed, the load moves down wards and part

BCD will be straight due to the load. Thus, point C moves
nearer to E meaning that girder CE is a strut. Similarly,
girders BE and AB are struts.

Exercise:
1. Roofing structures and many bridges are made designed
triangular sections to;
(i) Minimize the material used
(ii) Withstand compression forces
(iii) Minimize tensile force under compression.
A. (ii) only B.(ii) and (iii) only.
C. (i) and (iii) only. D. (i) , (ii) and (iii)

2. The beam shown below is being acted upon by forces

F1 and F2 as shown.

The regions P, Q and R are respectively,

A. tension, compression, neutral axis
B. neutral axis, compression, tension
C. tension, neutral axis, compression
D. compression, neutral axis, tension

3. A notch on a material spreads more rapidly when the

material is;

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 From above, it can be noted that:
1:5. TURNING EFFECT OF FORCE  The greater turning effect of a force occurs when the
(MOMENTS) force acts on an object at a right angle.
Moment of a force is also called the measure of the turning  It is easier to close the door by pushing it at a point as
effect of a force. far away from the hinges as possible. Because the force
applied can easily balance with the reaction at the
Moment of a force is a product of a force and the hinges.
perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force from
the fulcrum (pivot). Factors affecting moments
The moment of the force depends on the:-
𝐌𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 i) magnitude of a force
( ) = Force ×
𝐚 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 ii) Perpendicular distance from the turning point
𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐩𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐟 (fulcrum).
( 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 )
𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐩𝐢𝐯𝐨𝐭 Law or principle of moments
This states that when body is in a state of equilibrium the
sum of clockwise moments about any point is equal to the
SI unit of moment is a newton meter (Nm). Moment of a sum anticlockwise moments about the same point.
force is a vector quantity. 𝐒𝐮𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐤𝐰𝐢𝐬𝐞 𝐒𝐮𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐤𝐰𝐢𝐬𝐞
( ) = ( )
Examples of the turning effects of a force; 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬
 Opening or closing a door
 Children playing on a see-saw Experiment to verify the principle of moments.
 Bending of the fore arm of a hand Fulcrum d2
d1
Example;1
A force of 12N is applied to open a door handle, which is m1 m2
0.8m from the hinges of the door. Calculate the moment of
the force produced. W1= W2

The metre rule is balanced horizontally on a knife-edge and

Frame Frame its centre of gravity, G noted.

0.8m Un equal masses m1 and m2 are hung from cotton loops on

either sides of the rule.
Hinge F
The distances of the masses are then adjusted until the rule
Solution balances horizontally once again. The distances d1 and d2 are
Taking moments about the Hinge; measured and recorded.
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹 × 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝. 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 12 × 0.8 The experiment is repeated several times and the results
𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 9.6𝑁𝑚 tabulated including values of w1d1 and w2d2.

Example;2 It is found that; w2d2 = w1d1. Where w2d2 is the clockwise

The moment of a force is 4Nm in the clockwise direction moment and w1d1 is the anticlockwise moment. This verifies
when the lid of a tin is opened. Calculate the vertical force the principle of moments.
applied, if the perpendicular distance from the hinges is
40cm. The points from which moments are being taken acts as the
pivot and the moments of force at that point is zero (0).
Solution Clockwise clockwise Perpendicular
( ) = ( ) ×( )
moments force distance from pivot
F
40c Anti − Anti −
m Perpendicular
(clockwise ) = (clockwise) × ( )
Hinge distance from pivot
moments force

Taking moments about the pivot;

Taking moments about the Hinge;

Moment of Force = Force, F × Perp. distance
4 = F × 0.4
4
F = N
0.4
F = 10N
Thus the vertical force applied is 10N

©bagiradnl@[Link] 28
 respectively from the zero mark. If the metre rule balances
horizontally, find the value of F.
d2
Solution
d1 Fulcrum m2 0 cm 50 cm 100 cm
G
W2

6N 2N F
m1 20cm
60cm
W1= 80cm
Taking moments about the pivot;
Sum of Anticlockwise moments =6×30 = 180Ncm
Clockwise moments =W1 xd1= W1d1 Sum of Clockwise moments =2×10+F×30
Anticlockwise moments =W2 x d2= W2d2 =(20+30F) Ncm
And by the law of moment; Applying the principle of moments;
Sum of clockwise moments = sum of anti-clock moment Sum of clockwise moments = Sum of anticlockwise moments
about any point. Thus, W1d1= W2d2 (20+30F) Ncm =180Ncm
30F =160
Note: When calculating moments about a point (pivot) all F =5.3 N
distances should be measured from that point.
Example 4:
Finding the mass and weight of uniform body A non-uniform tree trunk of weight 1000N is placed on a
 When body is uniform, the mass or weight must act at pivot, 4m from the thick end. A weight of 800N is placed on
the centre. the other side of the pivot, at a distance equal to that from
 A metre rule is marked from 0-100cm mark. If it is the thick end to the centre of gravity, just tips off the tree
uniform, then its mass/weight must act in the middle, trunk. How far is the weight from the thick end?
which is 50cm mark.
 The mass or weight is calculated by applying the
Solution:
principle of moment.

Example 2:
A metre-rule suspended from the centre of gravity is in
equilibrium, i.e balanced at G, when forces ofW 1, W2 and
W3, act at distances of a, b and c respectively from the pivot. Trunk
C.O.G
(i) Draw a labeled diagram to show all the forces acting on 800N
the metre-rule.
Pivot
.
x x
d1 d3
1000N
d2 50 cm
0 cm
4m
G

W3 Let the distance from the thick end to the Centre of gravity
W1 W2
(C.O.G) be x.

(ii) Write an expression for the sum of the moments. Taking moments about the pivot;
Taking moments about the pivot;
Sum of Anticlockwise moments = W1 × d1+W2 × d2 Applying the principle of moments;
Sum of Clockwise moments = W3 ×c Sum of clockwise moments = Sum of anticlockwise moments
(800 × 𝑥 ) Nm =1000× (4 - 𝑥) Nm
Applying the principle of moments; 800𝑥 = 4000 -1000𝑥
Sum of clockwise moments = Sum of anticlockwise moments 1800𝑥 = 4000
W3 × c = W1 × a + W2 × b 1800𝑥 4000
=
1800 1800
Example3: 𝑥 = 2.2m
A uniform metre rule is pivoted at its centre and three forces Thus the heavy weight, is (4+2.2) m = 6.2m from the thick
of 6N, 2N and F act at distances of 20cm, 60cm, and 80cm end.

©bagiradnl@[Link] 29
Example: 1  Then the required value is calculated from the principle
A uniform metre rule is suspended from 40cm marking as of moment.
shown in the diagram below. Find the mass of the metre rule
if it’s in equilibrium. Example:5 A uniform metre rule is pivoted at 30cm mark.
It balances horizontally when a body of mass 20g is
suspended at 25cm mark.
0 cm 40 cm mark 100 cm
G a) Draw a force diagram for the arrangement.
b) Calculate the mass of the metre rule
(Ans: m=5g)
2kg m
d
x Example: 6 A uniform half-metre rule is pivoted at 15cm
10cm
mark and balances horizontally when a body of 40g is
Taking moments about the pivot; hanging from 2cm mark.
𝒙 = (40 − 10) = 30𝑐𝑚 i) Draw a diagram of the arrangement.
𝒅 = (50 − 40) = 10𝑐𝑚 ii) Calculate the mass of the metre rule.
(Ans: m=52g)
Applying the principle of moments;
Sum of clockwise moments = Sum of anticlockwise moments Example: 7 A uniform rod AB of length 5cm is suspended
(2 × 𝑥 ) = m× d at 2m from end A. if the mass of the rod is 10kg. Calculate
2(30) = 10m the mass of the body, which must be suspended at 1m from
60 = 10m end A so as for the rod to balance horizontally.
10m 60 (Ans: m=5kg)
=
10 10
m = 6kg Example: 8 A hand cart of length 1.5 m, has the centre of
Thus, the mass of the metre rule is 60kg gravity at length 0.5 m from the wheel when loaded with
50kg as shown below.
Example 2: A uniform metre rule pivoted at 10cm mark
balance when a mass of 400g is suspended at 0cm mark.
Calculate the mass of the metre rule. (Ans: m=100g)

Example 3: The diagram below is a metre rule pivoted at

80cm mark. Calculate the mass of the metre. (Ans: m=67g)

0 50 cm 80cm 90cm
cm cm
G If the mass of the hand cart is 10 kg, find the effort needed
to lift the hand cart.
m 200kg
y Condition for Body to be in Equilibrium Under action of
x
parallel forces.
Example 4: A uniform beam 2m long is suspended as
shown below. Calculate the mass of the metre. (Ans: When a number of parallel forces act on a body such that the
m=16kg) body attains equilibrium, then the following conditions must
be met or fulfilled:
(i) The sum of the forces is one direction is equal to
0.5m 1.5 m the sum of forces in the opposite direction.
(ii) The sum of the clockwise moment about any point
G
is equal to sum of the anti-clockwise moments
about the same point.
20k m
g x y The above conditions are useful in calculations involving
10c two unknown forces. The following steps should be taken.
m (i) An equation for sum of force in one direction equaling
Interpreting the question in diagram form.
 the diagram for any body should be drawn in the form. to sum of forces in the opposite direction is written.
 if the body is uniform, its mass or weight will act from (ii) Moments should be taken about one of the unknown
the centre of gravity which is obtained by, force. Where by the sum of anticlockwise moment is
L equal to sum of the clockwise moments.
C. o. g =
2
i.e. For a uniform metre rule, which is marked from 0- Example:
100cm, the centre of gravity from which the mass or weight A uniform wooden beam of length 2m and weight 34N rests
acts is, on two supports A and B placed at 40cm from either end of
L 100cm the beam. Two weights of 40N and 50N are suspended at
C. o. g = = = 50.0cm the end of the beam.
2 2
©bagiradnl@[Link] 30
(i) Draw a diagram to show the forces acting on the beam.
(ii) Calculate the reactions at the supports.
T1 T2
Solution:
(a) C.O.G
R1 R2

40cm
C.O.G 50cm 50cm 100cm
40cm

A 500N 50N B

40N 34N 50N

(b) Find the tension on A and B
A B
Example 1: A truck of weight 20KN is driving across a Solution
uniform 50m long bridge of weight 500KN as shown below. Sum of upward forces=sum of downward forces
T1 + T2 = 500N + 50N
R1 R2 T1 + R 2 = 550N………………………(i)
C.O.G
Since T1 and T2 are, unknown forces so moments can be
taken about either T1 or T2 .
5m 25m
Taking moments aboutR1 :
A 20KN 500KN B Sum of clockwise moments = Sum of anticlockwise moments
Calculate the reactions at “A” and “B” if the bridge is in (500 × 50)+(50×100) = T2 × 200
equilibrium sum of forces in one direction = sum of forces 25000+5000 = 200T2
in opposite direction. 30000 = 200T2
200T2 30000
=
Solution 200 200
Sum of upward forces=sum of downward forces T2 = 150N
R1 + R 2 = 20KN + 500KN Substituting for T2 = 150N into equation (i), gives;
R1 + R 2 = 520KN………………………(i) T1 + 150 = 550
T1 = 400N
Since R1 and R 2 are, unknown forces so moments can be Thus, the Tensions T1 and T2 respectively are 400N and
taken about either R1 or R 2 . 150N.

Taking moments aboutR1 : (c) Find the fraction of the total weight that is supported by
B.
Sum of clockwise moments = Sum of anticlockwise moments
(20 × 5)+(500×25) = R 2 × 50
Weight supportd by B
100+12500 = 50R 2 Fraction =
12600 = 50R2 Total weight
50R 2 12600
= 150
50 50 Fraction =
R 2 = 252KN 550
Substituting for 𝑅2 = 252KN into equation (i), gives;
R1 + 252 = 520 3
Fraction =
R1 = 268KN 11
Thus, the Reactions R1 and R2 respectively are 268KN and
252KN. Centre of gravity
Centre of gravity is the point of application of the resultant
Example 2: Two labourers “A” and “B” carry between force due to the earth’s attraction on it. All bodies are made
them a load of 500N on a uniform pole of weight 50N. if the of a large number of tiny equal particles each of mass “m”
pole is 2m long, and the load is 50cm from A towards B. and pulled towards the earth with a force “mg”. If the total
mass of the entire particle in a body is “m” then the resultant
(a) Draw a diagram to show the force acting on the poles. force of gravity on the body is mg and it acts vertically
downwards at the point G.

The centre of gravity or centre of the mass is a fixed point in

the object where the resultant weight, (force of gravity)
seems to act. If the centre of gravity is taken to, any other
point of support is not zero.

©bagiradnl@[Link] 31
Centre of gravity or regularly shaped object.
The mass or weight is evenly distributed and its centre or (a) Stable equilibrium:
gravity is in the middle, which is at the geometric centre of Is the type of equilibrium where, if the body is slightly tilted
the shape. and then released:
(i) the centre of gravity of the body is raised.
(ii) the body returns to its original position.
G G G

Square Rectangle Rhombus F h

mg
mg

(b) Unstable equilibrium:

e.g. uniform metre rule. Is the type of equilibrium where, if the body is slightly tilted
and then released:
50 cm mark (i) the centre of gravity of the body is lowered.
0cm (c.o.g) 100 cm (ii) the body moves farther away from its original position.
F
h
mg
Finding the centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped
object (lamina).
mg
A
(c) Neutral equilibrium:
Lamina Is the type of equilibrium where, if the body is slightly tilted
C.O.G and then released:
(i) the centre of gravity of the body is neither raised nor
B lowered.
C
(ii) the body stays in its new position or it just rolls on
before stopping.
Retort Example:
stand Plumb line A ball on a flat surface.

Plumb
h

Marking holes: Three holes “A”, “B” and “C” are made in mg mg
the object at the edges far away from each other.

Marking the cross lines: The object is suspended on a retort How to increase the stability of a body.
stand from each of the holes and plumb (or pendulum bob) The stability of a body can be increases by:
is used to trace the centre of gravity by marking a line on the (i) Lowering the centre of gravity by putting more weight
object tracing the plumb line thread when swinging stops. at the base.
(ii) Increasing the area of the base.
Repeating: The experiment is repeated with the object hung (iii) If the body is slightly displaced and then released.
at B and C and cross lines marked. The point C.O.G at
which all the lines cross is the centre of gravity of the body. Exercise: See UNEB
2003 Qn. 5 1993 Qn.14
1:5:2 STABILITY: 1987 Qn.10 2000 Qn.11 and Qn.2
Stability is the difficulty with which a body topples. 1988 Qn.2 and Qn.7 2002 Qn.11
When a body is at rest, it is said to be in a state of 1989 Qn.15 and Qn.38 2003 Qn.5
equilibrium or stability. 1991 Qn.30 2007 Qn.17 and Qn.5

Types or states of stability or Equilibrium

Some bodies are in a more stable state than others.
There are three types or states of equilibrium or stability:
a) stable equilibrium
b) unstable equilibrium
c) neutral equilibrium

©bagiradnl@[Link] 32
 SIMPLE MACHINES:
1: 6. MACHINES A simple machine is a device that work with one movement
and change the size and direction of force.
A machine is a device on which a force applied at one point,
is used to overcome a force at another point. Examples of simple machines:
A machine is a device, which simplifies works by [Link] system [Link]
magnifying the effort. [Link] and Axle machine [Link] Planes
. 3. Gear system 7. Wedges
Principle of machines: 4. Pulley systems
It states that a small force (effort) moves over a large
distance to produce a bigger force that moves the load over a
small distance. (𝐚) 𝐋𝐄𝐕𝐄𝐑 𝐒𝐘𝐒𝐓𝐄𝐌:
Effort: Is the force applied at one point of a machine to A lever is a rigid bar, which is free to move about a fixed
overcome the load. point called fulcrum or pivot.
Load: Is the force, which is overcome by the machine using It works on the principle of moments.
the effort.
Classes of levers:
Mechanical Advantage (M.A): Class of lever Position of F,E,L Examples
This is the ratio of load to effort. 1st F is between E and L Pair of scissors
Load 2nd L is between E and F Wheel barrow
i.e; M.A=
Effort 3rd E is between F and L Human arm
Note:-Mechanical advantage has no units.
-M.A is the number of times the load is greater than Class of lever Examples
the effort. Alternatively, it (i) First class lever:  See-saw
gives the number of times the machine magnifies the effort. Is a lever system where the  Pair of scissors
Velocity ratio (V.R):
fulcrum (or pivot) is between  Pair of pliers
This is the ratio of the distance moved by the effort to the
the load and the effort.  Weighing scale
distance moved by the load.  Claw Hummer
Distance moved by effort
i.e; V.R= (ii) Second class lever:  Wheel barrow
Distance moved by load
Note: It is the ratio of the velocity of the effort to the Is a lever system where the load  Nutcracker
velocity of the load in the same time. is between the fulcrum (or  Bottle opener
It is independent of friction. pivot) and the effort.

Efficiency (𝜼): (iii) Third class lever:  Fishing rod

This is the ratio of work output to the work input expressed Is a lever system where the  Pair of tongs
as a percentage. Effort is between the fulcrum  Human arm
Work output (or pivot) and the load.  Spade
i.e; Efficiency (η) = × 100%  Forceps
Work input
Work out put = Load × load distance
Work input = Effort × Effort distance NOTE: -Load arm is the distance of the load from pivot.
-Effort arm is the distance of effort from pivot.
𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝 𝐄𝐟𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐭 𝐚𝐫𝐦
Load × load distance -𝐌. 𝐀 ≈ 𝐕. 𝐑 ⟹ ≈
Efficiency = × 100% 𝐄𝐟𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐭 𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝 𝐚𝐫𝐦
Effort × Effort distance Hence, a lever system is more efficient compared to other
Load Load distance machines.
= × × 100%
Effort Effort distance
1
= M.A × × 100% Fulcrum (or Pivot)
V. R
𝐌. 𝐀
Efficiency (η) = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% Load arm Effort arm
𝐕. 𝐑
Load Effort
NOTE:
The efficiency of a machine system is always less than (𝐛) 𝐖𝐇𝐄𝐄𝐋 𝐀𝐍𝐃 𝐀𝐗𝐋𝐄 𝐌𝐀𝐂𝐇𝐈𝐍𝐄 ∶
100% because of;
 Friction in the moving parts of the machine.
This consists of two wheels of different radii on the same
 Work wasted in lifting useless weights like
axis. The axle has the same attachment on the wheel.
movable parts of the machine.
The effort is applied to the wheel and a string attached to the
axle raises the load.
The efficiency can be improved by;
 Oiling or greasing the movable parts.
 Using lightweight materials for movable parts.

©bagiradnl@[Link] 33
 Example2:
A wheel and axle machine is constructed from a wheel of
diameter 20cm and mounted on an axle of diameter 4cm.
(a) Calculate the;
(i) Velocity ratio of the machine
(ii) Greatest possible value of mechanical
advantage.
(b) Explain why the mechanical advantage is likely to be
less than this value.

Solution:
For a complete turn or rotation; D =20cm⟹ R = 10cm, d = 4cm ⟹ r = 2cm
 The effort moves through a distance equal to the (a)(i)
circumference of the wheel.𝐂 = 𝟐𝛑𝐑, R= radius of Distance moved by effort 2πR
V.R= =
wheel. Distance moved by load 2πr
 The load moves through a distance equal to the
circumference of the axle. 𝐂 = 𝟐𝛑𝐫, r= radius of axle. R
=
r
Distance moved by effort
 Thus, from; V.R =
Distance moved by load 10
=
2πR 2
= V. R = 5.
2πr Thus, the velocity ratio is 5.
R
V.R = (a)(ii)
r For the greatest (or maximum) mechanical advantage, the
Example1: system is 100% efficient.
The figure below shows a wheel land axle system, which
Hence M.A=V.R= 5
uses an effort of 300N to raise a load of 900N using an axle
of radius 10cm.
(b) The M.A is likely to be less than 5 because work needs
to be done against friction
R=40cm
Example3:
r=10cm A common windlass is used to raise a load of 480N by
application of an effort 200N at right angles to the handle. If
the crank is33cm from the axis and the radius of the axle is
11cm, calculate the;
(i) Velocity ratio. (Ans: V.R=3)
900N (ii) Efficiency of the windlass. (Ans: η =80%)
300N
Calculate the; (i) velocity ratio (𝐜) 𝐆𝐄𝐀𝐑 𝐒𝐘𝐒𝐓𝐄𝐌:
(ii) Efficiency of the system A gear is device consisting of toothed wheels.
Solution: These are rigidly fixed to the axis and turn with their axis.
R= 40cm, r =10cm; L= 900N, E=300N; Driven gear
Driving gear
Distance moved by effort 2πR
Thus, from; V.R = =
Distance moved by load 2πr N
(i) (ii). n
R 40 M.A =
Load
=
900
=3
V.R = = =4 Effort 300
r 10 M.A = 3
Thus, the velocity ratio is 4.
Effort

Load
They change direction and speed of rotation when the effort
applied is not changed.
M. A The direction of the driven gear is opposite to that of the
Efficiency (η) = × 100% driving gear.
V. R
3 The number of rotations of the gear wheels depends on the
η = × 100% ratio of number of teeth and the radii of the wheels.
4
η = 75% .
Thus, efficiency is 75% .

©bagiradnl@[Link] 34
The effort and the load are applied on the shafts connected Example: 3
to the gear wheels. A large V.R is obtained only when the Two gear wheels P and Q with 25 and 50teeth respectively
effort is applied on a small gear so that it drives the large lock into each other. They are fastened on axles of equal
gear. diameters such that a weight of 400N attached to the string
wound around one axle raises a load of 600N attached to a
Number of teeth on driven gear 𝐍 string wound around the other axle. Calculate the:
V. R = = (i) Velocity ratio and efficiency when Q drives P.
Number of teeth on driving gear 𝐧
[Ans: V.R = 0.5, Efficiency = 300%]
Example 1:
Two gearwheels A and B with 20 and 40 teeth respectively (ii) Velocity ratio and efficiency when P drives Q.
lock into each other. They are fastened on axles of equal [Ans: V.R = 2, Efficiency = 75%]
diameters such that a weight of 400N attached to a string
wound around one-axle, raises a load of 600N attached to a
string wound around the other axle. Calculate the: (𝐝) 𝐒𝐂𝐑𝐄𝐖 𝐌𝐀𝐂𝐇𝐈𝐍𝐄 ∶
(a) Velocity ratio of the system when; (i) A drives B
(ii) B drives A A screw is a nail or bolt with threadlike windings.
(b) Efficiency when; (i) A drives B It is like a spiral stair case.
(ii) B drives A It is an essential feature of machines like the vice and the
Solution: screw jack.
(a) N=40cm, n=20cm
L=600N, E=400N
Number of teeth on driven gear N
(i)Thus, from;V. R = =
Number of teeth on driving gear n

NB Load 600
V.R = (iii) M.A = = = 1.5
Effort 400
nA V. R = 2.
40 M. A
=  The distance between any two successive threads of a
20 Efficiency (η) = × 100%
V. R screw is called a Pitch.
V. R = 2.  An effort is applied on a handle like in a vice or in a car
The velocity ratio is 2. 1.5 jack.
η= × 100%
2  For a complete turn (or rotation) of the effort, the load
(ii) moves through a distance equal to 1pitch while the
NA
V.R = η = 75% . effort moves a distance equal to the circumference of
nB the handle
(ii) M.A=1.5 .
20 V.R =2 Distance moved by effort circumference of handle
= V.R= =
40 Distance moved by load 1Pitch
V. R = 0.5. M. A 𝟐𝛑𝒍
The velocity ratio is 0.5. Efficiency (η) = × 100% V.R =
V. R 1Pitch
1.5 Example 1:
η= × 100%
0.5 In a screw jack, the length of the handle is 56cm and a pitch
of 2.5mm. It is used to raise a load of 2000N. Calculate the;
η = 300% (i) Effort required to raise the load. (Ans: E = 1.42N).
(ii) V.R (Ans: V.R = 1408).
Example 2: (iii) Efficiency of the screw, hence explain the significance
P of your value of efficiency. (Ans: η =100%)

Example 2:
450N
A load of 800N is raised using a screw jack whose lever arm
N
Q is 49cm has a pitch of [Link] it is 40% efficient, Find the
(i) V.R
(ii) M.A

I50N Example 3:
A certain screw machine has a pitch of 3.5mm. The effort is
Two gear wheels P and Q with 80 and 20 teeth respectively,
applied using a handle, which is 44cm long. Calculate its
lock each other. They are fastened on axles of equal
velocity ratio. (Ans: V.R = 3.95)
diameters such that a weight of 150 N attached to a string
wound around one-axle raises a load of 450N attached to a
string wound around the other axle. Calculate the; Example 4:
A screw jack with a lever arm of 56 cm, has threads which
(i) Velocity ratio of the gear system. (Ans: V.R=4)
are 2.5mm apart is used to raise a load of 800N. If its 25%
(ii) Efficiency of the system. (Ans: η =75%)
efficient, find the;

©bagiradnl@[Link] 35
(i) Velocity ratio (Ans: V.R = 1408) V. R = 3.
(ii) Mechanical advantage (Ans: M.A = 352) Thus, the velocity ratio is 3 .

Solution: (iii) M.A(=5N) (iv) Efficiency

2.5 M. A
(a) Radius (lever arm),l =56cm, Pitch of a screw = = L=400N, E=150N
10
Load 400 (η) = × 100%
0.25cm V. R
M.A = =
L= 800N. Effort 150
2.67
2π𝑙 η= × 100%
V.R of a screw = = 2.67 3
1Pitch η = 88.9%
2 × 3.14 × 56 (v) Work input
V.R of a screw = Work input = Effort × Effort distance
0.25
= 1406.72 Work input = 150 × 15
= 2250J
(vi) Work out put
(𝐞) 𝐈𝐍𝐂𝐋𝐈𝐍𝐄𝐃 𝐏𝐋𝐀𝐍𝐄 Work out put = Load × load distance
An inclined plane is a slope, which allows a load to be Work out put = 400 × 5
raised more gradually by using a smaller effort than when = 2000J
lifting vertically upwards.
Practice Question:
1. A wooden plank, 3m long is used to raise a load of
1200N through a vertical height of 60cm. If the friction
l between the load and the plane is40N, calculate the:
(i) effort required [Ans: E = 280N]
(ii) Mechanical advantage [Ans: M.A = 4.29]
F
h
2. In the gear system in figure 3 below N1 and N2 are the
number of teeth on the wheels. The efficiency of the
𝜃 gear system is 60%.
𝑁2 = 100
𝑁1 = 20
Distance moved by effort length of the plane gear
V.R= =
Distance moved by load height of the plane
N
𝐥
= n
𝐡
𝟏
OR: V.R =
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉

Example: Effort
A load of 400N is pulled along an inclined plane as shown
Load
below.
Find the;
(i) Velocity Ratio.
15cm (ii) Load that can be raised by an effort of 200N.
(iii) Explain why its preferred to use a longer ladder to
a shorter ladder when climbing a tree.
150N
5cm
400N
𝜃
Calculate the;
Solution:
(i) V.R (=3)
l=15cm, h=5cm
(i)Thus, from;
length of the plane 𝒍
V.R = =
height of the plane 𝒉
𝒍
V. R =
𝒉
𝟏𝟓
V. R =
𝟓

©bagiradnl@[Link] 36
 (𝐟) 𝐏𝐔𝐋𝐋𝐄𝐘 𝐒𝐘𝐒𝐓𝐄𝐌: Load 2E
M.A = = = 2. (since L = 2E)
Effort E
A pulley is a wheel with a grooved rim over which a string
passes. M.A and V.R of a single movable pulley is two
However, in practice, the M.A. of a single movable pulley is
Types of pulleys. less than two. Because of the following reasons;
(i) Single fixed pulley (i) Some energy is wasted in overcoming friction.
(ii) Single movable pulley (ii) Some energy is wasted in lifting useless loads like
(iii) Block and tackle pulley system threads.

A single movable pulley is more advantageous than a single

(i) Single fixed pulley fixed pulley. In that, for a single movable pulley the effort
This is the type of pulley fixed on a rigid support. required to raise a load is less that the load.

(ii) Block and tackle pulley system

This is consists of two blocks each having one or more
pulleys, combined together to form a machine. This is done
in order to have high velocity ratio and a higher mechanical
Effort, E advantage.
It is applied in:
 Cranes
 Brake downs For raising heavy loads
 lifts
Load, L
Note: (i) The number of portions of the string supporting the
It is applied in:
lower block is equal to the velocity ratio of the system.
 Raising a flag
(ii) The effort applied is equal to the tension in each
 Lifting building materials during construction
string supporting the movable block.
Here, -load distance = effort distance
E.g. If the effort is 6N, the tension in each string is also 6N.
-tension is the same throughout the string.
(iii) For an odd number of pulleys in a system, the
-If no friction is considered, Load = Effort. Hence
Load E upper block contains one more pulley than the lower block.
M.A = = = 1. (since L = E) In addition, the string starts from the lower block.
Effort E

However, in practice the mechanical advantage and V.R of a

single fixed pulley is less than one. Because of the
V.R= 4 V.R= 5
following;
(i) Some energy is wasted in overcoming friction.
(ii) Some energy is wasted in lifting useless loads like
threads.
Effort, E
(ii) Single movable pulley
Effort, E
Effort, E

Load, L Load, L
Load,

Here, the effort distance is twice the load distance.

Here, -load distance = 2 x effort distance
-tension is the same throughout the string.
-If no friction is considered, Load = Effort. Hence
Load 2E
M.A = = = 2. (since L = 2E)
Effort E
At balancing;
Sum of upward force = sum of downward forces
L =E+E
𝐋 = 𝟐𝐄

©bagiradnl@[Link] 37
 Drawing the graph:
From the table a graph of efficiency or mechanical
advantage against the load is plotted.

V.R= 3 V.R= 6
Efficiency Mechanical advantage

10 V.R
Effort, E Effort, E 0
10
0

0 Load (N) 0 Load (N)

Explanation of the shape of the graphs:

Load, L Load, L  As the load increases, the efficiency also increases
Passing the string  This is because the weight of the movable pulley block
 If the number of pulley wheels is odd, then the string and friction become very small compared to the load.
should be tied down to the movable block.
 For even number of pulley wheels, the string should be Note:
tied up to the fixed block. In practice, the movable block has some weight (w) and
there is friction (F). These two together with the load (L) act
Experiment to measure mechanical advantage and downwards and they become part of the total downward
efficiency of pulley system. forces.
Thus, the efficiency do not increase beyond 100% because;
i) some energy is wasted on overcoming friction
ii) Some energy is wasted on lifting useless loads
like movable pulley blocks.

Therefore at Equilibrium;
Sum of upward forces = sum of downward force
𝐒𝐮𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬
[ 𝐬𝐮𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐥𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 ] = Load(L)+Weight(W)+Friction(F)
𝐛𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐤, (𝐕. 𝐑) 𝐄
V.R = L+W+F
Effort
(Weights added+ Example 1:
weight of scale pan) Below is a pulley system of mass 0.4kg, and there is friction
of 5N

Load pan

Determining effort: A known load is place on the load pan Effort

and knows weights are added to effort pan until the load just E E E E
rises steadily when given a gentle push.
Repeating: The experiment is repeated with different loads
and the results are recorded in table shown bellow:
V.R=……….

Load (N) Effort Load M.A

M.A= Efficiency=
(N) Effort V.R
× 100

200N
………. …… ………… …………….
(a) Calculate the;

©bagiradnl@[Link] 38
(i) Velocity ratio of the system Work out put = Load × distance
Number of portions of the string = 300×5
V.R = ( )
suporting the movable block = 1500N
𝑉. R = 4
Example 2:
(ii) Effort required to raise the load. A pulley system of velocity ratio 3 is used to lift a load of
Solution 100N. The effort needed is found to be 60N.
Data (a) Draw the arrangement of the pulley system.
L=200N, m =0.4Kg, F=5N, E=?,
W=mg = 0.4 x 10 Solution
W=4N Velocity ratio is odd. then;
Velocity ratio 3
Number of pulley wheels on each block = = =
Sum of upward forces = sum of downward force 2 2
1 remainder 1.
E+E+E+E = L+W+F
The remainder wheel is added to fixed block.
4E = L + W + F
4E = 200 + 4 + 5
4E = 209
4E 209 V.R= 3
=
4 4
E = 52.25N

(iii) Mechanical advantage of the system

Load E=60N
M. A =
Effort
200
=
52.25
M. A = 3.83

(b) If the load is raised through 6m, calculate the distance

the effort moves at the same time.
Example 2:
L=100N
Data
L.D =6m, E.D =?
Effort distance (b) Calculate the efficiency of the system.
V. R = Solution
Load distance
V.R =3
E. D Load M.A
4 = M. A= Efficiency= × 100%
6 Effort V. R
E. D = 4 × 6 100 1.67
= Efficiency= × 100%
E. D = 24m 60 3
M. A= 1.67 Efficiency = 55.56%
Example 2:
A pulley system has two pulleys on the bottom block. A
load of 1000N is hung from the bottom block, it is found Coupled machines
that an effort of 300N to raise the load. If two or more machines are, coupled machines such that the
(i) How much energy is supplied, if the effort moves output of one is connected to the input of the other, the over
through 5m? all performance is summed up by:
Solution Overall -V.R = V.R1 + V.R2
Data -M.A. = M.A1 + M.A2
L=1000N, E=300N, E.D =5m -Eff = Eff1 + Eff2
Work in put = Effort × Effort distance
= 300 × 5
= 1500N

(ii) If the effort moves through 5m, find how far the laod
rises.
Solution
Data
E.D =5m, V.R=4, L.D=?
Effort distance
V. R =
Load distance
5 5
4= ⟹ 4L. D = 5 ⟹ L. D = ⇒ 𝐋. 𝐃 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝐦
L. D 4
(iii)Find how much energy is gained by the load if the effort
moves through 5m.

©bagiradnl@[Link] 39
 If the car bears down on the car with a force of 5000N and
that efficiency of a screw jack is 15%. Calculate the;
a) V.R.
2
Given; Radius, r = 2cm = = 0.02m
100
2
Pitch, P = 2mm = = 0.002m
1000

(b)The effort required to turn the

Then; handle
Effort Distance
V.R= Load
Load Distance M.A=
2𝜋𝑟 Effort
V.R=
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
5000
2(3.14)(0.02) 9.42 =
V.R= E
0.002 9.42E =5000
V.R=62.8 9.42E 5000
=
9.42 9.42
Mechanical Advantage E=530.79N

Given;Efficiency=15%
, V.R= 62.8 (c)Work done by the operator in
Then; order to raise the side or the car by
The diagram above shows a pulley system used by a sailor M.A 25cm.
for hoisting. Calculate the: Effi = × 100%
V. R
M.A Work output
(a) Velocity ratio of the system 15%= × 100% Eff = × 100%
62.8 Work input
Solution
Velocity ratio of lower block = 4 M.A
0.15 = Work output=Load × Load distance
Velocity ratio of middle =2 62.8 25
Velocity ratio of upper block = 1 Work output=5000× ( )
Overall V.R = 4 + 2+ 1 = 7 M. A = 0.15(62.8) 100
Work output=1250J
M. A = 9.42
(b) The effort required to lift the load if the efficiency of the
system is 75%. NB: Work input is the work done by the effort. Sometimes it
Solution is considered as the work done by operator.
Then from;
M.A Load Work output
Efficiency= × 100% M. A= Efficiency = × 100%
V. R Effort Work input
M.A 1500
75%= × 100% 5.25=
7 E 1250
M.A 15% = × 100%
0.75= Win
7 5.25E= 1500
M.A =0.75×7 E = 285.7N 1250
M. A = 5.25 0.15 =
Win
Example:
The diagram below shows a screw jack being used to lift a 0.15Win = 1250
car in order that a wheel may be charged.
𝑊𝑖𝑛 = 8333.33J
20cm In general;
Work wasted = work input - work output
= 8333.33 – 1250
= 7083.33J

From above, it is noted that work input is greater than

2mm workout put due to;
i) some work wasted in lifting useless loads,
Collar ii) Some work wasted in reducing friction.

Note: For the screw the velocity ratio is very high because
the length of the handle is very big compared to the pitch of
the screw.

©bagiradnl@[Link] 40
However the efficiency is very low. Usually lower than
50%. This is because friction is very high so the screw 1: 7. WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
cannot run back if left.
1:7:1. WORK
Exercise : See UNEB Work is the product of the force applied and the distance
1999 Qn.2 1998 Qn.6 moved by the point of application of the force in the
1994 Qn.8 2006 Qn.4 direction of the force.
1987 Qn.36 1992 Qn.6 Note that the distance moved has to be in the direction of the
1988 Qn.34 2001 Qn.42 applied force. It is common that a force may be applied to
1991 Qn.26 2007 Qn.1 move an object to the right, but instead the object moves to
the left.
The force in this case has not done any work.

Work done = Force, F × Displacement, S

W = FS

The S.I unit of work done is a joule (J)

Definition:
A joule is the work done when the point of application of a
force of 1N, moves through a distance of 1m in the direction
of the force.

Example: 1
1. Calculate the work done when a force of 9000N acts on a
body and makes it move through a distance of 6m.

Solution
Force, F= 9000N
Distance, s = 6m

Work done = Force, F × Displacement, S

W= F×S
W= 9000×6
W= 54000J

Note:
If an object is raised vertically or falling freely, then the
force causing work to be done is weight.
Force = Weight = mass, m × acceleration due to gravity, g
Force = Weight= mg

Thus, the work done against gravity is given by;

Work done = Weight × height
Work done = mgh
Where m is mass in kg, h is distance in metres and some
times, it is height.

Example:2
A block of mass 3kg held at a height of 5m above the
ground is allowed to fall freely to the ground. Calculate the
workdone.
Solution
Given, mass, m = 3Kg, Distance, s = 5m
Force F= Weight, W =mass × g
F= mg
= 3×10
F = 30N
Work done = Force, F × Displacement, S
W= F×S
W= 30×5
W= 150J

©bagiradnl@[Link] 41
Example: 3
A man of mass 80kg runs up a staircase of 10stairs, each of (a) Non-renewable sources of energy
vertical height 25cm. Find the work done against gravity. These are energy sources, which cannot be replaced when
Solution: they get used up.
Given, mass m = 80Kg, Examples of non- renewable sources of energy
25 (i) Fossil fuels; these are formed from plant remains that
Distance, h = 25cm = = 0.25m
100 died million years ago. They include; coal, petroleum oil,
Total Distance, ℎ 𝑇 = 0.25m×10stairs natural gas, e.t.c.
Total Distance, ℎ 𝑇 = 2.5m (ii) Nuclear fuels; these are fuels found in radioactive
Then; elements which may be occurring naturally such as
Uranium.
Work done = Weight × height These fuels can be used in nuclear reactions to produce
Work done = mgh electricity.
= 80×10×2.5
Work done = 2000J Advantages of non-renewable source of energy.
 They have high energy density. I.e a lot of energy
can be produced from a small quantity.
Example: 4  They are readily available as demand increases.
A crane is used to to raise 20 tonnes of concrete to the top Disadvantages of non-renewable source of energy.
floor of a building 30m high. Calculate the total work done  They are highly polluting.
by the crane.
Solution: (b) Renewable sources of energy
Given, mass m = 20tonnes=20×1000=20,000Kg, These are energy sources which can be replaced when they
Distance, h = 30m get used up. They can never get exhausted.
Then; Advantage:
They are non-polluting.
Work done = Weight × height
Work done = mgh Examples of renewable sources of energy.
= 20,000×10×30 (i) Solar energy: This is the form of energy which reaches
Work done = 6,000,000J the earth in form of heat and light.
It can be harvested using solar panels and transformed
Example: 5 into electrical energy, which is used for many purposes.
The figure bellow shows a bale of hay being pulled up an It is also used in direct low temperature heating.
inclined plane with a force of 200N. The bale moves down (ii) Wind: Wind can be harvested using giant windmills,
the incline to a distance of 5m. which can turn electrical generators to produce
electrical energy, which is a more useful form.
200N (iii) Running water: Running water is used in hydro-
electricity plants to turn giant turbines, which produce
electrical energy.
5m The water will always flow hence a renewable source.
Tides can also be used to generate electricity in this
way.
(iv) Geothermal energy: Water is pumped to hot under
ground rocks where it’s heated and then forced out
(i) Calculate the work done by the force. through another shaft where it can turbines.
Solution:
Work done = Force, F × Displacement, S
= 200N×(-5m) Forms of energy
Work done = -1000J Energy can exist in the following forms;
a) Chemical energy:
(ii) Explain your answer. Chemical energy is the form of energy a body has due to the
The distance moved by the bale, was in a direction opposite nature of its atoms and molecules and the way they are
to that of the force applied hence a negative displacement. arranged.
The negative in the answer therefore means that the bale did In the combination of atoms to form compounds, there is
the work instead of the force applied. gain or loss of energy. This energy is stored in the
compound as chemical energy.
If the atoms in such compounds are rearranged to form a
1:7:2. ENERGY new compound, this energy is released. E.g If sugars in the
Energy is the ability or capacity to do work. human body are burnt, a lot of chemical energy is released.
The S.I unit of work done and energy is a joule (J).
b) Nuclear energy:
Sources of energy: This is the energy released when atomic nuclei disintegrate
The raw material for the production of energy is called the during nuclear reactions.
energy source. In nuclear reactions, the energy, which holds the nuclear
There are two types of energy sources. particles together (Binding energy), is released.
©bagiradnl@[Link] 42
There are two types of nuclear reactions i.e. fission (Where Conservation of Energy.
large nuclei break to form smaller ones) and fusion (Where The principle of conservation of energy:
smaller nuclei combine to form larger ones). In both cases, It states that ‘energy is neither created nor destroyed’ but
large amounts of energy are released. can be changed from one form to another.

c) Electrical energy (Electricity): In any system, the total original energy is equal to the total
This is the form of energy which is due to electric charges final energy. For example, electrical energy is changed to
moving from one point of a conductor to another. light energy in the bulb. However, the bulb also feels hot
This form of energy is most easily converted to other forms, because some of the energy is changed to heat.
making it the most useful form. Therefore, light energy plus the heat energy is equal to the
electrical energy supplied.
d) Light energy: Thus from this principle, we conclude that;
This is the form of energy which enables us to see. Light is  No new energy is created
part of a wider spectrum of energy called the  Total existing energy is not destroyed
electromagnetic spectrum. Light consists of seven visible  Energy is only changed from one form to another.
colours, of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and
violet. We are able to see because the eye is sensitive to the As energy is changed from one form or state to another, an
colours. energy converter (Device) is required to ease the conversion.
Examples of such devices are shown in the table below.
e) Heat energy: Energy Change Converter
Heat is a form of energy, which results from random Chemical to electrical Cells or Batteries
movement of the molecules in the body. Light to Electrical Solar panels
It is responsible for changes in temperature. Electrical to light Electric lamps e.g bulbs
When a body is heated or when heat energy of the body Electrical to heat Cooker or flat iron, etc.
increases;
Heat to Electrical Thermocouple
(i) The internal kinetic energy of the molecules
Electrical to sound Loud speakers
increases leading to a rise in temperature.
Sound to Electrical Microphones
(ii) The internal potential energy of molecules
increases leading to expansion and change of state Electrical to Kinetic Electric motors
of the body. Kinetic to Electrical Electric generators

f) Sound energy: Conservation of mechanical energy:

This is the energy which enables us to hear. [Link]= mgh, K.E.= 0
Like light, sound is also a form of wave motion, which
makes particles to vibrate. Our ears are able to detect sound
because it produces vibrations in the ear.
g) Mechanical energy: P.E1 + K.E1= [Link].
This is the energy of motion. P.E1= mgh1
Mechanical energy = kinetic energy + Potential energy h K.E1= [Link] – P.E1
h1 = mgh – mgh1
There are two forms of mechanical energy.
(i) Kinetic energy:- This is the energy possessed by a
body due to its velocity or motion. 1
P.E= 0, K.E.= mv 2 = mgh
1 2
Kinetic energy = (mass)×(velocity)2
2
1
K.E = mv2
2 A body of mass m at a height h above the ground, has a
potential energy, P.E = mgh. At this point, the velocity of
(ii) Potential energy:- This is the energy possessed by a
the body is 0ms-1 hence it has no kinetic energy. (K.E. = 0J).
body due to its position or condition.
It is equal to the work done in putting the body in that
When the body is released, it begins to fall with an
position or condition.
acceleration g. The velocity of the body thus increases as the
A body above the earth’s surface has an amount of
height, h decreases. The body therefore gains kinetic energy
gravitational potential energy equal to the work done against
at the expense of potential energy.
gravity.
Weight is the force of gravity acting on a body.
When the body is just reaching the ground, the height, h is
Weight = mg.
zero (h = 0m) while its velocity is given by;
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑠 = ℎ, 𝑎 = 𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢 = 0
Gravitational 𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
( ) = (mass)× ( ) 𝑣 2 = 02 + 2𝑔ℎ
Potential energy 𝐝𝐮𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲
𝐇𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐯𝐞 𝑣 2 = 2𝑔ℎ
×( ) 𝒗 = √𝟐𝒈𝒉
𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝
Thus, its kinetic energy as it reaches the ground is given
1 1 2
P.E = mgh by; K. E = mv 2 = m(√2gh) = mgh
2 2

©bagiradnl@[Link] 43
 𝟏
Hence, 𝐊. 𝐄 = 𝐦𝐯 𝟐 = 𝐦𝐠𝐡 K.E=0.2×10×20
𝟐
K.E=40J
Therefore; 𝐆𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐢𝐧 𝐊. 𝐄 = 𝐋𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐏. 𝐄.
(iii)
As it hits the concrete, Total P.E is converted to K.E
The above illustration shows that energy is conserved. 1
Mechanical energy is continually transformed between K.E= m𝑣 2 = mgh
kinetic and potential energy. 2
(h=height from which the ball is dropped)
1
A swinging pendulum. m𝑣 2 = mgh
The transformation of energy between kinetic and potential 2
𝑣 2 = 2gh.
energy can also be seen in a swinging pendulum.
v = √2gh
At the end (extremes) of the swing, the energy of the v = √2(10)(20)
pendulum bob is only potential. v = √400
v = 20𝑚𝑠 −1
As it passes the central position, it has only kinetic energy.
(iv)
In other positions between the extreme ends and the central As the bounces from the concrete, the K.E used to move the
position, it has both potential and kinetic energies. it from the bottom to the height h1 is converted to P.E at
h1 and it is momentarily at rest.
1
Support K.E1 = mv21 = mgh1
2
(ℎ1 =height to which the ball bounces).
K.E1 =0.2(10)(5)
K.E1 =10J

Only P.E (v)

Only P.E As the bounces from the concrete, the K.E used to move it
from the bottom to the height h1 is converted to P.E at
P.E + K.E h1 and it is momentarily at rest.
P.E + K.E
Only K.E 1
K.E1 = mv21 = mgh1
2
Mechanical energy = P.E + K.E (ℎ1 =height to which the ball bounces).
1
(0.2)v21 =0.2(10)(5)
2
As the bob falls from the left towards the central position, it 0.1v21 = 10
2
gains K.E at the expense of P.E. v1 = 100
𝑣1 = √100
As it rises from the central position towards the left end, it 𝑣1 = 10𝑚𝑠 −1
gains P.E at the expense of K.E.
(vi) As it falls from the top, Total P.E at the top is
Example: converted to some K.E and some P.E in
A ball of mass 200g falls freely from a height of 20m above Falling to the height h1 .
the ground and hits a concrete floor and rebounds to a height 1
of 5m. Given that g = 10ms-1, find the; [Link] = mv21 + mgh1
2
(h1 =height of the ball from ground).
i) P.E of the ball before it fell. 1
ii) Its K.E. as it hits the concrete. 40= (0.2)v21 + 0.2(10)(5)
2
iii) Velocity with which it hits the concrete. 40= 0.1v21 + 10
iv) K.E as it rebounds. 30= 0.1v21
v) Velocity with which it rebounds. v21 = 300
vi) Velocity when it has fallen through a height of 15m.
𝑣1 = √300
v1 = 17.32ms −1
Solution:
(i)
Example 1:
P.E=mgh (h=height from which the ball is dropped)
Calculate the kinetic energy of a 2Kg mass trolly traveling
P.E=0.2×10×20
at 400m per second.
P.E=40J
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛; 𝑚 = 2𝑘𝑔, 𝑣 = 400𝑚𝑠 −1
1
(ii) K.E= m𝑣 2
As it hits the concrete, Total P.E is converted to K.E 2
1
1 K.E= (2)(400)2
K.E= m𝑣 2 = mgh 2
2 K.E=160,000J
(h=height from which the ball is dropped)

©bagiradnl@[Link] 44
Example 2:
A 5Kg mass falls from a height of 20m. calculate the
potential energy lost.
R
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛; 𝑚 = 5𝑘𝑔, ℎ = 20𝑚
P.E=𝑚𝑔ℎ
P.E=5(10)(20) P.E = mgh
P.E=1000J

Example 3: mg
A 200g ball falls from a height of 0.5m. Calculate its kinetic h
energy just before hiting the ground.
200
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛; 𝑚 = 200𝑔 = = 0.2𝑘𝑔, ℎ = 0.2𝑚 K.E = (mg-R)h
1000
K.E gained = P.E lost K.E gained=(mg-R)h
K.E=mgh
K.E=0.2(10)(0.5) K.E gained=(20×10 - 0.9)×1.8
K.E=1J =(200 - 0.9)×1.8
=(199.1)×1.8
Exercise: K.E gained =358.38J
1. A block of mass 2 kg falls freely from rest through a
distance of 3m. (ii) Calculate energy lost due to air resistance
i) Find the K.E of the block. (Ans: =60J) Total energy at h,=mgh
K.E gained = P.E lost =20×10×1.8
ii) Potential energy (Ans: =60J) Total energy at h,=360J
iii) The velocity with which the body hits the ground. (K.E
gained = P.E lost). Energy lost due to air resistance=360J-358.38J
Energy lost due to air resistance=1.62J
2. A body falls freely through 3m. Calculate the velocity
with which it hits the ground. (Ans: = 7.75ms-1) Note:
Energy lost due to air resistance can also be calculated from;
3. 100g steel ball falls from a height of 1.9m on a plate and Energy lost due to air resistance=Work done against R
rebounds to a height of 1.25m. Find the; Energy lost due to air resistance=Force × Height
Energy lost due to air R=Air resistance × Height
(i) P.E of the ball before the fall. (Ans: =1.8J) =0.9×1.8
(ii) Its K.E. as it hits the plate. (Ans: =1.8J) Energy lost due to air R=1.62J
(iii) Its velocity on the plate. (Ans: =6ms-1)
(iv) Its K.E as it leaves the plate on rebound. (Ans: =1.25J)
(v) Its velocity of rebound. (Ans: =5ms-1) Calculating the kinetic energy at any point for a body
falling freely.
For a body not falling freely but as it falls it experiences air
resistance then the kinetic energy gained by the body just A P.E= mgh
before it hits the ground is calculated from: K.E= 0
𝐊. 𝐄 𝐠𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐝 = (𝐦𝐠 − 𝐑)𝐡

Where mg is the weight of the body, R is the air resistance B P.E T .= P.E 1 + K.E 1
and h is the height above the ground. P.E 1 = mgh 1
h mgh = mgh 1 + K.E 1
Example 4:
A 20kg body falls from 1.8m above the ground. If the air h1
resistance is 0.9N.
(i) Calculate the kinetic energy just before hitting the 𝟏
P.E= 0, K.E.= 𝒎𝒗𝟐 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉
ground. 𝟐

At A the body has all potential energy. So the energy at A is

Solution
mgh = Total energy.
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛; 𝑚 = 20𝑘𝑔, 𝑅 = 0.9𝑁, ℎ = 1.8𝑚, 𝐾. 𝐸. =?
At B the body has a mixture of kinetic energy and potential
energy.
[Link] =K.E1 + P.E1
mgh=K.E1 + mgh1
1
mgh= mv21 + mgh1
2
Where “h1” is the height above the ground.

©bagiradnl@[Link] 45
Example 5: 1:7:3. POWER
A stone of 150g is dropped from a height of 80m. Power is the rate of doing work. Or
Calculate the; Power is the rate of transfer of energy.
(i) Kinetic energy when it is 50m above the ground. Note: Work done is the same as energy transferred.

Solution: 𝐖𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐝𝐨𝐧𝐞 Energy transfered

150 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 = =
m=150g= =0.15kg, h1 =50m, h=80m. 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐞𝐧 Time taken
1000

A Where work done=Force × Distance

F×d d
30cm Power = = F × = FV
t t
𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 = 𝐅. 𝐕
Where V is the velocity of the body.
80cm 𝐦𝐠𝐡
𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 =
50cm 𝐭

Where mg is the weight of the body and h the height.

The S.I unit of power is watt (W).

1watt=1Js-1
(i) Method 2 :
mgh = K.E1 + mgh1 Given; a=10ms-2 , u=0ms-1 ,h=30m, v=?
Definition:
0.15(10)(80)=K.E1 + 0.15(10)(50) Where h is the height
A watt is the rate of transfer of energy of one joule per
120=K.E1 + 75 fallen through.
second.
K.E1 =120 - 75 Or It is the rate of doing work of 1joule in one second.
K.E1 =45J Then using the third
equation of motion, we
Example 1:
(ii) Its velocity when its 50m have;
An engine raises 20kg of water through a height of 50m in
above the ground. ဎ2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎ℎ 10 seconds. Calculate the power of the engine.
𝑣 2 = 02 + 2(10)(30) Solution:
Method 1 : 𝑣 2 = 600
1 𝑣 = √600 𝑚𝑠 −1 mgh
K.E1 = mv21 Power =
2 𝑣 = 24.49 𝑚𝑠 −1 t
1
45= ×0.15×v21 20(10)(50)
2 Power =
90=0.15v21 10
Power
600 =v21 = 1000W
√600 = 𝑣1
𝑣1 = 24.49𝑚𝑠 −1 Example 2:
An electric bulb is rated 100W. How much electrical energy
(iii) Its kinetic energy when it has fallen through 50m. does the bulb consume in 2hours.
Given; g=10ms-2 , h=80, h1 =(80-50)=30m, K.E=? Solution:
Where h is the height above the ground.
Then from; Energy used
mgh = K.E1 + mgh1 Power =
time taken
0.15(10)(80)=K.E1 + 0.15(10)(30)
120=K.E1 + 45 Energy used
K.E1 =120 - 745 100 =
2 × 60 × 60
K.E1 =75J
Enery used = 100(2 × 60 × 60)
Enery used = 720,000J

Example 3:
A man uses an electric motor whose power output is 3000W
for 1hour. If the motor consumes 1.44×107 J of electricity in
that time, find the efficiency of the motor.
Solution:
Given;Pout =3000W, t=1hr=1×60×60=3600s.
Energyinput =1.44×107 J

Energy input
power input =
time taken

©bagiradnl@[Link] 46
 iii) Some of the energy is also wasted in lifting useless loads
Ein like pistons.
Pin =
t
Qn1:
1.44×107 A pulley system of V.R six is used to lift a load of 250N
Pin = through a distance of 3m. If the effort applied is 50N,
36000
calculate how much energy is wasted.
Pin = 4000W
Qn2: A girl of mass 40kg runs up a stair case in 16 seconds.
Power output If each stair case is 20 cm high and she uses 100 Js −1 . Find
Efficiency = × 100% the number of stairs. [Ans: 20]
Power input

3000 See UNEB

Efficiency = × 100% 1994 Qn. 17 2006 Qn.7
4000
1989 Qn. 29 1997 Qn.5
Efficiency = 75% 2007 Qn.33 1995 Qn.9
1987 Qn.3 and Qn.24 1991 Qn.11
For machines 1993 Qn.4 and 18 1992 Qn.11
1997 Qn.10 2003 Qn.15
Power input is the power created by effort. 1999 Qn.2 and Qn.8 2007 Qn.6
Work input Effort × Effort Distance 2000 Qn.23 1993 Qn.4
Power input= = 2001 Qn.26 2005 Qn.45
Time taken Time taken

Power output is the power created by the load.

Work output Load × Load Distance
Power output= =
Time taken Time taken

Example 4:
An effort of 250N raises a load of 1000N through 5m in 10
seconds. If the velocity ratio is five, Calculate the:
i) Power input
ii) Efficiency
Solution:
Power Work output
( )=
(i) Given; input Time taken
Effort=250N, Load=1000N,
V.R=5, L.D=5m, t=10s Load×Load Distance
=
Time taken
E.D E.D
V.R= ⟺ 5= 1000×5
L.D 5 =
E.D=25m 10
Power output = 500 W
Power Work input
( )=
input Time taken (ii)
Power
( )
Effort×Effort Distance output
= Eff = × 100%
Time taken Power
( )
input
250×25 500
= Efficiency = × 100%
10 625
Power input=625 W Efficiency = 80%

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

A heat engine is a machine, which changes heat energy
obtained by burning fuel to kinetic energy (mechanical
energy)

Engines are always less than 100% efficient because:-

i) Some of the energy is lost in over coming friction between
walls of the cylinder and pistons.
ii) Some heat energy is lost to surrounding due to
conduction.

©bagiradnl@[Link] 47
 A box of dimensions 20cm by 1m by10cm weighs 30kg.
Determine the maximum and minimum pressures exerted by
the box on the ground.

1: 8 PRESSURE Given: -Dimensions; cm x 10cm x 20cm

-Mass, m = 30kg
Pressure is the force acting normally per unit area of the -Acceleration due to gravity, g = 10ms-2
surface.
𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞(𝐍)
𝑖. 𝑒 𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 =
𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚(𝐦𝟐 ) 10cm

The S.I unit of pressure is

a newton per square metre, (N⁄m2 or 𝐍𝐦−𝟐 ) or 20cm
a pascal(𝐏𝐚). 1m

Given:
A pascal is the pressure exerted when a force of 1N acts
-Dimensions; 1m x 2m x 3m
normally on an area of 𝟏 𝐦𝟐 .
-Mass, m = 30kg
-Acceleration due to gravity, g = 10ms-2
1:8:1. PRESSURE IN SOLIDS:
Force, F = Weight
Pressure in solids depends on;
= mg
 Magnitude of force applied
F = 30 × 10
 Cross sectional area in contact
F = 300N
Smallest Smallest Next smaller
Maximum and Minimum Pressure ( )=( )×( )
Area length length
Pressure increases when the area decreases and decreases 10 20
when the area increases. Amin = ( × ) = 0.02m2
Force or weight 𝐅 100 100
Thus:Maximum Pressue = ∶ i. e. 𝐏𝐦𝐚𝐱 =
Minimum Area 𝐀𝐦𝐢𝐧
F 300
Force or weight 𝐅
Then: Pmax = = = 15000 Nm−2 or 15000 Pa
Minimum Pressue = ∶ i. e. 𝐏𝐦𝐢𝐧 = Amin 0.02
Maximum Area 𝐀𝐦𝐚𝐱

Longest Next longer

Example 1: Largest Area = ( )×( )
length length
The box below weighs 60N. Determine the maximum and 20
minimum pressures it exerts on the ground. Amax = (1 × ) = 0.2m2
100

F 300
1m Pmin = = = 1500 Nm−2 or 1500 Pa
Amax 0.2

Example 3:
2m The dimension of a cuboid are 5cm x 10cm x 20cm and the
3m
mass of the cuboid is 6kg. Calculate the maximum and
Solution minimum pressures the cuboid exerts on the ground.
Given: Solution
-Dimensions; 1m x 2m x 3m Given: - Dimensions; 5cm x 10cm x 20cm
-Force, F=W = 60N -Mass, m = 6kg
-Acceleration due to gravity, g = 10ms-2 -Acceleration due to gravity, g = 10ms-2
Force, F = Weight
F = 60N
Smallest Smallest Next smaller 5cm
( )=( )×( )
Area length length
Amin = (1 × 2) = 2m2
F 60
Then: Pmax = = = 30 Nm−2 or 30 Pa 10cm
Amin 2 20cm

Longest Next longer

Largest Area = ( )×( ) F
length length) Then: Pmax =
2 Amin
Amax = (3 × 2) = 6m
F 60
Pmin = = = 10 Nm−2 or 10 Pa Force, F = Weight
Amax 6
F = mg
F = 6(10)
F = 60N
Example 2: Smallest Smallest Next smaller
( )=( )×( )
Area length length

©bagiradnl@[Link] 48
 30 20
Vw = × × 0.5
5 10 1 100 1000
Amin = ( × )= m2 = 0.005 m2 Vw = 0.003m−3
100 100 200

F 60 F = 2.5 × 10 + (0.003) × (1000) × 10

Pmax = = = 12000 Nm−2 or 12000 Pa F = 25 + 30
Amin 0.005 F = 50N
Longest Next longer
Largest Area = ( )×( )
length length 50 50
Pmax = = = 8333.33Nm−2 or 8333.33 Pa
20 10 1 2 0.006 0.006
Amax = ( × )= m = 0.02 m2
100 100 50 50
F 60 Pmin = = 333.33 Nm−2 or 333.33Pa
Pmin = = = 3000Nm−2 or 3000 Pa 0.15
Amax 0.02
(iii) When half filled with water.
Force, F = (Weight ofempty tank) + (weight of water)
F = mt g + mw g
Example 4: F = mt g + Vw ρw g
The tank below has a mass of 2.5kg. Determine the Where Volume of water, Vw = l × w × h
minimum and maximum pressure exerted by the tank on the 30 20
ground; When it is; Vw = × × 0.25
100 1000
−3
(i) empty Vw = 0.0015m
(ii) filled with water up to the brim.
(iii) half filled with water. (Density of water =1000kgm-3) Then, F = 2.5 × 10 + (0.0015) × (1000) × 10
F = 25 + 15
F = 40N
0.5m
40
Pmax = = 666.67Nm−2 or 666.67Pa
0.006
20mm
30cm 40
Pmin = = 266.67Nm−2 or 266.67Pa
0.15
Solution
(i) When empty Note: when calculating pressure, the unit of area of base
Given: - Dimensions; 5cm x 10cm x 20cm should always be in m2. From the above calculations it is
-Mass, m = 2.5kg noted that: the greater the area over which the force acts
-Acceleration due to gravity, g = 10ms-2 normally the less is the pressure.
Force, F = Weight
F = mg  A tractor with wide wheels can pass over soft ground
F = 2.5 × 10 because the greater area of wide wheel exerts less
F = 25N pressure.
 A hippopotamus of wide feet is able to walk on soft
Smallest Smallest Next smaller grounds without sinking because the greater area of
( )=( )×( )
Area length length wide hooves exerts less pressure.

20 30  When the same force is applied on a needle and nails

Amin = ( × ) = 0.006m2
1000 100 both placed on the hand, one tends to feel more pain
from the needle because the small area of needle exerts
F 25 greater pressure.
Pmax = = = 4166.67Nm−2 or 4166.67 Pa
Amin 0.006
 A sharp knife cuts well than a blunt one.
Longest Next longer
Largest Area = ( )×( )
length length Exercise:
1. Explain the following observations;
30 (i) A large reservoir is much wider at the base than at the top
Amax = (0.5 × ) = 0.15m2 (ii) In supply of water, smaller pipes are preferred to larger
100
ones.
F 25 2. A rectangular block of metal weighs 5 N and measures
Pmin = = = 166.67Nm−2 or 166.67 Pa 2 cm × 3 cm × 4 cm. What is the least pressure which it
Amax 0.15
can exert on a horizontal surface?
(ii) When filled with water to the brim A. 2.10 × 10-7 Pa B. 4.17 × 10-5 Pa
-5
Force, F = (Weight ofempty tank) + (weight of water) C. 6.25 × 10 Pa D. 8.30 × 10-5 Pa
F = mt g + mw g
F = mt g + Vw ρw g 3. See UNEB
Where Volume of water, Vw = l × w × h 1994. Qn.25 1991. Qn.5
2003. Qn.10 1995. Qn.15
©bagiradnl@[Link] 49
 1999. Qn.33 1996. Qn.39
Straw
1988. Qn.13 2002. Qn9

Bottle
1: 8 :2. PRESSURE IN FLUIDS: Atmospheric Pressure

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
The layer of air surrounding the earth is called the
atmosphere.
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight
of air on all objects on the earth’s surface. b) Rubber sucker
When the sucker is moistened and pressed on a smooth flat
Atmospheric Pressure depends on altitude. surface, the air is pushed out. Atmospheric pressure then
The density of air above the earth decreases as the altitude holds it firmly against the surface.
increases leading to the decrease of atmospheric pressure at Suckers are used for attaching car licenses to windscreen
high altitude and the vice versa. At sea level, the and in industry for lifting metal sheets.
atmospheric pressure is 1.0 × 105 Pa.
Defining pressure in fluids
Though the value of atmospheric pressure is large we do Fluids refer to gas or liquids. These take up the shape of the
not normally feel it because: container, so the volume of the liquid filling a cylindrical
-Blood pressure is slightly greater than atmospheric pressure container is equal to the volume of that cylindrical
-Atmospheric pressure acts equally in all direction. container.
Area of base = πr 2
Experiments to Demonstrate Existence of Atmospheric Volume of liquid = πr 2 h
Pressure. Mass of liquid = πr 2 hρ
a) Collapsing Can or Crushing Can Experiment.
Weight of liquid = πr 2 hρg
If air is removed from the can by a vacuum pump, the can h
collapses because the air pressure inside becomes less than
the atmospheric pressure.

Area of base = πr 2
Cold Water

Steam Atmospheric
pressure pressure Cork
Then from the definition of pressure:

Force(N) (πr 2 )hρg

Pressure = = = hρg
Area(m2 ) (πr 2 )
Atmospheric
pressure
𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 = 𝐡𝛒𝐠
Heat
Properties of fluids related to pressure

 A small quantity of water is boiled in a can until steam (i) A liquid finds its own level:
forms. Pressure in liquids does not depend on cross sectional area
 The steam drives out all the air inside the can, hence and shape of vessel containing the liquid.
reducing the pressure inside the can. This can be illustrated by an experiment using a
 The stopper is then tightly fitted onto the can and the communicating tube as shown below.
heat source removed.
 Cold water is then poured over the can. This causes the Tubes of different
steam inside to condense producing water and water Cross sectional area Liquids surfaces in all the tubes
vapour at very low pressure. and shape at the same level
 The excess atmospheric pressure outside the can causes
it to collapse inwards.

Importance of atmospheric pressure

a) Drinking straw
When sucking, lungs expand and air is driven out from the h
inside of the straw to the lungs.
This reduces the pressure inside the straw.
Then atmospheric pressure acting on surface of the liquid in A liquid is poured into the communicating tubes of different
the bottle is greater than air pressure in straw and so it forces cross-sectional areas.
the liquid up to the mouth.

©bagiradnl@[Link] 50
The liquid is found to stand at the same level in each tube.
This shows that pressure at same level is the same.
This is because the same atmospheric pressure acts on the
surface of water in each tube. Effort, F1 Load, 𝑭𝟐

(ii) Pressure at a given depth acts equally in all directions:

Piston
Pascal`s principle of transmission of pressure in fluids Fluid
It states that pressure in an enclosed fluid is equally
transmitted through out the fluid in all directions.
Pascal`s principle works because liquids are incompressible.
That is to say, their volumes can`t be reduced by squeezing.
Thus assuming a hydraulic press, which is 100% efficient,
An experiment to verify Pascal`s principle.
then,
Effort Area of smaller piston
=
Load Area of bigger piston

F1 A1
=
F2 A2

F1 πr2 F1 r2
= 2
⇒ = 2
Piston F2 πR F2 R
Water Where r and R are the radius of the smaller and bigger
pistons respectively.
Holes of equal size are drilled in a round bottomed flask and
covered with cork. Example 1:
The flask is then filled with water and the piston pushed A hydraulic press is made of two cylinders of cross-section
inside the flask. areas 20cm2 and 120cm2 respectively fitted tightly with
Water shoots out equally in all directions, and travels equal pistons A and B. A force of 10N applied on A is used to
distances. This verifies Pascal`s principle. raise a load on piston B. Calculate the maximum possible
force that can be raised on piston B.
Hydraulic machines Solution:
F A
Pascal’s principle states that: When a force exerted on a ;Then from 1 = 1
F2 A2
liquid, pressure is produced which is transmitted equally
throughout the liquid. Effort Load, 𝐹2

The above principle is applied in hydraulic press, hydraulic

brakes and hydraulic jacks. Liquids are almost
uncompressible so they can pass on any pressure applied to Piston A Piston B
Fluid
them.
In hydraulic press a small force is applied to a small piston
in order to raise, large force (load) placed on large piston.

(a) Hydraulic press

It consists of two interconnected cylinders of different 10 20
=
diameters enclosed by means of pistons which fit tightly in F2 120
the cylinders. 20F=1200
A high-density liquid like oil is used to fill the system. F= 60N
Effort applied on the smaller piston can be used to overcome
a larger load on the bigger piston. 2: A hydraulic press requires an effort of 100N acting on a
When a force (effort) is acting on the smaller piston, exerts piston of area 20cm2 to press a bale of cotton placed on a
pressure on the liquid. According to Pascal’s principle, the piston of area 240cm2. If the percentage efficiency of the
pressure will be transmitted equally to every point of the press is 80%, calculate the force applied on the bale.
liquid since the system is enclosed by the cylindrical
pistons. Solution:
The same pressure then acts on the bigger piston, where it
overcomes a bigger force (heavy load) because of the large F1 A1
Then from; =
area of the piston. F2 A2

©bagiradnl@[Link] 51
 1. A hydraulic press machine is used to raise a load W
100 80 20 placed on a piston of cross-sectional area of 100cm2 by
=( × ) using an effort of 20N at a piston of cross-sectional area of
F2 100 240
2cm2.
100 16 Calculate the;
=( ) (i) Pressure transmitted through out the liquid [P=100000Pa]
F2 240
(ii) Load, W. [W=1000N]
16F2=24000
2. A force of 100N is applied on a small piston of area
0.002m2. Find the maximum load that can be lifted by a
F2= 1500N
piston of area 0.8m2.
Advantage
3. Calculate the pressure at the bottom of a swimming pool
A small force applied on small piston can overcome a large
1000cm deep.{density of water = 1000kgm-3}
place load placed on a large piston.
4. A diver dives to a depth of 20m below the surface of sea
Hydraulic lift
water of density 1200kgm-3. Calculate the pressure
Experienced.

5. The tank below contains mercury and water. Find the

total pressure experienced at the bottom.
{Density of mercury = 13600kgcm-3, Density of water =
1000kgm-3}

This is commonly used in garages; it lifts cars so that repairs

and service on them can be done easily underneath the car.
A force applied to the small piston, raises the large piston,
which lifts the car. One valve allows the liquid to pass from
The small cylinder to the wider one, a second valve allows 6. (a) (i) Define Pressure and state its S.I unit.
more liquid (usually oil) to pass from oil reservoir on the left (ii) Describe how a hydraulic car Brake system works.
to the small cylinder. When one valve is open, the other (b) A hydraulic press has cylindrical pistons of radii
must be shut. 2cm and 0.4m respectively. Calculate the maximum Load
at that can be overcome by a force of 78N.
(b) Hydraulic brake:
7. Four different liquids are poured into identical
measuring cylinders. The diagrams show the depths of
Slave the liquids and their densities. Which liquid causes the
Cylinder To rear wheels largest pressure on the base of its measuring cylinder?
Brake
drum Master cylinder
Brake
shoe

To other Brake Brake

wheels fluid pedal

When the brake pedal is placed, the pressure exerted inside

the master cylinder is transmitted equally to all the slave
cylinders.
Factors affecting pressure in fluids
At the slave cylinder, the pressure acts on the pistons which Generally, pressure at any point in a liquid is the same in all
are connected to the brake shoes (pads). direction and depends on the following factors:
i) Depth “h” below the surface of the liquid
This presses the brake shoes against the brake drum (disc) ii) Density 𝛒 of the liquid
hence creating friction, which opposes the rotation drum and iii) Pressure exerted on the surface of the liquid.
therefore the wheel. This results in the stopping of the car.

Exercise:

©bagiradnl@[Link] 52
Experiment to show that pressure increases with depth.
The jars are then filled to the same height, with liquids of
Tap different densities e.g paraffin and water.

The distance to which the liquids jet out is observed and

compared.
A
Tall tank It is observed that water jets furthest compared to paraffin
i.e; x2>[Link] the higher pressure is exerted by water than
Water paraffin at the same depth.
B Therefore, the higher the density, the higher the pressure.

MEASURING FLUID PRESSURE

C
C (a) Using a manometer

(i) Measurement of Liquid pressure

Rubber tubing Atmospheric

pressure

Procedures:
Equally, spaced holes A, B and C of the same size are C
drilled at different depths along one vertical side of a
cylindrical can. h
Thistle
The holes are then closed using corks.
funnel A B
Water is then poured into the can to full capacity.
The corks are then removed at the same time and the Liquid
distance from the can to where water fom each hole lands Mercury
noted.

Observation:
Water comes out fastest and lands furthest from the lowest One arm of the manometer is connected to a thistle funnel
hole C followed by B and then least from A. whose base is covered with a thin membrane and the other
This means that pressure is highest at C, which is deepest. end remains open to the atmosphere.
Hence, pressure in liquids increases with depth.
The difference in the liquid surface levels, h gives the
Water supply system: pressure at point A and it is called the gauge pressure or
Water supply often comes from reservoirs at a higher absolute pressure.
ground level. In a very tall building, it is necessary to pump 𝐀𝐛𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 = 𝐇 + 𝐡𝛒𝐠
water to a large tank in the roof.
All the above are done because the lower the place supplied
the greater the water pressure at it. (ii) Measurement of Gas pressure
Experiment to show that pressure depends on density Atmospheric
pressure
Tap
Gas
supply
C
Tall Jar
Tall Jar
h
Paraffin of Water of
density A B
800kgm3
1000kgm-3
Mercury

-Connect a manometer to a gas supply as shown above

-Turn on the gas.
𝐱𝟏 𝐱𝟐 -The gas exerts a pressure at a point A. This causes the
Two tall jars of the same size and height, each with a hole liquid to rise in the opposite arm until the pressure in both
punched at equal depth are used. arms is the same.

©bagiradnl@[Link] 53
-The gas pressure in one arm (limb) is equal to the pressure
in the opposite limb. Atmospheric Atmospheri
Atmospheric
Pressure, H Pressure,
c H
Pressure at A = Pressure at B
Atmospheric pressure due Pressure, H
Pressure at A = ( )+( )
pressure to mercury column
𝐆𝐚𝐬 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 = 𝐇 + 𝐡𝛒𝐠

20cm 16cm
(b) Using a bourdon gauge B
Water
This gauge measures the very high pressures of liquids or Alcohol
gases, e.g. the pressure of steam in boilers.
Mercury
It is a hollow curved tube of springy metal closed at one
end. The tube straightens slightly when pressure acts on the
inside.
The closed end of the tube is joined to a series of levers and From; P = hρg,
gear wheels which magnify the slight movement. ha ρa g = hw ρw g
A pointer moving over a scale (usually graduated in 10 5 pa, ρa (20)(10) = 1000 × 16 × 10
ρa = 800kgm−3
which is about 1 atmosphere pressure) records
Then, the recorded pressure is the excess pressure of liquid Expressing cmHg or mmHg pressure in Nm-2 or Pa
or gas over atmospheric pressure, but some gauges can This is done by applying of formula pressure = hρ𝒈 where
record the actual pressure. h is the liquid column which should be in meters, ρ is the
density of the liquid and it should be in kgm-3 and 𝒈 is the
acceleration due to gravity (𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟐 ).

Example 1
Express a pressure of 75cmHg given that the density of
mercury (Hg) is 13600kgm-3.

Solution
Given: Then from,
75 Pressure = hρ𝑔
h =75cm, = m
100
Pressure = (0.75) × (13600) ×10
= 0.75m.
=102000Pa
Thus, 75cmHg =102000Pa.
ρ =13600Kgm-3
g = 10ms −2

Example 2
The manometer contains mercury so the atmospheric
pressure is 76cm Hg. Calculate the gas pressure in cm Hg
and Nm-2.

Bourdon gauges are commonly used at filling stations. Atmospheric

Pressure, H
Example:1
Gas
Mercury was poured in a U- tube such that it finds its own
level. When a column of 20cm of alcohol was poured on
one side of the tube, it was necessary to pour 16cm of water
on the other side to maintain equal mercury levels on both
sides as shown below. Find the density of alcohol. h

Solution

Gas pressure = Hatm + h Expressing in Nm-2

Gas pressure = 76 + 54.4 Gas pressure
= 130.4cmHg = (Hatm + h)ρg
130.4
=( ) × 13600 × 10
100
= 177344Nm−2

©bagiradnl@[Link] 54
Exercise:
1. In an experiment to compare density of two liquids,
water and spirit were used. The height of water was
found to be 8cm and that of spirit was 12cm. Given that
the density of water is 1000kgm-3. Find the density of
the spirit. [Ans: 666.67kgm-3]

2. The manometer tubes below contain mercury and

connected to a gas supply. Find the gas pressure.
[Atmospheric pressure =103360Pa].

(a) [Ans:177344Pa]

Gas
supply
Determine the total pressure of the gas in M, given that the
atmospheric pressure is 760mm of mercury.
A) 114cm Hg B) 106cm Hg
54.4cm C) 30cm Hg D) 46cm Hg

Mercury A simple barometer of mercury

A barometer is a manometer which measures atmospheric
pressure.

Describing how a simple mercury barometer is made in the

(b) [Ans:109620Pa] laboratory.
The description involves the following the following
points:-
Gas  Filling a 1m long thick walled tube
supply A 1 m long thick walled tube is filled with mercury

 Inverting the filled tube

The above filled is inverted several time with finger over the
open end. This is done in order for the large air bubble to
17cm run up and down collecting any air small air bubble in
mercury.
10cm
 Refilling the tube
After inverting several times, the tube is refilled with
mercury.
(c)
 Inverting the filled tube into a bowl.
With a finger on the open end, the filled tube is inverted into
Gas a bowl of mercury.
supply When the finger is removed, the mercury column falls until
it is equal to atmospheric pressure.

12cm Torricellian vacuum

Tall glass tube

h

Trough
Mercury
5. In the figure below, a fixed mass of dry gas is trapped
in bulb M.

From the above apparatus, when the air above the mercury
in the bottle is pumped out, the column falls.

©bagiradnl@[Link] 55
Testing the vacuum 528
If the vacuum is faulty and contains air or water-vapour, the = 0.76 − h
13600
barometer reads than the true atmospheric pressure. h = 0.7212m

Testing for the vacuum of a mercury barometer. Exercise:

This is done by tilting the tube until at a position when 1. The pressure difference between the top and the bottom of
mercury was a vacuum. a mountain is 1.0 × 104 Nm−2 . If the density of air is
1.25kgm-3. Find the height of the mountain. [Ans: 800m]

2. A barometer reads 780mmHg at the foot of the mountain

which is 450m high. What is the barometer reading at the
top of the mountain.(Density of air is 1.25kgm-3 and that of
mercury is 13600kgm-3). [Ans: 738.9mmHg]

Other types of Barometers.

1) Fortin Barometer
When the tube is tilted as in the diagram, the vertical height
of column “h” of mercury remains the same but the length
of mercury increases.

When a mercury barometer is taken from sea level to the top

of a mountain i.e. low altitude to high altitude, the mercury
column falls.

This is because the atmospheric pressure decreases at the top

of the mountain. The decrease in atmospheric pressure is
due to density of air decreasing because air is less
compressed above. Deep-sea divers must return slowly to
the surface because the sudden decrease in pressure when
they return fast from deep water is very painful

Pilots operating at great heights must have protective

headgear to prevent nose bleeding because atmospheric
pressure at great height is much smaller tan blood pressure.

Calculating the height of the reading of the mercury

barometer at high altitude:
It is constructed like a simple mercury barometer but with a
This is calculated from; provision for accurate determination of atmospheric
Pressure change for air=Pressure change for mercury pressure.
There is a vernier scale for accurate reading of the mercury
level.
𝐡𝐚 𝛒𝐚 𝐠 = (𝐇𝐚𝟒𝐦 − 𝐡𝐦 𝛒𝐦 𝐠)
2) Aneroid Barometer
𝐡𝐚 𝛒𝐚 𝐠 = (𝐇𝐚𝐭𝐦 − 𝐡𝐦 )𝛒𝐦 𝒈
It does not use any liquid.
Where: 𝐡𝐚 is the height of altitude, 𝛒𝐚 is the density of air, Pointer
Fine chain
𝐡𝐦 is the mercury column barometer at that altitude and
𝐇𝐚𝐭𝐦 is atmospheric pressure before rising.
Lever
Spring system
Example; 1
A barometer is taken to the top of a mountain 440cm high. If Pivot
the atmospheric pressure is 76cm Hg at sea level, the
average density of air = 1.2Kg/m3 and mercury is Evacuated
13600Kg/m3. Calculate the barometer reading. metal box

Solution:  It consists of a sealed flat box (chamber) with flexible

Patm =76cm= 76 Pressure change Pressure change walls.
100 ( )=( )
=0.76mHg for air for mercury  The box is evacuated but prevented from collapsing by
ρmer=13600kgm−3 ha ρa g = (Hatm − hm )ρm g means of a spring.
ρair=1.2kgm−3 ha ρa = (Hatm − hm )ρm  The box expands and contracts in response to changes
in atmospheric pressure.
440 × 1.2 = (0.76 − h) × 13600  The movements of the box are magnified by a system of
hHg =?
528 = 13600 × (0.76 − h) levers and transmitted to a fine chain attached to a
hair = 440m
pointer, which moves along a suitably calibrated scale.

©bagiradnl@[Link] 56
APPLICATIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE:
Down Spout
[Link] Lift Pump: stroke
Lift pumps are used to raise water from deep under ground Compressed air
wells.
Reservior
Structure Valve B
It consists of a long cylindrical barrel, inside which is a
plunger (piston). It has two valves one at the entry point to
the barrel and the other at the plunger. Valve A Atmospheric
Pressure
Down Up stroke
stroke
Barrel
Action
Spout The action of the force pump is also explained in terms
Plunger upstroke and down stroke.
Valve A
Up stroke.
Valve B  Valve B closes and the atmospheric pressure forces the
Atmospheric water into the barrel through valve A.
Pressure
Down stroke.
 Valve A closes due to the weight of the water above it.
 The water in the barrel is forced through valve B into
Action the reservoir, C and out of the spout D.
The action of the lift pump is explained in terms of what  The air trapped in the reservoir is compressed and as
happens when the plunger is moving upwards (up stroke) aresult, it keeps on pushing the water out of the
and when moving downwards (down stroke). reservoir through the spout even when in upstoke.

Up stroke. [Link] Applications of atmospheric Pressure:

 Valve A closes due to the weight of water above it. (i) Drinking straw
 The weight above valve B reduces. This causes the (ii) Sunction pad
atmospheric pressure acting on the surfsce of water in (iii) Siphon
the well, to push the water up through the pipe into the (iv) Rubber suckers
burrel. (v) Bicycle pump
 Consquently, water above the plunger is lifted upwards (vi) Water supply system
and it flows out through the spout.
Rubber Sucker
Down stroke.
This is circular hollow rubber cap before it is put to use it is
 Valve B closes due to the pressure on it, while valve A
moisturized to get a good air seal and firmly pressed against
opens due to the pressure exerted by water in the burrel.
 Water the passes upwards through valve A into the area a small flat surface so that air inside in pushed out then
above the plunger. atmospheric pressure will hold it firmly against surface as
shown below
Limitations of the lift pump
It can only raise water to a maximum height of 10 metres.
This is because the atmospheric pressure can only support a
water column of 10 metres.

[Link] Force Pump:

The force pump is designed to overcome the limitations of
the lift pump. It can raise water to heights greater than
10metres.

Structure
Uses of rubber sucker;
-It is used printing machines for lifting papers to be fed into
the printer.

The siphon;

©bagiradnl@[Link] 57
This is used to take the liquid out of vessels (eg. Aquarium,
petrol tank)

How a siphon works

The pressure at A and D is atmospheric, therefore the
pressure at E is atmospheric pressure plus pressure due to -Pour one liquid in one arm of a manometer and pour the
second liquid in the other arm.
The column of water DE. Hence, the water at E can push its
-Measure the height of the liquids in the two arms, h1 and h2.
way out against atmospheric pressure.. PA = PA
NB: To start the siphon it must be full of liquid and end A H + h1 ρ1 g = H + h1 ρ1 g
must be below the liquid level in the tank. h1 ρ1 = h1 ρ1

Applications of siphon principle (ii) Immiscible Liquids.

1. Automatic flushing tank:
This uses siphon principle.
Water drips slowly from a tap into the tank. The water
therefore rises up the tube until it reaches and fills the bend
In the pipe siphon action starts and the tank empties (the
water level falls to the end of the tube).The action Is then
repeated again and again.

2. Flushing tank of water closet:

This also uses the siphon principle. -Pour one liquid in one arm of a manometer and pour the
When the chain or handle is pulled, water is raised to fill the second liquid in the other arm.
bend in the tube as shown below: -Measure the height of the liquids in the two arms, h1 and h2.
PA = PA
H + h1 ρ1 g = H + h1 ρ1 g
h1 ρ1 = h1 ρ1

Comparison of densities of liquids using Hare’s

apparatus

The siphon action at once starts and the tank empties.

Comparison of densities of liquids

(i) Miscible liquids
Here, a third liquid usually mercury is used to separate the
two miscible liquids.

©bagiradnl@[Link] 58
 Example 3
The atmospheric pressure at the bottom of a mountain is
Liquids of different densities are placed in glass pots as 100000Pa. If the mountain is 800m high, and the density of
shown above. air is1.25 kgm−3 . Find the pressure at the top of the
When the gas tap is opened each liquid rises to different mountain.
height h1 and [Link] they are subjected to the same gas Solution:
supply, 𝐏𝐛𝐨𝐭𝐭𝐨𝐦 = 𝐏𝐭𝐨𝐩 + 𝐡𝛒𝐠
-Measure the height of the liquids in the two arms, h1 and h2.
100000 = Ptop + 800(1.25)(10)
PA = PA
H + h1 ρ1 g = H + h1 ρ1 g Ptop = 90000 Pa
h1 ρ1 = h1 ρ1
Exercise:
Example 1 1. Using Hare’s apparatus, with water another liquid A
Water and kerosene are placed in U-tube containing in a container, water rises to a height of 60cm and
mercury as shown above. Determine the density of liquid A rises to a height of 48cm. If liquid A weighs
kerosene? 5g, determine the volume of liquid A.

2. See UNEB
1999 Qn. 17 1994 Qn. 3
1989 Qn. 12 2002 Qn. 9
1990 Qn.17 2007 Qn.17 and Qn.30
1991 Qn. 3 2000 Qn.2
1993 Qn.2 and Qn.20 2003 Qn.43
1994 Qn. 16 1995 Qn.2
1997 Qn.11

MOTION IN FLUIDS
When a body falls through a fluid it will be acted on by
three forces namely:
i) weight of the body
ii) viscous force (Viscous drag)
iii) up thrust
Pressure of kerosene= Pressure of water (since both tube are
open to the atmosphere) Directions of the above forces.
PA = PA i) Weight of body: down ward direction towards earth.
H + h1 ρ1 g = H + h1 ρ1 g ii) Up thrust: upward direction
iii) Viscous force; direction opposite to that of motion
h1 ρ1 = h1 ρ1
8(1000) = 10ρ1
ρ1 = 800 kgm−3 Viscous
Drag Upthrust
Example 2
The diagram below shows heights to which liquids A and B
have risen in an inverted U-tube, when some air has been
Body
pumped at P. Find the density of liquid B if that of A is
800 kgm−3 .[Ans: 𝜌 = 640 kgm−3]
Weight of the body

Direction of motion
The direction of motion is determined by direction of the
viscous force, which is a force that opposes motion like in

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the above body the direction of motion is down ward
because the viscous force is acting in upward direction.

Describing motion of a body falling in a fluid

Tall Glass Jar

V U A B C
spherical
metal ball
The pressure falls in the in the narrow part B but rises again
W Viscous fluid in the wider part C. This is because, since B is narrow, the
-As the body falls, it accelerates first with a net force speed at which the liquid moves through it is higher, hence
(resultant force) given by the equation. the fall in pressure.
F=W – (v+u) Or F=W – v – u Note:
 Fluid pressure changes with the rate of flow in the pipe
-As the body continues to fall, it attains a maximum uniform  Speed of water is greater at the constriction
velocity called terminal velocity when weight of body (W) =  The order of pressure in the tubes decreases in the order
Viscous force (v) + up thrust (u) A, C and B.
W=v+u Or W – v= u
b) Gases
Terminal velocity is the uniform velocity attained by a Bernoulli Effect in an air stream can be shown by blowing
body falling through a fluid when the net force on the body air between two sheets.
is zero such that: Weight = Viscous force + up thrust
V(ms-1) a(ms-2) Air Blow

𝑉𝑇

0 t(s) 0 t(s) Sheet of

Velocity and acceleration graphs for a body falling in a fluid. paper

BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
It states that when the speed of the fluid increases, the
pressure in the fluid decreases and vice versa.
When air is blown the two sheets come together because the
Liquids flowing in a pipe have three kinds of energies, air between them moves faster resulting in decrease of
namely; pressure between them.
 kinetic energy
 potential energy Application of Bernoulli’s principle
 pressure energy i) When the fluid comes out of a jet, the speed increases as
the sum of these three energies is a constant. the pressure decreases.
ii) At the jet the gas comes out at high speed so the pressure
a) Liquid is low at the jet. This results in air to be drawn in.
iii) A spinning ball takes a curved path because the ball drag
air around causing air to pass more rapidly over one side
than the other. This results in pressure difference that causes
a resultant force on the ball.

When the liquid flows through the uniform tube, the level
goes on decreasing as shown in the diagram, the faster the
liquid, the lower the pressure.

iv) An aero plane wing called aero foil is shaped so that air
has to travel farther and so faster on the top than underneath.
This results in a pressure difference that causes a resultant
up ward force on the wing, thus it lifts.

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 1: 9. ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE

Up thrust is an upward force due to the fluid resisting being

compressed. When any object is immersed or submerged
into fluid its weight appears to have been reduced because it
experiences an up thrust from the fluid.

Archimedes principle states that when a body is either

v) When two large vehicles pass each other, a force of wholly or partly submerged in a fluid the up thrust is equal
attraction is experienced. This is because: to the weight of fluid displaced. i.e
The speeding vehicles drag layers of air along with them. As
these layers of air pass each other at high speed, they cause a 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = ( ) = (𝑽𝒇 𝝆𝒇 )𝒈.
pressure decrease. 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
This results in the vehicles being pushed towards each other.
Experiment: To verify Archimedes principle
Fluid flow
A fluid is a liquid or gaseous substance.

There are two types of fluid flow namely: Ww

Spring Spring
i) Stream line flow
Wa Balance Balance
ii) Turbulent flow
Displaced
Stream line flow or Steady flow or Laminar flow Object in
water water
Is the type of fluid flow where all the fluid particles that
pass a given point follow the same path at the same speed. Object
in air
Stream line flow occurs where the slope falls gently so that
the fluid flows slowly and uniformly.  Weight Wa of object in air
It is obtained by making the; An object is weighed in air using a spring balance to obtain
 Diameter of the pipe wide Wa.
 Fluid flow slowly and uniformly.  Weight Ww of object in water
The object is weighed when completely immersed in water
using a spring balance to obtain Ww and the displacement
Stream lines water collected in beaker as shown below.

 Weight of displaced water

By using a spring balance the beaker is weighed with the
Turbulent flow displaced water when it’s empty
Is type of fluid flow in which the speed and direction of the
fluid particles passing any given point vary with time.  Up thrust “U” = Wa - Ww
It is found that weight of displaced water is equal to up
Turbulent flow occurs where the slope is so steep, such as at thrust. Thus Archimedes’ principle.
a water fall and when there is a constriction.
Due to constriction or steep slope, water tends to flow very Calculations involving Archimedes principle
fast and so disorderly. For any calculation involving Archimedes’ principle the
It is obtained by making the; following should be noted:
 Diameter of the pipe narrow i) The body should be completely immersed or submerged.
 Fluid flow very fast and disorderly, by lying the pipe ii) The weight of the body when completely immersed or
steeply. submerged is called its apparent weight.
The apparent weight is less than the weight of the body
Differences between streamline and turbulent flow. because when the body is immersed it experiences an up
Turbulent Streamline thrust.
Is due to steep slope or Is due to slope falling 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓
constriction so that water gently so that the water 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
flows very fast and flows slowly and uniformly [ ]=[ ]−[ ]
𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
disorderly throughout. throughout. 𝑜𝑟 ( )
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕, 𝑼 = 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒇

iii) According to Archimedes Principle;

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
[𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡] = [ ]=[ ]
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
= 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒇
= 𝑉𝑓 𝜌𝑓 𝑔

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Where 𝑉𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌𝑓 are the volume and density of the Example 3:
displaced fluid. An iron cube of volume 800cm3 is totally immersed in
For a body completely immersed or submerged fully, (a)Water (b) oil of density [Link] the up thrust
according to the displacement method, in each case. Density of water =1000 kgm-3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑏 = 800𝑐𝑚−3 = 800/(100x100x100) kgm-3;
[ ; 𝑉𝑏 ] = [ ;𝑉]
𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑓
Solution
Weight = mg and m =𝑉𝜌 where “m” is mass in kg, V is (a) Upthrust in water
volume, and 𝜌 is density. ρf =1gcm-3=1000 kgm-3
But up thrust = weight of displaced fluid. Vf=Vb= 800𝑐𝑚−3 = 800/(100x100x100) kgm-3;
= mf g (where mf is mass of displaced fluid) Up thrust = weight of displaced water
Up thrust = (Vf 𝝆f ) g 𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑉𝑓 𝜌𝑓 𝑔
800
Upthrust = ( ) × 1000 × 10
Up thrust = Vf Vf g 100 × 100 × 100
Upthrust = 8 N
Where “V” is volume of displaced fluid “𝜌” is density of
fluid. (b) Upthrust in the oil
ρf = 0.8 gcm-3=0.8x1000kgm-3=800 kgm-3
Example: 1
A glass blocks weight 25N. When wholly immersed in Up thrust = weight of displaced water
water, the block appears to weigh 15N. Calculate the Up Upthrust = Vf ρf g
thrust. 800
Upthrust = ( ) × 800 × 10
Solution 100 × 100 × 100
Wa = 25N; Wf = 15N; Upthrust = 6.4 N
Upthrust = Wa − Wf
= 25 − 15 Note: the greater the density, the greater the up thrust. The
Upthrust = 10N apparent weight of a body is less in fluids of greater density.

Example 2: Example 3:
A metal weighs 20 N in air and 15N when fully immersed in An iron cube, mass 480g and density 8g/cm3 is suspended
water Calculate the: by a string so that it is half immersed in oil of density
i) Up thrust; 0.9g/cm3. Find the tension in string.
ii) Weight of displaced water
iii) Volume of Displaced Water Solution
Solution m = 480g, 𝜌b= 8 gcm-3
480
𝑊𝑎 = 20𝑁; 𝑊𝑓 = 15𝑁; Wa= mg = ( ) × 10 = 4.8N
1000
i) Up thrust; ii) Weight of displaced water ρf =0.9gcm-3= 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kgm-3
Upthrust = Wa − Wf Weight of displaced fluid
= 20 − 15 = up thrust Vb =
mb
=
480
= 60 𝑚3
Upthrust = 5N = 5N ρb 8
1
Since its half –immersed then: Vf of oil = × 60 = 30cm3
2
iii) Volume of Displaced Water Up thrust = weight of displaced fluid
Weight of displaced fluid = up thrust Upthrust = Vf ρf g
Weight of displaced fluid = up thrust = 𝑽_ 𝝆𝒇 𝒈 . 30
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑉𝑓 𝜌𝑓 𝑔 . Upthrust = ( ) × 900 × 10
100 × 100 × 100
5 = 𝑉𝑓 × 1000 × 10. Upthrust = 0.27 N
5 = 10000𝑉𝑓 .
5 Tension in string = Apparent weight (Wf)
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑈𝑝𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑊𝑎 − 𝑊𝑓
10000
𝑉𝑓 = 5 × 10−4 𝑚3 0.27 = 4.8 − 𝑊𝑓
𝑊𝑓 = 4.8 − 0.27
iv) Volume of the metal 𝑊𝑓 = 4.53 𝑁
Volume of the metal = Volume of displaced fluid Thus Tension in string = 4.53 N
= 5 × 10−4 𝑚3
Application of Archimedes principle
v) Density of the metal (a) Relative density of a solid
W𝑎 = 20N By Archimedes principle, the apparent weight is equal to the
Wa = Vb ρb g weight of water displaced by the solid. The volume of this
20 = (5 × 10−4 ) × ρb × 10 water displaced is the same as the volume of the solid.
20 = 0.005ρb But apparent loss in weight of solid in water = Wa – Ww
20 RelativeDensity(R. D)
ρb = Weight of solid in air
0.005 𝐑. 𝐃 =
ρb = 4000 kgm−3 Apparent loss in weight of solid in water

©bagiradnl@[Link] 62
 Where Wa is weight of body floating, Wf is weight of
Weight of solid in air 𝐰𝐚 displaced fluid.
= =
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐖𝐚−𝐖𝐰

𝑾 𝒇 = 𝑽𝒇 𝝆 𝒇 𝒈
Wa- Ww = Upthrust: Where; Wa is weight of solid in air. Ww Where Vf is volume of displaced fluid
is weight of solid in water
𝑾 𝒃 = 𝑽𝒃 𝝆 𝒃 𝒈
Example Where Vb is volume of floating body, ρb is density of
A glass block weighs 25N. When wholly immersed in water floating body “g” is acceleration due to gravity
the block appears to weigh 15N. Calculate the relative
density.
In general: 𝑽𝒃 𝝆 𝒃 𝒈 = 𝑽𝒇 𝝆 𝒇 𝒈
Solution
wa Thus: 𝒎𝒃 = 𝒎𝒇
Wa = 25N; Wf = 15N; R. D =
Upthrust = Wa − Wf Wa−Ww
= 25 − 15
25 Example 1:
Upthrust = 10N R. D =
10 A piece of cork of volume 100cm3 is floating on water.
If the density of the cork is 0.25gcm-3. Calculate the volume
R. D = 2.5 of cork immersed in water.

(b) Relative density of liquid Solution

This is determined by using a solid. This solid sinks in water (a) Upthrust in water
and in the liquid for which the relative density is to be ρf =1gcm-3=1000 kgm-3 : ρb = 0.25gcm-3 = 0.25 x 1000kgm-3
determined. Vb= 100𝑐𝑚−3 = 100/(100x100x100) kgm-3;
A solid of weight Wa is weighed when completely immersed
in the liquid to obtain Wl. The solid is then weighed when Up thrust = weight of displaced water
completely immersed in water to obtain Ww. Upthrust = Vf ρf g
So ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑅. 𝐷) is given by; 800
Upthrust = ( ) × 1000 × 10
100 × 100 × 100
Apparent loss in weight of solid in liquid Upthrust = 8 N
R. D =
Apparent loss in weight of solid in water
Upthrust = Vf ρf g
Up𝑡hrust in liquid 𝐰𝐚 − 𝐰𝐥 mb = Vb ρb
= =
Upthrust in water 𝐰𝐚 − 𝒘𝐰
100
Vf × 1000 = ( ) × (0.25 × 1000) × 10
Example 100 × 100 × 100
A metal weighs 25N in air. When completely immersed in
liquid it weighs 15N and it weighs 20N when completely 1000Vf = 2.5
immersed in water. Calculate the relative density of the Vf = 0.000025 m3 or 2.5 × 10−5 m3
liquid.
Exercise:
Solution 1. A glass block weighs 25N in air. When wholly immersed
Wa = 25N; Wl = 15N; Ww = 20N: in water, the block weighs 15N. Calculate the;
w −w
Relative density of liquid = a l = (
25−15 10
) = = 2.0 (i) up thrust on the block [10N]
Wa−Ww 25−20 5 (j) density of the glass kgm-3 [2500kgm-3]
2. A piece of iron weighs 555N in air. When completely
𝐅𝐋𝐎𝐀𝐓𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍 immersed in water, it weighs 530N and weighs 535N when
When a stone is placed on water, it sinks because its weight completely immersed in alcohol. Calculate the relative
is greater than the up thrust. When a cork is held below the density of alcohol. [R.D=0.8]
surface of water, it rises on release. This is because the up
thrust on the cork is greater than its weight. 3. UNEB 1991. Qn. 7
4. UNEB 1990. P2 Qn. 5
A piece of wood neither rises nor sinks but floats because
the up thrust on the piece of wood and its weigh just balance Experiment: To verify the Law of Floatation
so it experiences no net force.

In general a body floats because up thrust is equal to weight

of the body. A body will sink because up thrust on it is less
than the weight of the body.

The principle of flotation states that: A floating body

displaces its own weight of fluid i.e. for a floating body;
weight of body = weight of displaced fluid
𝑾𝒃 = 𝑾𝒇

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 Cotton loop

Test tube
Measuring Cylinder

Lead shots

Water

(ii) Submarines
Procedure The average density of submarines is varied by means of
 A test tube is placed in a measuring cylinder containing
ballast tanks. For the submarines to float, the ballast tanks
water and the original reading of the water level (V1) is
are filled with air. To sink the submarines, the tanks are
noted.
filled with water causing average density to rise higher than
 Lead shots are added to the test tube until it floats up
that of water.
right and the new water level (V2) is noted.
Volume of displaced water = (V2 − V1 )cm3 (iii) Ships
Weight of displaced water = ρw (V2 − V1 )𝑔 Why ships float.
Ships float on water, although they are made from iron and
 The test tube together with the shots is removed from steel which are denser than water. This is because a steel or
the cylinder and weighed using a spring balance. (The iron ship is made hollow and contains air. So the average
cotton loop helps to attach it to the balance hook). Their density of the ship is less than that of water.
weight is recorded, 𝐖_ .
(Weight of lead shots + testtube) = Wa The loading lines called plimsoul marks on the sides show
the level to which it can be safely loaded under different
Observation conditions.
 The weight of lead shots and test tube is equal to the Weight of displaced water (Ww) = weight of the ship (Ws) +
weight of displaced water. weight of the cargo (Wc).
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 Weight of 𝐖𝐰 = 𝐖𝐬 + 𝐖𝐜
( )=( )
𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑠 + 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 displaced water
(iv) Balloons
Conclusion These are airships used in meteorological measurements.
 From the above observation, it is noticed that the law of A balloon filled with hydrogen weighs less than the weight
floatation is verified. of air it displaces.
The up thrust being greater than its weight, a resultant up
Application of the law of floatation ward force on the balloon causes it to rise.
(i) A hydrometer (iii) Ships The balloon continues to rise up until the upthrust acting on
(ii) Submarines (iv) Balloons it is equal to the weight of the balloon plus its content and
then it floats.
The lifting power of the balloon is calculated from the
(i) A hydrometer formula:
The relative density of any liquid may be found using a 𝑈 = 𝑊𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑛 + 𝑊ℎ𝑦㄰𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 + 𝑊𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
hydrometer. 𝑈 = 𝑚𝑏 𝑔 + 𝑉ℎ 𝜌ℎ 𝑔 + 𝑚𝑙 𝑔
-It is used to test the purity of milk.
-It is used to test R.D of a car battery acid.
Upthrust in air = Weight of displaced air
This consists of a float with along stem. A heavy weight is
Upthrust in air = ρa Va g
placed beneath the float to keep the hygrometer up right.
The higher the hydrometer float the higher the relative
Example: 1
density of the liquid.
A balloon has a capacity 10m3 and is filled with hydrogen.
The balloon’s fabric and the container have a mass of
1.25kg. Calculate the maximum mass the balloon can lift.
{Density of hydrogen = 0.089kgm-3: density of
air=1.29kgm-3}
Solution:
Volume of balloon,Vb = 10m3
Density of hydrogen, ρh = 0.089kgm−3
Density of air, ρa = 1.29kgm−3
Volume of air displaced,Va =Volume of balloon,Vb = 10m3
Volume of hydrogen, Vh =Volume of balloon,Vb = 10m3
Mass of balloon and container,= 1.25kg
Let the mass of the load = x

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Upthrust = Weight of balloon + weight of H2 + load
U = mb g + Vh ρh g + ml g  Final velocity v’
Va ρa g = mb g + Vh ρh g + ml g The velocity with which a body ends motion for a given
10 × 1.29 × g = 1.25 × g + 0.089 × 10 × g + x × g time.
x = 10.76kg Note: if a body is brought to rest, then the final velocity is
zero ie, v = 0m/[Link]; A body traveling at 20m/s is uniformly
Relationship between density of a floating body, density brought to rest in 2s. Then; v = 0m/s.
of a liquid and fraction submerged The units of velocity must include m/s or km/hr or cm/s.
Density of Fraction Density of
( )=( )×( ) Average velocity:
floating object submerged liquid

Exercise: Final velocity + Initial velocity

Average Velocity =
1. A rubber balloon of mass 5g is inflated with hydrogen 2
and held stationary by means of a string. If the volume
V+u
of the inflated balloon is 0.005m3, find the tension in Average Velocity =
2
the string.
(Assume hydrogen is a light gas, and density of air = Uniform velocity
1.25kg-3): [Ans: 1.25 X 10-2N] Is the constant rate of change of displacement.
OR
2. UNEB: 1995. Qn. 7 5. UNEB: 1989. Qn. 4 Uniform velocity is when a body makes equal displacements
3. UNEB: 1988. Qn. 11 6. UNEB: 2001. Qn.2 in equal time intervals.
4. UNEB: 2000. Qn. 40 When a body moves with uniform velocity, initial velocity
(u) must be equal to final velocity, v. i.e. V = u.
1: 10. LINEAR MOTION E.g. A car traveling with uniform velocity of 20m/s has
u=20m/s. V=20m/s.
Distance: Is the space between two points.
Displacement: Is the distance moved in a specified When a body moves with uniform velocity, its acceleration
direction. is zero. (i.e a = 0).
The S.I unit of distance and displacement is metre or m
Distance is a scalar quantity while displacement is a vector Acceleration (a)
quantity. Is the rate of change in velocity with time.

Speed: Is the rate of change of distance. Or It is distance Change in velocity

Acceleration =
moved in a unit time. Time taken
Distance
Speed = 𝐀𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧, 𝐚 =
𝐕−𝐮
Time taken 𝐭

Velocity; is the rate of change of displacement. Or It is Change in velocity = final velocity (V) - initial-velocity (U)
speed in a specified direction. The S.I unit for change in velocity is m/s2 or ms-2.
Displacement
Velocity =
Time taken
Uniform acceleration
The S.I unit of speed and velocity is metre per second. Uniform acceleration is the constant rate of change in
(m/s) or (ms-1). velocity with time.
Speed is a scalar quantity while Velocity is a vector OR:
quantity. Uniform acceleration is when a body moves with equal
change in velocity in equal time intervals.
Differences between velocity and speed
Velocity speed When a body moves with uniform acceleration, the final
- Vector quantity -scalar quantity velocity is not equal to initial velocity.
- displacement/time taken -distance/time taken
Example.
A car starts from rest and it accelerates to 10m/s. Calculate
Types of velocities
the change in velocity.
 initial velocity u’
U=0m/s
Is the velocity with which a body starts motion in a given
V=20m/s
time interval.
Change in velocity = v − u
Change in velocity = 20 − 0
Note;
1. For a body starting from rest the initial velocity “u’ must = 20ms −1
be zero ie. u = 0 ms-1
2. For a stationary body starting motion means that the body Note: the velocity to which a body is accelerating becomes
is starting from rest u = 0 ms-1 the final velocity for that given time interval.
3. For a body traveling with a certain velocity, x, the initial
velocity for such a body will be x so, u = x ms-1 e.g. a car Differences between velocity and acceleration
traveling at 20 ms-1, has u =20 ms-1 Velocity Acceleration

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i) S.I unit is ms-1 i) S.I unit is ms-2 A body traveling at 20m/s is accelerated for 4s at 5m/s2.
ii) Is the rate of change of ii) Is the rate of change of Calculate the average velocity.
displacement velocity with time? Solution
Given From; Then from ;
u=20m/s 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 V+u
Equations Of Motion Average Velocity =
a=5m/s2 2
The units of acceleration must always be m/s2 and units m/s 𝑣
or km/hr are for velocity. t=4s = 20 40+20
+ (5)(4) Average Velocity =
2
1st Equation of motion 𝑣 = 20 + 20
60
From the definition of acceleration. 𝑣 = 40𝑚𝑠 −1 Average Velocity =
2
Change in velocity
Acceleration =
Time taken Average Velocity = 30ms −1
V − u
, a=
t Example: 5.
at = v − u
A car travels with a uniform velocity of 20m/s for 6s.
𝐯 = 𝐮 + 𝐚𝐭
Calculate its acceleration.
This is called the first equation of motion.
Solution
Given From;
Example1
u=20 𝑚/𝑠 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
A car started from rest it accelerates uniformly for 5s at a
v=20 𝑚/𝑠 20 = 20 + 𝑎(6)
rate of 4m/s2. Calculate the final velocity.
a=? 20 = 20 + 6𝑎
Solution
t=6s 6𝑎 = 0
Given From; 𝑎 = 0𝑚𝑠 −2
u=0 𝑚/𝑠 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎〰 From the above example, it’s noted that for a body moving
with uniform velocity, its acceleration is zero because the
v=0 𝑚/𝑠 𝑣 = 0 + (4)(5)
a=4ms-2 change in velocity becomes zero as initial velocity is equal
𝑣 = 20
to final velocity.
t=5s 𝑣 = 20𝑚𝑠 −1
v=?
Example: 6.
A car traveling at 90km/hr is uniformly brought to rest in
Example 2.
40 seconds. Calculate the acceleration.
A body starting from rest is accelerated to 30m/s in two
Solution
seconds. Calculate the acceleration of the body.
Solution Given From;
90×1000
Given From; u=90km/hr = = 25𝑚/𝑠 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
1×60×60
0 = 25 + (𝑎)(40)
u=0m/s 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 a=?
0 = 25 + 40𝑎
v=30m/s 30 = 0 + 𝑎(2) t=40s
−40𝑎 = 25
t=2s 30 = 2𝑎 v=0 m/s
𝑎 = −0.625𝑚𝑠 −2
15 = 𝑎
𝑎 = 15𝑚𝑠 −2 Note: If the value obtained for acceleration is negative, it
implies that the body is decelerating or retarding. This
Example 3. occurs when there’s a decrease in velocity.
A body starts from rest and accelerated uniformly at 2m/s 2
for 3s. Calculate the final velocity. 2nd Equation of motion
Solution Displacement: “S or x” is length moved in specified
Given From; direction
u=0m/s 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 From the definition of Displacement.
a=2m/s2 𝑣 = 0 + (2)(3) 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = (𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦) × (𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒)
𝑣+𝑢
t=3s 𝑣=6 𝑠 = ( ) × 𝑡 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: v=u+at
2
𝑣 = 6𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑢
Example 4. 𝑠=( )×𝑡
2
A body traveling at 10m/s is accelerated uniformly for 3 2𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
seconds at 5m/s2. Calculate the velocity at the end of the 𝑠=( )×𝑡
2
third second. 2𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
Solution 𝑠=( )
2
Given From;
𝟏
u=10m/s 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
a=5m/s2 𝑣 = 10 + (5)(3) 𝟐
This is called the second equation of motion. This equation
t=3s 𝑣 = 10 + 15
is mainly used when the question involves distance and
𝑣 = 25𝑚𝑠 −1 time.

Example: 1
Example: 5.

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A body starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at 2ms-2 s=5m 𝑣 2 = 36
for 3s. Calculate the total distance travelled. 𝒗 = 𝟔𝒎𝒔−𝟏
Solution
Given From; Example 2:
u=0 𝑚/𝑠 1 A body traveling at 90km/hr is retarded to rest at 20m/s 2.
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
a=2ms-2 2 Calculate the distance covered.
t=3s 1
𝑠 = (0)(3) + (2)(32 )
s=? 2 Solution
𝑠 = 9𝑚 Given From;
90×1000
Calculations involving deceleration or Retardation u=90km/hr= = 25𝑚/𝑠 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
1×60×60
When calculating a problem involving deceleration; it
a=-20m/s2 02 = (25)2 + 2(−20)ཞ
should be remembered that the value of “a” should be 02 = 625 − 40𝑠
v=0 m/s
negative. 40𝑠 = 625
s=?
40𝑠 625
Example 2: =
40 40
A body moving at 40m/s decelerates uniformly for 20s at 𝑠 = 15.625𝑚
3m/s2. Calculate distance covered.
Graphical presentation of uniform velocity and uniform
Solution acceleration.
Given From; Uniform velocity can be represented on a 2 type of graphs.
u=40 𝑚/𝑠 1 i) Velocity against time graph
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
a=-3ms-2 2 ii) Distance against time.
t=20s 1
𝑠 = (40)(20) + (−3)(202 )
s=? 2 i) velocity against time graph
𝑠 = 800 − 600
𝑠 = 200 𝑚 Uniform
v (ms-1) acceleration
Example 3:
A car traveling at 40m/s is uniformly decelerated to 25m/s Uniform
for 5s. Calculate the total distance covered. u Velocity

Solution
Given From; Then, from: Uniform
u=40 m/s 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 1 retardation
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
v=25 m/s 25 = 40 + 5𝑎 2
a=? 5𝑎 = 25 − 40 1 0 t (s)
𝑠 = (40)(5) + (−3)(52 )
t=5s 5𝑎 = −15 2 Note:
s=? 𝑎 = −3𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑠 = 200 − 37.5 When a body maintains the same speed, it implies that it
𝑠 = 162.5 𝑚 moves with uniform velocity.

Third Equation of motion v(ms-1)

From:
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = (𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦) × (𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒). C
Making ‘t’ the subject of the formula in the first equation of v
motion and substituting it in here, we get;
𝑣+𝑢 𝑣−𝑢
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑠 = ( )×( ) A B
2 𝑎
(𝑣 + 𝑢)(𝑣 − 𝑢)
𝑠=
2𝑎
2𝑎𝑠 = 𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 D
0 t(s)
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔
This is called the third equation of motion OA- uniform acceleration
This equation is applied when time is not given and not AB- uniform velocity
required. BC- uniform acceleration
CD- uniform deceleration or uniform retardation
Example 1:  The slope of a velocity time graph gives the
Calculate the final (maximum) velocity of a body traveling acceleration of the body. ie:
𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐯
at 4m/s. When it accelerates at 2m/s2 and covers a distance 𝐬𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞, 𝐬 = = 𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
of 5m. 𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐭
Solution  The Area under any stage or section of velocity time
Given From; graph gives the distance covered during that time.
u=4 𝑚/𝑠 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
v=? 𝑣 2 = 42 + 2(2)(5) Drawing a velocity against time graph
a=2ms -2
𝑣 2 = 16 + 20 This involves the following steps:

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  Divide the motion into stages basing on the timing. Then from;
 Obtain the initial velocity (u) and final velocity (v) 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
for each stage. 𝑣 = 10 + (2)(4)
 The final velocity for one stage becomes the initial 𝑣 = 18𝑚𝑠 −1
for the next stage.
v (ms-1)
Example 1:
A cyclist starts from rest and accelerate uniformly at 1m/s2
for 20s. Then he maintains the maximum speed so reached 18
for 1 minute and finally decelerates to rest uniformly for
10s.
i) Draw a velocity against time graph for the body.
ii) Calculate the total distance travelled. 10

Solution A B C
Stage1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Then from;
u=0 ms- u u = 20𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
1
= 20𝑚𝑠 −1 v= 0 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑣 = 0 + (1)(20)
a=1ms-2 a= 0 ms-2 t = 10s 𝑣 = 20𝑚𝑠 −1 0 4 9 12 t(s)
t=20s t=
v=? 1min=60s i) Total distance travelled
Stage A: Stage B:
1
Distance = h(a + b) Distance = lw
2
(i) A velocity against time graph for the motion. 1 Distance = 5 × 18
Distance = × 4 × (10 + 18) Distance = 90 m
2
v(ms-1) Distance = 56 m
Stage C: Then Total Distance is;
=Area (A+B+C)
1 =56 m + 90 m + 27 m
Distance = bh
20 2
1 = 173 m
Distance = × 3 × 18
2
Distance = 27 m

Note: Distance covered during stage A can also be obtained

by dividing the area A into a triangle and a rectangle and
then finding the sum of the two areas.
1 1
ie;A1 = 𝑏ℎ = × 4 × 8 = 16m
2 2
0 20 80 90 t(s) A2 = 𝑙𝑤 = 4× 10 = 40m
Thus: Area, A = Area A1 + Area A2
ii) Total distance travelled
= 16 m + 40 m
Stage 1: Stage 2:
1 = 56m
Distance = bh Distance = lw
2
1
Distance = × 20 × 20 Distance = 60 × 20 Example 3:
2
A body moving with uniform velocity:
Distance = 200m Distance = 1200m
A car travels at a velocity of 20m/s for 6s. It is then
uniformly brought to rest in 4s.
Stage 3: Then Total Distance is;
1 i) Draw a velocity against time graph.
Distance = bh =Stage1 + Stage2 + Stage3 ii) Calculate the retardation
2
1
Distance = × 10 × 20 =200m + 1200m + 100m iii) Find the total distance traveled
2
Distance = 100m = 1500m iv) Calculate the average speed of the body
Solution
Example 2:
A car traveling at 10m/s is uniformly accelerated for 4s at i) Stage A Stage B Then from;
2m/s2. It then moves with a constant speed for 5s after u=20 ms-1 u = 20ms −1 v = u + at
which it is uniformly brought to rest in another 3s. a=0 ms-2 a =? v =20+ (a) (4)
i) Draw a velocity against time graph. t=6s t = 4s -4a=20
ii) Calculate the total distance travelled. v=20 ms −1 a=-5ms-2

Solution
i) Stage A Stage B Stage C
u=10 ms-1 u = 18𝑚𝑠 −1 u = 18𝑚𝑠 −1
a=2 ms-2 a = 0 ms-2 v = 0 𝑚𝑠 −1
t=4s t =5s t = 3s
v=?

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 v (ms-1) (v) average retarding force
Solution
For A For B For C
10 u=0ms-1;v=50ms-1 u=50ms-1; u=50ms1;v=0ms-
v=50ms-1 1

Then from; Then from;

A B 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 Then from;
50 = 0 + (𝑎)(5) 50 = 50 + (a)(5) 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
5𝑎 = 50 5𝑎 = 50 0 = 50 + (𝑎)(5)
𝑎 = 10 𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑎 = 00 𝑚𝑠 −2 −5𝑎 = 50
0 6 10 t(s) a = −10 ms −2
ii) The retardation
Retardation or deceleration occurs in region B. Description of the motion
u=20 ms-1 Then from;  The body accelerates uniformly at 10 ms −2 from rest
v=0 ms-1 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎⹔ to 50 ms-1 for the first 5s.
t = (10 - 6) 0 = 20 + (𝑎)(4)  It then moves with a uniform velocity of 50 ms-1 for the
t=4s −4𝑎 = 20 next 10s. (Or it maintains it for next 10s).
𝑎 = −5𝑚𝑠 −2  It finally decelerates or retards uniformly at 10 𝑚𝑠 −2
Thus the retardation is 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟐 from 50 ms-1 to rest in the last 5s.

iii) Total distance travelled a) i) Total distance= Area A +Area B + Area C

1
Stage A: Stage B: Area A = 𝑏ℎ Area B = lw
1 2
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑙 × 𝑤 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑏ℎ 1
2 = × 5 × 50 =10 × 50
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 6 × 10 1 2
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 60 𝑚 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = × 4 × 10 = 125 m = 500 m
2
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 20 𝑚
1
Then Total Distance is; Area A = 𝑏ℎ
2
=Area (A+B) 1
= × 5 × 50
=60 m + 20 m 2
= 125 m
= 80 m
Total distance= Area A +Area B + Area C
iv)
= 125m + 500m +125m
Total Distance travelled
Average speed = = 750 m
Total Time Taken
80 m ii) Distance covered when moving with uniform
Average speed = Area B = lw
10 s =10 × 50
= 500 m
Average speed = 𝟖𝐦𝐬 −𝟏
iii) Acceleration
EXERCISE
For A
Qn1. The graph below shows motion of a body of mass 2kg
u= 0 ms-1
accelerating from rest.
v=50 ms-1
v (ms-1) t = 5s
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
50 = 0 + (𝑎)(5)
5𝑎 = 50
50 𝑎 = 10 ms −2

iv) Retardation or Deceleration

For C
u= 50 ms-1
B v=0 ms-1
A C t = 5s
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
0 = 50 + (𝑎)(5)
0 5 15 20 t(s) −5𝑎 = 50
(a) Describe the motion of the body 𝑎 = −10 𝑚𝑠 −2
(b) Use the graph to calculate the:
(i) total distance covered Thus the retardation is 𝟏𝟎 𝐦𝐬 −𝟐
(ii) Distance covered when moving with uniform
velocity. i) Average retarding force
(iii) acceleration Mass, m = 2kg
(iv) retardation Retardation = 10 𝑚𝑠 −2

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Then from; (B)
Force = mass × acceleration v (ms-1)
Average retarding force = mass × retardation
=2 × 10
= 20 N 22

Qn2. The graph below shows motion of abody of mass

[Link] it to answer the questions that follow. 14
-1
v (ms )
8
40
2

0 5 8 12 15 20 25 t(s)

Qn4. A body accelerates uniformly from rest at 3ms-2 for 4

10 seconds. Its velocity then remains constant at the maximum
value reached for 7 seconds before retarding uniformly to
rest in the last 5 seconds. Calculate the:
0 6 14 20 t(s)
i) uniform velocity (𝑣 = 12 𝑚𝑠 −1 )
ii) total distance travelled (= 138 𝑚)
a) Describe the motion of the body iii) retardation (𝑎 = −2.4 𝑚𝑠 −2 )
b) Use the graph to calculate the: iv) average velocity for the journey.(𝑣 = 8.63 𝑚𝑠 −1 )
(i) Distance covered during acceleration. (150 m)
(ii) Distance covered when moving at constant Qn5. A body moves from rest at a uniform acceleration of
velocity. (320 m) 2ms-2.
(iii) total distance covered.(590 m) a) Sketch a velocity time graph for the motion of the body.
(iv) acceleration. (𝑎 = 5 𝑚𝑠 −2 ) b) Find:
(v) retardation. (𝑎 = −6.67 𝑚𝑠 −2 ) i) its velocity after 5 seconds. (𝑣 = 10𝑚𝑠 −1 )
(vi) average accelerating force. (𝐹 = 15 𝑁) ii) how far it has gone in this time. (𝑠 = 25 𝑚)
iii) how long it will take the body to be 100 m
Qn3. The graphs below show motion of bodies. Use them to from the starting point. (𝑡 = 10 𝑠)
answer the following questions.
Non-uniform acceleration is when the rate of change of
a) Describe the motion of the body velocity with time is not constant.
b) Use the graph to calculate the:
i) Total distance covered.
ii) Average velocity
iii) Acceleration.
iv) Retardation.
(A)
ii) Displacement against time graph
v (ms-1)
Uniform Velocity
s (m) away from origin

Body at rest
15 or stationary

10 Non-Uniform Velocity
Uniform Velocity
towards the origin
0 5 8 15 21 t(s) 0 t (s)

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 Solution
Uniform Acceleration 1
s (m) For A 300 = 37.5(8) + (𝑎)(82 )
2
s = 300 m 32𝑎 = 0
Uniform Deceleration
t = 8s 𝑎 = 0 𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Speed, u=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
300
u=
8
u =37.5ms-1

Then from;
0 t (s) 1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2

Describing the motion on a displacement time graph

Description of the motion
Displacement, s (m)  The body starts from A and moves 300m with a
uniform velocity of 37.5 ms-1 for the first 8seconds.
 It then a rests for the next 16 seconds.
 It finally returns to A with the uniform velocity of 37.5
in the last 8 seconds.
C D
Exercise:
B E Qn: 1; [UNEB 1997 Paper II Qn.2]
Two vehicles A and B accelerate uniformly from rest.
A Vehicle A attains a maximum velocity of 30𝑚𝑠 −1 in 10s
F J while B attains a maximum velocity of 40𝑚𝑠 −1 in the same
0 Time (s) time. Both vehicles maintain these velocities for 6s before
G they are decelerated to rest in 6s and 4s respectively.
I
(i) Sketch on the same axes, velocity time graphs
H for the motion of the vehicles.
(ii) Calculate the velocity of each vehicle 18s after
Along: the start. (𝑣𝐴 = 20𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝐵 = 20𝑚𝑠 −1 )
OA- accelerating (iii) How far will the two vehicles be from one
AB- moving with uniform velocity away from the origin another during the moment in (ii) above?
BC- Decelerating (𝑆𝐴 = 380𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝐵 = 500𝑚: 𝑆𝐴𝐵 = 120𝑚)
CD- Stationary
DE- Accelerating and moving toward the origin Qn. 2 See : UNEB:
EF- Moving with uniform velocity [Link].25 and Qn.5 PII 1994. Qn.10 and Qn.26
FG- Moving with uniform velocity in opposite direction to [Link].1 Paper II 1987. Qn.25
the original direction. [Link].1 Paper I
GH- Decelerating
At “H”- Momentarily stationary
HI- Accelerating and moving back towards the origin. MOTION UNDER GRAVITY (FALLING BODIES)
In a vacuum, all bodies fall at the same rate. However, in
Example 1: atmosphere different bodies fall at different rate because the
The graph below shows the variation of distance with time air resistance is greater to light objects.
for a body.
Distance (m) Acceleration due to gravity, g.
Acceleration due to gravity is the change in velocity with
300 time for body falling freely under the force of gravity.
Note: Acceleration due to gravity varies from place to place
because:
200
 The earth is not a perfect sphere
 The earth is always rotating
100
All bodies thrown upwards or falling freely in the earth’s
surface, have a constant acceleration called Acceleration
due to gravity, 𝑖. 𝑒: 𝒂 = 𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒔−𝟐 .
0 A 8 24 32 Time(s)
a) Describe the motion of the body Since the gravitational force acts vertically down wards, ie
b) Calculate the: accelerates all objects down wards towards the earth’s
i) acceleration of the body surface. Thus for downward motion (falling objects), 𝒂 =
ii) maximum velocity attained by the body +𝒈 = +𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒔−𝟐 . And for upward motion (objects thrown
upwards), 𝒂 = −𝒈 = −𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒔−𝟐 .

©bagiradnl@[Link] 71
 Distance or
Projectile motion
Displacement (m) Distance (m)
A projectile is a particle which has both vertical and
horizontal motions when thrown in air.
Consider a body thrown vertically upwards from A.
𝑠𝑦 B 𝑣𝑦 = 0

0 0 (Time) 2 (s2)
Time (s)
u 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝟏
𝐒 = 𝐮𝐭 − 𝐠𝐭 𝟐
𝟐
A C Distance- Time
S (m) or Displacement –Time Graph for a body
x 𝑠𝑥 falling freely from rest.

In projectiles, the horizontal and vertical motions are Distance or

handled separately but simultaneously. The horizontal Displacement (m)
velocity of the body in motion remains the same throughout
since there is no acceleration due to gravity in the
horizontal.

First equation of motion 0 Time (s)

𝑣𝑥 𝑢 0 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢
(𝑣 ) = ( ) + ( ) 𝑡 ⇒ {𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑔𝑡
𝑦 𝑢 𝑔 𝑦 𝟏
𝐮𝐭 + 𝐠𝐭 𝟐
𝐒=
𝟐
Second equation of motion
𝑠𝑥 = 𝑢𝑡 Displacement –Time Graph for a body thrown vertically
𝑠𝑥 𝑢 1 0 upwards from appoint above the ground.
(𝑠 ) = ( ) 𝑡 + ( ) 𝑡 2 ⇒{ 1
𝑦 𝑢 2 𝑔 𝑠𝑦 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2
2 Displacement (m)

Third equation of motion

𝑣𝑥2 2 0 𝑠𝑥 𝑣𝑥2 = 𝑢2
( 2 ) = (𝑢2 ) + 2 ( ) (𝑠 ) ⇒ { 2
𝑣𝑦 𝑢 𝑔 𝑦 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑔𝑠𝑦
0 Time (s)
Where 𝒈 = +𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒔−𝟐.for downward motion (freely falling
objects or objects dropped from a height), If a body is
dropped from a height, then 𝒖 = 𝟎 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 hence.
𝟏
𝑺= 𝒈𝒕𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗 = 𝒈𝒕 𝒐𝒓 𝒗 = √𝟐𝒈𝒔 .
𝟐
.
Alternatively the principle of conservation of energy may be Speed- Time and Velocity –Time Graphs For a body
used for a freely falling body. thrown vertically upwards.
1
ie: 𝑐𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ ⇒ 𝒗 = √(𝟐𝒈𝒉) . Velocity (ms-1)
2 Speed (ms-1)

𝒈 = −𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒔−𝟐 .for upward motion (objects thrown u

Going
upwards), Up
u
Going Coming
Maximum Height, 𝒔𝒚 = 𝐇𝐦𝐚𝐱 : Is the highest vertical Up Down
distance attained by a projectile. 0 Time (s)
At Hmax , 𝑣𝑦 = 0: Coming
Down
0 Time (s)
Time of Flight, T: Is the total time taken for a projectile to
move from origin until it lands. This time is twice the time The speed of the object decreases as it goes higher. At
taken to reach the maximum height. maximum height reached the speed is zero because the
If t is the time taken to reach the maximum height, then object is momentarily at rest and when the object starts to
fall the speed increases.
T=2t
The velocity decreases upwards and it is zero at the
Distance - Time or Displacement –Time Graphs for a maximum height. However the velocity increases
body thrown vertically upward. downwards and negative because of the change in direction.

Experiment to measure acceleration due to gravity.

©bagiradnl@[Link] 72
 To mains A graph of T2 against l is plotted. It is a straight line graph
supply through the origin and its slope, S is calculated.
A gragh of T2 Against l

Ticker-Timer T2 (s2) Δ𝑇 2
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒, 𝑆 =
Δ𝑇 2 Δ𝑙

Δ𝑙
Tape
0 l (m)
The acceleration due to gravity,g. is then calculated from;
10g- mass 𝟒𝝅𝟐
𝒈=
𝑺
NOTE: Experiments have shown that the periodic time T
 A tape is passed through a ticker-timer and attached to a does not depend on the mass of the bob, but it depends on
10g- mass. the length of pendulum l bob and acceleration due to gravity
 The ticker-timer makes dots on the tape at an interval g at that point. i.e:
determined by the frequency of the mains supply. i.e
1 𝒍
𝑇 = . This is the time taken to make one space (2 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅√
𝑓 𝒈
dots).
Example1:
 The distance S between the first dot to the last dot made
A stone falls from rest from the top of a high tower.
just before the mass hits the ground is measured using a
Calculate the velocity after 2s.
metre-rule.
 The time,t taken to make n- spaces in distance S is Solution
calculated from: 𝑡 = 𝑛𝑇. u= 0 ms-1 Then from:
 The acceleration due to gravity, g is then calculated a = g =10 ms-2 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑔𝑡
𝟏
from 𝐒 = 𝐠𝐭 𝟐 t = 2s 𝑣 = 0 + (10 × 2)
𝟐
𝑣 = 20
Experiment to measure acceleration due to gravity 𝑣 = 20 𝑚𝑠 −1
Clamp Example 2:
An object is dropped from a helicopter. If the object hits the
l Inextensible string ground after 2s, calculate the height from which the object
was dropped.
Pendulum bob
Solution
u= 0 ms-1 Alternatively
Retort stand a = g =10 ms-2 From conservation of energy
t = 2s P. EBottom = K. ETop
Table
Then from: 1
1 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2 2
2
 A pendulum bob is suspended from a clamp using an 1
𝑠 = 0(2) + (10)(22 )
inextensible string as shown in the diagram above. 2
 The length of the string of the pendulum bob ‘l’ is 𝑠 = 20
adjusted such that l=0.3m. 𝑠 = 20 𝑚
 The bob is the slightly displaced through a small angle
and released. Example 3:
 The stop clock is started and the time taken to make 20 An object is dropped from a helicopter at a height of 45m
oscillations (20T) is measured and recorded. above the ground.
 The period time T for a single oscillation is calculated a) If the helicopter is at rest, how long does the object take
and recorded. to reach the ground and what is its velocity on arrival?
Solution
 The experiment is repeated for other increasing values
u= 0 ms-1
of l, and the corresponding values of 20T, T and T 2
a = g =10 ms-2
calculated and tabulated.
t=?
𝑙(𝑚) 20T(s) T(s) T2(s2)
s = 45m

©bagiradnl@[Link] 73
 𝑠𝑦 B 𝑢=0 Air resistance, R Resultant force, F
F= mg – R ……………. (i)
Then from:
F= ma …………………. (ii)
From equations (i) and (ii)
ma = mg – R
h=45m .

C Weight, W=mg
A x 𝑠𝑥 R
Example 4:
1 Then from: An object of 2kg is dropped from a helicopter at a height
s= ut + gt 2
2 45m above the ground. If the air resistance is 0.8N, calculate
1 2
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑔𝑡
45 = 0(t) + (10)(t ) 𝑣 = 0 + (10 × 3) the:
2
45 = 5t 2 𝑣 = 30 i) acceleration of the body
t= 3s v = 30 ms −1 ii) velocity with which the body hits the ground

b) If the helicopter had a velocity of 1ms-1 when the object Solution

was released, what would be the final velocity of the object? For vertical motion
Solution m = 2kg
u= 1 ms-1 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑔𝑠 u= 0 ms-1
a = g =10 ms -2
𝑣 2 = 12 + 2(10)(45) g =10 ms-2
t=? 𝑣 2 = 901 R = 0.8 N
s = 45m s = 45m
𝑣 = √901
v=? a=?
𝑣 = 30.02 𝑚𝑠 −1
v=?
(i) Then from:
Example 4: ma = mg – R
An object is released from an aircraft traveling horizontally Air resistance, R= 0.8N
2a = 2 (10) -0.8
with a constant velocity of 200ms-1 at a height of 500m. 2a = 19.2
a) Ignoring air resistance, how long it takes the object to a = 9.6 ms-2
reach the ground?
Solution (ii) Then from:
For vertical motion Then from: 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
u= 0 ms-1 1 𝑣 2 = 02 + 2(9.6)(45)
a = g =10 ms-2 s = ut + gt 2
2 h=45m 𝑣 2 = 864
t=? 1 𝑣 = √864
500 = (0)t + (10)(t 2 ) Weight,
s = 500 m 2 𝑣 = 29.39 𝑚𝑠 −1
W=mg =20N
v=? 500 = 5t 2
100 = t 2
t = 10 s Exercise
b) Find the horizontal distance covered by the object Qn: 1. The table below shows the variation of velocity with
between leaving the aircraft and reaching the ground. time for a body thrown vertically upwards from the surface
Solution of a planet.
For vertical motion Then from:
u= 200 ms-1 1
𝑥 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2 Velocity(ms −1 ) 8 6 4 2 0 -2
a = g = 0 ms-2 2
t = 10s 1
𝑥 = 200(10) + (0)(102 ) Time(s) 0 1 2 3 4 5
s = 500 m 2
v=? 𝑥 = 2000 + 0
(a) What does the negative velocity mean?
𝑥 = 2000 𝑚
(b) Plot a graph of velocity against time.
Note: For a body thrown vertically up ward, the time taken
(c) Use the graph in (b) above to find the
to reach the maximum vertical height is equal to the time
i) Acceleration due to gravity on the planet.(= 2ms −2 )
taken for the body to fall from maximum height.
ii) Total distance travelled. .(= 17m)
(d) If the body weighs34n on earth, what is its weight on the
Note; If a body is not falling freely but there is air resistance
R then the acceleration of the body can be calculated from:- planet? (= 6.8N)
ma = mg – R , where m is the mass of the body
2. An aeroplane travelling at 200ms-1 at a height of 180m is
about to drop an aid package of medical supplies onto an
IDP camp in northern Uganda.
(a) At what horizontal distance before the target should the
package be released? [x = 1200m]

©bagiradnl@[Link] 74
(b) Find the time taken by the package to hit the Frequency: These are vibrations per second or number of
target.[t=6s] dots per second. The S I unit is Hertz. (Hz).
Example: A frequency of 60Hz mean 60 dots per second.
See UNEB NB: Frequency is also number of dots printed per second.
2000 Qn.20 1992 Qn.23
1995 Qn.10 1996 Qn.24 Period: This is the time taken for a dot to be printed on a
1987 Qn.12 1991 Qn.2 tape. The SI unit of period is seconds.
1989 Qn.1 1 𝟏
Period, T= ⇔T=
frequency,f 𝐟

Ticker tapes showing dots for bodies in motion

THE TICKER- TAPE TIMER
State of motion Sample tape Direction of
motion
DETERMINING THE VELOCITY AND
Uniform velocity
ACCELERATION OF A BODY USING A TICKER
TAPE TIMER:
Uniform acceleration
COMPENSATION FOR FRICTION
Before each experiment with a trolley, it is necessary to Uniform deceleration
compensate for friction.
This can be done by tilting the runway with suitable
packing pieces until it moves with uniform velocity after Example:
having been given a slight push. Calculate the period for a frequency of 60 Hz
Frequency, f = 60Hz
1
Period time, T=
Ticker-timer f
1
T=
Tape 60
T= 0.0167
Trolley
Calculating time taken from a tape
𝐓ime taken, t = number of spaces(n)×Periodic time(T)
Wooden Run way Time taken, t = nT
block
Example: 1
 A paper tape is driven through a ticker timer connected Below is a tape printed by ticker- tape timer vibrating at
to a mains supply of known frequency e.g 50Hz by a 100Hz. Find the time taken to print these dots.
trolley running freely on an inclined plane.
 After the trolley has reached the end of the run way, the
tape is removed and marked every after [Link] first
mark made is the zero tme.

Frequency, Time number of Periodic

( )=( )×( )
f = 100Hz taken spaces time
𝑑1 𝑑2 1 Time taken,t=nT
Period time,T= Time taken,t=10(0.01)
𝑡3 f
1 Time taken,t=0.1s
T=
 The time ‘t’ between n- spaces, is calculated from: 𝑡 = 100
T= 0.01
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 × 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
1
𝑡 = 𝑛𝑇, where. T = Calculating the average speed
f
 The speed or velocity at different times is the calculated
by measuring the distances 𝑑1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑2 covered in those Distance, (d) d
𝑑 𝑑 Average speed= =
times. Thus: 𝑣1 = 1 and 𝑣2 = 2 Time taken, (t) t
𝑡1 𝑡2
 The acceleration of the trolley is then calculated from:
𝒗 −𝒗
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝒂 = 𝟐 𝟏 : Whre 𝒕𝟑 = 𝑛3 𝑇 is the total
𝒕𝟑 −𝒕𝟏
time taken to cover distances 𝑑1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑2 .
OR
 The procedures are repeated, various velocities Example: 2
determined and a graph of velocity against time plotted. Below is a tape printed by a ticker –tape timer vibrating at
The slope of the graph gives the acceleration of the 50Hz. Calculate the average speed.
body.

Using the ticker tape timer to determine Acceleration After

it has printed dots on A tape.

©bagiradnl@[Link] 75
 Solution
Frequency, f = (i)
50Hz Time number of Periodic
( )=( )×( )
taken spaces time
Solution 1 Time taken,t1 = n1 T
Period time, T= Time taken,t1 = 5(0.02)
Frequency, 200 cm number of
Time Periodic f
( )=( )×( ) 1 Time taken, t1 = 0.1s
f = 50Hz taken spaces time T=
1 Time taken,t=nT 50
Period time,T= Time taken,t=10(0.02) T= 0.02s d1 200
f Initial speed, u = = =2000cms −1
1 Time taken,t=0.2s t1 0.1
T= 200 When,d1=200cm, Or
50
T= 0.02 Distance=200cm= = 2m 200 200
100 = d1 (100)
100 Initial speed, u = = =20ms −1
Distance, (d) = 2m t1 0.1
Average speed= (ii)
Time taken, (t) 400
d When,d2=400cm,=
100
= 4𝑚
Average speed=
t Time taken,𝑡2 =𝑛2 T
2 Time taken,𝑡2 =3(0.02)
Average speed=
0.2 Time taken,𝑡2 =0.06s
Average speed=10m𝑠 −1
d2 400
Calculating the initial velocity “u” and final velocity “v” Final speed, v = = =6666.67cms −1
t 2 0.06
from the tape. Or
400
d2 (100)
Final speed, v = = =66.67ms −1
𝒅𝟐 2 t 2 0.06

d
(iii)
number of
Initial velocity,u = Average speed for initial distance spaces
Time taken
=initial distance “d1” divided by time taken “t1” ( ) = between mid × (Periodic )
for change time
d1 points of
Initial speed, u = ; where, Time taken,t1 = n1 T ( d1 and d2 )
t1

Final velocity (v) = Average speed for final distance Time taken,𝑡3 = 𝑛3 T
= final distance “d1” divided by time taken “t2” Time taken,𝑡3 =6.5(0.02)
i.e. Time taken,𝑡3 =0.13s
d2
Final speed, v = ; where, Time taken,t 2 = n2 T
t2
Acceleration;
Example:3 Acceleration calculated applying v = u + at
Below is a tape printed by a timer vibrating at 50Hz change in velocity
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 𝒕𝟏 t1
Acceleration, a =
Time for the change

𝒗−𝒖
Acceleration, a =
400cm 𝒕𝟑
𝒅𝟏 10cm
= 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝒕 ㅣ𝟏 d1 𝒕𝟐 𝒕𝟐 t 2 𝟔𝟔.𝟔𝟕−𝟐𝟎
𝟏
𝒕𝟑 𝒕𝟑 t 3 Acceleration, a =
𝟎.𝟏𝟑
Acceleration, a = 359𝑚𝑠 −2
Calculate the;
i) Initial velocity Example II:
ii) Final velocity Below is a tape printed by a ticker timer vibrating at 20Hz.
iii) Acceleration Calculate the acceleration.

For the above, the following steps should be involved. Direction of motion
 identifying the frequency 𝑚1
𝑡3 ,
𝑚2
𝑛3
 finding the periodic time from T= 1/f
 finding the time taken to cover given distances
 calculating the required velocities
d2=300c
 finding the time taken to cover distance between
mid points of the distances 𝑑1 = 1𝑚 𝑡 m
2

 calculating the required acceleration 𝑡1

©bagiradnl@[Link] 76
Solution If there are n-dots, then there are (n-1) spaces.
Frequency, d2 3 i.e∶ 𝒏𝒔 = (𝒏𝒅 − 𝟏).
f = 20Hz Final speed, v = = Where ns is the number of spaces and nd is the number of
t 2 0.2
1 =15ms −1 dots.
Period time, T=
f
1 Time taken,t 3 = n3 T Example:
T=
20 Time taken,t 3 = 7.5(0.05) A ticker timer is vibrating at 10Hz. Calculate the time taken
T= 0.05 s Time taken,t 3 = 0.375s if the timer prints 21 dots.

When,d1= 1m Solution
Time taken,t1 =n1 T Acceleration; Number of dots, nd =21 dots t = nT
Time taken,t1 =2(0.05) Acceleration calculated Number of spaces, 𝒏𝒔 = (𝒏𝒅 − 𝟏). t = 20(0.1)
Time taken,t1 =0.1s Applying: v = u + at Number of spaces, 𝒏𝒔 = (𝟐𝟏 − 𝟏). t = 2s
Number of spaces, 𝒏𝒔 = 𝟐𝟎 spaces
d1 1 change in velocity
Initial speed, u = = a=
t1 0.05 Time for the change Frequency, f = 10Hz
=10ms −1 𝒗−𝒖
When,d2=300cm, Acceleration, a = 1 1
𝒕𝟑
300 Period time, T= = =0.1s
= = 3m
100
f 10
𝟏𝟓−𝟏𝟎
Time taken,t 2 =n2 T Acceleration, a =
𝟎.𝟑𝟕𝟓 Time Number of Period
Time taken,t 2 =4(0.05) ( )=( )×( )
taken spaces time
Time taken,t 2 =0.2s Acceleration, a = 13.33𝑚𝑠 −2

Example:
Example III
A ticker timer prints 11 dots at 20Hz in a space of 2m.
The timer is vibrating at 20Hz. Calculate the acceleration
Calculate the average speed.

𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 Solution
Space for Number of dots, nd =11 dots t = ns T
30 dots Number of spaces, 𝒏𝒔 = (𝒏𝒅 − 𝟏). t = 10(0.05)
50cm Number of spaces, 𝒏𝒔 = (𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏). t = 0.5s
900cm
150cm Number of spaces, 𝒏𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎 spaces
Average speed,
Frequency, f = 20Hz Distance
Solution v=
Time taken
Frequency, f = 20Hz 1 1
𝑡2 = 𝑛2 𝑇 Period time, T= = =0.05s 2
f 20 v=
1 𝑡2 = 3(0.05) 0.5
Period time,T=
f 𝑡2 = 0.15𝑠 Time Number of Period
1 ( )=( )×( ) v = 4ms −1
taken spaces time
T=
20 𝑑2
T= 0.05s 𝑣=
𝑡2
𝑑1 = 150𝑐𝑚 − 50𝑐𝑚 9 Note:
𝑑1 = 100𝑐𝑚 𝑣= In experiments with ticker timer being pushed by a trolley,
0.15
100 𝑣 = 60𝑚𝑠 −1 the first dots are ignored because they are overcrowded for
𝑑1 = = 1𝑚
100 accurate measurements.
Time taken,𝑡3 =𝑛3 T
𝑡1 = 𝑛1 𝑇 Time taken, 𝑡3 =31.5(0.05) Calculating Acceleration from given number of dots.
𝑡1 = 2(0.05) Time taken,𝑡3 =1.575s If the distance is measured from mth dot to nth dot then the
𝑡1 = 0.1𝑠 number of spaces can be calculated directly by subtracting
Acceleration; m from n.
𝑑1 Acceleration calculated applying Number of spaces, 𝒏𝒔 = (𝒏𝒕𝒉 𝑑𝑜𝑡 − 𝒎𝒕𝒉 𝑑𝑜𝑡).
𝑢=
𝑡1 v = u + at Time taken, t = Number of spaces, 𝒏𝒔 ×Period time, T
1 1
𝑢= change in velocity Period time, T=
0.1 Acceleration, a = frequency, f
𝑢 = 10𝑚𝑠 −1 Time for the change
𝒗−𝒖
Acceleration, a = Example:
𝒕𝟑
𝑑2 = 900𝑐𝑚 𝟔𝟎−𝟏𝟎 The distance between 15th dot and 18th dot is 10cm. if the
900 Acceleration, a =
𝟏.𝟓𝟕𝟓 ticker timer is vibrating at 20Hz. Calculate the;
𝑑2 = Acceleration, a =31.75 𝑚𝑠 −2
100 i) time taken
𝑑2 = 9𝑚
Number of spaces, 𝑛𝑠 = (𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑜𝑡 − 𝑚𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑜𝑡)
NOTE: Number of spaces, 𝑛𝑠 = (18 − 15)

©bagiradnl@[Link] 77
 𝒗−𝒖
Number of spaces, 𝑛𝑠 = 3 spaces 𝑑1 Acceleration, a =
𝑢= 𝒕𝟑
𝑡1
Frequency, f = 20Hz 0.2 𝟑.𝟏−𝟐.𝟓
𝑢= Acceleration, a =
0.08 𝟎.𝟔
1 𝑢 = 2.5𝑚𝑠 −1
Period time,T=
f Acceleration, a =1. 0 𝑚𝑠 −2
1 𝑑2 = 62𝑐𝑚
T=
20 62
T= 0.05s 𝑑2 =
100
𝑑2 = 0.62𝑚
Time taken, t=Number of spaces, 𝒏𝒔 ×Period time, T
Time taken, t=3(0.05)
t=0.15s Exercise
1. A paper tape dragged through a ticker timer by a trolley
ii) average speed has the first ten dots covering a distance of 4cm and the next
ten dots covering a distance of 7cm. If the frequency of the
Distance covered = 10cm = 0.1m ticker timer is 50Hz, calculate the acceleration of the
Distance trolley.(Ans:=75cms-2 or 0.75ms-2)
Average speed, v =
Time taken
0.1 2. The ticker timer below was pulled by a decelerating
𝑣=
0.15 trolley. The tape consists of 3 five dot spaces and the
𝑣 = 0.67𝑚𝑠 −1 frequency of the timer is 50Hz.

Example:
A trolley is pulled from rest with a constant force down an
inclined plane. The trolley pulls a tape through a ticker timer
2.8cm 3.2cm 3.6cm
vibrating at 50Hz. The following measurements were made
from the tap.
Distance between 16th dot and 20th dot= d1=20cm
Distance between 20th dot and 30th dot = 34cm Exercise: See UNEB
Distance Q between 30th dots and 40th dot = 48cm [Link].26 [Link].25
Distance between 40th dot and 50th dot = d2=62cm [Link].1(b) [Link].9

Calculate the acceleration of the trolley.

Solution

Number of 𝑡2 = 𝑛2 𝑇
( ) 𝑡2 = 10(0.02)
spaces, 𝑛 𝑠
𝑡2 = 0.2𝑠
= (nth dot − mth dot)
= (20 − 16)
𝑑2
= 4 spaces 𝑣=
Number of spaces, 𝑛𝑠 𝑡2
= 4 spaces 0.62
𝑣=
0.2
Frequency, f = 50Hz 𝑣 = 3.1𝑚𝑠 −1

1 For d1 last dot is 20th

Period time,T= For d2 last dot is 50th
f
1 Time taken
T= ( ) = (50𝑡ℎ − 20𝑡ℎ )
for change; 𝑡3
50
T=0.02s × 0.02
𝑑1 = 20𝑐𝑚 Time taken
( ) = 30×0.02
20 for change;𝑡3
𝑑1 = 𝑡3 = 0.6s
100
𝑑1 = 0.2𝑚 1: 11. CIRCULAR MOTION
Acceleration;
𝑡1 = 𝑛1 𝑇 Acceleration calculated applying
v = u + at Circular motion is motion in which a body moves in a circle
𝑡1 = 4(0.02)
about a fixed point.
𝑡1 = 0.08𝑠 change in velocity
Acceleration, a =
Time for the change For a body moving in a circle;
 Its direction and velocity are constantly changing.
 It has an acceleration called centripetal acceleration.
©bagiradnl@[Link] 78
 It has a force called Centripetal force acting towards the Newton’s first law of motion states that a body continues in
centre of the circular path. its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless
acted upon by an external force.

Inertia
Inertia is the reluctance of a body to move, when at rest or to
stop when moving.

Thus, when a force acts on a body, the body;

 Starts or stops moving.
 Increases or reduces speed depending on the
direction of the force.
 Changes direction of motion.

1:12:2. Newton’s second law of motion

Newton’s second law states that the rate of change in
momentum is directly proportional to the force acting on the
Note: When the object is released, it moves such that the
body and takes place in the direction of the force.
direction of motion at any point is along a tangent to the
circular path. mv − mu v−u
Fα ⟺ F α m( ) ⟺ F α ma ⟺ F = k ma
t t
Forces acting on the body describing circular motion.
(i) Tension: Force acting towards the centre of the When we consider a force of 1N, mass of 1kg and
circular path. It provides the centripetal force. acceleration of 1ms −2 , then, k=[Link];
(ii) Centripetal force: Force acting towards the centre of 𝐅 = 𝐦𝐚
the circular path. A newton; Is the force which acts on a mass of 1kg to
produce an acceleration of 1ms −2 .
(iii) Centrifugal force: Force acting away from the centre
of the circular path.
1:12:3. Newton’s third law of motion
It states that action and reaction are equal but opposite.
(iv) Weight: Force acting vertically down wards towards
the centre of the earth.
When a body, A exerts a force on body B, body B also
exerts an equal force in the opposite direction.
Examples of circular motion
-Pendulum bob tied to a string whirled in a vertical or Reaction,R
horizontal plane
-Planetary motion etc
Block
Exercise: See UNEB Table
1999 Paper II Qn.1
Weight,W= mg
The block exerts a weight, W= mg on the table and the table
also exerts an equal reaction R on the block. R= mg, so that
the net force on the block is zero and therefore there is no
vertical motion.

Applications of Newton’s third law of motion

(a) Rockets and jets
Rockets and jet engines are designed to burn fuel in oxygen
to produce large amounts of exhaust gases.
These gases are passed backwards through the exhaust pipes
at high velocity (large momentum).

This in turn gives the Rocket or jet a high forward

momentum which is equal but opposite to that of the
1: 12. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION exhaust gases.

These are three laws that summarize the behavior of 𝒎𝒈 𝒗𝒈 = −𝒎𝑹 𝒗𝑹

particles in motion. Where 𝑚𝑔 𝑣𝑔 is the momentum of the exhaust gases, and
𝑚𝑅 𝑣𝑅 is momentum of the Rocket.
1:12:1. Newton’s First Law of motion
(b) Motion in the lift
Consider a person of mass m standing in a lift, when the;

©bagiradnl@[Link] 79
i) Lift is stationary or moving with uniform velocity m = 78kg
a = 2ms-2
The person exerts a weight, R R=?
R mg on the lift and at the R = mg + ma
same time, the lift exerts a R = m (g+a)
reaction, R, on the person. R = 78 (10+2)
R= mg. a= 2ms-2 R = 936N
a=0 ms-2

78g
mg
(b) m = 78kg
a = 3ms-2
ii) Lift is moving upwards with acceleration, a. R R=?
In this case, three forces act on R = mg - ma
the lift. i.e, the resultant R = 78(10 - 3)
R accelerating force (ma), the R = 546N
weight, (mg) and the normal
a= 3ms-2
reaction or Apparent weight (R).
a Accelerating force = Net force
ma = R – mg
R = mg + ma
78g
R = m (g+a)
mg
𝟏: 𝟏𝟐: 𝟒. 𝐂𝐎𝐋𝐋𝐈𝐒𝐈𝐎𝐍𝐒 𝐀𝐍𝐃 𝐌𝐎𝐌𝐄𝐍𝐓𝐔𝐌 .
Thus, the reaction on the person (apparent weight, R) is
greater than the actual weight of the person, mg. Linear Momentum:
This is why one feels heavier when the lift is just beginning Momentum is the product of mass and its velocity.
its upward journey. 𝐋𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐌𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟
( ) =( ) × Velocity
𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲
iii) Lift is moving down wards with acceleration, a.
In this case, the resultant Impulse:
accelerating force (ma), and the Impulse is the change in the momentum of a body.
R weight, (mg) act down wards. 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐬𝐞 = 𝐦𝐯 − 𝐦𝐮
The normal reaction or Apparent
weight (R) act upwards. Impulse can also be defined as the product of force and time
of impact.
a Accelerating force = Net force From Newton’s second law of motion,
ma = mg - R mv − mu
R = mg - ma F= ⟺ Ft = mv − mu
t
R = m (g - a)
𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐬𝐞 = 𝐅𝐭 = 𝐦𝐯 − 𝐦𝐮
mg
Thus, the reaction on the person (apparent weight, R) is less The S.I unit of momentum and impulse is Kgms-1
than the actual weight of the person, mg. Note: Momentum and impulse are vector quantities.
This is why one feels lighter when the lift is just beginning
its downward journey.
Principle of conservation of momentum
It states that when two or more bodies collide, the total
momentum remains constant provided no external force is
acting.
Example:1
A person of mass 78kg is standing inside an electric lift.
It states that when two or more bodies collide, the total
What is the apparent weight of the person if the;
d) Lift is moving upwards with an acceleration of 2ms-2? momentum before collision is equal to the total momentum
e) Lift is descending with an acceleration of 2ms-2? after collision.

Suppose a body of mass m1 moving with velocity u1 collides

Solution
with another body of mass m2 moving with velocity u2.
(a)
After collision, the bodies move with velocities v1 and v2
respectively, then;
𝒎𝟏 𝒖 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖 𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗 𝟐

©bagiradnl@[Link] 80
Types of collisions 6.2 = V
Total Total V= 6.2 ms −1
 Elastic collision momentum momentum
( )=( )
before before
Elastic collision is the type of collision whereby the collision collision
colliding bodies separate immediately after the impact with
each other and move with different velocities.
Example: 2
In short, for elastic collision, A body of mass 8kg traveling at 20 ms-1 collides with a
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 stationary body and they both move with velocity of 15ms-1.
( )=( )
𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 Calculate the mass of the stationary body.
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
Solution
 Inelastic collision
Inelastic collision is when the colliding bodies stay together Before collision After collision
and move with the same velocity after collision. m1=8kg m2=2kg (m 1 + m 2 )=(3+2) kg
In short, for inelastic collision,
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 u1=20ms-1 u2=0ms-1
( ) = ( )
𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 v2=v=15ms-1
m1 u1 +m2 u2 = (m1 +m2 )𝐕
m1= 8kg, m2= 2kg m1 u1 +m2 u2 = (m1 +m2 )V
Comparisons between Elastic collision and Inelastic u1=20ms-1, u2=8ms-1 8(20)+m2 (0)= (8+m2 )(15)
collision v1=V=1 ms , v2=V=15 ms-1
-1
160+0= 8(15) + 15m2
40= 15m2
Total Total
Elastic collision Inelastic collision 2.67 = m2
momentum momentum
(
before
)=(
before
) m2 = 2.67kg
(i) Bodies separate after Bodies stick together after collision collision
collision collision.
Example: 3
(ii) Bodies move with Bodies move with same A body of mass 20kg traveling at 5ms-1 collides with
different velocities after velocity after collision another stationary body of mass 10kg and they move
collision separately in the same direction. If the velocity of the 20kg
mass after collision was 3ms-1. Calculate the velocity with
(iii) Kinetic energy of the Kinetic energy of the which the 10kg mass moves.
bodies is conserved bodies is not conserved
Momentum is conserved Momentum is conserved Solution
Total momentum before Total momentum before Before collision
Before collision
collision= Total momentum collision= Total
after collision momentum after collision m1=20kg m2=10kg V1=3ms-1
m1 u1 +m2 u2 =m1 v1 +m2 v2 m1 u1 +m2 u2 =(m1 +m2 )𝑽 u1=5ms-1 u2=0ms-1 v2=?

NOTE; For any stationary body or body at rest, the initial

velocity is zero so the initial momentum of such a body m1= 20kg, m2= 10kg m1 u1 +m2 u2 = m1 v1 +m2 v2
before collision is zero. u1=5ms-1, u2=0ms-1 20(5)+10(0)= 20(3)+10(v2 )
v1=3ms-1 v2=? 100+0= 60 + 10v2
Example:1 100 - 60 = 10v2
A body of mass 3kg traveling at 5ms-1 collides with a 2kg Total Total 40 10v2
body moving at 8ms-1 in the same direction. If after collision (
momentum
)=(
momentum
)
=
before before 10 10
the two bodies moved together, Calculate the velocity with 4 = v2
collision collision
which the two bodies move after collision. 𝐯𝟐 = 4𝐦𝐬 −𝟏
Solution
Before collision Before collision

m1=3kg m2=2kg (m 1 + m 2 )=(3+2) kg

Exercise:
u1=5ms-1 u2=8ms-1 V=? 1. A particle of mass 200g moving at 30ms-1 hits a
stationary particle of mass100g so that they stick and
move together after impact. Calculate the velocity with
m1= 3kg, m2= 2kg m1 u1 +m2 u2 = (m1 +m2 )V which they move after collision.(Ans:V= 20ms-1)
u1=5ms-1, u2=8ms-1 3(5)+2(8)= (3+2)V
v1=V=?, v2=V=? 2. A military tanker of mass 4tonnes moving at 12ms-1
15+16= 5V collides head on with another of mass 3tonnes moving
31= 5V at 2oms-1. After collision, they stick together and move
31 5V
= as one body. Ignoring the effect of friction, find their
5 5 common velocity.
©bagiradnl@[Link] 81
(Ans: V=1.7ms-1in the direction of the 2nd tank) 200
mb= 200g = = 0.2kg, mg = 4kg
1000
-1
vb= 400ms , vg = ?
3. A body of mass 10kg moving at 20ms-1 hits another
body of mass 5kg moving in the same direction at
From, mg vg = -mb vb
10ms-1. After collision, the second body moves
separately forward with a velocity of 30ms-1. Calculate 4Vg = -0.2(400)
the velocity of the first body after collision. 4Vg = -80
.(Ans:v1=10ms-1) 4Vg −80
=
4 4
4. A car X of mass 1000kg travelling at a speed of 20 ms-I 𝐕𝐠 = -20𝐦𝐬 −𝟏
in the direction due east collides head-on with another
car Y of mass1500kg, travelling at 15ms-1 in the Example: 3
direction due west. If the two cars stick together, find A bullet of mass 12.0g travelling at 150ms-1penetrates
their common velocity after collision. deeply into a fixed soft wood and is brought to rest in
0.015s. Calculate
EXPLOSIONS (i) How deep the bullet penetrates the wood [1.125m]
Momentum is conserved in explosions such as when a riffle (ii) the average retarding force exerted by the wood on the
is fired. During the firing, the bullet receives an equal but bullet. [120N]
opposite amount of momentum to that of the rifle.
ROCKET AND JET ENGINES
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after These work on the principle that in any explosion one body
collision moves with a momentum which is equal and opposite to that
mg ug +mb ub = mg vg +mb vb of another body in the explosion. For the rocket and the jet
mg (0)+mb (0)= mg vg +mb vb engine, the high velocity hot gas is produced by the burning
0= mg vg +mb vb of fuel in the engine.
Note: Rockets use liquid oxygen while jets use oxygen
mg vg = -mb vb
from air.
Where; mg is mass of the rifle (or gun), Vg is velocity of the How a rocket engine work:
rifle which is also called recoil velocity. mb is mass of the
bullet, Vb is velocity of the bullet.

For any explosion of bodies, the amount of momentum for

one body is equal but opposite to that of another body.

The negative sign indicates that the momenta are in opposite

directions.

Example:1
A bullet of mass 8g is fired from a gun of mass 500g. If the
missile velocity of the bullet is 500ms-1. Calculate the recoil
velocity of the gun.

Solution
8 500
mb= 8g = = 0.008𝑘𝑔, mg = 500g = = 0.5kg
1000 1000
-1
vb= 500ms , vg = ?

From, mg vg = -mb vb
0.5Vg = -0.008(500)
0.5Vg = -4

0.5Vg −4
=
0.5 0.5

𝐕𝐠 = -8𝐦𝐬 −𝟏
The negative sign indicates that the recoil velocity, V g is in Principle: the jet and rocket engines work on the principle
opposite direction to that of the bullet. that momentum is conserved in explosion.

Example:2 High velocity: the high velocity of the hot gas results in the
A bullet of mass 200g is fired from a gun of mass 4kg. If the burning of the fuel in the engine.
muzzle velocity of the bullet is 400ms-1, calculate the recoil
velocity. Large momentum: the large velocity of the hot gas results in
the gas to leave the exhaust pipe with a large momentum.
Solution
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Engine: the engine itself acquires an equal but opposite 0.1𝑢𝑃 = 1+ -0.2
momentum to that of the hot gas. 0.1𝑢𝑄 = -0.8
0.1𝑢𝑄 −0.8
Note: when the two bodies collide and they move separately =
0.1 0.1
after collision but in opposite directions then. 𝒖𝑷 = -8𝒎𝒔−𝟏
m1 u1 +m2 u2 = m1 v1 +m2 (-v2 ) Thus, the initial velocity of Q is 8ms-1 towards Q.
m1 u1 +m2 u2 = m1 v1 - m2 v2
Example: 3.
Example: A body of mass 10kg moves with a velocity of 20ms-
1
A body Q of mass 50g collides with a stationary body “P” of .Calculate its momentum.
mass 4g. If a body “Q” moves backward with a velocity of
10ms-1 and a body “P”, moves forward with a velocity of Solution
6ms-1. Calculate the initial velocity of a body Q. m=10kg; v=20ms-1
Linear Momentum = Mass × Velocity
= 10 × 20
= 200kgm−1
Solution
mQ= 50g,=
50
= 0.05𝑘𝑔 mP= 4g =
4
= 0.004𝑘𝑔 Initial Momentum = Mass × Initial Velocity
1000 1000 = mu
uQ= ?, uP= 0ms-1
vQ= 10 ms-1, vP= 6ms-1 Final Momentum = Mass × Final Velocity
Before colision = mv
After colision
mQ = 50g mP = 4g vQ = 10ms −1 vP Example:2
= 6ms −1 A 20kg mass traveling at 5mls is accelerated to 8mls.
Q P Q P Calculate the change in momentum of the body.
uQ =? uP = 0
Solution
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after m=10kg
collision u=5ms-1
mQ uQ + mP uP = mQ vQ + mp vP v=8ms-1
Initial Momentum = mu Final Momentum
0.05uQ + 0.004(0) = 0.05(-10)+0.004(6) = 20×5 = mv
0.05uQ = -0.5+0.024 = 100kgms −1 = 20×8
0.05uQ = -0.476 = 160kgms −1
0.05uQ −0.476 Change in Momentum = mv - mu
= = 160 - 100
0.05 0.05
𝐮𝐐 = -9.52𝐦𝐬 −𝟏 = 60𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1
Thus, the initial velocity of Q is 9.52ms-1 to the left
Note: The change in momentum is called Impulse.
Example: 2
A moving ball “P” of mass 100g collides with a stationary Example:3
ball Q of mass 200g. After collision, P moves backward A one tonne car traveling at 20ms-1 is accelerated at 2ms-2
with a velocity of 2ms-1 while Q moves forward with a for five second. Calculate the;
velocity of 5ms-1. Calculate the initial velocity of P. (i) change in momentum
(ii) rate of change in momentum
Solution (iii) Accelerating force acting on the body.
200 100
mQ= 200g,= = 0.2𝑘𝑔 mP= 100g = = 0.1𝑘𝑔
1000 1000 Solution
uQ= 0, uP= ?
m=1tonne =1000kg
vQ= 5 ms-1, vP= 2ms-1
u=20ms-1 (ii) Rate of change in
v= ? momentum
Before colision a=2ms-2
After colision
t= 5s Rate of change in momentum
mQ = 0.2kg m = 0.1kg vQ = 5ms −1 vP Change in mometum
P (i) change in momentum
= 2ms −1 Change in Momentum =
Time taken
Q Q = mv - mu
uQ = 0 uP =?
m(v-u)
=
= 𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢) t
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after But ; 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
collision 𝑣 = 20 + 2(5) 1000(30-20)
=
mQ uQ +mP uP = mQ vQ +mp vP 𝑣 = 30𝑚𝑠 −1 5
10000
=
0.2(0)+ 0.1𝑢𝑃 = 0.2(5)+0.1(−2) Change in Momentum 5
©bagiradnl@[Link] 83
= mv - mu =2000 N Solution
= 𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢) m=1.5tonnes (i)Impulse:
=1.5x1000 Impulse = Change in Momentum
= 1000(30 − 20) = 1500 = mv - mu
u=20ms-1
= 1000(10) v=0ms-1 = 𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢)
= 10,000kgms −1 t=0.5s
= 1500(0 − 20)

= 1500(−20)
NOTE: The S.I unit for the rate of change in momentum is a
newton. = −30,000𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1
(iv) Accelerating force acting on the body. The Negative sign means that the direction of the impulse
Accelerating force, F = Rate of change in momentum is opposite to that in which the van was moving.
m(v-u) .
= (ii)Average force exerted on the wall:
t
From;Impuse = Force × Time = Ft
1000(30-20) −30000 = F × 0.5
=
5 F = −60,000N
F = 2000N
Example:5
From above, the force applied is equal to the rate of change A man of mass 60kg jumps from a high wall and lands on a
in momentum. This leads to Newton’s second law of hard floor at a velocity of [Link] the force exerted on
motion. the man’s legs if;
(i) He bends his knees on landing so that it takes 1.2s
Exercise for his motion to be stopped.
1. A body of mass 600g traveling at 10mls is accelerated (ii) He does not bend his knees and it takes 0.06s to
uniformly at 2 ms-2 for four seconds. Calculate the; stop his motion.
(i) change in momentum Solution
(ii) force acing on a body (i)
Solution m=60kg (ii)
(i) (ii) u=6ms-1 m= 60kg
mass, m = 600g Rate of change in momentum v=0ms-1 u=6ms-1
600 m(v-u) t=1.2s v=0ms-1
= =
1000 t t=0.06s
= 0.6kg 0.6(18-10) Force acting on the
u=10ms-1 =
4 body Force acting on the body
v=? 4.8 But ; 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 But ; 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
=
a=2 ms-2 4 But ; 0 = 6 + 1.2𝑎 But ; 0 = 6 + 0.06𝑎
t = 4s =1.2 N But ; 𝑎 = −5ms −1 But ; 𝑎 = −100ms −1
From;
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 (iii) Force acting on the body F = ma F = ma
𝑣 = 10 + 2(4) But ; 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 = 60(-5) = 60(-100)
𝑣 = 18𝑚𝑠 −1 But ; 18 = 10 + 4𝑡 F =-300 N F =-6000 N
Change in Momentum But ; 𝑎 = 2ms −1 Note:
= mv - mu  The negative signs means the force acts to oppose that
F = ma exerted by the man.
= 𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢) = 0.6(2)  Landing in (ii) exerts a larger force on the knees,
F =1.2 N which can cause injury compared to that in (ii).
= 0.6(18 − 10)
Thus, Force acting on the body Exercise :
= 0.6(8) is equal to the rate of change in 1. An athlete of 80 kg moving at 5ms-1, slides trough a
= 4.8𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1 momentum. distance of 10m before stopping in 4 seconds. Find the
work done by friction on the athlete.

2. A car of mass 1500kg starts from rest and attains a

velocity of 100ms-1in 20 seconds. Find the power
developed by the engine.
Example:4 A. 750kW B. 3,000kW
A van of mass 1.5 tonnes travelling at 20ms-1, hits a wall C. 30, 000kW D. 750, 000kW
and is brought to rest as a result in 0.5seconds. Calculate
the; 3. A ball of 3kg moves at 10ms-1 towards a volley ball
(i) Impulse player. If the player hits the ball and the ball moves
(ii) Average force exerted on the wall.

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 back with a velocity of 5ms-1. Find the change in much kinetic and potential energy the molecules of a body
momentum. have.
5×3 10×3 Once heat has been transferred to a body, it becomes
A. B.
10 5
internal molecular energy.
C. 3(10 − 5) D. 3(10 + 5)
Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
6. A rubber bullet of mass 100g is fired from a gun of
The S.I unit of temperature is a kelvin (K).
mass 5 kg at a speed of 200 ms-1. Find the recoil
velocity of the rifle. (a) THERMOMETERY
5×200 5×1000
A. B. A thermometer is an instrument which is used for measuring
100×1000 100×200
100×200 200×1000 temperature on the basis of certain physical properties which
C. D. change with changes in temperature.
5×1000 5×100
These properties are called thermometric properties
4. See UNEB
2001. Qn.1 2006. Qn.32 Thermometric properties
1988. Qn.9 and Qn.20 2007. Qn.24 A thermometric property is a property of a substance which
1994. Qn.5 and Qn. 3 1992. Qn.2 continuously change with temperature and may be used for
1995. Qn.8 2003. Qn.2 temperature measurements, these include:
-Increase in length.
-Change in potential difference
-Change in volume
-Change in pressure.

Thermometer scales.
There are 3 thermometer scales commonly used
(i) Celsius / centigrade scale (0C)
(ii) Fahrenheit scale (0F)
(iii) Kelvin scale/ absolute (k)

Relation between Celsius and Fahrenheit

9
F = (C + 32)
5
And if Celsius scale reads 1000c then
9
F = (100 + 32) = 2120 F
5

Converting from Fahrenheit to Celsius.

5
C = (F − 32)
9

Relationship between Celsius scale and Kelvin scale.

𝐊 = 273+0 𝐂
Where C is temperature in Celsius scale and K is
temperature in Kelvin scale.

Example:
Convert 00C to Kelvin Convert 1000C to Kelvin scale
scale (Absolute scale)
K = 273+0 C K = 273+0 C
K = 273 + 0 K = 273 + 100
K = 273K K = 373K

To obtain a standard scale on a thermometer. Two fixed

points must be marked out on it. The upper and lower fixed
points.

2. HEAT AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

a) Lower fixed point:

This is the temperature of pure melting ice at standard
Heat is a form of energy, which results from the random
atmospheric pressure; 76cmHg or 760mm Hg
movement of molecules of a body. It is a measure of how
-On Fahrenheit scale = 320F

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-On Celsius scale = 00C The double walls help to keep the steam at exactly 100 oc so
-On Kelvin scale = 237K that steam does cool and condense.
(iii). A manometer
The expansion of liquids when the temperature rises is The manometer is attached to the hypsometer to ensure that
applied in thermometers. the pressure with in it is 76cm Hg.
A thermometer has two reference temperatures called fixed (iv). Marking upper fixed point
point. These are lower fixed point and upper fixed point. The thermometer is left in steam until the level of mercury
The upper fixed point is the temperature at which pure water remains stationery. This marked and it’s the upper fixed
boils under normal atmospheric pressure. point.
The lower fixed point is the temperature at which pure water
freezes under normal atmospheric pressure. Properties of a liquid that make it suitable for thermometer
(Qualities of a good thermometric liquid).
Marking upper and lower fixed points  It should be opaque so as to be readily seen.
a) lower fixed point  It’s expansion should be regular, i.e. expansion per
degree should be the same at different point on the
temperature scale.
 It should have high boiling point and low melting point
so that both high and low temperature can be measured.
 It should be able to expand so much for a small
temperature change.
 It should be a good conductor so that it responds rapidly
to the temperature change.
 It must not stick to the inside of the tube.
 Must not be very expensive.
 Must not be poisonous.
 It should be available.
i) Placing thermometer in ice
-A thermometer to be marked is placed in pure ice melting
Reasons why water is never used in thermometer
such that the bulb is packed round with ice.
 It has a small range of expansion because its freezing
-Adjust the thermometer so that the mercury thread is
point is 0oc and boiling point is 100oc.
clearly seen.
 The meniscus in the glass is different to read since
ii) Marking lower fixed point
water is colourless and wets the glass.
-The thermometer is left in ice until level of mercury
 It does not expand uniformly.
remains stationery. This level is marked and it’s the lower
 It is not opaque.
fixed point.
Advantages of mercury over alcohol when used as
b) Upper fixed point
thermometric liquid.
A hypsometer is a two walled vessel made out of a round
bottom flask. Mercury Alcohol
-It is opaque -It is transparent
-Good conduct of heat -Poor conduct of heat as
compared to mercury
-Expand regularly -Does not expand
regularly as mercury
-Has a high boiling -Has low boiling point
point (3570C) 780C

-Mercury does not stick -Sticks on glass

on glass.
-It is opaque so it can be -It is colourless
easily seen.

Advantages of Alcohol over mercury when used as

thermometric liquid.
Alcohol Mercury
-Has a low freezing Has a high freezing
point (It can measure point of -390c hence
very low temperatures) unsuitable to measure
(i). Placing thermometer in steam
very low temperatures.
A thermometer to be marked is placed in steam in a
hypsometer. -Has a high linear Has a low linear
The thermometer should be in steam not boiling water expansivity (expands so expansivity (expands
because boiling water temperature is affected by dissolved much for small little for the same
impurities. temperature change) temperature range)
(ii). Double walls
Reading temperature on an un calibrated thermometer

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 θ = 600 C

Example: 3
The length of a mercury thread at a low fixed point and
upper fixed point are 2cm and 8cm respectively for a certain
liquid X. Given that the length of mercury thread at un
known temperature θ is 6cm determine the value of θ.
If 𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒆 is the length of the mercury thread above the bulb at 𝑙0 = 2cm ; 𝑙𝜃 = 6cm ;𝑙100 = 8cm; θ =?
melting ice, 𝒍𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 is the length of the mercury thread of
steam at 760 mmHg and 𝒍𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 is the length of mercury 𝑙𝜃 − 𝑙0
thread for the object being measured. θ=( ) × 1000 C
𝑙100 − 𝑙0
Then the required temperature θoc is given by
𝒍𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 − 𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒆 6−2
θ=( ) × 1000 C θ=( ) × 1000 C
𝒍𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 − 𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒆 8−2

In other words 𝒍𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 is also the length of mercury thread at 4

θ = ( ) × 1000 C
100oc, 𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒆 is the length of mercury thread at 0oc and 6
𝒍𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 is the length of mercury thread at the un known
temperature, θ. θ = 66.70 C
𝒍𝜽 − 𝒍0
θ=( ) × 1000 C Example: 4
𝒍100 − 𝒍0
Find the temperature in oC if the length of mercury thread is
7cm from the point and fundamental interval is 20cm.
Note: (𝑙100 − 𝑙0 ) is the temperature range of the
thermometer. In short the difference between the upper fixed
Solution
point and the lower fixed point gives the temperature range
𝑙𝜃 − 𝑙0 = 7cm ;𝑙100 − 𝑙0 = 20cm; θ =?
of the mercury thread.
The interval between the upper fixed point and the lower 𝑙𝜃 − 𝑙0
fixed point is called the fundamental interval. This is θ=( ) × 1000 C
divided into a hundred equal parts and each is called a 𝑙100 − 𝑙0
degree.
7
θ = ( ) × 1000 C
Example 1: 20
In an un calibrated mercury thermometer, the length of the
mercury thread above the bulb is 18mm at a temperature of θ = 350 C
melting ice and 138mm at a temperature of steam at 760mm
Hg. When placed in a hot liquid the length of the mercury Example: 4
thread is 118mm. calculate the temperature of the liquid. Find the unknown temperature θ given the following lengths
Solution of mercury.
𝑙0 = 18mm ; 𝑙𝜃 = 118mm ;𝑙100 = 138mm; θ =? -Length of steam = 25cm
-Length of ice point = 1cm
𝑙𝜃 − 𝑙0 -Length of known temperature θ= 19cm
θ=( ) × 1000 C Solution
𝑙100 − 𝑙0
𝑙0 = 1cm ; 𝑙𝜃 = 19cm ;𝑙100 = 25cm; θ =?
118 − 18
θ=( ) × 1000 C 𝑙𝜃 − 𝑙0
138 − 18 θ=( ) × 1000 C
𝑙100 − 𝑙0
100
θ=( ) × 1000 C 19 − 1
120 θ=( ) × 1000 C
25 − 1
θ = 830 C
18
θ = ( ) × 1000 C
Example: 2 24
The top of a mercury thread of a given thermometer is 3cm
from the ice point, if the fundamental interval is 5cm, θ = 750 C
determine the unknown temperature θ.
Solution THE CLINICAL THERMOMETER:
𝑙𝜃 − 𝑙0 = 3cm ;𝑙100 − 𝑙0 = 5cm; θ =? This thermometer is used to measure the human body
temperature.
𝑙𝜃 − 𝑙0
θ=( ) × 1000 C
𝑙100 − 𝑙0

3
θ = ( ) × 1000 C
5

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-The thermometer has a very fine bore (narrow capillary
tube) which makes it sensitive.
-Expansion of mercury makes it shoot along the tube.
-The glass from which the tube is made is very thin which
enables heat to reach the mercury quickly to read body’s
temperature.
-The bulb is the fluid reservoir. Thus it should be large
enough to hold all the fluid. It is thin walled for quick
response to heat.
-The glass stem is thick to act as a magnifying glass for the
temperature readings.
-When thermometer bulb is placed into the mouth or armpit,
the mercury expands and it is forced past the constriction
along the tube. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
-When removed, the bulb cools and the mercury in it A Heat engine is a machine which changes heat energy
contracts quickly. obtained by burning fuel to kinetic energy (Mechanical
-The mercury column breaks at the constriction leaving energy).
mercury in the tube. The constriction prevents flow back of Engines are always less than 100% efficient because.
mercury to the bulb when the thermometer is temporary (i) Some of the energy is lost in overcoming friction
removed from the patients mouth or armpits. between walls of the cylinder and pistons.
The thermometer is reset by shaking the mercury back in the (ii) Some heat energy is lost to the surrounding due to
bulb. conduction.
(iii) Some of the energy is also wasted in lifting useless
Properties/qualities of a thermometer. loads like pistons.
Quick action
This refers to the ability of a thermometer to measure Petrol engine
temperature in the shortest time possible. This is attained by A Petrol engine gets its energy from an exploded mixture of
using; air and petrol vapour.
-A thin walled bulb and using a liquid which is a good Petrol engine are also called four stroke cycle engines
conductor of heat e.g. mercury. because four piston stroke or monuments inside the cylinder
repeat themselves continuously. The piston strike is in the
Sensitivity order intake, compression, power and exhaust.
This is the ability of a thermometer to detect very small
changes in temperature. It is attained by:
-Using a thermometer with a big bulb
-Using a liquid which has a high linear expansivity.
-Using a narrow bore or reducing the diameter of the bore
hole.

Effect of heat on matter:

-When a solid is heated, the cohesive forces between its
molecules are weakened and the molecules begin to vibrate
vigorously causing the solid to (expand or) change into a
liquid state. a) Intake.
-The temperature at which a solid changes into liquid is -As the piston moves down the cylinder due to the starter
called the melting point. At melting point the temperature motor in a car (or kick start in a motor cycle) it reduces the
pressure inside the cylinder.
remains constant until the solid has melted.
-The inlet value opens and the petrol air mixture from the
-When the entire solid has melted and more heat is applied,
carburettor is forced into the cylinder by atmospheric
the temperature rises. The heat gained weakens the cohesive
forces between the liquid molecules considerably causing pressure.
the molecules to move faster until the liquid changes into -In short intake involves the piston moving down the
gaseous state. cylinder, inlet valve opening and allowing petrol – air
mixture into the cylinder.
-The temperature at which a liquid changes into gaseous
state is called the boiling point. At boiling point temperature
b) Compression
of the liquid remains constant since heat supplied weakens
the cohesive forces of attraction in liquid molecules. -Both valves close and the piston moves up compressing the
-If the heated substance is water its temperature rises with mixture to about a sixth of its original volume.
time as shown below. -Near the end of the stroke, the fuel is ignited by a spark
from the spark plug.

c) Power stroke
A spark jumps across the points of the sparking plug and
explodes the mixture, forcing the piston to move down.

d) Exhaust stroke

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The outlet value opens and the piston rises, pushing the Rate of heat transfer
exhaust gasses out of the cylinder. The rate of heat transfer along a metal bar depends on the
following factors;
DIESEL ENGINE (i) The temperature difference between the ends.
The operation of a diesel engine is similar to that of a petrol (i) The length and area of cross in short time when the cross
engine. section of the metal bar. Much heat is passed across in a
However, there are some differences. short time when the cross sectional area of the bar is large
Diesel engine Petrol engine and when the bar is short.
-Diesel is used as fuel -Petrol is used as (ii) Material from which the solid is made of.
fuel
-No spark plug -Has a spark plug Comparing the conductivities of different metals.
-Has a fuel injector -Has a carburettor
-Reliable and economical -Not reliable and
because its 40% higher economical
-Heavier -Lighter
In a diesel engine air is drawn into the cylinder on down
stroke of the piston. On upstroke of the piston, it compresses
reducing the volume of the cylinder. The very high
compression increase the stroke, oil is pumped into the
cylinder by a fuel injector, it ignites automatically. The
resulting explosion drives the piston down on its power
stroke.
Note: Diesel engine is also called compression ignition (CI).
It is heavier than a petrol engine. Diesel engine is reliable
and economical. The efficiency is about 40% higher than
any other heat engine.
-The rate of conduction is compared by dipping the ends of
four rods coated with wax in hot water.
(b) HEAT TRANSFER -The rods are identical but made of different materials.
Heat flows from a region of high temperature to a region of -After a short while, the wax begins to melt along the rods.
low temperature. There are three ways by which heat can be It melts fastest along the copper rod and slowest along
transferred, namely; wood.
(i) Conduction -This shows that copper is the best conductor and wood is
(ii) Radiation the poorest of them.
(iii) Convection
Bad and good conductors and their applications.
(i) CONDUCTION (i) Good conductors like aluminium are used in cooking
Conduction is the flow of heat through matter from a region utensils because they allow heat to pass through them easily.
of higher temperature to one of lower temperature without Copper is one of the best conductor but aluminium is
movement of matter as a whole. usually used in making cooking utensils because it is much
cheaper.
Conduction in solids
Heat transfer in solids can occur as a result of;; (ii) Bad conductor also called insulators are used in making
(i) Excess energy of vibrations being passed from one atom of handles of cooking utensils because they do not allow
to another. heat to pass through easily.
(ii) There excess Kinetic energy given to the free electrons A metal always feels cold when touched on a cold day
near the source of heat being carried by these electrons as because it loses heat from the body and transfer it to the
they move to colder region. surrounding very fast.

Note: Explain why metals feel colder when touched than bad
For heat to be transferred by conduction there should be a conductors
material medium. Metal are good conductors of heat This is because metals carry heat away from the hands due
because metals are made up of atom having free electrons to high degree of conduction while bad conductors do not
that are loosely held. conduct heat.
Examples of metals which are good conductors are; This also explains why a cemented floor feels colder than a
1. Aluminium carpeted floor.
2. iron
3. Copper N.B
New utensils or kettles, saucepans boilers, radiators are Liquids conduct heat very slowly. This is because their
made of metals because metals are good conductors of heat molecules are apart.
as their atoms have free electrons that are loosely held. Non-
metals, according to Kinetic theory do not have free Experiment to show that water is a poor conductor of
electrons that are loosely held so that heat does not pass heat
through them easily. This is why non-metals are called bad
conductors or insulators e.g plastics, cork, wood.
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 -The solution rises because on heating, it expands and
becomes less dense, so it is forced upwards by nearby cooler
(denser) water.

Difference between convection and conduction

Conduction Convection
-Involves no movement of -Involves movement of
matter itself. matter as a whole.

Application of convection current to hot water domestic

supply system.

Procedure
-Water is put in a test tube slanted as shown in the diagram
above.
-The upper part of the tube is heated and convection currents
are seen at the top of the tube, water begins to boil.
-Ice at the bottom does not melt. This shows that water is
poor conductor of heat.

(ii) CONVECTION
Convection is the flow of heat through fluid from a region of
higher temperature to one of lower temperature by the
movement of the fluid itself.
It is the heat transfer which involves bulk movement of
molecules of the medium.
Convection cannot occur in vacuum because it requires a
material medium. It occurs in fluids (liquid and gases)
because they flow easily.

When a liquid is heated it expands and becomes less dense

than the surrounding cold liquid.

Convection current.
Convection current is the cyclic motion of rising hot fluid How it works
and falling itself. The hot fluid rises because when heated it -Cold water is supplied to the boiler along the cold water
becomes less dense. supply pipe.
-In the boiler the cold water warms up, expands and
Explanation of convection current becomes less dense, so it rises up.
-When the fluid is heated it expands and becomes less -As more cold water is applied to the boiler, hot water is
dense. displaced upwards and supplied to the hot water taps along
-The heated fluid is forced upward by the surrounding hot water pipes A and D.
cooler fluid which moves under it. -The ventilation pipe, D is used to release steam.
-As the warm fluid rises, it gives heat to the surrounding
cooler fluid. The expansion pipe A allows pipe D allows escape of:
(i) Dissolved air which comes out of the water when it is
Experiment to demonstrate convection current. heated.
(ii) Steam, if the water is boiled.

If the expansion pipe is not there;

(i) The dissolved air which comes out when water is heated
causes air lock in the pipe.
(ii) The steam if the water is boiled causes explosion.

a) Boiler
When working convection current of less dense hot water
from boiler raises up through pipe A to the hot water tank.
At the same time the more

b) Circulation
-When the flask is heated from the bottom as shown, the A circulation is set up in the hot water involving filling hot
coloured solution of water rises upwards from the crystals water from top down wards.
and on reaching the top; it spreads as shown in the diagram.

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-When a volume of hot water flows to the hot water tank b) Movement of air
through pipe A, an equal volume of cold water flows to the The air above the sea is heated more than air above land, so
boiler through pipe B. the warmer air above sea rises and the cooler air from land
-At the same time an equal volume flows through pipe C to occupy the space left. This results in a land breeze blowing
the hot water tank. towards the sea.
-Pipe A leaves the boiler at the top and enters the hot water Sea breeze:
tank at the top because it carries more dense hot water.
-Pipe B is connected to the bottom of the hot water tank and
to the bottom of the because it carries more dense cold
water.

Convection in gases
Experiment to demonstrate convection in gases

a) Heating land.
During day land is heated by the sun more than the sea
because land is a better absorber of heat and has lower
specific heat capacity than the sea.

b) Movement air
The much more heating of land causes the air above it to
expand and rise as it becomes less dense. The space left is
occupied by more dense air from the relatively cooler sea.
So a cool sea breeze blows from the sea towards the land.
-The hot air above the candle rises up and gets out through Ventilation:
B. -Air inside a room, air gets heated up on hot days.
-A lighted piece of paper will produce smoke at point A. -Roofs are usually provided with small openings called
-Cold air enters at point A and sweeps all the smoke to go ventilators above the building so that the warm air which is
and replace the hot air. less dense rises up and flow out through them.
-The movements of smoke from A across the box and out -At the same time cool fresh air enters the building through
through B shows convection of gases. the doors and windows. In this way circulation of air
convection is set up
Explanation of how smoke moves:
Smoke moves by convection because;
-The air above the candle warms up, becoming less dense (iii) RADIATION
and then rises up through C. Radiation is the flow of heat from one place to another by
-The dense cold air from the paper (smoke) enters X through means of electromagnetic waves.
chimney A to replace the risen air (smoke) causing
convection currents. Heat energy is transfer from the sun to the earth by means of
radiation. Radiation is the means by which heat can travel
Application of convection in gases: through the vacuum.
-Chimneys in kitchens and factories The energy from the hot body is called radiant energy.
-Ventilation pipes in VIP latrines Radiation is emitted by the bodies above absolute zero.
-Ventilators in houses Radiant heat is mainly comprised of infrared which makes
-Land and sea breezes the skin feel warm. It travels as fast as light and it is the
fastest means of heat transfer. It can travel through a
Land and sea breezes vacuum.
Land breeze;
Factors affecting the rate of radiation of heat energy
Factor Explanation
 Temperature of the A hotter body radiates heat
body faster.
 Surface area of the body Large surface area allows
much heat energy to be
radiated per second.
 Nature of the body Dull surfaces radiate heat
energy faster than highly
polished surface.
a) Cooling of land
At night land cools faster than sea because land is a better
emitter of heat and has lower specific heat capacity than sea Good and bad absorbers
water. Shiny surface are bad absorbers of radiation while dull black
surface are good absorbers. This implies that shiny surface

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reflects most of the heat radiations instead of absorbing. The Application of absorbers.
dull black surface absorb most of the heat radiations and (i) Building in hot countries are painted white and roof
reflect very few. surfaces are shinny because white and shinny surface are
bad absorbers of heat radiation.
Experiment to show absorbing of radiation in surface (ii) Reflection on electric devices are made up of polished
Some surfaces absorb heat radiation better than others as metals because they have good reflecting properties.
illustrated below;
Good and Bad emitter.
Method I If the backs of the hands are held on either sides of the
sheet, one first feels much heat from the black surface.
This shows that a black surface is a better emitter of heat
than a shiny one.

-In short, black surface are good absorbers as well as good

emitters of heat radiations.
-Shinny surfaces or polished surfaces are bad absorbers as
well as bad emitters of radiations.

-Stick two pieces of cork using molten wax onto two Applications
vertical metal plates. (i) Cooling fins on the heat exchanger of refrigerator are
- The heat source is placed midway between the vertical painted black so that they emit heat more quickly.
plates so that the same amount of radiations are received by (ii) Tea pots and kettles are polished so that they keep heat
the two surfaces. longer as polished surface are poor emitters of heat
radiation.
Observation:
-It will be observed that after a few minutes the wax on the
dull black plate melts and the cork falls off before that on Laws of radiation:
the shiny polished plate.  Heat radiation travels in a straight line.
 Good absorbers of heat radiation are also good emitters.
Conclusion:  Temperature of the body remains constant when the rate
-This indicates that dull black surfaces are better absorbers. at which it absorbs heat radiation is equal to the rate at
which it radiates heat energy.
Method II:  Bodies only radiate heat when their temperatures are
Requirements: - A Leslie cube higher than those of the surroundings and absorb heat
-Thermopile (instrument that converts heat to electrical from the surroundings if their temperatures are low.
energy). A galvanometer.
Application of radiation:
Black and dull surfaces
(i) Car radiators are painted black to easily emit heat
(ii) Cooling fins of a refrigerator are black to easily emit
heat.
(iii) Solar plates or panels are black to easily emit heat.

-One side of the cube is dull black, the other is dull white Polished and white surfaces
and the last one is made shiny polished. (i) White washed buildings keep cool in summer.
-The cube is filled with hot water and radiation from each (ii) Roots and petro tanks are aluminium painted to reflect
surface is detected by a thermopile. radiant heat.
-When the radiant heat falling on the thermopile is much, it (iii) White coloured clothes are won in summer to keep us
registers a large deflection of the point. cool.
With different surfaces of the tube made to face the (iv) Silver tea pots, kettles and saucepan retain heat for a
thermopile one at a time. long time.
Thermos/vacuum flasks
Observation:
-The greatest deflection of the pointer is obtained when dull THE VACUUM FLASK
dark surface faces the thermopile. It is a flask with two silvered walls enclosing a vacuum. It is
-The least deflection is obtained when a highly polished used for keeping contents at a fairly constant temperature.
shiny surface faces the thermopile.

Conclusion:
-The dull and black surface is a good radiator or emitter of
heat radiation while a polished shiny surface is a poor
emitter of heat radiation.

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 -The metal ball passes through the ring when it is cold, but
when heated, the ball doesn’t pass through the ring any
more, showing that it has expanded.
-It passes through the hole again when it cools, meaning that
the metal contracts when it loses heat.

Bi- metallic strip

Different metals expand at different rates when equally
heated;
This can be shown using a metal strip made of two metals
such as copper and iron bounded tightly together (bi-
metallic strip) when the bi metallic strip is heated, the
copper expands more than iron and the strip bends as shown.

-A thermos flask also called vacuum flask keeps hot liquids

hot and cold liquids cold.
-This is because heat losses are minimized. There are three
ways by which heat can be lost namely: Conduction,
convection and radiation.

Heat losses by the above ways are minimized by the vacuum

flask as follows:

-Conduction and convection are minimized by the vacuum

since for heat to be transferred by these ways, a material -When the bimetallic strip of iron and Brass is heated, it
medium is required. bends with brass on the outside of the curve.
-Convection from the hot liquid upward to the outside is -This is because Brass expands more than iron.
reduced by the cork which also reduces heat loses by
conduction because it is a poor conductor of heat. Uses of a metallic strip (application of expansion of solids)
Bimetallic strips are useful in the following devices by
-Radiation is also minimized by the two silvered surfaces completing the metallic circuit.
since they are bad emitters. i) Ringing alarm bells
ii) Thermostats
However when a hot liquid is kept in the vacuum flask for a
long time, it cools because at a small rate, heat is lost by a) Fire alarm
conduction, convection and radiation. Heat from the source makes the bi metallic strip bend and
completes the electric circuit and the bell rings.
Choice of dress
The choice of dress one puts on depends on conditions of
the environment. On hot days, a white dress is preferable
because it reflects most of the heat radiations falling on it.

On cold days a dull black woolen dress is preferred because

it absorbs most of the heat incident on it and can retain for a
longer time.

(c) THERMAL EXPANSION OF MATTER

This is the increase in size of matter in all directions b) Thermostat
whenever matter is heated. This is a device that makes temperature of appliances or
room constant. The thermostat shown below uses a bi
1. Expansion of solids. metallic strip in the heating circuit of a flat iron.
Expansion of solids can be illustrated using a metal ball with
a ring as shown below.

How an electric Iron works

-Setting the temperature: The control knob is set to the
required temperature.

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-Bimetallic strip heating: On reaching the required
temperature, the bimetallic strip bends away breaking the Examples:
circuit at contact C. This switches off the heater. 1. In an experiment to measure linear expansivity of a metal,
-Cooling bimetallic strip: On cooling just below the required a rod of this metal is 800mm long is found to expand
temperature, the bimetallic strip makes contact and switches 1.36mm when the temperature rise from 15 oc to 100oc.
on the heater again. So a nearly steady temperature results.
Solution
-Knob: If the control knob is screwed more, the bimetallic ∆𝒍 = (𝒍𝟏 − 𝒍𝟎 ) = 1.36 mm
strip has to bend more in order to break the heating circuit 𝑙0 = 800mm
thus giving a high temperature
𝜃0 = 150 C; 𝜃1 = 1000 C; ∆θ = 85K
Disadvantage of expansion of expansion in our every day
life 1.36
 Steel bridges ∝ = = 0.00002K −1
800 × 85
Bridges are constructed with one end fixed and the other
side is placed on rollers in order for the structure to expand
or contract freely with changing temperature without Exercise:
damaging the bridge. 1. A metal rod has a length of 100cm at 200 oc. At what
temperature will its length be 99.4cm if the linear
expansivity of rod is 0.00002K-1. [Ans: θ1 = 173K]

2. A steel bridge is 2.5m long. If the linear expansivity of

the steel is 1.1 × 105 C −1 .How much will it expand when the
temperature rises by 5o C? [Ans: ∆𝒍 = 1.375 × 10−2 cm]

2. Expansion of liquids
 Railways: Liquids expand when they are heated. Different liquids
Railway lines are constructed with gaps between the expand by different amount when equally heated.
consecutive rails in order to allow free expansion of the rails Liquids expand much more than solids because according to
is the temperature increases. the kinetic theory, liquid molecules are far apart compared
If no gaps are left between rails, the rails buckle during a hot to the solids and the intermolecular forces are weaker in
day. liquids.
If no gap is left in the rails, they bend on hot days.
Experiment to demonstrate expansion of water.

Cold day Hot day

 Electricity Transmission cables
The wires which are used for the transmission of electricity
or telephone wires are usually left sagging in order to allow
them free expansion and contraction.

Linear expansivity
Linear expansivity of a material is the fraction of its original
length by which it expands per Kelvin rise in temperature. -Fill the flask completely with coloured water. Pass the
Linear expansion narrow tube through the hole of the cork and fix the cork
Linear expansivity = tightly to the flask.
Original length × Temperature rise
-Note the first level of water on a narrow tube
∆𝒍 -Heat the bottom of the flask and observe the new level of
∝ = water on the capillary tube. Initially there will be a
𝒍𝟎 × ∆𝛉
momentary drop of the water level in the tube then after
𝐖𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 ; ∆𝒍 = 𝒍𝟏 − 𝒍𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ∆𝜽 = 𝜽𝟏 − 𝜽𝟎 wards the level rises.
Where ; 𝑙0 = original length -Therefore liquids expand when heated since there was a
𝑙1 = New length rise in the levels of water in the capillary tube.
θ0 = Initial temperature
Explanation
θ1 = Final temperature
-When the flask is heated, the flask first receives heat before
the water in it so the flask expands and its volume increases
The S.I unit of linear expansivity is K-1or 0C-1

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causing the slight fall in level. -However, when heat reaches AB: As the temperature rises ice expands.
the water, the volume of water expands more than the CB: The ice is melting to form water at 0oc
increase in volume of the flask. CD: As the temperature rises, the formed water at 0 oc
contracts until 4oc.
Comparing expansion of different liquids DE: At 4oc the water expands just like other liquids do.

Sketch of density against temperature.

-Three identical flasks A, B and C are filled with alcohol,

kerosene and water respectively.
-Fit a narrow capillary tube in each flask through the cork, -Since density is mass/volume but mass is unaltered by
cool flasks to the same temperature, adjust the levels such warming.
that they are equal and mark the original levels. -It is only volume which decreases between 0oc to 4oc.
-Place the flasks in a trough of hot water -It follows that water has its maximum density at 4oc. From
-After some time, the liquid levels rise to different levels. the sketch it is noted that ice is less dense than water.
This shows that different liquids expand differently when -This is because for any given mass at 0oc the volume of ice
heated through the same temperature range. is greater than the volume of water. This is why ice is less
Liquid C expands more than B and more than A in that dense than water.
order. -When ice is mixed with water, ice floats on water because
when ice melts to form water, density increases as volume
Application of expansion property of liquids decreases until [Link], ice is less dense than water.
This property is used in thermometer; the liquids used
include alcohol and mercury. Note: During very cold weather, pipes of water burst
because at 0oc when water freezes, considerable expansion
occurs resulting in increase in volume.

Anomalous expansion of water Biological importance of abnormal expansion

(Unusual expansion of water) The unusual expansion of water has some biological
importance in the preserving of aquatic life during cold
weather.

a) Water at the top cooling

During cool weather, water at the top of the sea cools first,
contracts and being denser to the bottom. The warmer and
For all solids expect ice, when heated, they melt to form less dense water rises to the surface to be cooled.
liquids. They expand just after melting but ice which melts
at 0oc to form water contracts until 4oc. Water is thus b) At 4oc
exceptional or anomalous in the range 0oc to 4oc. When all the water is at 4oc the circulation stops.

Sketch of volume against temperature. c) Temperature below 4oc

When the temperature of water surface falls below 4oc, it
becomes less dense and remains at the top, eventually
forming a layer of ice at 0oc.
The lower layer of water at 40c can only lose heat by
conduction. So in deep water there will be always water
beneath the ice in which fish and other aquatic life can
thrive.

Explanation of unusual expansion of water by kinetic theory

-The expansion of water between 4oc and 0oc is due to the
breaking up of groups of water molecule below 4 oc and
formation of groups of water molecules above 4oc which
require a large volume. -So the anomalous expansion of
From the sketch, it is noted that water has its minimum water at 4oc is because water molecules bond together
volume at 4oc. differently above and below 4 oc.

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Expansion of gases (d) GAS LAWS
A gas expands when heated almost 10,000 times more than Gases when heated will show a significant change in
solids. pressure volume and temperature unlike solids and liquids
The greater expansion of gasses is due to very weak which show insignificant change in volume.
intermolecular forces which can be broken easily. Gas laws are laws which express the relationships between
Pressure, (P), Volume (V) and Temperature (T) of a fixed
Experiment to demonstrate expansion in gases mass of a gas.

1. Boyle’s law
Boyle’s law states that the volume of fixed mass of gas at
contact temperature is inversely proportional to its pressure.

Mathematically;
1
P∝ at constant temperature.
V
1
In the above set up the flask is slightly heated. P = k ; ⟺ PV = k; ⟺ 𝐏𝐕 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
Air bubbles will be seen coming out from the other end of v
the tube 𝐏1 𝐕1 = 𝐏2 𝐕2 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
This shows that air expand when heated.
In the second set up, when the source of heat is removed and Example: 1
the flask is allowed to cool by pouring cold water, the level The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is 5artmospheres when
of water will rise. This shows that air contracts when cooled. its volume is 200cm3. Find its pressure when the volume
(i) Is halved
Alternatively (ii) Is doubled
1
When hands are rubbed together thoroughly and held around (iii) Is increased by 1 times provided temperature remains
2
the flask as shown above, bubbles of air start coming out of constant.
water. This is because the heat produced by the hands was Solution
enough to cause the air in the flask to expand. When the (i)P1 V1 = P2 V2
hands are removed and flask left to cool, the water rises in 5 × 200 = P2 (100)
the tube. This is because cooling the air contracts and P2 = 10 atmospheres
pressure of the inside are becomes less than the atmospheric
pressure. (ii) P1 V1 = P2 V2
5 × 200 = P2 (400)
Application of expansion of air. P2 = 2.5 atmospheres
Hot air balloon
Expansion of air is used in hot air balloon. When air in the (iii) P1 V1 = P2 V2
balloon is heated, it expands and becomes less dense and as 5 × 200 = P2 (300)
a result the balloon rises up. P2 = 3.333 atmospheres
.
Exercise 1: See UNEB Past papers. When pressure is doubled the volume is halved or vice versa
1. 1988 Qn.12 6. 1999 Qn.9 11. 1989 Qn.2
2. 1988 Qn.18 7. 2004 Qn.11 12. 1994 Qn.1 Experiment to verify Boyle’s law
3. 1988 Qn.31 8. 2004 Qn.33 13. 1998 Qn.3
4. 1991 Qn.4 9. 2006 Qn.17 14.1998 Qn.5
5. 1994 Qn.33 10.2007 Qn.36 15.

Trap dry air in the capillary tube using the mercury column.
-The pressure is varied using a bicycle pump and its value, P
read from the Bourdon gauge and recorded.
-For each vale of P, the length, l of the air column is
measured from the scale and recorded. This is the volume of
the air.
-The procedures are repeated for different values of P and
the results tabulated.
Pressure, P (Pa) Volume, V(m3 )
- -
- -

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-A graph of P against V is plotted Experiment to verify Charles’s law

Example 1:
The volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature
when the pressure is 76mHg. Calculate the volume when the
pressure is 38 cmHg.
the volume when the pressure is 38 cmHg. -Trap dry air using the index of concentrated sulphuric acid
in a capillary tube. Tie the tube on the metre-rule using a
Solution rubber band.
(i)P1 V1 = P2 V2 -Place the apparatus in a metal can containing water and
150 × 76 = V2 (38) heat the water slowly while stirring gently.
V2 = 300cm3 -Read and record the length, l of the trapped air column and
the temperature, T.
Note: from the above example, it is found when pressure -Repeat the procedures for different temperatures and
halved the volume doubles. tabulate the results.
-Plot a graph of l against temperature, T.
Example:2 A graph of v against T A graph of V against T
The volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature
increases from 300cm3 to 500cm3 . Find the new pressure if
the initial pressure was 70cmHg.

Solution
v1 = 300cm3 , P1 = 70cmHg,
v2 = 500cm3 ; P2 =?
P1 V1 = P2 V2 ⟺ 70 × 300 = P2 × 500
21000 = 500P2
P2 = 42cmHg

Example:3
The pressure of a fixed mass of 0.5litres of a gas is Observation:
30cmHg. Find the volume if the pressure increases to -The graph is a straight line through the origin.
70cmHg. -In the second graph, at2730 𝐶, the gas occupies zero
volume.
Solution This temperature is called absolute zero.
v1 = 0.5litres, P1 = 30cmHg,
v2 =? ; P2 = 70cmHg Conclusion:
P1 V1 = P2 V2 ⟺ 30 × 0.5 = 70 × V2 -The graph shows that l (which is proportional to volume), is
15 = 70V2 directly proportional to the
V2 = 0.211litres absolute temperature at constant pressure. This verifies
charles’ law.
2. Charles’ Law
Charles’ law states that the volume of a fixed mass of a gas Absolute temperature is the Kelvin temperature scale
at constant pressure is directly proportional to the absolute which has zero value coinciding with -273 0C.
temperature. Absolute temperature is also called thermodynamic
V ∝ Tat constant pressure. temperature. On this scale temperature is measured in
𝐕 Kelvin (K)
= 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 Where temperature 0oC in Kelvin is obtained from
𝐓
V1 V2 temperature; θ0 𝑐 = (θ + 273)K
= = constant e.g. temperature of -730c
T1 T2
T = (−730 C + 273)
T = 200K

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Absolute zero is the temperature of 273 oc at which the -The can is heated from the bottom while stirring and the
volume of the gas would become zero as the gas is cooled. pressure, P is then recorded for different temperature values.
However, the volume of the gas can not actually shrink to -The heating is stopped to allow steady gauge reading for
zero. This is because the gas first liquidifies, then turns to each reading taken.
solid before the temperature of 273oc is reached. -The results are tabulated and a graph of pressure against
temperature plotted.
The volume-temperature and pressure-temperature graphs For temperature in K For temperature in 0C
for a gas are straight lines. This is because gasses expand
uniformly with temperature. So equal temperature increase
cause equal volume or pressure increases.

Example 1
The volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure is
400cm3 at a temperature of -73oc. Calculate the volume
when the temperature is raised to 27oc.
Solution
v1 = 400cm3 , T1 = (−73 + 273) = 200K,
v2 =? ; T2 = (27 + 273) = 300K
V1 V2 400 V2
= ⟺ = ⟺ V2 = 600cm3
T1 T2 200 300
Observation:
-A straight line graph touching the temperature axis at -
Example 2 273oC verifies pressure law.
The volume of a fixed mass of gas at a given pressure is
1.5m3 at a temperature of 300K. Calculate the temperature
Example 1
when the volume will be 0.5m3 at the same pressure.
The pressure of gas in a cylinder is 15atm at 27℃.
Solution
(i) what will be the pressure at 177℃?
v1 = 1.5m3 , T1 = 300K, (ii) at what temperature will the pressure be 10
v2 = 0.5m3 , T2 =? atmospheres?
V1 V2 1.5 0.5 Solution
= ⟺ = ⟺ T2 = 100K
T1 T2 300 T2 (i)
P1 = 15atm. , T1 = 27 + 273 = 300K,
3. Pressure law. P2 =? , T2 = 177 + 273 = 450𝐾
The pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume is P1 P2 15 P2
directly proportional to its absolute temperature. = ⟺ = ⟺ P2 = 22.5atm.
T1 T2 300 450
P ∝ T: at constant Volume.
(ii)
𝐏 P1 = 15atm. , T1 = 27 + 273 = 300K,
= 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 P2 = 10atm. , T2 =?
𝐓 P1 P2 15 10
= ⟺ = ⟺ T2 = 200K.
𝐏1 𝐏2 T1 T2 300 T2
= = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
𝐓1 𝐓2
Equation of state
Experiment to verify Pressure law The combination of the three gas law equations forms a
single equation called the equation of state. Or the general
gas law.
It is an equation that expresses the relationship between
Volume, V, pressure, P and temperature, T. It is given by
the formula;

𝐏𝐕
= 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
𝐓
𝐏1 𝐕1 𝐏2 𝐕2
=
𝐓1 𝐓2

Example 1
Air in a 2.5 litre vessel, at 127oc exert a pressure of 3
Procedure: atmospheres. Calculate the pressure that the same mass of
-The apparatus is set up as shown above. The rubber tubing air would exert if contained in a 4 litre vessel at -73oc.
from the flask to the pressure gauge should be as short as
possible. Solution
-The flask containing dry air is placed in water in a can such V1 = 2.5litres. , T1 = 127 + 273 = 400K,
that water is almost to the top of its neck. P1 = 3atm
V2 = 4litres , T2 = −73 + 273 = 200K

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P2 =? -When the temperature of gas increases, molecules move
P1 V1 P2 V2 3(2.5) 4P2 faster
= ⟺ = ⟺ P2 = 1.08atm. -Raising the temperature of a fixed mass of gas at constant
T1 T2 400 200
volume increases the average kinetic energy of the
Example 2 molecules so that the molecules make more frequent
A bicycle pump contains 50cm3 of air at 170C and a pressure collisions with walls at high velocity.
of one atmosphere. Find the air pressure when it is - This decreases the rate of bombardment (few molecules
compressed to 10cm3 and its temperature rises to 270C. collide), resulting in decrease in gas pressure.
Solution
V1 = 50cm3 . , T1 = 17 + 273 = 290K, P1 = 1 atm b) Effect of Temperature on pressure
-When a gas is heated and its temperature rises, the average
V2 = 10cm3 , T2 = 27 + 273 = 300K, P2 =?
kinetic energy of the molecules increases and the average
P1 V1 P2 V2 1(50) 10P2
= ⟺ = ⟺ P2 = 5.17atm. speed of the molecules increases.
T1 T2 290 300 -The frequency of the collisions of the molecules with the
walls of the container increases hence the pressure of the gas
Standard temperature and pressure (S.T.P) increases.
This is the physical condition of temperature equal to 0℃ -If the container is flexible, the volume of the gas increases
and pressure is equal to 76cmHg at S.T.P, one mole of any in order to maintain the pressure constant.
gas occupies a volume of 22.4l. -If the volume of the gas is to remain constant the pressure
of the gas increases due to more frequent and more violent
Gas laws and kinetic theory. collisions of the molecules with the walls.
Kinetic theory of matter states that, matter is made up of -The above explanation is used to explain why a balloon
small particles called atoms or molecules that are in a inflated with air bursts when left in sunshine.
constant random motion and the speed of movement of the -This is because the temperature rises yet volume remains
particles is directly proportional to temperature. constant so the pressure increases due to more frequent and
-The theory considers the molecules of a gas to be like more violent collision of the molecules with the walls.
elastic spheres.
-Each time one of the molecules strikes the wall of the Absolute zero is the temperature at which the molecules
container it rebounds. have their lowest possible kinetic energy.
-The force produced on the on the wall by a molecule is the
momentum change per second. So the gas pressure due to all Exercise 2: See UNEB Past papers.
bombarding molecules is proportional to their average total 1. 1997 Qn.3 6. 1989 Qn.13 11. 2006 Qn.15
momentum per second (Force) normal to the wall. 2. 1998 Qn.6 7. 1992 Qn.6 12. 1989 Qn.7
3. 2003 Qn.4 8. 2000 Qn.33 13. 1991 Qn. 10
Kinetic theory can be used to explain the cause of; -Gas
4. 2007 Qn.43 9. 2002 Qn.12 14.
pressure
5. 2001 Qn.3 10.1993 Qn.3 15.
-Boyle’s law
-Charles’s law
-Pressure law

a) Causes of gas pressure.

-Gas molecules are in constant random motion colliding
with each other and bombarding the walls of the container.
-As they bombard the walls of the container, they exert a
force on the walls. These forces cause gas pressure.

Boyle’s law
-At constant temperature, the average speed of gas
molecules is constant.
-When the volume of the container decreases, the rate of
collision and bombardment increases resulting in increase of
force exerted on the walls and increase in pressure.
-Likewise increase in volume at constant temperature result
in decrease in pressure.

Charles ‘s law.
-When temperature of gas molecules increases, they move
faster.
-To maintain the pressure constant, the volume of gas must
increase so that molecules travel further between collisions
with the walls.
-This results in fewer collisions per second.

Pressure law.

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 (e) MEASUREMENT OF HEAT Importance of the high specific heat capacity of water
(QUANTITY OF HEAT) The high specific heat capacity of water makes the
temperature rise and fall to be slower for water.
(a). Heat Capacity -This is one of the major reasons why water is used in the
Heat capacity is the quantity of heat required to raise the cooling system of engines and radiator of central heating
temperature of a body by 1 Kelvin. system.
In general, the amount of heat required to raise the -The other reason why water is used is because it is cheaper
temperature of a substance by one Kelvin. The S.I. unit of and available.
heat capacity is Joules per Kelvin (𝐉𝐊 −1 ).
The specific heat capacity of water is 4200JKg −1 K −1 and
Quantity of Heat 𝐐 that of soil is about 800JKg −1 K −1 . This results in the
Heat Capacity, 𝐂 = = temperature of the sea to rise and fall more slowly than that
Temperature Channge ∆𝛉
of land.
(b). Specific Heat Capacity The specific heat capacity of water being 4200JKg −1 K −1
The word specific refers to a unit quantity of physical means that heat of 4200J is required by 1kg of water to raise
property. its temperature by 1K.
Specific Heat Capacity is the quantity of heat required to Islands are surrounded by water as they experience much
raise the temperature of a 1Kg mass of a substance by 1K. smaller changes of temperatures from summer to winter
The S.I unit of specific heat capacity is Joules per kilogram because the specific heat capacity of water is high so that
Kelvin () or Joules per kilogram per Kelvin (𝐉𝐊𝐠 −1 𝐊 −1 ). temperature rises and falls more slowly.

Quantity of Heat Example 1

Specific Heat Capacity = How much heat is needed to rise the temperature from 30 0c
Mass × Temp. Channge
Q to 0oc for an iron of 5kg. Specific heat capacity of iron is
C= 440J/KgK.
m∆θ

Heat Energy = Mass × S. H. C × Temp. change Solution:

𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 = 𝐦𝐂∆𝛉 ∆𝛉 = (θ2 − θ1 ) = (40 − 30) = 100C
𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 = 𝐦𝐂∆𝛉
Where ∆θ is the temperature rise from initial temperature = 5 × 440 × 10
θ1 to final temperature, θ2 . = 22000J
Then△ 𝛉 = (θ2 − θ1 )
m = mass of substance, C= specific heat capacity. Example 2: (2000 Qn. 4)
Heat capacity = mass × Specific Heat Capacity When a block of iron of mass 2Kg absorbs 19KJ of heat, its
temperature rises by 100C. Find the specific heat capacity of
NOTE: iron.
When using H = 𝐦𝐂∆𝛉 ; Solution:
1. The mass, m must be in in S.I unit (Kg). Q = 19KJ = 19 × 1000 = 19000; ∆𝛉 = 100C; C?
2. In questions with the phrase “the temperature rises by 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲, 𝐐 = 𝐦𝐂∆𝛉
…0C or the temperature rose by…0C; the temperature value 19000 = 2 × C × 10
given is the change in temperature, ∆𝛉. 19000 = 20C
C = 950JKg −1 K −1
Example:
If the temperature of substance change from 20 oc to 40oc. Example 3: (2003 Qn. 13)
Then the temperature rise is; Find the amount heat required to raise the temperature of a
△ 𝛉 = (θ2 − θ1 ) = (40 − 20) = 200C 0.5Kg salt solution from −50C to 150C. Specific heat
capacity of salt solution is 4000JKg −1 K −1 .
Note: The value of C is different for different substances.
The table shows values of specific heat capacities of some Solution:
common substances. Q =? m = 0.5Kg; θ1 = −5 0C, θ2 = 15 0C;
△ 𝛉 = (θ2 − θ1 ) = (15 − −5) = 20 0C
Substance Specific Heat Capacity 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲, 𝐐 = 𝐦𝐂∆𝛉
(J𝐊𝐠 −1 𝐊 −1 ) = 0.5 × 4000 × 20
[Link] 4200 = 40000J
[Link] 2100
[Link] 900 Example 4: (1992 Qn. 4)
[Link] 400 Find the amount heat required to raise the temperature of a
N.B:The high specific heat capacity of water makes 20g of water from 300C to 600C. Specific heat capacity of
water a very good liquid for cooling machines. water is 4200JKg −1 K −1 .

Solution:
20
Q =? m = 20g = = 0.02Kg;
1000
∆𝛉 = (θ2 − θ1 ) = (60 − 30) = 30 0C

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 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲, 𝐐 = 𝐦𝐂∆𝛉 Experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a
= 0.02 × 4200 × 30 solid by method of mixture
= 2520J

Example 5: UNEB 1997. Qn. 15

Calculate the specific heat capacity of paraffin if 22000
joules of heat are required to raise the temperature of 2.0 Kg
of paraffin from 200 Cto 300 C.

CALORIMETRY
Calorimetry is the measurement of heat exchanged.
The device used in calorimetry is a calorimeter. It is usually
made of copper.
The calorimeter is lagged with an insulator and placed in a
jacket with a plastic cover which has two holes for a
thermometer and a stirrer.

Methods of Measuring Specific Heat Capacity Procedure

(i) Method of mixtures -Put water of mass m1 in a container of heat capacity c1
(ii) Electrical Method (not on syllabus) -Put calorimeter and its contents in a calorimeter jacket and
record their initial temperature θ1
Describing the method of mixture -Meanwhile, put the solid of mass m in boiling water in a
-The method of mixture involves mixing a solid with a beaker as shown in figure (i) above for some minutes.
liquid at different temperature but the specific heat capacity Record the boiling point θ2
of either solid or liquid should be known. -Quickly transfer the solid from boiling water to the
-In this method a hot substance is mixed with a cold calorimeter using a string.
substance and then stirred. Then heat will flow from a hot -Begin to stir until the final steady temperature θ3 is
substance to the cold substance until both are at the same obtained (the heat shield is to prevent the heating from
temperature. boiling water to reach the calorimeter).
-If no heat is lost to the surrounding then heat lost by the hot
substance = heat gained by cold substance. -Assume negligible heat to the surrounding.
𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭
𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭
NOTE: 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐭 𝐛𝐲 𝐠𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐝
( )=( ) + ( 𝐠𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐲 )
1.-If the heat capacity of the calorimeter (or container) is 𝐡𝐨𝐭 𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲 𝐛𝐲 𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐝
𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫
NOT neglected, then heat lost by the hot object is gained by 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫
both the calorimeter and its content. (𝐦𝐬 𝐂𝐬 ∆𝛉) = (𝐦𝐰 𝐂𝐰 ∆𝛉) + (𝐦𝐜 𝐂𝐜 ∆𝛉)
-Both the calorimeter and its content always have the
same temperature values. Thus ms Cs (θ3 − θ2 ) = mw Cw (θ2 − θ1 ) + mc Cc (θ2 − θ1 )
Heat
gained Heat mw Cw (θ2 − θ1 ) + mc Cc (θ2 − θ1 )
Heat lost by Cs =
( )=( ) + ( gained by ) ms (θ3 − θ2 )
hot body by cold
calorimeter
body
(𝐦𝐬 𝐂𝐬 ∆𝛉) = (𝐦𝐥 𝐂𝐥 ∆𝛉) + (𝐦𝐜 𝐂𝐜 ∆𝛉) Knowing values of C1,M1, M2, C2,M and temperature
changes, specific heat capacity of a solid Cs can be obtained
2. If the heat capacity of the calorimeter is neglected, then from the above expression.
the heat gained by the calorimeter is neglected and is not Precautions
included in the calculation.  The specimen must be transferred as fast as possible but
Heat lost by Heat gained with care to avoid splashing of water from calorimeter.
( )=( )  The calorimeter must be insulated and placed on an
hot body by cold body
(𝐦𝐬 𝐂𝐬 ∆𝛉) = (𝐦𝐥 𝐂𝐥 ∆𝛉) insulating stand in a constant temperature bath.
 The calorimeter must be polished on its inner and outer
Where, 𝐦𝐬 , 𝐦𝐥 , 𝐦𝐜 = masses of hot body, cold body surface to reduce heat loss by radiation.
and calorimeter respectively  Stirring must be done to ensure uniform distribution of
𝐂𝐬 , 𝐂𝐥 , 𝐂𝐜 = Specific Heat Capacity of hot heat.
body, cold body and calorimeter respectively NOTE:
To determine the specific Heat capacity of the liquid, the
same procedure above is used. However in this case, a solid
of known specific heat capacity is used and Cl is made the
subject of the formula.
ms Cs (θ3 − θ2 ) = mi Cl (θ2 − θ1 ) + mc Cc (θ2 − θ1 )

ms Cs (θ3 − θ2 ) − mc Cc (θ2 − θ1 )
Cl =
ml (θ2 − θ1 )

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Example 1: When the tube is inverted N times then the total potential
A piece of metal of mass 0.5kg is heated to 100 oc and then energy is calculated as Nmgh so that heat gained is equal to
placed in 0.4kg of water at 10oc. If the final temperature of potential energy lost.
the mixture is 30oc. calculate the specific heat capacity of mc(θ2 − θ1 ) = Nmgh
the metal. c(θ2 − θ1 ) = Ngh
(The S.H.C of water is 4200JKg −1 K −1 ) 𝐠𝐡
𝐜=
(𝛉2 − 𝛉1 )
Solution: Where N is the number of time the tube is inverted. g is
θ3 = 1000 C; ms = 0.5kg acceleration due to gravity and h is the distance through
θ2 = 300 C; mw = 0.4kg which the lead shots have fallen.
θ1 = 100 C;
The distance “h” is the same as the length of the tube. This
Assume negligible heat to the surrounding. method is more advantageous than the method of mixtures
Heat lost by Heat gained because here the mass of substance is not required.
( )=( )
hot body by cold water
ms Cs (θ3 − θ2 ) = mw Cw (θ2 − θ1 ) Example:
0.5 × Cs × (100 − 30) = 0.4 × 4200(30 − 10) A tube length 10cm contains leads shots. If the tube is
35Cs = 0.4(4200)(20) inverted 1000 times such that the temperature of the shots
Cs = 960JKg −1 K −1 changes from 40oc to 100oc. calculate the specific heat
capacity of the lead shots.
Note: h = 10cm = 0.1m; g = 10ms −2 ; N = 1000times
Liquid take up the volume of the container when filled so
when a liquid is filled in a container the volume of the gh 1000 × 10 × 0.1
container is equal to the volume of liquid filling it. c= =
(θ2 − θ1 ) 100 − 40
Mass of volume of density of
( ) = ( )x( )
liquid liquid liquid 1000
=
60
= 16.7JKg −1 K −1
Example 2: UNEB 1993. Qn. 3(d)
A copper block of mass 250g is heated to a temperature of Example:
1450 C and then dropped into a copper calorimeter of mass A tank holding 60kg is heated by 3KW electric immersion.
250g containing 250𝑐𝑚3 of water at 200 C. If the specific heat capacity is 4200J/kgk. Calculate the time
(i) Calculate the maximum temperature attained taken for the temperature to rise from 10oc to 60oc.
by the water. (S.H.C of water is
4200JKg −1 K −1 ). Solution:
(ii) Sketch a graph to show the variation of m=60kg P=3KW =3 x 1000W=3000W
temperature of water with time. Energy = Power × Time
Solution: mc(θ2 − θ1 ) = Pt
Finding Specific Heat Capacity by Mechanical method 60 × 4200 × (60 − 10) = 3000t
t = 4200s

LATENT HEAT (HIDDEN HEAT)

(a) Latent Heat
Latent heat is the quantity of heat absorbed or released at
constant temperature by a substance during change of state.
Specific latent heat is the heat required to change one
kilogram of substance from one state of matter to another
without changing its temperature.

When a substance changes state from solid to liquid or

-Lead shots of measured temperature 𝜃1 and mass “m” are liquid to solid liquid to gas the temperature remains constant
placed in a tube as shown above. When the tube is inverted, although heat is supplied.
they fall through distance “h”. so potential energy of the
lead shots is mgh. This can be explained by the kinetic theory.
-This energy becomes kinetic energy which in turn becomes When a solid is changing in state there is no temperature
internal molecular energy when the lead shots are brought to change because the supplied heat energy is being used by
rest. The internal molecular energy is heat energy which molecules to break away the intermolecular force holding
rises the temperature of lead shot from 𝜃1 to𝜃2 . them in one state.
- Heat energy gained by the lead shots is equal to the Latent heat therefore is the heat which causes no change in
potential energy lost by lead shot. temperature but changes the state, say solid to liquid, liquid
𝐦𝐜(𝛉2 − 𝛉1 ) = 𝐦𝐠𝐡 to solid or liquid to gas.

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 Experiment to determine the specific latent heat of
Evaporating
Melting fusion by method of mixtures.
Solid Liquid Gas
Freezing Condensing

(a) Heating Curve (b) Cooling curve

𝐓(𝟎 𝐂)

𝐓(𝟎 𝐂)
𝐐𝟏
𝐐𝟓 -Pour pure hot water of known mass, 𝐦𝐇𝐰 and specific heat
𝐐𝟒 capacity 𝐂𝐰 in a well lagged calorimeter of mass, 𝐦𝐜 and
𝐐𝟐 specific heat capacity 𝐂𝐜 .
𝐐𝟑 𝐐𝟑
𝐐𝟐 𝐐𝟒 -Record the initial temperature of,θ1 of hot water.
𝟎 𝟎 -Place small pieces of pure melting ice at 00 C into the
𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞(𝐬) 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞(𝐬)
𝐐𝟏 calorimeter and stir the mixture gently until all the ice melts.
𝐐𝟓 - Read and record the final temperature of,θ2 of the mixture
in the calorimeter.
-Re weigh the calorimeter and its content to determine the
Q = Quantity of heat, mass of melted ice 𝒎𝒊 from the formula;
m = mass, 𝑚𝑖 = (𝑚𝑖 + 𝑚𝐻𝑤 + 𝑚𝑐 ) − (𝑚𝐻𝑤 + 𝑚𝑐 )
lf = Latent heat of fusion, -Heat lost by hot water and calorimeter is equal to heat
lv = Latent heat of vapourisation gained by ice and cold water from ice
c = Specific heat capacity 𝒎𝑯𝒘 𝑪𝒘 ∆𝜽 + 𝒎𝒄 𝑪𝒄 ∆𝜽 = 𝒎𝒊 𝒍𝒇 + 𝒎𝒘 𝑪𝒘 ∆𝜽
∆θ = Change in temperature 𝑚 𝐶 (𝜃 − 𝜃2 )
[ 𝐻𝑤 𝑤 1 ] = 𝑚𝑖 𝑙𝑓 + 𝑚𝑤 𝐶𝑤 (𝜃2 − 0)
+𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑐 (𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )
𝐐𝟏 : Temperature of ice 𝐐𝟏 : Temperature of m C (θ − θ2 )
[ Hw w 1 ] − mw Cw (θ2 − 0)
increasing steam decreasing +mc Cc (θ1 − θ2 )
𝑙𝑓 =
𝐐𝟏 = 𝐦𝐜∆𝛉 𝐐𝟏 = 𝐦𝐜∆𝛉 𝑚𝑖

𝐐𝟐 : Ice changing to water 𝐐𝟐 : Steam condensing

𝐐𝟐 = 𝐦𝐥𝐟 𝐐𝟐 = 𝐦𝐥𝐯 Experiment to determine the specific latent heat of
fusion by Electrical method.
𝐐𝟑 : Temperature of water 𝐐𝟑 : water cooling
increasing 𝐐𝟑 = 𝐦𝐜∆𝛉
𝐐𝟑 = 𝐦𝐜∆𝛉
𝐐𝟒 : water changing to
𝐐𝟒 : water changing to ice
vapour 𝐐𝟒 = 𝐦𝐥𝐟
𝐐𝟒 = 𝐦𝐥𝐯
𝐐𝟓 : Ice cooling
𝐐𝟓 : Temperature of steam 𝐐𝟓 = 𝐦𝐜∆𝛉
increasing
𝐐𝟓 = 𝐦𝐜∆𝛉

(b) Types of latent Heats

(i) Latent heat of fusion; 𝐋𝐯
Latent heat of fusion is the quantity of heat required to
change the state of a substance from solid to liquid at
constant temperature.
Procedures:
Specific Latent heat of fusion is the quantity of heat required a) Placing heater;
to change the state of a 1kg mass of substance from solid to An electric heater of known power “p” is placed in filter
liquid at constant temperature. funnel.
The S.I unit is a 𝐉𝐤𝐠 −𝟏 b) Packing small pieces of ice
Small pieces of ice are packed around the electric heater.
c) Switching on and timing;
Q = mLf The heater is switched on for a known time “t” and mass
“m” of water collected in the beaker is weighed and
determined from the formula:
Mass of Mass of empty Mass of
( )=( )−( )
melted ice beaker + water beaker

Conclusion:

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The specific latent heat of fusion of ice,𝐋𝐟 is calculated from 𝒎𝒔 𝒍𝒗 + 𝒎𝒔 𝑪𝒘 ∆𝜽 = 𝒎𝒄𝒘 𝑪𝒘 ∆𝜽 + 𝒎𝒄 𝑪𝒄 ∆𝜽
the formula; mcw Cw (100 − θ2 )
[ ] − ms Cw (θ2 − θ1 )
𝐏𝐭 = 𝐦𝐋𝐟 +mc Cc (θ2 − θ1 )
𝑙𝑣 =
𝑚𝑠
Assumption; Determination of specific latent heat of vaporization of
 No heat is absorbed from the surrounding. steam by electrical method
 All heat supplied by the heater has been absorbed by the
ice only.

Significance of high value of specific latent heat of fusion

[ 𝐋𝐟 = 𝟑𝟒𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐉𝐤𝐠 −𝟏 ]
Ice is often used as a cooling agent e.g. ice cubes are added
to juice to keep it cold.
(ii) Latent heat of vapourisation
Latent heat of vapourisation is the quantity of heat required
to change the state of a substance from liquid state to gas at
constant temperature.

Specific Latent heat of fusion is the quantity of heat required

to change the state of a 1kg mass of substance from liquid
state to a gas at constant temperature.
The S.I unit is a 𝐉𝐤𝐠 −𝟏 Procedures:
a)
Weigh the mass of water and the beaker and record it as m1.
Q = mLv b) Placing heater;
An electric heater of known power “p” is placed in the water
Importance of the very high value of specific latent heat
in a can placed on top of a beam balance.
of vapourization of steam
c) Switching on and timing;
[ 𝐋𝐯 = 𝟐, 𝟐𝟔𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐉𝐤𝐠 −𝟏 ]
The heater is switched on for a known time “t” and Weigh
 Because of high value, steam is used as a heating
the mass of water and the beaker again and record it as m2.
agent e.g. In cookers (cooking)
d) Finding mass of steam
 Can be used for sterilizing medical tools e.g.
The mass “m” of steam escaped is determined from the
blades, forceps, e.t.c.
formula:
Mass of
Experiment to determine the specific latent heat of ( ) = (m1 ) − (m2 )
steam
vapourization by method of mixtures.
Conclusion:
The specific latent heat of vapourisation of steam 𝐋𝐯 is
calculated from the formula;
𝐏𝐭 = 𝐦𝐋𝐯

Latent heat and kinetic theory

(a) Latent heat of fusion.
During change of state from solid to liquid (melting) at
constant temperature, the heat supplied weakens the
intermolecular forces of attraction, the molecular spacing
increase, changing from static molecules of solid to fast
moving molecules in liquid state.
The average K.E of molecules remaining constant because
melting takes place at constant temperature.

-Pour pure cold water of known mass, 𝐦𝐜𝐰 and specific heat (b) Latent heat of vaporization;
capacity 𝐂𝐰 in a well lagged calorimeter of mass, 𝐦𝐜 and During change of state from liquid to vapour, (Boiling) at
specific heat capacity 𝐂𝐜 . constant temperature, the heat supplied weakens the
-Record the initial temperature of,θ1 of cold water. intermolecular forces of attraction, the molecular spacing
-Pass steam from boiling pure water at 1000 C into cold increase, so that they gain freedom to move about
water in the calorimeter for some time and stir the mixture independently.
gently until all the temperatures are steady. As a result, the heat supplied is used to overcome these
- Read and record the final temperature of,θ2 of the mixture forces resulting in gain molecular potential energy but not
in the calorimeter. their kinetic energy and also the work to expand against
-Re weigh the calorimeter and its content to determine the atmospheric pressure.
mass of melted ice 𝒎𝒔 from the formula;
𝑚𝑠 = (𝑚𝑠 + 𝑚𝑐𝑤 + 𝑚𝑐 ) − (𝑚𝑐𝑤 + 𝑚𝑐 ) Why specific latent heat of vaporization of a substance is
-Heat lost by hot steam and condensed water from steam is always greater than specific latent heat of fusion for the
equal to heat gained by cold water and calorimeter same substance.

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Specific latent heat of vaporization is always greater than Lf + Heat for change of temp at melting point to a given
because for molecules of a liquid to escape, they require a temperature.
lot of heat which increases the K.E in order to overcome the Heat = mc1 ∆θ1 + mLf + mc2 ∆θ2
intermolecular forces of attraction.
While for latent heat of fusion very low amount of heat is WHERE
required to weaken the intermolecular forces of attraction. m is mass of the solid which is also the same as the mass of
the liquid formed
Effect of latent heat of vaporization ∆θ1 is the change in temperature of the solid from its initial
When steam at 100oc condenses on your body, it produces temperature to melting temperature.
more serious burn than one would have from an equal mass ∆θ2 is the change in temperature of the liquid formed from
of water at 100oc because when steam condenses latent heat temperature to the final temperature of the liquid.
is given out. C1 is the specific heat capacity of a liquid
C2 is the specific heat capacity of the solid
How to apply the formula in calculations Lf is the specific latent heat of fusion
The following should be noted;
1. When applying the heat formula for change of state from Example
either solid to liquid or liquid to solid the value of specific 10g of ice at -10oc is heated to water at 30oc given that the
latent heat of fusion should be used. S.H.C of ice is 2100 J/KgK, the S.H.C of water 4200J/KgK.
2. The substance must either be at the melting point The specific latent heat of fusion of water is 3.36 𝑥 105 J/
temperature for solid to liquid or at freezing point Kg. Calculate the heat energy supplied.
temperature for liquid to solid.
Solution:
a) For a solid at melting point changing to liquid at freezing States involved
point. i) Solid at -10oc ii) solid liquid at melting point 0oC
Example I: How much heat is required to melt 10g of ice at iii) Liquid at 30oC
0oc given specific latent heat of fusion is 3.36 x 105 J/Kg.
m = 10g = 0.01kg ;
Solution θ2 = 00 C;
Heat = mLf θ1 = −100 C;
10
Heat = ( ) × (3.36 × 105 )
1000
Heat = 336000JKg −1 Heat
( ) = mc1 ∆θ1 + mLf + mc2 ∆θ2
supplied
b) When the solid is not at the melting point changing to a Heat 0.01(2100)(0 + 10)
liquid at freezing point ( )=
supplied +0.01(336000)
In this case heat energy for changing the temperature to + 0.01(4200)(30 − 0)
melting point is required. The heat for change the solid to
liquid is applied, so heat energy required = Heat for change Heat
of temperature to melting point.+ Heat for change of state = 210 + 3360 + 1260
supplied
Heat = mc∆θ + mLf = 4830 J
Heat = mc(θ2 − θ1 ) + mLf
Where: m is mass the substance
C is the specific heat capacity of the solid Example
θ2 is the melting temperature of the solid A 3kw electrical heater is left on for two minutes when its
θ1 is the initial temperature of the solid. placed in a container packed with ice. If 100g of ice was
melted to water, calculate the specific latent heat of fusion
Example 2: of ice.
How much heat is required to change 10g mass of ice at –
10oc to water at 0oc. Given that the specific heat capacity of Solution:
ice is 2100J/KgK. and the special latent fusion of ice is 3.36 P = 3KW = 3000W; m = 100g = 0.1Kg; t = 2min
x 105 J/Kg. Solution
Heat = mLf
Solution pt = mLf
Heat required = mc(θ2 − θ1 ) + mLf
10
Heat required = ( ) (2100)(0 − −10) 3000 × 120 = 0.1 × Lf
1000 360000 = 0.1Lf
10
+( ) (3.36 × 105 ) Lf = 3600000 Jkg −1
1000
Heat required = 336000 J
Note:
When the body changes state from liquid to solid, the same
(c) For a solid not at melting point to a liquid not at freezing
amount of latent of fusion is given out.
point.
Heat required = Heat for change of temperature of solid to
Example
melting point + Heat for change of state from solid to liquid

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When the 1.5kw heater was switched on for 26 minutes, the f). VAPOURS
top balance recorded that the mass of the beaker was (i) Vapour is the gaseous state of a substance below its
reduced by 1kg. Calculate the specific latent heat of critical temperature i.e.
vaporization of water. Critical temperature (Tc) is the minimum temperature above
Solution: which the gas cannot be liquidized no matter how much
P = 1.5KW = 1500W; m = mass lost as steam = 1kg ; pressure is applied.
t = 26min = 1560s
Heat = mLv (ii) Saturated vapour is the vapour which is in thermal
pt = mLv dynamic equilibrium with its own liquid i.e. whose rate of
evaporation = rate of condensation.
1500 × 1560 = 1 × Lv
2340000 = Lv (iii) Un saturated vapour is the vapour which is not in
Lv = 2340000 Jkg −1 thermal dynamic equilibrium with its own liquid i.e. whose
Note: rate of evaporation ≠ rate of condensation.
If it’s a change of state from liquid to gas (vapour) or gas to
liquid then the specific latent heat of vaporization should be (iv) Supper saturated vapour is the vapour whose rate of
used. evaporation > its rate of condensation.

Exercise (v) Thermal dynamic equilibrium is the liquid’s thermal

1. Calculate the mass of steam at 100oc needed to raise state at which its rate of evaporation is equal to its rate of
temperature of water by 1kg from 20 oc to 80oc. Specific condensation.
heat capacity of water is 4000J/Kgk.
[Ans: m = 0.10 Kg] (vi)Vapour pressure is the pressure exerted on the walls of
the container by the vapour molecules.
2. Calculate the heat required to convert 5kg of ice at -200C
to steam at 1000C. (vii) Saturated vapour pressure (s.v.p) is the pressure
[Given that the S.H.C of ice is 2100 J/KgK, the S.H.C of exerted by vapour which is in thermal dynamic equilibrium
water 400J/KgK. The specific latent heat of fusion of water with its own liquid.
is 3.4 𝑥 105 J/Kg and the specific latent heat of
vapourizationis 2.3 𝑥 106 J/Kg. (viii) Un saturated vapour pressure is the pressure exerted
[Ans: Q = 15,510,000 J] by vapour which is not in thermo dynamic equilibrium with
its own liquid
3. Musa was carrying out an experiment. He heated 200g of .
copper metal block to 980C. He then transferred it quickly to (ix) Supper saturated vapour pressure is the pressure
300g of water in a copper calorimeter of mass 100g at 30 0C. exerted by vapour whose rate of evaporation > its rate of
Calculate the final temperature of the mixture. condensation.
{Specific heat capacities of water and copper are 4200J/
KgK and 400J/KgK respectively} (x) Dew point is defined as temperature of saturated
atmospheric air.
4. Two bath taps H and C deliver hot and cold water NB: A cloudy film forms on screens of cars being driven in
respectively at the same rate into a bath tab. Tap H is opened rain because of the condensation of the excess water vapour
for 20 seconds while tap C is opened for 35 seconds. in atmospheric moist air as a result of exceeding its dew
If the initial temperatures of water from H and C are 75 0C point.
and 240C respectively, find the temperature of the water in
the bath tab assuming the heat capacity of the bath bat to be Kinetic theory explanation for the occurrence of
negligible. saturated vapour pressure (s.v.p)
A: 12.0 B: 24.0 C: 42.5 D. 56.5

5. See UNEB
1989 Qn. 33 2001 Qn.34 1988 Qn.3
2006 Qn.8 2007 Qn.8 2000 Qn.3
1987 Qn.14 Section B 1992 Qn.8
1988 Qn.19 1988 Qn.5
1999 Qn.15 1998 Qn.2

The heat received by a substance depends on the following  When a liquid in a closed container is heated, the
factors: energy which goes into it becomes mechanical energy
 Temperature to the molecules.
 Mass  Some of the liquid molecules get enough kinetic energy
 Nature of substance and break the intermolecular bonds and escape from the
surface of the liquid and occupy the space just above it.
 These molecules constitute what we call vapour and
the pressure they exert to the walls of the container as
they collide with themselves and the walls of the
container is called vapour pressure.
©bagiradnl@[Link] 106
Vapour pressure is the pressure exterted by the escaping This is because the introduced lquid evaporates and forms a
molecules of the vapour from the surface of the liquid. vapour which exerts a pressure on the mercury causing the
column to fall.
 When these molecules bounce off from the walls of the .
container, they strike the liquid surface and re-enter the When mercury has stopped dropping, the vapour is said to
liquid until when a state of thermal dynamic be in dynamic equilibrium, thus saturated vapour.
equilibrium is attained i.e. (rate of evaporation = rate of The pressure hρg is the s.v.p of the volatile liquid and ρ is
condensation). its density.
 In this state, the vapour is said to be saturated exerting
saturated vapour pressure and before this state, vapour Merits of mercury for this experiment
is un saturated (with rate of condensation > rate of  Mercury is very dense compared to many liquids
evaporation) exerting un saturated vapor pressure.  Mercury is opaque thus easily seen and read.

Saturated vapour pressure (s.v.p) is the pressure exerted

by vapour which is in thermal dynamic equilibrium with its If too much water is introduced on top of mercury column
own liquid. Observation
Some water evaporates and some remains on top of the
NB: mercury column.
Saturated vapours do not obey ideal gas laws because its
mass changes due to condensation or evaporation as Explanation
conditions change yet gas laws only apply to a constant Some water remains on the top because the space above
mass of a gas. becomes a saturated vapour so that the rate at which
It should be noted that saturated vapor occurs for a very molecules leave the liquid surface is equal to the rate at
short time and constant temperature (boiling point). which other molecules return to the liquid.

Comparison of vapour pressure Effect of compression on a saturated vapour

Saturated vapour. Un saturated vapour. The saturated vapour is compressed by lowering the tube.
It does not obey ideal gas It obeys ideal gas laws.
laws. Observation
It is achieved at thermal Its rate of evaporation its The height “h” of mercury column remains constant but
dynamic equilibrium. rate of condensation. amount of water on top of the mercury column increases.
Its pressure remains Its pressure increases with
constant at particular increase in temperature. Explanation
temperature. The height “h” remains constant because saturated vapour
pressure is not affected when the vapour is compressed.
Determining saturated vapor pressure However, the amount of water increases because more
Bent-pipette method vapour condenses when the vapour is compressed.
This method is used to determine the s.v.p of a volatile
liquid at a particular temperature. More Explanation:
 Procedure.  A reduction in vapour volume of saturated vapour
Two barometers A and B are filled with mercury and mainly leads to an equal reduction in the number of
inverted over a trough of mercury as shown. At first the vapour molecules above the liquid surface.
mercury is at the same level.  Since s.v.p is achieved at constant temperature (boiling
The liquid whose s.v.p is to be determined is introduced point), the vapour remains in thermal dynamic
with the help of a bent pipette in the vacuum space above equilibrium.
the mercury level in one of the barometric tubes as shown  This means that the force per square meter (pressure)
below. exerted on the walls of the container remains constant
due to an equal reduction in the surface of the walls for
colliding molecules.

Observation
Some of the liquid evaporates immediately and the mercury
column falls by “h”. Effect of expansion on saturated vapour
The saturated vapour is expanded by raising the tube
Explanation Observation

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The height “h” of the column remains but the amount of (ii) Mass of unsaturated vapour can be fixed when
water on top of the column decreases. temperature changes.

Explanation Definition of saturated vapour pressure

The height “h” remains constant because the expansion of A saturated vapour pressure is the pressure of a vapour
the saturated vapour becomes unsaturated on expansion so which is in dynamic equilibrium with its liquid or solid.
more water evaporates.
Saturated vapourpressure and boiling point
Vapour pressure and temperature A liquid will only boil when its saturated vapour pressure is
Effect of temperature on saturated vapour equal to the atmospheric pressure.
When a saturated vapour is heated, it increases with
temperature. What happens when a liquid boils?
Although saturated vapour increases as temperature When a liquid is heated its temperature rises. This makes the
increases, a saturated vapour does not obey Boyle’s law and saturated vapour pressure to increase until it becomes equal
Charles’s law because; to the atmospheric pressure.
 The mass of a saturated vapour is not fixed with
temperature change but varies with temperature At this stage further addition of heat, cause bubbles of the
changes. vapour to form inside liquid. This is boiling; therefore
 The volume of saturated vapour is independent of boiling point is the temperature at which saturated vapour
pressure. pressure becomes equal to the external atmospheric
The mass of unsaturated vapour depends on the pressure. pressure.
The mass of unsaturated vapour can be fixed while
temperature changes. From the above it will be noted that the boiling point of a
liquid depends on altitude because boiling occurs only when
More Explanation: the saturated vapour pressure becomes equal to atmospheric
 Initially vapour pressure increase slowly with increase pressure which depends on altitude.
in temperature exponentially because fewer molecules
are energetic enough to leave the liquid surface but as Dew point
the liquid’s boiling point is approached, vapour pressure Dew point is the temperature at which the water
rapidly increases i.e. un saturated vapour pressure. vapourpresent in air is just sufficient to saturate it.
 At boiling point vapour pressure remains constant
(saturated vapour pressure) since vapour is saturated. MELTING POINT, BOILING POINT AND
EVAPORATION
 Heating the liquid beyond its boiling point results into (a) Melting
supper saturated vapour whose rate of evaporation is This is defined as the process by which a solid turns to
greater than its rate of condensation and vapour liquid at constant temperature called melting point i.e.
pressure (un saturated vapour pressure) increases
linearly with increase in temperature due to increased Melting point is constant temperature at which a solid
multiple collisions of vapour molecules with the walls substance liquidifies at constant atmospheric pressure.
of the container
Freezing point is constant temperature at which a molten
Variation of pressure with temperature of saturated vapour substance solidifies at constant atmospheric.
Effect of pressure on melting point

When pressure is increased by the weighted copper wire

Explaining the graph
AB-Saturated vapour increases with increases in  Observation
temperature, but does not obey the gas laws because: The weighted copper wire passes through the block of ice
(i) The volume of saturated vapour is independent of without cutting it into two pieces.
pressure.
(ii) The mass of a saturated vapourcannot be fixed as  Explanation
temperature changes. This is because increasing pressure by the weighted copper
wire lowers the melting point of ice, so the copper wire
BC-unsaturated vapour increase as temperature increases sinks through water and water which is no longer under
and obeys Boyle’s law and Charles’ law because: pressure refreezes and gives out latent heat to the copper
(i) Volume of unsaturated vapour depends on the pressure wire to enable melting of ice below.

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In general increasing pressure decreases the melting point of  In a pressure cooker, food cooks more quickly because
solid and decreasing pressure increases the melting point. the pressure of steam above water in the cooker can rise
to twice the normal atmospheric value.
Effect of impurities on the melting point
Impurities like salt lower the melting point of solid. E.g. the Experiment to show the effect of pressure on boiling
temperature of a well stirred ice water mixture is normally points
0oc but when an impurity such as salt is added it may fall to
-20oc.

(b) Boiling
Boiling is a change of state from liquid to vapour that occurs
within the liquid at constant temperature called boiling
point.

Boiling point is the constant temperature of a liquid at

which its saturated vapour pressure is equal to external
atmospheric pressure.

Steam point is the constant temperature at which (pure

water ↔vapuor) at 760mmHg. It is 100 ̊C.  When heating is stopped, the tube is closed and the
flask is cooled by cold water.
NB:
It should be noted that boiling of any liquid occurs only Observation
when its saturated vapor pressure equalizes with external  Water starts to boil again through there is no heating.
pressure implying that when a liquid is boiling, there is
change of state thus occurring constant temperature called Explanation
boiling point.  This is because when the flask is cooled the water
vapour or steam above the water condenses resulting in
Experiment to show that boiling occurs at constant the pressure above to decrease. This decreases the
temperature (s.v.p = external pressure). boiling point.

NOTE: Cooking has nothing to do with whether water is

boiling or not. Boiling here is just a mere physical
phenomenon that can be seen.
Cooking depends on two factors; Time and temperature.
𝐂𝐨𝐨𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 (𝐇𝐚𝐫𝐝 𝐛𝐨𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐠) = 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞 × 𝐓𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞

Thus from the above, cooking to occur;

 At reduced temperature, increase the cooking time
 Very quickly, increase the cooking temperature.
 Water is trapped in a closed end of J-shaped tube and
The Pressure cooker
the tube is placed in a beaker containing water being
 Up on a mountain, the air pressure is low so water boils
heated from the base as it is stirred to ensure uniform
at a temperature less than 100oc. This is because the
distribution of heat throughout the liquid.
pressure on the surface of the water decreases on the
 When water in the beaker starts boiling, its vapour mountain therefore cooking takes longer.
escapes and exerts pressure on water in the open limb of
the J- shaped tube.  If we raise the boiling point of water we can reduce the
 At this point the thermometer reading remains constant time taken to cook food. This is possible using a
and water in the J- shaped tube levels up indicating that pressure cooker.
saturated vapor pressure is equal to external pressure. Pressure cookers are useful in places where atmospheric
pressure is low like at the top of a mountain (high altitudes).
Effect of pressure on boiling point
The boiling point of a liquid is directly proportional to the
pressure above the liquid.
 If the pressure above the liquid is increased, the boiling
point of the liquid rises. This is because more external
pressure compresses the water molecules into the liquid.
This requires more heat energy to break such
molecules, hence increasing the boiling temperature.

 But if the pressure above the liquid is decreased the

boiling point of the liquid is lowered.

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Cooking with a pressure cooker is faster than ordinary liquid surface.
cooking because most of its top surface is covered leaving Explanation
just a small opening to let out vapour. Because wind blows away the energetic
This covering reduces the space of escape for vapour molecules that have already escaped from
molecules which increase the pressure inside due to random the liquid. This gives chance for more
collisions of vapour molecules thus raising the boiling point molecules to escape.
to about 120oC, hence faster cooking due to much heat. Pressure High pressure above the liquid surface
means there is a high exertion on the
Effect of impurities on boiling point liquid surface thus preventing molecules
Impurities such as salt when added to a liquid e.g. water the from escaping
boiling point of the liquid rises. Concentration If the air already has a high concentration
Addition of impurities raises the boiling point of a liquid. of the liquid of the substance evaporating, then, such
This is because; impurities absorb some of the supplied heat vapour in air substance will evaporate very slowly.
making the liquid to boil at a higher temperature than its
normal boiling point thus faster cooking. Intermolecular The stronger the forces keeping the
forces molecules together, the more energy
(c) Evaporation needed to put them apart and escape.
This is defined as the process by which a liquid turns to Hence the slower the rate of evaporation.
vapour molecules which occurs at the liquid surface. It takes
place at all temperatures but it is greatest when the liquid is Explanation of evaporation according to the kinetic theory
at its boiling point. (How evaporation causes cooling).
So evaporation is the conversion of a liquid into its gaseous  At a particular temperature, molecules of a liquid have
state. an average speed but some molecules are moving faster
than other.
Rate of evaporation  Evaporation occurs when faster moving molecules
This is the rate at which molecules of a liquid escape from reach the surface and escape from the attractions of all
the liquid surface per second. the molecules.
The rate of evaporation of a liquid is increased by;  At the same time the slower molecules remain in the
 Increasing the surface area of the liquid e.g. same liquid causing the average kinetic energy of the
amount of water put in a basin and cup exposed to the molecules to fall.
same drought, one in a basin reduces faster than that in  This causes cooling as temperature falls with falling
a cup. averages kinetic energy.
 Increasing the temperature of the liquid since increase Cooling
in temperature directly increases the average kinetic This is defined as the continuous fall of temperature of a
energy of the molecules escaping. body placed in drought until when it attains an equilibrium
 Providing drought which removes the vapour molecules state.
from the liquid surface before returning to it e.g. water Cooling as a result of evaporation is seen in:
exposed to direct sunshine evaporates faster than that  Panting of dogs
under a shade.  Making ice by evaporation of a volatile liquid
 Reducing the pressure of the air above the liquid  Refrigerators
surface (atmospheric pressure) e.g. evaporation is faster
on a mountain than on a leveled ground. THE REFRIGERATOR
A refrigerator is a cooling appliance which uses the
Factors affecting evaporation mechanism that transfers heat from it to the external
Factor Effect/Explanation environment.
Surface area Increasing the surface area increases the It is used in preservation of;
rate of evaporation.  Food – in homes and supermarkets.
Explanation  Blood – in blood banks in hospitals.
This is because the increased surface area  Medicines – in pharmacies/hospitals/health centres.
makes more molecules to be at the surface
of the liquid where they can easily escape. How it works principle
Temperature Increasing temperature increases the rate A refrigerator works on the principle that heat is taken in at
of evaporation. Decreasing temperature one point and given out at another point by the refrigerating
decreases the rate of evaporation. substance (Freon) as it is pumped around the circuit.

Explanation
This is because more molecules will move
faster enough to escape from the surface of
the liquid.
This is because fewer molecules will move
fast enough to escape from the surface of
the liquid.
Drought The rate of evaporation increases when
(Air current) there is too much wind blowing over the

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 Differences between evaporation and boiling
Evaporation Boiling
i) Occurs at any temperature Occurs at a fixed
temperature called boiling
point
ii) Occur at the surface of the Occurs within the liquid.
liquid. No bubbles Bubbles appear
iii) Depends on the surface Does not depend on the
area surface area
iv) Can occur even when Occurs only when
atmospheric pressure is not atmospheric pressure is
equal to saturated vapour equal to saturated vapour
pressure pressure
v) Causes cooling Does not cause cooling

However evaporation and boiling are similar in that:

 Both evaporation and boiling need latent heat of
vaporization.
 Both evaporation and boiling involve change of
state from liquid to gas.

Making ice by evaporation of a volatile liquid like ether

Compressor/Pump:
1. Freon (a volatile liquid) or the refrigerant is compressed
by the pump against the expansion valve, its pressure rises,
and pushes it into the coils (cooling fins) on the outside of
the refrigerator.

Condenser and cooling fins:

2. When the hot high pressure gas in the coils meets the
cooler air temperature of the outside the cabinet, it is
condensed to a liquid. Procedures:
 Place a metallic can filled with a volatile liquid like
3. Now in liquid form at high pressure, the refrigerant cools ether on a film of water at the top of a wooden block.
down as it flows into the coils inside the freezer and the  Blow air current through a glass tube or straw as shown
fridge. It dissipates all the latent heat to the surrounding by above.
the cooling fins. Observation:
 The water underneath the can freezes and turns to ice.
Evaporator:
4. The refrigerant absorbs the heat from the material Explanation:
contents inside the freezing box, cooling down the  When a current of air is bubbled through ether, the ether
surrounding air and hence the contents. evaporates in the bubbles which carry it to the surface
and burst.
5. Lastly, the refrigerant evaporates to a gas, and then flows  So the bubbling of air through ether results in
back to the compressor, where the cycle starts again. increasing the rate of evaporation. This rapid change of
state from liquid to vapour requires latent heat which is
conducted through the beaker from the water below it
Functions of the main parts of refrigerator causing it to cool and form ice.
Pump/Compressor Note: The metallic can may be replaced by a beaker.
 The pump removes the vapour formed in the freezer
 The pump forces the vapour into the heat exchanger. Application of good and bad conductors
i) Frying and cooking pans are made of metals because
Heat exchanger or Condenser metals allow heat to pass through them easily.
It is where the vapour is compressed and liquefies giving out ii) A metal always feels cold when touched on a cold day
latent heat of vaporization. because it removes heat from the body and transfers it away
very fast.
Cooling fins This shows that metals are good conductors of heat as they
The cooling fins give out the latent heat of vaporization to draw the heat from the body
the surrounding air.
Note: The cooling fins are painted black so that they can iii) A handle of a frying pan is made of insulators such as
quickly give or emit heat radiations. wood or plastic because they are poor conductors.

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2 Related explanations
 Metallic utensils being good conductors of heat, they
3. OPTIC
absorb heat (from food) which would be carried away
by the volatile liquid to the cooling fins thus delaying
the refrigerating process. Such utensils are not
recommended to be used in refrigerators.
Definition:
Light is a form of energy which enables us to see. Or the
 Milk in a bottle wrapped in a wet cloth cools faster than
form of energy that gives visual sensation.
that placed in a bucket exposed to a drought. This is
Light can travel through a vacuum because light is in the
because the wet cloth speeds up the rate of evaporation
form of electromagnetic waves. All electromagnetic waves
thus more cooling.
have a speed of 3.0x108 ms -1 in a vacuum, hence the speed
of light.
 It advisable for a heavily perspiring person to stand in a
An object is seen only when light from the object enters the
shade other than drought because drought speeds up
eyes.
evaporation thus faster cooling which may lead to over
cooling of the body and eventually this over cooling
Sources of light.
may lower the body’s resistance to infections.
(i) Luminous light sources:
These are objects which give their own light. Examples
 When taking a bath using cold water, the individual
include the sun, stars, glow warms – these are natural. And
feels colder on a very shiny day than on a rainy day
the man made include electric bulbs, lamps, candles, etc.
because on a shiny day, the body is at high temperatures
such that on pouring cold water on the body, water
(ii) Non – luminous light sources:
absorbs some of the body’s heat thus its cooling. Yet on
These scatter or reflect light from other sources e.g the
a rainy day the body is at a relatively low temperature
moon, mirror, reflecting surface.
implying that less heat is absorbed from it when cold
water is poured on it.
Transmission of light:
Light travels from its source onto another place through a
Two individuals; A (suffering from serious malaria) and B
vacuum or a medium; the media include:
(normal) taking a bath of cold water at the same time of the
day, A feels colder than B because the sick person’s body is
(i) Transparent Medium
at relatively higher temperature than of a normal person.
A media which allows almost all of the light to pass through
When cold water is poured on the sick person’s body, much
it and allows objects to be seen. E.g. colourless water,
heat is absorbed from it compared to that absorbed from a
paraffin and colourless glass.
normal person thus more coldness.
(ii) Translucent Medium
Two normal identical individuals; A (takes a bath of water
A medium which allows some light to pass through it but
at 35 C ̊ ) and B (takes a bath of water at 25 ̊C) after the bath,
does not allow an object to be seen clearly. E.g. cloudy
A experience more coldness than B. This is because Water
liquid, frosted glass and oily paper.
at 35 C̊ raises the body’s temperature more than that at 25 ̊C.
This means that after the bath, the individual who takes a
(iii) Opaque Medium
bath of water at 35 ̊C looses more heat to the surrounding
A medium which does not allow light to pass through it at
than what one who takes a bath of water at 25 ̊C would lose
all and we cannot see thru them. E.g wood, bricks, plastic
to it.
etc
N/B: incandescent bodies give off light because they are hot
Water bottles are made of plastic other than glass and not
while fluorescent bodies give off light without being hot.
fully filled because when water cools, it expands such that
Fluorescence: the emission of light by a material after it has
ice takes up a bigger volume. The un filled space is to cater
absorbed heat for some time.
for increase in volume on solidification and the bottle is
made plastic to with stand breaking due to increase in
RAYS AND BEAMS
volume.
A ray is the direction of the path in which light is travelling.
It is represented by a straight line with an arrow on it.
Exercise: See UNEB
1987 Qn.15 1997 Qn.16 1988 Qn.10
A beam is a collection of rays or a stream of light energy.
1989 Qn.35 2001 Qn.6 1997 Qn.9
There are three kinds:
1990 Qn.10 2008 Qn.4 1995 Qn.4
1991 Qn.31 Section B 2008 Qn.41

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(i) Parallel (ii) Divergent (iii) Convergent
beam beam beam
A collection of A collection of A collection of rays
rays which do rays which originating from
not meet. originates from different directions
one point and and
spread out in coinciding/collecting
Shadow formation by a point source of light.
different at the same point
directions

RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT

Definition:
This is the process by which light travels in straight lines For a point source, a sharp shadow is formed, i.e. the
when produced from a source. shadow is also equally dark all over.
It is propagated (sent outward) and it travels in straight lines. For a point source: When the opaque object is moved near
the source, then the size of the shadow increases. However,
Experiment to show that light travels in a straight line when the object is moved near the screen, the size of the
shadow is decreased.

b) Extended Source
When the cardboard is removed then the lamp becomes an
extended source

Procedures
Arranging cardboards
Three cards A, B, and C are arranged with their holes in a
straight line such that they are some distance apart.
This is ensured by passing a string through the holes of the
cardboards and drawing a string taut.( straight n tight) The shadow has the central dark patch called umbra
surrounded by a lighter ring called penumbra.
Observation
When the eyes is placed at E, light from the source is seen. Umbra
The cardboards are displaced such that their holes are not in A region of shadow where no light reaches at all.
straight line, no light is seen at E.
Penumbra
Conclusion A region of the shadow where some light reaches.
This shows that light travels in a straight line
Note:
For an extended source: When the opaque object is moved
SHADOWS near the source, the size of umbra decreases, but the size of
A shadow is a region of darkness formed when an opaque penumbra increases. When the object is moved near the
object obstructs the path of light. screen, the size of umbra increases, but the size of penumbra
Shadows are formed because light travels in a straight line. decreases.
Shadow formation
a) Point Source:
A point source is a very small source of light. It can be
obtained by placing a cardboard with a small hole in front of
a lamp as shown below.

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The umbra may fail to reach the screen if the opaque object Note: Total eclipse of the moon lasts longer than total
is very far away from the screen eclipse of the sun because for the moon, the earth which is
in the middle is larger than the moon for the sun.
ECLIPSE:
An eclipse is the obscuring of light from the sun by either Flourescence and phosphorence substance
the moon or the earth. (i) Fluorescence Substance:
An eclipse occurs when the sun, moon, and earth are in a A substance which absorbs energy and immediately release
straight line. There are two types of eclipses namely: the energy in the form of light e.g. zinc sulphide. The screen
(a) Solar, annular (Eclipses of the sun) of a T.V and C.R.O are made of a fluorescent substance.
(b) Lunar. (Eclipse of the moon)
(ii) Phosphorescence Substance:
a) Solar Eclipse: A substance which absorbs the energy falling on it, store it,
Solar eclipse also called eclipse of the sun. It occurs when and when energy stops falling on it, it release energy in the
the moon is between the sun and the earth, such that both form of light, e.g. calcium sulphide.
umbra and penumbra reaches the earth. The area on earth
covered by umbra has total eclipse and the sun cannot be THE PIN WHOLE CAMERA
seen at all. The area covered by penumbra has partial
eclipse and only part of the sun is seen.

 Annular Eclipse: Pin hole camera consists of a closed box with a small
Annular eclipse of the sun occurs when the sun is very far hole(pin hole) on face and a screen of tracing paper on the
from the earth and the moon is between the earth and the opposite face.
sun, such that the tip of the umbra is the one that reaches the
earth’s surface. From one place on the earth, the sun is Description of Image Formation:
represented by the appearance of a ring of light. The image is real and inverted. Each point of the image on
the screen will be illuminated only by the light travelling in
a straight line from a particular point.

Effect of image formation for pin hole camera if;

(i) Pin hole is enlarged; image become blurred
and brighter
Explanation:
The blurring of the image is because the large hole will be
the same as a number of pin holes put together, each
forming their own image and overlap of these images causes
a single blurred image.
Note: The distance between the earth and the moon varies
slightly since the moon’s orbit around the earth is elliptical. Note:
This explains the variation in the moon’s distance around The box is blackened inside to prevent reflection inside a
the earth. camera. The image comes brighter because of increased
b) Lunar Eclipse: quantity of light.
Lunar eclipse is also called eclipse of the moon. Lunar
eclipse occurs when the earth is between the sun and the (ii) Moving the object closer to the pin hole: The
moon. During the eclipse of the moon, the earth’s shadow is size of the image increases the but the image
casted on the moon such that when the moon is at position becomes less bright.
M2, total eclipse occurs. In position M1, partial eclipse Explanation:
occurs and when the moon is in position Mo, no eclipse The image becomes less bright as its size increases because
occurs, but the moon is less bright than usual. the same amount of light as before spread over large area of
the screen.

MAGNIFICATION
Definition:
Magnification is the ratio of image height to object height or
image distance to object distance.
Mathematically, magnification is given by:

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 Image distance, V
Magnification, M = See UNEB Paper I
Object distance, U
OR 1997 2000 2002 2006 2006
Image height, h Qn.22 Qn. 34 Qn. 27 Qn. 29 Qn.27
Magnification, M =
Object height, H
1. A girl is 1.6m tall and stands 4m away from the pin
Larger magnification is obtained when the object is nearer hole camera which is 20 m long. Find the:
the pin hole and smaller magnification is produced when the i) Image height
object is farther away. ii) The magnification if the camera is only
10cm long.
Example: 1
Calculate the height of a building 150m away from a 2. UNEB 1992 Qn. 1
pinhole camera, which produces an image 5 cm high if the (a) What is meant by rectilinear propagation of light?
distance between the pinhole camera and screen is 10 cm. (b) An opaque object is placed in front of a source of light.
Draw ray diagrams to show the formation of shadows when;
Solution (i) A point source is used
Given; object distance=150 cm (ii) An extended source is used
Image height= 5 cm
Image distance= 10 cm 3. . UNEB 1997 Qn. 4
From definition of magnification (b) Draw diagrams to show the formation of total and partial
solar eclipse.
Image height, h Image distance, V
M = = 4. . UNEB1998 Qn.7
Object height, H Object distance, U
(a) Describe an experiment to show that light travels in a
straight line.
From
h V Image distance, V (b) An object of height 4cm is placed 5cm away from a pin
= M= hole camera. The screen is 7cm from the pin hole.
H U Object distance, U (i) Draw a scale ray diagram to show the formation of an
10 cm 1
5 cm 10 cm M= = … . (i) image by a pin hole camera.
= 150 cm 15 (ii) What is the nature of the image?
H 150 cm (iii) Find the magnification.
But also; (iv) Explain what happens to the image if the pin-hole is
10H = 5 × 150 Image height, h
M = made larger.
H = 75 cm Object height, H
5 cm
Alternatively, you can first M= … . (𝑖𝑖) REFLECTION OF LIGHT
H
calculate magnification
using first equation and then Definition:
Equating (i) and (ii) Reflection is the process by which light energy falling on a
substitute in second equation 5 cm 1
= body surface bounces off.
to obtain object height; i.e.
H 15 The surface from which reflection occurs is called the
H = 5 × 15 reflecting surface.
H = 75 cm
Types of Rays
Example: 2 (i) Incident rays; is a ray of light from the light source
The length of a pinhole camera is 25 cm. An object 2 m, falling onto/striking the reflecting surface
high is placed 10 m from the pinhole. Calculate the height of
the image produced and its magnification. (ii) Reflected rays; is a ray leaving/bouncing off the
reflecting surface at the point of incidence.
Solution:
Given; Image distance = 25 cm = 0.25 m Normal: is a line at 90 degrees with the reflecting surface
Object height = 2 m the ray is incident
Object distance = 10 cm = 0.1 m
Image height=? Types of Angle:
(i) Angle of incidence “i”; is the angle between the incident
From definition of h V ray and the normal at the point of incidence i.e. it’s the
magnification; =
H U angle made by the incident ray with the normal at the point
of incidence
Image distance, V h 0.25
M= =
Object distance, U 2 0.1 (ii) Angle of reflection “r”; is the angle between the
10 cm reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence i.e.
M= 0.1h = 2 × 0.25 it’s the angle made by the reflected ray with the normal at
150 cm
M = 2.5 h = 0.5 cm the point of incidence.

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 Procedure:
 A white sheet of paper is fixed on a soft board and a
plane mirror is placed vertically on the paper with its
reflecting surface facing the object.
 The mirror line is traced and the mirror is removed and
the line is drawn and labeled AB.
 A normal MN bisecting the mirror line AB is drawn.
 A line RN is drawn at an angle θ to the normal. e.g
θ = 300
 Pins P1 and P2 are fixed along line RN.
 The mirror is placed back on the board so that its
reflecting surface coincides exactly with the mirror line
 Point 0 (point of incidence ) AB.
This is the point on the reflecting surface where the incident  The images of P1 and P2 are viewed in the mirror and
ray is directed. other pins P3 and P4 are fixed such that they are in line
with the images of P1 and P2.
 Normal (0N)  The pins P3 and P4 are removed and a line NS is drawn.
Is a line drawn from point 0 perpendicular to the reflecting  Angle r is measured and recorded.
surface.
Observation:
 Incident ray (A0)  Angle i = angle r.
Is the path along which light is directed on to the reflecting  The incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray at the
surface. point of incidence all in the same plane.

 Angle of incidence (i) Conclusion: hence verifying the laws of reflection

This is the angle that the incident ray makes with the normal
at the point of incidence.
Types of Reflection
 Reflected (0B) 1. Regular Reflection:
Is the path along which light incident on a surface is Regular reflection occurs when a parallel incident beam falls
reflected. on a place smooth surface and it is reflected across a parallel
beam. Example of smooth plane surface is a plane mirror.
 Angle of reflection (r)
This is an angle between the reflected ray and the normal at
the point of incidence.

The Laws of Reflection

The laws of reflection state that:
i) The incident ray, reflected ray, and normal at
the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
ii) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection.

Experiment to verify the laws of reflection of light

2. Irregular or Diffused Reflection:

Diffused reflection occurs when a parallel incident beam

falls on a rough surface and the reflected beam is scattered
in different directions.

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 The glancing angle and the angle of deviation.
(a) REFLECTION AT PLANE SURFACES: Deviation of light at a plane surface

Image formation by a plane mirror

Characteristics of the image formed g – Glancing angle

 Image is of the same size as the Object The angle between the incident ray and the reflecting
 Laterally inverted surface.
 Virtual (cannot be formed on the screen)
 Same distance behind the mirror as the Object is in d- Angle of deviation
front of the mirror it is the angle between the initial direction of the incident ray
( extended incident ray) and the reflected ray.
Definition: Angle of Deviation, d;
Real image: Is the image which is formed by rays that d = Angle A1 OB
actually intersect and can be formed on the screen. d = g + Angle M0 OB
d = g + (90 − r)
Virtual image: Is the image formed by the apparent
intersection of light rays. i.e the rays which have been But i = r (From the law of reflection).
extended and it cannot be formed on the screen. d = g + (90 − i)
But;
Explanation of virtual image in plane mirror: (90 − i) = g (Vertically opposite angles)
The image in a plane mirror is virtual in that the rays from a d= g+g
point object are reflected at the mirror and appear to come d = 2g
from the point behind the mirror where the eyes imagine the
reflected rays to meet when produced backward. Example
1. A light ray is incident to a smooth surface as shown
NB: virtual objects and images should be represented by below
dotted lines.

Lateral Inversion:
In a mirror image, right and left are interchanged and the
image is said to be laterally inverted. The effect occurs
whenever an image is formed by one reflection.

Find the:
(i) Angle of reflection
(ii) Glancing angle
(iii) Angle of deviation

2. A light ray is incident to a smooth surface as shown

below

Find the:
(i) Angle of reflection
(ii) Angle of reflection

3. A girl sits 5 m away from a plane mirror. If a table is

placed 2 m away from the girl, find the :

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 (i) Distance between the table and its image. (i) Image formed in two plane mirrors inclined at
(ii) Distance between the girl and the tables’ 900
image.
(iii) Distance between the table and the girls’
image.
(iv) A boy stands 10m away from a plane mirror.
What distance should he move towards the
plane mirror such that the distance between
him and his image is 8m.

INCLINED MIRRORS
Image formed by an inclined mirror at an angle θ
When two mirrors are inclined to each other at an angle θ,
the number of images (n) is given by:

𝟑𝟔𝟎
𝐧= −𝟏
𝛉

The table below summarizes how one can obtain the number
of image formed by 2 mirrors inclined at an angle.
Angle between (360) Number of image When two mirrors are inclined at 900 to each other, images
θ
mirrors θ (o) in n: are formed by a single reflection in addition to two extra
360 images formed by 2 reflections.
= −1
θ
90 4 3 (ii) Image formed in parallel mirrors
60 6 6 An infinity number of image is formed on an object placed
45 8 7 between two parallel mirrors each image seen in one mirror
30 12 11 will act as virtual object to the next mirror.
15 24 23

Questions
1. Two plane mirrors are inclined at an angle 500 to one
another find the number of images formed by these
mirrors.
36
n = ( − 1)
θ
360
n=( − 1) = 7.2 − 1 = 6.2 ≈ 6 images
50

2. Two plane mirrors are inclined at an angle θ to each

other. If the number of image formed between them is
79, find the angle of inclination θ.
Solution
36
n = ( − 1)
θ
360
-The object O, gives rise to image I1, on mirror m1 and I2 on
79 = ( − 1) m2 .I1 acts as virtual object to give an image I(1,2) in mirror
θ
m2 just as I2 gives an image I(2,1) in mirror m1. I(1,2) in mirror
θ = 4.50 m I (1,2) gives I(1,2,1) after reflection in m1 while I (2,1,2) after
reflecting in Mirror m2.
Find the number of images formed when an object is placed
between mirrors inclined at; (i) 900 (ii) 600 (iii) 1200 Number of images n = When two mirrors are parallel, the
angle θ between them is zero and the number of images
formed between them is
360
N=( − 1) = 0(infinite)
𝜃
This shows infinite number of image when two plane
mirrors are parallel. The image lies in a straight line through
the object and perpendicular to the mirrors.

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 Application of reflections
ROTATION OF REFLECTED RAY BY ROTATING Uses of Plane Mirrors
THE MIRROR
(a) Periscope
This is the instrument used for looking over top obstacles. It
is made of 2 plane mirrors inclined at each other at 450. It is
mainly used in submarines.

When a mirror is rotated through any angle, the reflected ray

will rotate through an angle 2θ provided the direction of the
incident ray remains the same e.g the angle between a fixed
ray of light and a mirror is 250, if the mirror rotates through
20o. Find by how many degrees do a reflected ray rotates.
Required angle = 2θ = 2 x 20 = 400
N.B the angle through which the reflected ray is rotated does
not depend on the angle of incidence but depends on the
angle of rotation on the reflecting surface.
The arrangement has two plane mirrors facing each others
and fixed at 450. Light from a distant object is turned
through 900 at each reflection.

(b) Used in pointer instrument to facilitate correct reading

of values by preventing errors due to parallax.

(c) They are attached to optical lever such as galvanometer

to reflect light falling on the mirror over the
galvanometer scale as it rotates.
Used in optical lever instruments to magnify angle of
rotation.

Deviation produced by mirror in position MM 0 is twice the (d) Inclined mirrors are used in kaleidoscope for producing
glancing angle different patterns of objects placed between them.
A kaleidoscope consists of two plane mirrors inclined at an
d1 = Angle BO A1 = 2g … … … … … … … … . . (i) angle of 600 to each other in a tube.
When one looks through the tube, five images of the same
Deviation produced by mirror in position M1M2, is twice the object are seen, which together with the object form a
glancing angle symmetric pattern of six sectors.
d2 = Angle B1 O A1 = 2(g + θ) … … . . … … . (ii)
(e) Used in small shops and supermarkets, take away and
Angle of rotation of reflected ray = Angle B1 O B saloons to give a false magnification as a result of
But; multiple reflections.
Angle B1 O B = Angle B1 O A1 − AngleBO A1
Angle B1 O B = 2(g + θ) − 2g Exercise See UNEB Paper I
𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐁1 𝐎 𝐁 = 2𝛉 1999 1996 1997 2005 2007
Qn.25 Qn.28 Qn.24 Qn.40 Qn.16
Questions

An incident ray makes an angle of 200 with the plane mirror

in position m1 as shown in the diagram
a) What will the angle of reflection be if the mirror is
rotated through 60 to position m2 while direction of
incident ray remains the same?
b) An object is placed 6cm from a plane mirror. If the
object is moved further, find the distance between the
object and its image.

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 (b) REFLECTION AT CURVED (SPHERICAL) (i) CONCAVE MIRROR
MIRRORS A concave mirror is the type of curved mirror in which the
Curved mirrors are spherical mirrors made by cutting part of reflecting surface is curved inwards.
the sphere.
Uses of concave mirror
Terms used in curved mirrors  Used in astronomical telescopes.
Pole, P.  Used for shaving because it magnifies the object.
Pole is the mid-point of the actual mirror surface.  Used as solar concentrators.
Pole is the centre portion of the mirror  Used by dentists for magnification i.e Dentist
mirror.
Aperture.  Used in car head lamps , torches
This is the width of the mirror. The aperture is the distance
between two opposite points on the edge of the mirror. Defect of concave mirror:
When a wide beam of parallel rays fall on a concave mirror
Centre of Curvature, C. of large aperture, not all are brought to a focus at the focal
This is the center of the sphere from which the mirror forms point but instead form a caustic curved.
a part.
N.B Caustic curve is an illusory curve that is seen to touch
Radius of Curvature, r. the reflected rays when a wide parallel beam of light falls on
The radius of curvature is the distance from the pole to the a concave mirror.
centre of curvature.
Useful rays used in construction of ray diagrams.
Principal axis. Concave mirror Convex mirror
This is the straight line joining the pole to the centre of 1. A ray parallel to the A ray parallel to the principal
curvature. principal axis is reflected axis is reflected such that it
through the principal appears to come from the
Focal length, f. focus, F. i.e. principal focus, F behind the
Focal length is the distance from the pole to the principal mirror. i.e.
focus.

Principal focus, F.
Principal focus is half the distance between the centre of
curvature and the pole.

Summary for terms used in curved mirrors i.e. Concave

mirror.
Types of curved mirrors
(a) Concave mirror (b) convex mirror 2. A ray passing through A ray through the principle
the principal focus, F is focus F, behind the mirror is
reflected parallel to the reflected parallel to the
principal axis. i.e. principal axis. i.e.

3. A ray passing though the A ray which if produced

centre of curvature, C is would pass through the centre
reflected back along the of curvature is reflected back
(c) Parabolic mirror same path because it is along the same path. i.e.
the normal to the surface.
i.e.

4. A ray striking the pole is reflected so as the incident ray

and the reflected ray make the same angle with the
principal axis. i.e.

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 (iii) Object, O between centre of curvature, C and
the principal focus, F

Characteristics of the image, I formed by concave mirror

at different positions. The image, I formed is;
 Position: Beyond C
(i) Object, O beyond the centre of curvature, C.  Nature : Real and Inverted
 Size : Magnified

(iv) Object, O at F.

The image, I formed is;

 Position: Between F and C
The image, I formed is;
 Nature : Real and Inverted
 Position: At infinity
 Size : Diminished
 Nature : Real and Inverted
(ii) Object, O at centre of curvature, C.
(v) Object, O between principal focus, F and pole,
P.

The image, I formed is;

 Position: Behind the mirror
The image, I formed is;  Nature : Virtual and Upright (erect)
 Position: At C  Size : Magnified
 Nature : Real and Inverted
 Size : Same size as the object NB. A concave mirror can be used as a magnifying mirror
when the object is placed between the focal point, F and the
pole, P to produce an erect image.

(ii) CONVEX MIRRORS

Convex mirror is a type of curved mirror in which the
reflecting surface curves outward.

Uses of convex mirror

Convex mirrors are used as;

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 i) security mirrors in supermarket The image is regarded as being at infinity. If a wide parallel
ii) driving mirrors beam is required as from a car head lamp then the section of
the mirror must be in the form a parabola.
This is because a convex mirror; Illustration:
 Gives an erect (upright) virtual image of the objects.
 Provides a wider field of view than other mirrors such
as plane mirror. i.e.

Magnification
Disadvantage of convex mirrors: Definition:
- The image formed is diminished. Magnification is defined as;
- It gives a false impression of the distance of an object  The number of times the image is larger than the object.
Therefore, convex mirrors give erect diminished images and  The ratio of image size to object size.
this makes it difficult for the driver to judge the distance
when reversing the vehicle. Linear or transverse magnification is the ratio of one
dimension of the image to a corresponding dimension of the
Image formation by a convex mirror object i.e.
Linear magnification is;
 The ratio of image distance to object distance.

Image Distance v
Magnification = =
Object Distance u

 The ratio of image height to object height.

Image Height h
Magnification = =
Object Height H
Characteristics of the image, I formed by convex mirror.
Irrespective of the position of the object, the images formed Construction of accurate ray diagrams on graph paper
in convex mirrors are; Step 1: On graph paper draw a central horizontal line
 Position: Behind the mirror (which acts as the principal axis)
 Nature : Virtual and upright (erect) with a perpendicular line to act as the curved mirror.
 Size : Diminished Step 2: Where distances are given, choose a scale for object
size and position.
Step 3: Measure the focal length “f” and radius of curvature
NOTE: 1. Magnified images are the images which are “r” from the mirror and mark C and F as centre of curvature
larger than the objects. and principal focus respectively.
2. Diminished images are the images which are Step 4: Draw two of the principal rays to obtain the position
smaller than the objects. of the image.
Step 5: Measure the position (distance) and the size (height)
of the image and multiply by the corresponding scale.
(iii) PARABOLIC MIRRORS
These are used to produce a parallel beam of light in spot
light, car head lamps or hand torches.
However the parabolic mirror is disadvantageous in that Example 1:
when a wide beam of parallel rays falls on a concave mirror An object of height 10cm is placed at a distance of 60cm
of image aperture; not all rays are brought to a focus at the from a concave mirror of focal length 20cm. Find by scale
focal point, instead they form a caustic curve. drawing the;
(i) Image position.
Parallel beam from curved mirror (ii) Nature of the image formed.
A narrow parallel beam of light may be obtained from a (iii) Magnification of the image formed.
point source light by placing the point source of light at the
principal focus of a concave mirror of small aperture.

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Solution
Axis Scale Conversion
Vertical axis 1 : 10 cm 10
 10cm → → 1cm
10

Horizontal 60
1 : 10 cm  60cm → → 6cm
10
axis
20
 20cm → → 2cm
10

(i) Position:
The image distance as measured from the scale drawing is
3cm; using the above scale,
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = (3 𝑥 2) 𝑐𝑚
= 6 𝑐𝑚
Size:
The height of the image on the scale drawing is 0.8cm;
using the scale,
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = (0.75 𝑥 1) 𝑐𝑚
= 0.75 𝑐𝑚
(ii) Nature:
The image formed is; Real, Inverted and Diminished.
Position:
The image distance as measured from the scale drawing is (iii) Magnification:
3cm; using the above scale,
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = (3 𝑥 10) 𝑐𝑚 Image Distance 6
= 30 𝑐𝑚 Magnification = = = 0.5
Object Distance 12
Size: Or
The height of the image on the scale drawing is 0.5cm; Image Height 0.75
using the scale, Magnification = = = 0.5
Object Height 1.5
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = (0.5 𝑥 10) 𝑐𝑚
= 5 𝑐𝑚
Example 3:
Nature: An object of height 6cm is 10cm in front of a convex mirror
The image formed is; Real, Inverted and Diminished. of focal length 12cm. Find by graphical method, the size,
position and nature of the image.
Magnification:
Solution
Image Distance 30
Magnification = = = 0.5 Let 5 cm be represented by 1 cm
Object Distance 60 Axis Scale Conversion
Or Vertical axis 1 : 5 cm 6
Image Height 5  6cm → → 1.2cm
5
Magnification = = = 0.5
Object Height 10 10
Horizontal 1 : 5 cm  10cm → → 2cm
5
Example 2: axis
The focal length of a concave mirror is 4cm. An Object  12cm →
12
→ 2.4cm
1.5cm high is placed 12cm in front of the mirror. 5
(i) Use a ray diagram to locate the position and
size of the image on the graph paper.
(ii) Describe the features of the image formed.
(iii) Find the magnification of the image formed.

Solution
Axis Scale Conversion
Vertical axis 1 : 1 cm 1.5
 1.5cm → → 1.5cm
1

Horizontal 4
1 : 2 cm  4cm → → 2cm
2
axis
12
 12cm → → 6cm (i) Position:
2
The image distance as measured from the scale drawing is
1cm; using the above scale,
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = (1 𝑥 5) 𝑐𝑚

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 = 5 𝑐𝑚 Solution
The image 5.0cm behind the mirror. u = 20cm; f = 12cm ; v = ?
Using the mirror formula; 1 5−3 2 1
Size: 1 1 1 = = =
= + v 60 60 30
The height of the image on the scale drawing is 0.8cm; 𝐟 𝐮 𝐯
using the scale, 1 1
1 1 1 =
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = (0.6 𝑥 1) 𝑐𝑚 v 30
= +
= 0.6 𝑐𝑚 12 20 v
(ii) Nature: v = 30 cm
The image formed is; virtual, Inverted and Diminished. 1 1 1 A real image was formed
− =
12 20 v 30cm from the mirror on the
(iii) Magnification: same side as the object.

Image Distance 5 Example 2:

Magnification = = = 0.5 Calculate the distance of the image from the concave mirror
Object Distance 10
of focal length 15cm if the object is 20cm from the mirror.
Magnification and the image size of the object. Solution
Magnification, M Image size, I f = 15cm ; u = 20cm; v = ?
Using the mirror formula; 1 4−3 1
1 1 1 = =
When M is greater than The image is magnified i.e. the = + v 60 60
1 image is larger than the object 𝐟 𝐮 𝐯
1 1
1 1 1 =
When M is equal to 1 The image size is the same as the = + v 60
object 15 20 v
v = 60 cm
1 1 1 A real image was formed
When M is less than 1 The image is diminished i.e. the − =
image is smaller than the object 15 20 v 60cm from the mirror on the
same side as the object.
THE MIRROR FORMULA
The mirror formula for the concave mirror and convex Example 3:
mirror is given by; Find the distance of the image from a convex mirror of focal
length 10cm if the object is 15cm from the mirror.
1 1 1 Solution
= + u = 15cm; f = -10cm (for convex mirror); v =?
𝐟 𝐮 𝐯
Where; u = object distance from the mirror Using the mirror formula; 1 −3 − 2 −5
1 1 1 = =
v = image distance from the mirror = + v 30 30
f = focal length 𝐟 𝐮 𝐯
1 −1
1 1 1 =
An image may be formed in front or behind the curved = + v 6
mirror. It is necessary to have a sign convention for the −10 15 v
values of u, v and f so as to distinguish between the two v = −6 cm
1 1 1 A virtual image was formed
cases and obtain the correct answer when substituting into − =
the formula. −10 15 v 6 cm from the mirror on the
opposite side as the
Real is positive and virtual is negative sign convention: object.(i.e behind the convex
According to this sign convention; mirror)
 All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror
as the origin. Example 4:
 Distances of real objects and the images are positive. A convex mirror of focal length 18cm produces an image of
on its axis 6cm from the mirror. Calculate the position of the
 Distances of virtual objects and images are negative.
object.
 The principal focus, F of the concave mirror is real
hence its focal length, f is positive while a convex
Solution
mirror has a virtual principle focus, F and so its focal
u =?; f = -18cm (for convex mirror); v = -6cm
length, f is negative. 1 −1 + 3 2 1
Using the mirror formula;
1 1 1 = = =
Example 1: = + u 18 18 9
An object is placed 20cm in front of a concave mirror of 𝐟 𝐮 𝐯
1 1
focal length 12cm. Find the nature and position of the image 1 1 1 =
formed. = + u 9
−18 u −6
u = 9 cm
1 1 1 A real object was 9cm in
+ =
−18 6 u front of the convex mirror.

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Exercise The position of the pin is adjusted until the position is
1. Find the distance of the image from the concave mirror obtained where it coincides with its image and there is no
of focal length 10cm if the object is 5cm from the parallax between the two, i.e. there is no relative motion
mirror. between the object and the image when the observer moves
the head from side to side or up and down.
2. A concave mirror of focal length 15cm has an object The distance r of the pin from the pole is measured and focal
placed 25cm from it. Find the position and nature of the length determined,
image. 𝒓
𝒇=
2
3. An object is 32cm in front of a convex mirror of focal
length 16cm. Describe the image and give its position. iii) Using an illuminated object at C

4. When an object is 42cm from a concave mirror, the

object and the image are of the same height. What is the
focal length of the mirror?

5. An object 5cm high is placed 30cm in front of the

concave mirror. The image is 60cm in front of the
mirror. Find the;
(i) Focal length of the mirror.
(ii) Magnification.
(iii) Height of the object. Procedures:
The apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram.
NOTE: Currently, the use of the mirror formula and lens A concave mirror is moved to and fro in front of the screen
formula is out of the O- level syllabus. Therefore students until a sharp image of the cross wire is obtained on the
are encouraged to practice the use of accurate ray diagram screen.
(graphical) method to find the position of images and The distance between the screen and the mirror, r is
objects or the focal length of the mirror. measured and recorded.
The focal length, f, of the mirror is then determined from;
Determining the focal length of Concave mirrors 𝒓
i) Focusing distant object (Approximate Method) 𝒇=
2
N.B: .
1. An object coincides with its image when the object is at
the centre of curvature of the mirror.
2. The focal length is one half of the distance from the
centre of curvature to the mirror.
3. Parallax is the apparent relative movement of two
objects due to a movement on the part of the observer.

Exercise: See UNEB Paper I:

1.
2002 Qn.8 2003 Qn.20 2005 Qn.29 2007 Qn.2
Light from a distant object such as a tree is focused on the
screen. 2. UNEB 1995 Qn. 5
Distance between the image (screen) and the pole of the (a) The figure below shows an object, O placed in front of a
mirror are measured using a metre- rule. mirror. If F is the principle focus of the mirror. Complete the
It is approximately equal to the focal length .f of the mirror. diagram to show the formation of the image.

ii) By determining first the radius of curvature.

(Self conjugate method) or the no parallax method.

(b) State two applications of convex mirrors.

3. UNEB 1997 Paper 2 Qn. 4

(c) An object 10cm high is placed at a distance of 25cm
A concave mirror is placed horizontally on a bench. An from a convex mirror of focal length 10cm.
optical pin is clamped horizontally on a retort stand so that (i) Draw a ray diagram to locate the position of the
the tip lies along the principal axis of the mirror. image.

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 (ii) Calculate the magnification.
(d) State the reasons for use of convex mirrors in vehicles. REFRACTION OF LIGHT

4. UNEB 2002 Paper 2 Qn. 5 Definition:

(c) With the aid of a diagram, explain why a parabolic Refraction is the bending of light ray(s) as it passes from
mirror is most suitable for use in car head lights. one transparent medium to another of different densities.
(d) List three uses of concave mirrors
Refraction is the change in speed of propagation of light due
to change in optical density.
When light propagating in free space is incident in medium,
the electrons and protons interact with the electric and
magnetic fields of the light wave. This result in the slowing
down of a light.

Illustration.

Refraction occurs because light travels at different speed in

the different media.

Description
(a) Rays and lines
Ray AO is called incident ray.
This is the ray that fall/strikes the boundary at the normal in
the first medium.

Ray OB is called the refracted ray.

Refracted ray is the ray that leaves the boundary at the
normal in the second medium and o the opposite side of the
incident ray.

Line PQ is called the normal.

The normal is an imaginary line at right angle to the
boundary and separates the incident ray and the refracted
ray.

Line XY is called the boundary.

The boundary is the line that separates the two media. It is
the line where refraction occurs.

(b) Angles
Angle, i is the angle of incidence.
This is the angle formed between the incident ray and the
normal.

Angle, r is called angle of refraction.

The angle of refraction is the angle formed between the
refracted ray and the normal.

NOTE: The light ray is refracted towards the normal when

it travels from a less dense medium to a denser medium

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and then refracted away from the normal if it travels from a
denser medium to a less dense medium. If medium 1 is a vacuum, we refer to the ratio as the
absolute refractive index of medium 2, denoted by n2.
Principle of Reversibility of light
It states that if a light ray (path) after suffering a number of If medium 1 is a vacuum, then;
refractions is reversed at any stage, it travels back to the 𝐶 Speed of light in vacuum.
source along the same path with the same refraction. ∩2 = =
𝑣2 Speed of light in medium 2

Law of refraction 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑪 = 3.0 × 108 𝒎𝒔−1

When light passes from one medium to another, say from air
glass part of it is reflected back into the previous medium Note: For practical purposes, ∩𝐕𝐚𝐜𝐮𝐮𝐦 = ∩𝐀𝐢𝐫 =1
and the rest passes through the second medium with its
direction of travel changed. DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX

Apparatus:
 Rectangular Glass Block
 Four Optical Pins and 4 thumb pins
 Soft Board
 White Sheet of Paper
 Mathematical Set

Set up

Generally, if light is incident from a less dense medium, to a

more optically dense medium, its speed reduces and it is
refracted towards the normal at the point of incidence.
However, if light travels from a denser to a less dense
medium, its speed increases and it is refracted away from
Procedure
the normal.
a) Place the rectangular glass block on the white sheet of
paper stuck on the soft board.
Laws of Refraction b) Trace the outline of the glass block on the white sheet of
Law 1. The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal at
paper.
point of incidence all lie on the Same plane.
c) Remove the glass block and draw a normal at N.
d) Using a protractor, measure from the normal the angle of
Law 2. For any two particular media, the ratio of the sine of incidence, i = 20o to draw the incident ray of the angle
angle of incidence to sine of angle of refraction is constant. measured and pin two optical pins P1 and P2 on the ray
sin i
i.e. = 𝐚𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭(∩) drawn.
sin r
sin 𝑖 e) Replace the glass block back to its outline and aim from
The constant ratio is called the refractive index for light
sin 𝑟 face DC to fix pins P3 and P4 such that they appear to be in
passing from the first to second medium.
line with the images of P1 and P2.
sin 𝑖
Hence; 1 ∩2 = f) Remove the glass block and draw a line through P 3 and P4
sin 𝑟 to face DC.
g) Draw a line from normal to meet the line trough P3 and P4
Definition:
to measure the angle of refraction, r.
Refractive Index is the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to
h) Repeat the procedure d) to g) for i = 30 o, 40o, 50o, 60o and
the sine of angle of refraction for a ray of light traveling
70o.
from one medium to another of different densities. i.e.
i) Tabulate your result in a suitable table including values of
If light travel from air to glass, then the refractive index of
sin i and sin r.
glass with respect to air is given by;
sin 𝑖 j) Plot a graph of sin i against sin r and determine the slope n
𝑎𝑖𝑟 ∩𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = of the graph.
sin 𝑟
Conclusion
It can also be defined as the ratio of the speed of light in one
 The graph sini against sinr is a straight line this verifies
medium to the speed of light in another medium.
𝑣1 Speed of light in medium 1. Snell’s law.
Hence; 1 ∩2 = =  The slope of the graph is the refractive index of the
𝑣2 Speed of light in medium 2 glass block.

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Example 1:
A ray of light travels from air into water at angle of
incidence of 60o. Calculate the angle of refraction given that Examples 3:
the refractive of water is 1.33. If the angle of incidence in oil is520 , find the angle of
refraction in glass for a ray of light travelling from oil to
Solution glass. (∩𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 1.2 and ∩𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 1.52)
Given; i = 60o n = 1.33 r =?
Ray Diagram Solution:

From Snell’s law Using Snell’s law;

∩𝑎𝑖𝑟 sin 𝑖𝑎𝑖𝑟 = ∩𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 sin 𝑖𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ∩ sin i = constant
1 sin 60 = 1.33sin 𝑟 ∩𝑜𝑖𝑙 sin 𝑖𝑜𝑖𝑙 = ∩𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 sin 𝑖𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠
1.2 sin 52 = 1.52sin 𝑟
0.866 0.9456
sin 𝑟 = ( ) sin 𝑟 = ( )
1.33 1.52
0.9456
0.866 𝑟 = sin−1 ( )
1.52
𝑟 = sin−1 ( ) 𝑟 = 38.47 0
1.52
𝑟 = 41.70
Examples: 4
The diagram bellow shows a liquid sandwiched between
Example 2: two glass slabs of refractive index 1.5. A ray of light begins
A ray of light traveling through air strikes glass at an angle from the upper glass slab and it latter emerges into air.
of 40o to the surface. Given that the refractive index of glass
is 1.45, find the;
(i) Angle of refraction
(ii) Angle of deviation (angle through which the
ray is bent from its original direction).
Solution
Given; Ѳ = 40o n = 1.45 r =?
Ray diagram

Where; r = angle of refraction

d = angle of deviation

From the angle properties Angle of deviation, d Find the;

400 + 𝑖 = 900 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚, (i) Refractive index of the liquid.[𝑛𝐿 = 1.26]
𝑖 = 900 − 400 𝑟+𝑑 =𝑖 (ii) Angle of emergency in air. [e = 74.60 ]
𝑖 = 500 31.90 + 𝑑 = 500
𝑑 = 18.10 Example 5:
From Snell’s law White light was observed to travel from vacuum through
∩𝑎𝑖𝑟 sin 𝑖𝑎𝑖𝑟 = ∩𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 sin 𝑖𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 multiple boundaries of transparent media X, Y and Z,
1 sin 50 = 1.45sin 𝑟 parallel to each other as shown below. Calculate the;
(i) Angle Ѳ
0.766 (ii) Refractive index of Y
sin 𝑟 = ( )
1.45 (iii) Speed of light in X
(iv) Refractive index of Z with respect to X
0.766
𝑟 = sin−1 ( )
1.45
𝑟 = 31.90

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 Procedure:
Pour liquid in a beaker and measure the height, y (real
depth) of the liquid in the beaker
Place a pin at the bottom of the beaker with its point
touching the side of the beaker.
Support another pin on the clamp at the side of the beaker
using plasticine.
Real and Apparent Depths Observe from the edge of the beaker and adjust the pin on
Real depth the clamp until it appears to be on the same level with the
Real depth is the depth where the object is actually placed or pin in the beaker.
laying under the transparent medium of different optical Now measure the height, x from the bottom of the beaker
density to the surrounding medium. i.e. Real depth is the where the pin in liquid appears to determine the apparent.
actual height of the medium in its desired dimension. Divide the real depth of the pin in liquid by the apparent
depth of the same pin to determine the refractive index, n of
Apparent depth the liquid.
Apparent depth is the depth where the object appears to be Real depth
Refractive index, n =
when observed through the transparent medium of different Apparent depth
optical density to the surrounding medium.
The real and apparent depth of an object viewed through a 𝑦
𝑛=
transparent material can be used to determine the refractive 𝑦−𝑥
index of the transparent material.
Example: 1
Illustration of real depth and apparent depth A pin placed at the bottom of the liquid appears to be at a
depth of 8.3 cm when viewed from above. Find the
refractive index of the liquid if the real depth of the liquid is
11 cm.
Solution
Given, Real depth = 11 cm
Apparent depth = 8.3 cm

Real depth
Refractive index, n =
Apparent depth

11
𝑛=
8.3

𝑛 = 1.33

Determination of refractive index of glass using real

depth and apparent depth.
Determination of refractive index of Liquid using real Apparatus:
depth and apparent depth. Glass block, Retort stand, optical Pin, White sheet of paper
Apparatus: Half metre rule
Beaker, Retort stand, Pins, Liquid, Half metre rule
Diagram:
Diagram:

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 (ii) A ruler placed in a glass of water appears bent when
viewed from above.

Procedure:
Draw a line on a white sheet of paper and place a glass
block a above it as shown.
Look down at the edge of the glass perpendicular to the tip
of the line drawn on the paper.
Adjust the search pin on the clamp until it is at the same Explanation
level as the line drawn on the paper. Ensure no parallax i.e. Rays of light from the point V of the ruler pass from water
the pin and the image of the line should appear to be one on to air and are bent away from the normal as it emerges to the
moving the head to and fro the line of observation. less dense medium. As it enters the eye, it appears to be
Measure the distance, a and b respectively to determine the coming from the point I above V.
apparent depth of the line
Refractive index of the glass block is then obtained from; (iii) A coin or even written mark placed at the bottom of
water in a beaker or basin appears to be on top when viewed
Real depth from above.
Refractive index, n =
Apparent depth

𝑏
𝑛=
𝑏−𝑎
Example: 2
A glass block of height 9 cm is placed on a coin of
negligible thickness. The coin was observed to be at 3 cm
from the bottom of the glass block when viewed from
above. Find the refractive index of the glass.
Solution
Real depth
Refractive index, n =
Apparent depth
Explanation
9 9 This is due to refraction of light from the coin at O. As light
𝑛= = passes through the water to air boundary, the ray is refracted
9−3 6
away from the normal in air and appear to be originating
𝑛 = 1.5 from the point I (apparent depth) above the actual point O
(Real depth) at the bottom of the container.
Effects of refraction: This effect and explanation is also factual for an object or
(i) A swimming pool appears shallower that its actual depth mark under other medium like glass block and even glass
prism.

(iv) Twinkling of the stars in the sky at night.

Explanation
This is because light rays from the bottom are refracted
away from the normal at the water to air boundary.
These rays appear to come from the point I not O, so at the
point I the pool appear shallower than it is.

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 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION AND CRITICAL Relationship between critical angle, c, and refractive
ANGLE index, n
Consider monochromatic light propagating from a dense
medium and incident on a plane boundary with less dense
medium at a small angle of incidence. Light is partly
reflected and partly refracted.

Using Snell’s law:

∩1 sin 𝑖1 = ∩2 sin 𝑟2
∩1 sin 𝑐 = ∩2 sin 90
∩2
sin 𝑐 =
∩1

As the angle of incidence is increased gradually, a stage is If the lens dense medium is air or a vacuum;
1
reached when the refracted ray grazes the boundary between 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒄 =
the two media. ∩1

Calculation involving critical angle and refractive index

At critical angle, the angle of refraction is 90 o i.e. r = 90o.
And the ray is from more optically dense medium i.e glass
to a less optically dense medium i.e. air. So,
From Snell’s Law:
∩g sin ig = ∩air sin rair
∩g sin C = sin90o ; But sin90o = 1
∩g sin C = 1
1
∩g =
sin C
The angle of incidence c is called the critical angle. Where ∩𝒈 = Refractive index of the glass and C is the
Hence critical angle is the angle of incidence in a denser critical angle.
medium which makes the angle of refraction in a less dense
medium 90°. Example: 1
When the angle of incidence is increased beyond the critical Calculate the refractive index of the glass if the critical
angle, the light is totally internally reflected in the denser angle of the glass is 48o.
medium. Total internal reflection is said to have occurred. SOLUTION:
Give; C = 48o , ∩𝑔 = ?
1
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚;∩𝑔 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑪
1
∩𝑔 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛48𝑜
1
∩𝑔 =
0.669
∩𝑔 = 1.5

Applications of total internal reflection

Hence Total Internal Reflection is the process where all (i) Light pipes and Optical fibres
the incident light energy is reflected back in the optically Light can travel and can be trapped by total internal
denser medium when the critical angle is exceeded. reflection inside a bend glass tube and pipe along a curved
path.
Conditions for Total Internal reflection to occur. If several thousand rays are trapped together, a flexible light
(i). Light must be moving from an optically denser medium pipe is obtained that can be used to light up some awkward
(e.g glass) to a less dense medium (e.g air). spot for inspection.
(ii). The angle of incidence in the optically denser medium
must exceed (greater than) the critical angle. [𝒊 > 𝒄 ].

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 (ii) Mirage (v) Totally reflecting prism
The critical angle of a glass prism is 42o and a ray is
normally incident on face PQ thus un deviated i.e. not
refracted. Total internal reflection occurs and a ray is turned
through 90o.

Explanation
 Gradual refraction:
On a hot day light from the sky is gradually refracted away
from the normal as it passes through layers of warm but less
dense air near hot road.

 Total internal reflection:

The refractive index of warm air is slightly smaller than that
of cool air, so when light meets a layer at critical angle, it
suffers total internal reflection thus to the observer the road
appears to have a pool of water.

(iii) Fish’s view:

The critical angle of glass is 42o and rays are incident
The fish in water enjoys a wider field of view in that it
normally on face PR. At face PQ, the rays are incident at 45 o
views all objects under water and those above the water
so total internal reflection occurs.
surface
Objects above the water surface are viewed as a result of
The use of prisms are preferred to plane mirror
refraction while those under the water surface are viewed as
 Prisms produce clear image
a result of total internal reflection. However this is only true
 Prisms do not tarnish and deteriorate as mirror.
if the water surface is calm.
However, plane mirrors are not used in submarine periscope
because:
 Several images of one object are formed at the back
by plane mirror due to multiple reflection inside the
glass i.e. plane mirror produces blurred images.
 Plane mirrors absorbs more light than prisms so the
image produced is fainter.

REFRACTION THROUGH A TRIANGULAR PRISM

(iv) Submarine periscope: Refraction by glass prism

BF= Refracting edge

AB and BC = Refracting surface
AC and ED = Base
Light from a distant object meets the surface MN at 45 o; so ABC and DEF = Principle section (or any other plane
light is totally internally reflected downwards. perpendicular to the refracting edge).
Angle ABC = Refracting angle or angle of the prism.
The reflected light is incident to the surface PQ where it is
totally internally reflected to give the emergent light to the Representation of a Prism.
observer.

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 Experiment to measure the refractive index of a
triangular glass prism.

Rays: ON = Incident ray; Angle 𝑖1 = angle of incidence

NM = Refracted ray; Angle 𝑟1 = angle of refraction
ME = Emergent ray; Angle 𝑖2
= angle of emergence
 Outline of the prism
Lines: NS and MS = Normal lines on either sides.
The prism is placed on a paper and its outline ABC is drawn
Angle A = angle of the prism or refracting angle.
and then the prism is removed. Draw the normal at M and
measure the angle of incidence, i. Place the pins 𝑃1 and 𝑃2
Deviation of light by a prism
on the incident ray.
Considering Deviation at N,
𝑖1 = 𝑟1 + 𝑑1 ⟺ 𝑑1 = 𝑖1 − 𝑟1 … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝑖)
 Obtaining the refracted ray.
Considering Deviation at M,
Replace the prism to its outline. By looking through the
𝑖2 = 𝑟2 + 𝑑2 ⟺ 𝑑2 = 𝑖2 − 𝑟2 … … … … … … … … . . … . … . (𝑖𝑖)
prism from side QR, pins 𝐏𝟑 and P4 are placed such that they
are in a straight line with images of P1 and P2 in the prism.
From Triangle NMT:
Draw a line to join point N to M from which the angle of
𝑑 = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
refraction on AC is measured.
Putting equations (i) and (ii) into Equation (iii) gives:
 Repeating the procedures and tabulating the results
𝑑 = (𝑖1 − 𝑟1 ) + (𝑖2 − 𝑟2 )
Repeat the procedures for different values of i and obtain
𝑑 = (𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ) + (−𝑟1 − 𝑟2 )
different values of r.
𝑑 = (𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ) − (𝑟1 + 𝑟2 ) … . … … … … … … … … … … … . (𝑖𝑣) Record the results in a suitable table including values of sin i
and sin r as shown below
From Triangle NMS:
Table of result:
𝐴 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … . … (𝑣)
i(0) r(0) Sini Sinr
𝒅 = (𝒊1 + 𝒊2 ) − 𝑨 … … … … … … … … … … . . . … … . . . . … (𝑣𝑖)

Minimum Angle of Deviation

 Plotting the graph
Definition: is the smallest angle to which angle of deviation
Plot a graph of sin i against sin r to determine the slope of
decreases when the angle of incidence is gradually
the graph. Slope is the refractive index of the prism.
increased.

Note: For a light ray travelling in a medium like water to

glass, then the refractive index of glass with respect to water
is calculated from:
∩g sinr2
w ∩g = =
∩w sini2
In general, the refractive index of any medium X with
Condition for minimum deviation position: respect to another first medium Y is given by:
 Ray of light MN in the prism is parallel to the base of ∩𝑿
𝒀 ∩𝑿 = ∩𝑌
the prism.
 Incidence angle and emergency angles are equal. Where; ∩𝐗 = refractive in dex of X
 Light passes symmetrically rough the prism. ∩𝐘 = refractive index of Y
The angle of incidence, i = angle of emergency, e For calculation, your are required to use;
∩𝒀 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊𝒀 = ∩𝑿 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝑿

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Example 1: incident normally on the faces of the prisms below.
A ray of light is incident on water – glass boundary at 41o. Complete the diagrams to show the path taken by the
Calculate r if the refractive indices of water and glass are incident ray through each prism hence explain why light
1.33 and 1.50 respectively. takes the path shown.
Solution:
Given; ∩𝐠 = 1.5 , ∩𝐰 = 1.33, 𝐢𝐰 =
41o and𝐫𝐠 = ?
From ;∩𝑌 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑌 = ∩𝑋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑋
∩𝑤 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑤 = ∩𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑔
1.33𝑠𝑖𝑛41𝑜 = 1.50𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟

1.33sin41o
sin r =
1.50
−1
1.33𝑠𝑖𝑛41𝑜 The figure below shows light incident normally on a glass
𝑟 = sin ( )
1.50 prism in air. If the critical angle of the prism is 42 0,
𝑜
𝑟 = 35.5

Example:1
A ray of light propagating in a liquid is incident on a prism
of refractive angle 500 and refractive index 1.6, at an angle
of 300 as shown below.

(i) Complete the diagram t o show the path of light as

If light passes through the prism symmetrically, calculate emerges from the prism.
the;
(i). Refractive index of the liquid.
(ii). Angle of deviation.

Solution.
(i)  r1 = r2 = r; Thus 2r =
Applying Snell’s law at N: 50 ⇔ r = 250 ⇔ r1 =
∩𝐿 sin 𝑖 = ∩ sin 𝑟1 r2 = 250
∩𝐿 sin 30 = 1.6 sin 𝑟1 … (𝑖)  𝑒 = 𝑖 ⇔ 𝑒 = 300

Applying Snell’s law at M: Thus from equation (i);

∩ sin 𝑟2 = ∩𝐿 sin 𝑒 ∩𝐿 sin 30 = 1.6 sin 𝑟1
1.6 sin 𝑟2 = ∩𝐿 sin 𝑒 … (𝑖𝑖) ∩𝐿 sin 30 = 1.6 sin 250

But, also; 1.6 sin 250

r1 + r2 = A ∩L =
sin 30
r1 + r2 = 50 … … … . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
At points B and C, light is moving from a denser to a less
∩L = 1.35
dense medium and angle of incidence is greater than the
But since light passes
critical angle. [450 > 420]. Thus, total internal reflection
through the prism
occurs.
symmetrically, then;
At points A and D, the incident light is not deviated because
(ii).
it is incident normally to the surface.
d = (𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ) − A
d = (𝑖 + e) − 50
(ii) Calculate the refractive index of the glass prism
d = (30 + 30) − 50
Applying Snell’s law at B
d = 100
∩𝑌 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑌 = ∩𝑋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑋
𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶 = 1𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90
The figures below show two right angled prisms of
𝑛 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 42 = 1 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90
refracting angles 300 and 450respectively. Rays of light are
𝑛 = 1.49

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Trial Questions LENSES
1. A prism of refractive 1.5 and refractive angle 60 0 has an Definition:
angle of refraction of 280 on the 1st face. Determine Lenses are spherical surfaces of transparent materials. The
a) angle of incidence i [44.70] materials may be glass, plastics, water, etc.
b) angle of refraction on 2nd face r2 [r2 = 320]
c) angle of emergency i2 [i2 = 52.60 ] Types of Lenses:
d) angle of deviation d [37.340] (i) Converging Lenses (Convex Lens):
A convex lens is thick in the center. It is also called a
2. Critical angle of a certain precious stone is 270. converging lens because it bends light rays inwards. There
Calculate the refractive index of the stone. are three examples if convex lenses, namely:

3. See UNEB Paper I

1994 Qn.40 1995 Qn.24 1996 Qn.1 1996 Qn.35

4. UNEB 1990 Qn. 4

(a) (i) State the laws of refraction.
(ii) What is meant by refractive index?
(b) Describe a simple experiment to determine the refractive
of the glass of a triangular prism.
(c) The angle of refraction in glass is 320. Calculate the
angle of incidence if the refractive index of glass is 1.5.

5. UNEB 1996 Qn. 3 PII

(a) What is meant by the following terms;
(i) Critical angle
(ii) Total internal reflection
(b) State; (i) two conditions for total internal reflection to
occur.
(ii) One application of total internal reflection.

6. UNEB 1993 Qn. 9

The diagram below shows rays of light in a semi-circular
glass prism of refractive index 1.5.

A converging lens (Convex lens) is one in which all parallel

beams converge at a point (principle focus) after refraction.

(ii) Diverging Lens (Concave Lens):

A concave lens is thinnest in the central and spreads light
out. A concave lens is also called a divergent lens because
all rays that are parallel to the principal axis diverge after
refraction;

(a) Explain why ray AB;

(i) Is not refracted on entering the block at A.
(ii) Takes path BD on reaching B.
(b) Ray CB is refracted at B. Calculate the angle of
refraction.

7. UNEB 1996 Qn. 4; UNEB 1987 Qn. 7; UNEB 2001

Qn.46

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 Ray Diagram for a Convex (Converging) Lens.
In constructing ray diagram, 2 of the 3 principal rules are
used.
1. A ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted through
the focal point.

In a diverging lens, refracted ray seems to come from the

point after refraction.

Technical Terms:

2. A ray through the optical centre passes un deviated i.e.

is not refracted.

 Pole of a lens:
Is the centered point of the surface of the lens through which
the principal axis passes.

 Optical Centre: ( C )
Is the point on the principle axis mid way between the lens
surfaces. It is the centre of the lens at which rays pass un
deviated.
3. A ray through the principal focus emerge parallel to the
 Principal Axis:
principal axis after refraction.
Is the line through the optical center of the lens on which the
principal focus lies.

 Principal Focus, F:
Convex lens.
Is the point on the principal axis at which all rays parallel
and close to the principal axis meet after refraction thru the
lens.
Concave lens.
This is the point on the principal axis of a concave lens at
which all rays parallel and close to the principal axis appear
to diverge from after refraction thru the lens.
Images formed by convex lenses:
The nature of the image formed in a convex lens depends on
 Focal Length, f:
the position of the object from the lens.
Is the distance between the optical center and the principal
focus.
(a) Object beyond 2F
Note: The principal focus of a converging lens is real
while that of a diverging lens is virtual.
Real principal focus is one at which actual rays meet after
refraction.
1. Centers of curvature, 2F: Is the centre of the sphere of
which the lens surfaces form part. OR It is a point on
the principle axis where any ray through it hits the lens
at right angles.

2. Radius of curvature: Is the radius of the sphere of which

the lens forms part. OR It is the distance between the Characteristics of the image:
optical centre and the centre curvature of the lens.  Nature: Real and Inverted.
 Position: Between F and 2F.
 Magnification: Diminished

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 (b) Object at 2F

Characteristics of the image:

 Nature: Real and Inverted.
 Position: At 2F.
 Magnification: Same size as object. Characteristics of the image:
 Nature: Virtual and Upright or erect.
(c) Object between F and 2F  Position: On the same side as the object.
 Magnification: magnified.

When the object is placed between F and C, the image is

magnified and this is why the convex lens is known as a
magnifying glass.

Summary of the useful rays

Characteristics of the image:

 Nature: Real and Inverted.
 Position: Beyond 2F.
 Magnification: magnified.

(d) Object at F Image Formation in a Concave Lens

Irrespective of the position of the object, a concave lens
forms an image with the following characteristics:
 Nature: Virtual and Upright or erect.
 Position: Between F and C.
 Magnification: Diminished.

Characteristics of the image:

 Nature: Real and Inverted.
 Position: At infinity.
 Magnification: magnified.

(e) Object between F and C

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Magnification of lens: Questions: (Students’ Exercise)
1. An object is placed: a) 20 cm b) 5 cm, from a
image height, h converging lens of focal length 15 cm. Find the;
Magnification, M = (i) nature of the image in each case .
object height, H
Image distance, V (ii) position, v of the image in each case.
= (Va = 60cm ; Vb = 7.5)
Object distance, U
(iii) Magnification, M of the image in each case.
h V (Ma = 3 ; Mb = 1.5)
M = =
H U
2. A four times magnification virtual image is formed of an
The lens formula: object placed 12cm from a converging lens. Calculate the;
If an object is at a distance, u forms the lens and image, v (i) Position of the image ( v = 48 cm )
distance from the lens, then focal length, f is given by: (ii) Focal length of the lens ( f = 10 cm ) .

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 3. Find the nature and position of the image of an object

= + placed 10cm from a diverging lens of focal length 15cm.
𝐟 𝐮 𝐯
(Virtual : v = 6cm ).
This applies to both concave and convex.
Finding position by graph (scale drawing):
Real is positive and virtual is negative sign convention: Step I: Select a scale for drawing
According to this sign convention; Step II: Make a sketch of the drawing; this should include
 All distances are measured from the optical centre of two major rays from a point on the object i.e.
the lens as the origin.  A ray parallel and closed to the principal axis should be
 Distances of real objects and the images are positive. refracted through the focal point for a converging lens
while for a diverging lens, the ray parallel and closed to
 Distances of virtual objects and images are negative.
principal axis is refracted in such a way that is appears
 The principal focus, F of the convex lens is real hence
to come from the focal point.
its focal length, f is positive while a concave lens has a
 A ray through the optical center should be drawn un
virtual principle focus, F and so its focal length, f is
deviated.
negative.
Examples:
Example 1:
An object of height 10cm is placed at a distance of 50cm
An object of height 10cm is placed at distance 50cm from a
from a converging lens of focal length 20cm. Find by scale
converging lens of focal length 20cm. Calculate the;
drawing the;
(i) Image position.
(i) Image position
(ii) image height
(ii) Image height
(iii) magnification
(iii) Nature of the image formed
Solution:
Given, H = 10 cm, u = 50 cm, f = 20 cm
Solution
v = ? h = ?
Axis Scale Conversion
Using the mirror formula; 10
1 1 1 1 5−2 3 Vertical axis 1 : 5 cm  10 cm → → 2cm
5
= + = =
𝐟 𝐮 𝐯 v 100 100
Horizontal 1 : 10 cm 50
 50cm → → 5cm
1 1 1 1 3 axis 10
= + =
20 50 v v 100 20
 20cm → → 2cm
10
1 1 1 v = 33.33 cm
− =
20 50 v A real image was formed
33.33cm from the lens.

Using the definition of Magnification:

magnification, h V
M = =
H U
h V
M = = 100
H U ( )
M = 3
h 33.33 20
=
10 20
M = 0.67 (i) Position:
h = 6.67 cm The image distance as measured from the scale drawing is
3cm; using the above scale,
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = (3.4 𝑥 10) 𝑐𝑚
= 34𝑐𝑚
Size:

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The height of the image on the scale drawing is 0.8cm; Image Distance 15
using the scale, Magnification = = = 0.25
Object Distance 60
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = (1.4 𝑥 5) 𝑐𝑚
= 7 𝑐𝑚 Students’ Exercise
(ii) Nature: 1. An object 1cm tall stands vertically on principal axis of
The image formed is; Real, Inverted and Diminished. a converging lens of, focal length, f = 1cm, and at a
distance of 1.7cm from the lens. Find by graphical
(iii) Magnification: construction, the position, size, magnification and
nature of the image.
Image Distance 34
Magnification = = = 0.68
Object Distance 50 2. An object is 32.5 cm from a diverging lens of focal
Or length 12 cm. by scale drawing;
Image Height 7 (i) Locate the numerical position and the height of
Magnification = = = 0.7 the image formed.
Object Height 10
(ii) Calculate the ratio of image magnitude to
object height.
(iii) Describe the image formed using the result in
(ii) above.
Example: 2
An object of the height 10cm is placed at a distance of 60 3. An object is placed 10 cm in front of a concave lens of
cm from a diverging lens of focal length 20cm. Find by focal length 20 cm to form an image. Determine the
scale drawing, the; position, nature and magnification of the image using a
(i) Image position, v ray diagram.
(ii) Height, h of the image
(iii) Nature of the image 4. An object 5cm tall is placed 15 cm away from a convex
(iv) Magnification, M lens of focal length 10cm. By construction, determine
the position size and nature of the final image.
Solution
Axis Scale Conversion 5. An object 5cm high is placed 20cm in front of a
Vertical axis 1 : 5 cm 10 converging lens of focal length 15cm. Find the power of
 10 cm → → 2cm
5 the lens and the magnification of the lens.

Horizontal 60
1 : 10 cm  60cm → → 6cm 6. An object of height 20cm is placed vertically on the
10
axis axis of a convex lens of focal length 10cm at a distance
20 of 30cm from the lens. Use the graphical method to find
 20cm → → 2cm
10 the position, nature and magnification of the image.

Experiments to measure focal length of convex lens

(Converging lens)

1. Rough method
(Using a distant object, e.g window)

(i) Position:
The image distance as measured from the scale drawing is
3cm; using the above scale,
Image distance = (1.5 x 10) cm Position the lens and a white screen on a table as shown
= 15cm above.
Size: Move the lens towards and away from the screen until a
The height of the image on the scale drawing is 0.8cm; sharply focused image of the distant object is formed on the
using the scale, screen.
Image height = (0.5 x 5) cm Measure the distance, f between the lens and the screen. It is
= 2.5 cm approximately equal to the focal length of the lens used.
(ii) Nature:
The image formed is; Virtual, Upright and Diminished. Note:
To improve the accuracy of the results, it is advisable that
(iii) Magnification: the experiment is repeated at least three times and the
average focal length calculated.

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 f1 (cm) f2 (cm) f3 (cm) f(cm) point (focal plane). The distance between the lens and
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) screen is measured and this is the focal length f.
3
Note: The focal point or focal plane of a lens is a point or a
2. Plane mirror method and no parallax plane through the principal focus at right angle to the
A plane mirror M is placed on a table with its reflecting principal axis. At this point, rays from any point on the
surface facing upwards. The lens L is placed top of the object will emerge from the lens as a parallel beam and are
mirror. reflected back through the lens.
An optical pin, O is then moved along the axis of the lens
until its image I coincide with the object O, when both are
viewed from above and there is no parallax.
4. Lens formula method

The distance from the pin O to the lens is thus measured and Using an
it is equal to the focal length, f, of the lens. illuminated object, O at a measured distance, u, move the
screen towards and away from the lens until a clear image of
Alternatively, the set up bellow may be used. the cross wires is obtained on the screen.
The image distance, v is measured and recorded.
The procedure is repeated for various values of u and the
corresponding values of v measured and recorded.
1 1
The results are tabulated including values of 𝑎𝑛𝑑 .
𝑢 𝑣

𝑢(cm) 𝑣(cm) 1 1
(cm−1 ) (cm−1 )
𝑢 𝑣
- - - -

The focal length can be calculated from the equation

1 1 1
= + and the average of the values obtained .
𝐟 𝐮 𝐯
NOTE: Rays from O passing through the lens are reflected
from the plane mirror M and then pass through the lens a
gain to form an image. When O and I coincides the rays Power of a lens:
from O incident on the mirror must have returned a long Power of a lens is the reciprocal of its focal length expressed
their incident path after reflection from the mirror. This in meters. The S.I of power of lens is dioptres ( D ).
happens if the rays are incident normally on the plane Note: The Focal length of convex les is real so it’s positive
mirror, M. The rays entering the lens after reflection are and hence its power is positive.
parallel and hence the point at which they converge must be The focal length of a concave lens is virtual so it’s negative
the principle focus. hence its power is negative.

3. Using illuminated object and plane mirror The power of the combination of lenses can be calculated
from:
𝟏
The power of the lens; 𝐏 =
𝐟𝐨𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐢𝐧 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬
𝟏
=
𝐟
Power of Power of Power of
( ) = ( ) +( )
combination, first lens second lens

1 1
Pcombination = +
focal length, f1 focal lenth, f2
of first lens of second lens
The position of the lens holder is adjusted until a sharp 1 1
image of the object is formed on the screen alongside the Pcombination = +
f1 f2
object itself. The object will now be situated at the focal

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Examples: Condenser; this is the combination of two Plano convex
1. Two converging lenses of focal lengths 15cm and 20cm lenses. The main function is to collect the rays from the light
are placed in contact, find the power of combination. source and concentrate them onto the slide.
Solution
Given, f1 = 15 cm = 0.15 m; f2 = 20 cm = Slide: It contains the object whose image is to be projected
0.20 m on the screen.

1 1 Projector lens: is mounted on a sliding tube so that it may

Pcombination = + be moved to and fro to focus a sharp real image on the
f1 f2
screen.
1 1
Pcombination = +
0.15 0.20
(ii) Lens Camera
Pcombination = 11.67 D A camera is alight tight box in which a convex lens forms a
real image on a film.
2. A convex lens of focal length 20cm is placed in contact
with concave lens of focal length 10cm. Find the power
of the combination ( Ans: -5D).
Solution
Given, f1 = 20 cm = 0.20 m; f2 = 10 cm =
0.10 m
1 1
Pcombination = +
f1 f2

1 1
Pcombination = +
0.20 −0.10

Pcombination = −5 D
The film contains chemicals that change on exposure to
Uses of lenses light. It is developed to give a negative. From the negative
the photograph is printed.
 The eye uses it to focus images on the retina
The inner surface of the camera is painted black in order to
 In spectacles to correct eye defects.
prevent reflection of stray rays of light.
 In lens cameras to focus images on the screen or film. A camera is fitted with the provision for adjusting the
 In slide projectors to magnify/focus images on the distance between the film and then lens so that the object
screen. can be focused on the film by the convex lens.
 In compound microscopes to magnify/ focus images of
tiny near objects.  Converging lens; is to focus the object on the film.
 As simple magnifying glasses, to magnify images of  Shutter; It controls the amount of light entering the
smaller objects without inverting them. camera by the length of times the shutter is open. Fast
moving objects require short exposure.
Simple Optical Instruments: The brightness of the image on the film depends on the
(i) Projector (or Projection Lantern) amount of light passing through the lens. The shutter
A projector is used for projecting the image of a transparent opening is controlled by the size of the hole in the
slide onto the screen. Thus the image formed is real. diaphragm.

 Diaphragm; this changes the size of the aperture. The

stop is made of a sense of metal plates which can be
moved to increase the aperture size.
Thus it controls the amount of light entering the camera
by its size.
*Note: The correct setting of the lens for an object at any
given distance from the camera is obtained from a scale
engraved on the lens mount.

Mode of Operation  Film: It is a light sensitive part where the image is

The powerful source of light (lamp): is placed at the formed.
principal focus of a concave mirror so as to illuminate the
slide if the image is to be bright. THE HUMAN EYE
Light enters the eyes through the cornea, the lens and then is
Concave mirror: reflects back light which would otherwise focused on the retina. The retina is sensitive to light and
be wasted by being reflected away from the film. sends messages to the brain through optic nerves. The iris
changes in size to vary the amount of light entering through
the pupil. The size of the pupil decreases in bright light and
increases in dim light.

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 This defect is corrected by using spectacles containing
converging lens which increase the convergence of the rays
and brings it to focus on the retina.

b) Short Sightedness: (Myopia)

This is an eye defect where person can see near objects
clearly but distant ones are blurred.
It is due to either;
(i) Too short focal length, or
Functions of the parts of the eye. (ii) Too long eye ball.
1. Lens: The lens inside the eye is convex. It’s sharp; it Because of these effects, the ciliary muscles do not relax
changes in order to focus light. sufficiently and consequently, distant objects are focused in
front of the retina.
2. Ciliary muscle: These alter the focal length of lens by
changing its shape so that the eye can focus on image
on the retina.

3. The iris: This is the coloured position of the eye. It

controls the amount of light entering the eye by
regulating the size of the pupil.

4. The retina: This is a light sensitive layer at the back of This defect is corrected by using spectacles containing
the eye where the image is formed. diverging lens which increase the divergence of the light
rays before they enter the eye and brings them to focus on
5. The optic nerve: It is the nerve that transmits the image the retina.
on the retina to the brain for interpretation.
Similarities between the camera and the eye
6. The cornea: It is the protective layer and it also  Both the eye and camera have light sensitive parts i.e.
partly focuses light entering the eye . the retina for an eyes and film for camera.
 Both the eyes and camera have lenses.
Accommodation  Both have a system which regulates the amount of light
This is the process by which the human eye changes its size entering them i.e. iris for the eye and the diaphragm for
so as to focus the image on the retina. This process makes the camera.
the eye to see both near and far objects.  The camera has black light proof inside the camera
while the eye has a black pigment inside.
Note: Accommodation is the process by which objects at
different distances are focused by the ciliary muscles Differences between the human eye and camera:
changing shape, so that the focal length of the lens changes. Human eye Camera
Lens: - ls biological. -Lens is artificial
Accommodation can also be the ability of the eye to focus - Is flexible - Is a rigid glass or plastic
objects at various distances. Focal length: f of lens for -focal length of lens the for
Near point: this is the closest point at which the eye can the eye is variable. camera is fixed.
accommodate a most clear vision. Its 25m for a normal eye. Distance: The distance -The distance between the
between the lens and retina lens and film is variable.
Far point: this is the most distant point at which the eye can is fixed.
accommodate a clear vision. It’s at infinity since rays travel Focusing: By changing the -By moving the lens relative
in a straight line. shape of the lens. to the film.
Aperture: Controlled by the -Controlled by the
Defects of vision and their corrections iris. diaphragm.
a) Long Sightedness. (Hypermetropia) Exposure: Is continuous. - Controlled by shutter.
This is an eye defect where a person can see distant objects
Light sensitive surface: -Retina
clearly but near objects are blurred.
film
It is due to either;
(i) Too long focal length, or
(ii) Too short eye ball. Exercise:
Because of these effects, the ciliary muscles have weakened 1. See UNEB Paper I
and cannot make the eye lens fatter (i.e. decrease its focal 1993Q.7 2000Q.21 2001Q.30 2004Q.14 2007Q.10
length) to focus near object on the retina. 2. Section B
Thus, the image is formed behind the retina. 1993 Qn.7 PII 1994 Qn. 2 1998 Qn.6 2000 Qn.8

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 COLOURS AND DISPERSION OF LIGHT (b) COLOURS
Colours of objects we see depend on the colours of the light Colour is the appearance of an object that results from their
which reach our eyes from them. ability or capacity to reflect light.
Its by experiments conducted that we can prove that white
light is made up of a mixture of seven colours called a Types of Colour
spectrum. (i) Primary Colours:
A spectrum is a range of seven colours that form white light. Colours that can’t be obtained by mixing any other colours.
(Day light). Examples: Red, Green, Blue

(a) DISPERSION OF LIGHT (ii) Secondary Colours:

Definition: Colours obtained by mixing any two primary colours.
Dispersion of light is the separation of white light into its Examples: Yellow, Magenta, Cyan (Peacock Blue)
component colours.
When white light is passed through a prism, it is deviated
and separated into seven colours.

Colour Addition:
This is because of the refractive index of glass being When two colours of light are projected on a screen, they
different for each colour which makes the different colours overlap to give a different colour. The new colour is said to
to move at different speeds. be formed by colour addition.

An object colour depends on: (iii) Complementary Colours:

 Colour of light falling on it. This is a pair of one primary colour and one secondary
colour which when mixed gives white light. Examples:
 Colour it transmits or reflects i.e. green light
Red + Cyan = White
appears green because it absorbs all other colours
Blue + Yellow = White
of white light and reflects green
Impure spectrum: this is the type of spectrum in which the Green + Magenta = White
boundaries between the different component colours are not
clearly defined. i.e when there is overlapping of colours of Coloured objects in white light
white light. An object coloured because it reflects and transmits its own
colour and absorbs all other colours incident on it.
Pure spectrum: this is a spectrum in which light of one
colour only forms on the screen without over lapping.
Examples:
Production of a Pure Spectrum

An illuminated slit is placed at the principle forces of a

converging lens so that a parallel beam of white light
emerges and falls on the prism.
Refraction through the prism splits up the light into separate
parallel beams of different colours each of which is brought
to its own focus.
Note: the combination of the slit and first lens is called the
collimator (To collimate means to make parallel).
Note: The slit should be made narrow to reduce the
overlapping of colours to a minimum so as to produce a
fairly pure spectrum.

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 (c) COLOUR FILTERS
Definition:
A filter is a coloured sheet of plastic or glass material which
allows light of its own type to pass through it and absorbs
the rest of the coloured lights i.e. a green filter transmits
only green, a blue transmits only blue, a yellow filter
transmits red, green and yellow lights.

Effect of filters of primary colours on white light

A green filter A red filter absorbs A blue filter
absorbs all other all other colours of absorbs all other
colours of white white light and colours of white
light and transmits transmits only red. light and transmits
only green. only blue.
Question
Describe and explain the appearance of a red tie with blue
spots when observed in.
a) Red light
b) Green light – the whole tie appears black because both
colours are primary colours and none is reflected back.
c) Red light – in the red light the tie appears red and blue
spots blacks.
This is because the red reflects the red colour and observes
blue colour.

Question2
A plant with green leaves and red flowers is placed in
a) green b) blue c) Yellow
d) what colour will the leaves and flowers appear in each
case . Assume all colours are pure Effect of filters of secondary colours on white light
A yellow (R+G) A Cyan (G + B) A magenta
a) green -: the leaves remain green but the flower black filter absorbs all filter absorbs all (R + B) filter
b) blue -: the leaves will appear black and flowers black other colours of other colours of absorbs all other
c) Yellow -: the leaves appear green and flowers appear red. white light and white light and colours of white
transmits only Red transmits only light and transmits
green and yellow. Green and Blue. only Red and blue.
Colour subtraction.
When light falls on a surface of an object, three things may
happen to it in varying proportions. Some light may be;
(i) Reflected,
(ii) Transmitted,
(iii) Absorbed.
The light which is absorbed disappears. The absorption of
light is known as subtraction of coloured light.

Mixing pigments;
Is a phenomenon when a impure colour reflects more than
one colour light. Mixing coloured pigment is called mixing
by subtraction and mixing coloured light is called mixing by
addition. Infrared and Ultra-violet light
When two pigments are mixed, they reflect the colour which The spectrum from the sun has both the visible and invisible
is common to both and absorb all the other e.g. yellow paint spectrum. The invisible spectrum consists of ultra-violet at
reflects orange, yellow and green. While blue paint reflects the extreme end of the violet light and the Infra red found
green, blue and indigo. just beyond the red light.
Yellow and blue reflect green but absorb orange, yellow,
blue and indigo. Ultra-violet VIBGYOR Infra-red

Invisible Visible spectrum Invisible

spectrum spectrum

The invisible spectrum can be detected by;

(i) A thermopile connected to a galvanometer which
shows a deflection on its detection.
(ii) A photographic paper which darkens when the
invisible spectrum falls on it.
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Mixing Coloured Filters and Pigments
4. W

A wave is a disturbance which travels through a medium

and transfer energy from one point to another without
causing any permanent displacement of the medium itself
e.g. water waves, sound waves, waves formed when a string
is plucked

CLASSIFICATION AND GENERAL PROPERTIES

When a yellow filter and cyan filter are placed at some OF WAVES
distance from a ray box such that half of their portions A wave is a periodic disturbance which travels with finite
overlap. velocity through a medium and remains unchanged in type
as it travels. Or it is a disturbance which travels through a
Observation: Green light is seen where white light passes medium, and transfers energy from one location (point) to
through both filters another without transferring matter.

Explanation: Waves may be classified as mechanical or electromagnetic

For the overlap of yellow and cyan, cyan filters absorb the waves.
red Mechanical waves: These are waves produced by a
Light and transmit green and blue, but yellow filter absorbs vibrating body. They are transmitted by particles of the
blue light and transmits green and red (which is absorbed by medium vibrating to and fro.
Cyan filter) so only green light is transmitted. They require a material medium for their propagation.
These include water waves, sound waves, waves on
Note: White light is separated into seven colours stretched strings and waves on vibrating springs., e.t.c.
by a prism because the prism has different refractive index
for the different colours of white lights. Electromagnetic waves: These are waves produced by a
disturbance in form of a varying electric or magnetic fields.
Exercise: These are waves that don’t require a material medium for
1993 1996 2000 2001 Qn. 2003 their propagation. Electromagnetic waves travel in a
Qn.4 Qn.16 Qn.32 37 Qn. vacuum.
Section C They include radio, infra red, light, Ultraviolet, X-rays,
UNEB 1994 Qn. .4 PII; Gamma rays.
UNEB 1994 Qn. .4 PII;
If the disturbance of the source of waves is simple harmonic,
the displacement in a given time varies with distance from
the source as shown below.

WAVE MOTION
When a wave is set up on the medium, the particles of the
medium from about a mean position as the wave passes. The
vibrations are passed from one particle to the next until the
final destination is reached

Generation and Propagation of mechanical waves.

Waves are generated when particles of a transmitting
medium at any point are disturbed and start vibrating.
As they vibrate, they cause the neighboring particles to
vibrate in turn, hence causing the vibrations to continue
from the source to other regions in the transmitting medium.
The disturbance thus spreads the source outwards and it
constitutes the wave.

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 𝑛 𝑡 1
𝑓𝑇 = ( ) × ( ) = 1 ⟺ 𝑓 =
𝑡 𝑛 𝑇

Relationship between v, λ and f

Graphical representation of a wave. If a wave of wavelength λ completes n cycles in time t, then
Wave length, 𝝀 the frequency, f is given by;
Equilibrium /mean/
Displacement Rest position Each cycle is a wavelength, λ:
Total distance covered in n-cycles = nλ
A
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑛𝜆 𝑛 𝑛
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑣 = = = ( ) 𝜆, 𝐵𝑢𝑡 =𝑓
0 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
A ⟺ 𝒗 = 𝒇𝝀

Alternatively,
If a wave covers a distance, λ, the wavelength, then the time
Terms used in describing waves, taken is T, the period. Hence speed,
Amplitude: This is the greatest displacement of any wave 𝜆 1 1
particle from its equilibrium position. 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑣 = = ( ) 𝜆 , 𝐵𝑢𝑡, = 𝑓
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
⟺ 𝒗 = 𝒇𝝀
Wave length (λ): Is the distance between two successive
particles in a wave profile that are in phase. Types of waves
It is the distance covered in a complete cycle of a wave. There are wo broad types -:
It is the distance between two successive crests or troughs. a) progressive waves and
It is the distance between two successive compressions or b) stationary waves
rare factions.
PROGRESSIVE WAVES
Crest: It is the maximum displaced point a above the line of Is a wave which moves away from its source through a
0 (zero) disturbance. medium and spreads out continuously? There are two kinds
of progressive waves namely:
Trough: It is the maximum displaced point below line of i) Transverse waves
zero disturbance. ii) Longitudinal waves

Wave front. Is a line or surface that joins points of the same i) Transverse waves
phase in a wave travelling through a medium.. OR: It is the These are waves in which particles vibrate perpendicularly
imaginary line joining the set of particles that are in the to the direction of propagation of the wave.
same state of motion ( in phase). Examples
 water waves,
Particles are in phase if they are in the same point in their  Electromagnetic waves
path at the same time and are moving in the same direction.  waves formed when a rope is moved up and down.
The direction of travel of the wave is always at right angles
to the wave front.

Cycle or Oscillation: is a complete to and fro motion of a

wave. It is equivalent to moving from O to B.

Period (T): The time taken for any particle to undergo a

𝑡
complete oscillation. 𝑇 = .
𝑛
Frequency (f): The number of oscillations per second.
𝑛
𝑓= .
𝑡

Velocity (v): The distance covered by a wave particle per ii) Longitudinal waves
second in a given direction. These are waves in which the particles of media vibrate in
the same direction as wave
Phase: Is a fraction of a cycle which has elapsed after a OR
particle passing a fixed point. These are waves in which the particles of the media vibrate
parallel to wave motion e.g. sound waves in pipes, waves
Relationship between f and T from a slinky spring.
If a wave completes n cycles in time t, then frequency, f is Longitudinal waves travel by formation of compressions and
rare factions. Regions where particles crowd together are
given by: called compressions and regions where particles are further
𝑛
Frequency, 𝑓 = ……………………………..(i) apart are called rare factions.
𝑡
𝑡
Period, 𝑇 = . ............................................(ii)
𝑛
Eqn (i) x eqn (ii) gives;

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 d
λ=
n−1
36 36
λ= = = 0.04m
10 − 1 9

λ = 0.04 m

3. The diagram below shows a wave travelling in water.

Compression (C) is a region in a longitudinal where the

vibrating particles are very close together.
A wave faction (R) Is a region in a longitudinal where the (a) Name;
vibrating particles are further apart (distanced). (i) Any two points on the wave which are in phase
Wave length; of the longitudinal is the distance between (ii) The points Labeled m and x
two successive compressions or rare factions.
Differences between longitudinal and transverse waves (b) (i) Determine the amplitude of the wave.
Transverse Waves Longitudinal waves (ii) If the speed of the wave is 8000cm/s. Determine
- Particles vibrate Particles vibrate parallel to the frequency of the wave.
perpendicular to the the direction of wave
direction of wave Questions
-Consists of crests & Consists of compression & 1. A vibrator produces waves which travel 35 m in 2
troughs refraction seconds. If the waves produced are 5cm from each
-Can be polarized Cannot be polarized other, calculate;
(i) wave velocity (ii) wave frequency
1. State two differences between waves and light waves. d = 35m, t = 2s 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
𝑑 35
Examples 𝑣= = = 17.5ms −1 𝑣 17.5
𝑡 2 𝑓= = = 3.5Hz
1. A radio station produces waves of wave length 10m. If 𝜆 5
the wave speed is 3×108 m/s, calculate 𝑣 = 17.5ms −1
(i) Frequency of radio wave. 𝑓 = 3.5Hz
(ii) period time, T
(iii) Number of cycles completed in 108 𝑠 2. The figure below shows circular waves of frequency 32
Solution: Hz. Calculate its velocity. [Ans: 1.6ms-1]
(i) Frequency of (ii) Period ,T (ii) Number of
radio wave ; λ = 1 cycles
Period, T = n
10m, v=3×108 m/s f Frequency, f =
1 t
T= n = ft
v = fλ 3 × 107

3 × 108 = f × 10 T = 3.3 × 10−7 s n = 3 × 107 × 10 3. A source produces waves which travel a distance of
140cm in 0.08s. If the distance between successive
3 × 108 n = 3 × 108 cycles crests is 20cm, find the frequency of the source. [Ans:
f=
10 87.5Hz].
4. A sound source produces 160 compressions in 10s. The
f = 3 × 107 Hz distance between successive compressions is 20m.
Calculate the;
(i) frequency of sound [16HZ]
2. The distance between 10 consecutive crests is 36cm. (ii) wave speed [320ms-1]
Calculate the velocity of the wave. If the frequency of
the wave is 12Hz . 5. See UNEB 1992 Qn. 7
Solution:
The distance between n- v = fλ
successive crests or troughs
is given by; v = 12 × 0.04
𝐝 = (𝐧 − 𝟏)𝛌
v = 0.48 ms −1

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THE RIPPLE TANK WAVE PROPERTIES
The wave produced in a ripple tank can undergo.
(a) Reflection (b) Refraction (c) Diffraction
(d) Interference (e) Polarization

(a) REFLECTION OF WAVES

A wave is reflected when a barrier is placed in its path. The
shape of the reflected wave depends on the shape of the
barrier.
The laws of reflection of waves are similar to the laws of
reflection of light.
 Reflection of plane wave
(i) On a plane surface.

A ripple tank is an instrument used to study water wave

properties. It is a shallow glass trough which is transparent.
The images of the wave are projected on the screen which is
placed below it.
The waves are produced by means of a dipper which is
either a strip of a metal or a sphere. The dipper is moved up
and down by vibration of a small electric motor attached to
it.
The sphere produces circular wave fronts and the metal strip
is used to produce plane waves.
A stroboscope helps to make the waves appear stationery (ii) On a curved surface
and therefore allows the wave to be studied in details.  Concave reflector  Convex reflector

Straight waves (plane waves): These are produced by

dipping a straight edged object e.g. a ruler on the water
surface.

Continuous straight waves: These are produced by fixing a

straight dipper (horizontal bar) suspended by rubber bands.
The whole bar is dipped in water and is made to vibrate by
the vibrations generated by an electric motor.

Continuous circular waves: These are produced by

attaching small total balls (using rubber bands) to metal bars
and using the vibration from an electric motor.  Reflection of circular waves
As the bar vibrates, the vibrations cause the dipper to move (i) On a plane surface
up and down producing continuous circular waves.

N.B Therefore the speed of the wave in a ripple

tank can be reduced by reducing the depth of water in the
tank. The effect of reducing the speed of waves is that the
wave length of water reduces but frequency does not. The
frequency can only be changed by the source of the wave.
Qn: A vibrator in a ripple tank has a period of 0.2 seconds
and the distance between 10 successive crests is 38.8cm.
Calculate the ;
(i) Wavelength of the wave [4.31cm]
(ii) Velocity of the wave [0.22 𝑚𝑠 −1 ]

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(ii) On a curved surface (ii) 𝑣1 = 𝑓𝜆1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2 = 𝑓𝜆2
 Concave reflector  Convex reflector (iii) 𝑣1 >𝑣2 ; When f – is constant.

velocity in deepwater
Refractive index n =
velocity in shallowwater
𝑣1 𝑓𝜆1
Refractive index 𝑛 = =
𝑣2 𝑓𝜆2
𝜆1 Wave length in deep water
Refractive index 𝑛 = =
𝜆2 Wave length in shallow water
Refraction of plane waves by a convex lens

Note: During reflection of water waves, the frequency and

velocity of the wave do not change. (c) DIFFRACTION
This is the spreading of waves as they pass through holes,
(b) REFRACTION round corners or edges of obstacle. It takes place when the
This is the change of in direction of wave travel as it moves diameter of the whole is in the order of wave length of the
from one medium to another of different depth. It is caused wave i.e. the smaller the gap the greater the degree of
by the change of wave length and velocity of the wave. diffraction as shown below.
However, the frequency and the period are not affected.
In a ripple tank, the change in direction is brought about by (a) Wide gap (b) Narrow gap
the change in water depth.

The ripples emerge straight The ripples emerge in a

and curve at the ends. semi-circular pattern.

When waves are incident on a shallow water boundary at an -Waves spread out more (i.e greatly diffracted) when the
angle; wave length is longer.
 Wave length decreases in shallow waters -The wave length does not change when waves pass through
 Speed decreases in shallow water the slit.
 Frequency and period remain the same. -Diffraction (spreading) increases with decrease in the width
of the slit. Wider gaps produce less diffraction.
-When the width of the gap is less than the wave length of
the of the incident waves, the emerging waves are circular.
At this width, the slit may be considered to act as a separate
point source of waves.
(a) Edge of obstacle

𝜆1 = wave length in deep water

𝜆2 = wave length in shallow water
Note:
(i) 𝜆1 >𝜆2

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Sound waves are more diffracted than light waves because and anti-nodal lines are closer together making the pattern
the wave length of sound is greater than that of light. more difficult to see.
Therefore sound can be heard in hidden corners.
N.B - When waves undergo diffraction, wave length and
velocity remain constant.

(d) INTERFERENCE
This is the super imposition of two identical waves
travelling in the same direction to form a single wave with a
larger amplitude or smaller amplitude.
The two waves should be in phase (matching).

Conditions necessary for producing interference:

1. The two waves must have coherent sources.
2. The two waves must have the same amplitude and the
same frequency.
3. The distance between the sources must be very small.

Constructive interference
This constructive interference occurs when a crest from one
wave source meets a crest from another source or a trough
from one source causing reinforcement of the wave i.e.
increased disturbance is obtained.
The resulting amplitude is the sum of the individual
amplitudes.
E.g.
    OR     Lines joining points of constructive interference are called
antinodal lines while these lines joining points of
destructive interference are called nodal lines.

Trial Questions:
(a) With the aid of a diagram, describe how an interference
patter (Interference fringes) can be produced in a ripple
 For Light, constructive Interference would give tank.
(b) What are the conditions necessary for interference to
increased brightness.
 For sound, constructive Interference would give occur?
increased loudness.

Destructive interference (e) POLARISATION OF WAVES

This occurs when the crest of one wave meets a trough of It only occurs with transverse waves like other transverse
another wave resulting in wave cancelling i.e. waves, water waves can be polarized.
If waves are out of phase, they cancel each other to give an Polarization: is the effect in which vibration are in only a
area of zero resultant. This is called destructive interference. vertical plane.
e.g. Differences between water and sound waves;
Water waves Sound waves
   .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ... -Transverse Longitudinal
-Low speed High speed
-Short wave length Long water length
-Can be polarized Cannot be polarised
-Possible only in liquid (.e.g Possible in solids, liquids and
water) gases.

State three differences between sound and light waves.

For Light, constructive Interference would give reduced Wave 1994 Qn23 1992 Qn1 2008 Qn31
brightness or darkness. motion 1998 Qn23 2006 Qn22 1989 Qn6
For sound, constructive Interference would give reduced 1992 Qn7 1998 Qn26 2007Qn35 1993 Qn4
loudness or no sound at all. 1989 Qn30 2001 Qn18 2007Qn39 2006 Qn5
1990 Qn21
Note:
The interference pattern caused by two sources placed close ELECTRO MAGNETIC WAVES
together – give nodal and antinodal lines that are spread This is a family of waves which is made by electric and
widely. When the two sources are placed far apart, the nodal magnetic vibrations of very high frequency.
Electromagnetic waves do not need a material medium for
transformation i.e. they can pass through a vacuum.
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Spectrum of electromagnetic waves onwards.
In decreasing frequency Radio waves High frequency Radio transmission
Oscillating aerials.
electric current
Very low energy
changes in
electronic
structures of
atoms.

Red Sun set and Blue sky

Properties of electromagnetic waves Effect of long and short wave lengths.
 They are transverse waves. (i) Long wavelength: Waves of long wavelength are less
 They can travel through vacuum. scattered than waves of short wavelength. This explains why
 They travel at a speed of light ( 3.0 × 108 m/s). the sun appears red when rising or setting.
Explanation: At sun rise or sun set, the light rays from the
 They can be reflected, refracted, diffracted and
sun travel through greater thickness of earth’s atmosphere.
undergo interference.
So the longer wavelength passes through.
 They posses energy.
(ii) Short wavelength: Waves of short wavelength are
highly scattered. This explains why the sky appears blue,
Effects of electromagnetic waves on meter
since the primary colour, blue has the shortest wavelength in
(a) Gamma rays.
the spectrum.
 They destroy body tissues if exposed for a long Note: Beyond the atmosphere, the sky appears black and the
time. astronauts are able to see the stars and the moon.
 They harden rubber solutions and lubricate oil to Electromagnetic waves 2001 Qn21
thickness. 1987 Qn30 2006 Qn31
(b) X- rays 1989 Qn16 2007 Qn13
 Causes curtains to give off electrons.
 Destroys body tissues if exposed for a long time.
 Used in industries to detect leakages in pipes and in
hospitals to detect fractures of bones. SOUNDS WAVES
(c) Ultra violet Is a form of energy which is produced by vibrating objects
 Causes sun burn e.g. when a tuning fork is struck on a desk and dipped in
water, the water is splashed showing that the prongs are
 Causes metals to give off electrons by the process
vibrating or when a guitar string is struck.
called photoelectric emission.
 Causes blindness.
PROPERTIES OF SOUND WAVES
(d) Visible light
 Cannot travel in a vacuum because there is no metal
 Enables us to see.
needed.
 Changes the apparent color of an object.
 Can cause interference.
 Makes objects appear bent to refraction.
 Can be reflected, refracted, diffracted, planes polarized
(e) Infrared
and undergo interference.
 Causes the body temperature of an object to rise.
 Travels with a speed V= 330m/s in air.
 It is a source of vitamin D.
(f) Radio waves SPECTRUM SOUND WAVES
 Induces the voltage on a conductor and it enables its Frequency 0HZ 20HZ 20,000HZ
presence to be detected.
Type of Subsonic Audible Ultra sonic
sound sound sound sound wave.
Wave band Origin Source waves
Gamma rays Energy changes in Radioactive substance
modes of atoms
Subsonic sound waves
X- rays Electrons hitting a X – ray tube These are not audible to human ear because of very low
metal target frequency of less than 20HZ .
Ultra- violet Fairly high energy Very hot bodies
changes in atoms Electron discharge Audible sound waves
Through gases These are audible to human ear. This frequency ranges from
especially mercury 20HZ - 20 KHZ .
Vapour
Visible light Energy changes in Lamps, flames etc Ultra sonic sound waves
electron structure These are sound waves whose frequencies are above 20HZ .
of atoms They are not audible to human ears. They are audible to
Infrared Low energy All matter over a whales, Dolphins, bats etc.
radiation changes in wide range of
electrons of atoms temperature from
absolute zero

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Application of ultra sound waves Note: The moon is sometimes referred to as a silent planet
 They are used by bats to detect obstacles e.g. buildings because no transmission of sound can occur due to lack of
a head. air ( or any material medium).
 Used in spectacles of blind to detect obstacles.
 Used in radio therapy to detect cracks and faults on The speed of sound depends on;
welded joints. (i) Temperature
 Used in industries to detect rocks in seas using sonar. Increase in temperature increases the speed of sound i.e.
 Used to measure the depth of seas and other bodies. sound travels faster in hot air than in cold air.

Example: 1 (ii) Wind

A radio station broad casts at a frequency of 200 kHz and Speed of sound is increased if sound travels in the same
the wave length of its signal is 1500m. Calculate the; direction as wind.
(i) Speed of the radio waves. [3.0 × 108 ]
(ii) Wave length of another station that broad casts (iii) Attitude
at a frequency of 250 Hz. [𝜆 = 1.2 × 106 m.] Sound travels faster on a low altitude and slower on higher
altitude.
Example: 2 (iv) Humidity:
An F.M radio, broad casts at a frequency of 88.8MHz. What The higher the humidity, the higher the speed of sound and
is the wave length of the signal? [𝜆 = 3.4m] velocity.

TRANSMISSION OF SOUND. (v) Density of the medium.

Sound requires a material medium for its transmission. It Speed of sound is more in denser medium than in the less
travels through liquid, solids and gases, travels better in dense medium.
solids and does not travel through vacuum.
Change in pressure of air does not affect speed of sound
Experiment to show that sounds cannot pass through a because the density of air is not affected by change in
vaccum. pressure.
Sound travels fastest in solids than liquids and gases
because. In solids the particles in solids are very close
together and they produce vibration easily i.e. solids are
more dense. Also speed of sound is faster in liquids than in
gases.
In solids and liquids, increasing the temperature decreases
the speed of sound because solids are denser. Also speed of
sound is faster in liquids than in gases.

Some media and the speed of sound

Medium Speed of sound (ms-1)
Air 330
Steer 600
Water 1500
Glass 5600
Some explanations
- If a person places his ear near the ground and another
person taps along a metal which is some distance away
the sound will be heard clearly than when standing
since sound travels faster in solids than in gases.

Procedures: - A sound made by a turning fork, sounds, louder when

 Arrange the apparatus as in the diagram with air, in the placed on a table than when held in the hand. This is
jar. because a larger mass of air is set in vibration thereby
 Switch on the electric bell, the hammer is seen striking increasing the sound.
the gong and sound is heard.
 Gently withdraw air from the jar by means of a vacuum Qn. Explain why sound travels faster in solids than in
pump to create a vacuum in the jar. liquids.
Observation: - Sound waves of frequency 3.3 KHz travel in air. Find
 The sound produced begins to fade until it is heard no the wavelength (Take speed of sound in air = 330ms-1)
V 330 330
more yet the hammer is seen striking the gong.
V  f       0.1m
 Gently allow air back into the jar, as the air returns, the f 3.3  1000 3300
sound is once again heard showing that sound cannot Example:
travel through vacuum. Two men stand a distance apart besides a long metal rail on
Conclusion: a sill day. One man places his ear against the rail while the
 Sound waves require a material medium for their other gives the rail a sharp knock with a hammer. Two
transmission.

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sounds separated by a time interval of 0.5s, are heard by the  The time taken, t for the n claps is recorded and the
first man. If the speed of sound in air is 330ms-1, and that in speed of sound in air is calculated from;
the metal rail is 5280ms-1, find the distance between the
men. 𝟐(𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞) 𝟐𝐧𝐝
Solution: 𝐒𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 = =
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐭
t1 − t 2 = 0.5
x x 2(distance) 2d 2nd
− = 0.5 For an echo; Speed = = t =
330 5280 time ( ) t
n
x = 176 m Where n is the number of claps (or sounds) made.

How sound waves travel through air Example: 1

- Sound waves are produced by the vibration of air A girl stands 34m away from a reflecting wall. She makes
particles. As air particles vibrate, the vibration, produce sound and hears an echo after 0.2 seconds. Find the velocity
energy which is transferred to the next particles that of sound.
also vibrate in the same direction as the sound wave. 2(distance)
- The next particle are so made to vibrate and in doing so, Speed =
time
they transfer their energy particles which also vibrate. 2d
Experiment to verify the laws of reflection of sound. V=
t
2 × 34
V=
0.2
V = 340 ms −1

Example: 2
A person standing 99m from a tall building claps his hands
and hears an echo after 0.6 seconds. Calculate the velocity
of sound in air.
2(distance)
Speed =
time
2d 2 × 99
XY is a hard plane surface, R is a closed tube and T is an V= = = 330 ms −1
Open tube. t 0.6
V = 330 ms −1
 Put a ticking clock in tube R on a table and make it to
face a hard plane surface e.g. a wall. Example: 3
 Put tube T near your ear and move it on either sides A gun was fired and an echo from a cliff was heard 8
until the ticking sound of the sound is heard loudly. seconds later. If the velocity of sound is 340m/s, how far
 Measure angles i and r which are the angles of was the gun from the cliff?
incidence and reflection respectively. 2(distance)
 From the experiment, sound is heard distinctly due to Speed =
time
reflection. 2d
 Angle of incidence (i) and angle of reflection (r) are V=
t
equal and lie along XY in the same plane. 2d
 This verifies the laws of reflection. 340 =
8
Note: Hard surfaces reflect sound waves while soft surface 2d = 340 × 8
absorb sound wave. 2d = 2720
d = 1360 m
Example: 4
ECHOES A student is standing between two walls. He hears the first
An echo is a reflected sound. Echoes are produced when echo after 2 seconds and then another after a further 3
sound moves to and fro from a reflecting surface e.g. a cliff seconds. If the velocity of sound is 330m/s, find the
wall. The time taken before an echo arrives depends on the distance between the walls.
distance away from the reflecting surface. 2d1 2d2
In order for a girl standing at a distance, d from a reflecting V= V=
t1 t2
surface to hear the echo; sound travels a distance of 2d.
Measurement of velocity of sound using an echo method 2d1 2d2
330 = ⇒ 2d1 = 660 330 = ⇒ 2d2 = 1650
2 5

d1 = 330 m d2 = 825 m

d d = d1 + d2

 Two experimenters stand at a certain distance d from a d = 330 + 825

tall reflecting surface
 One experimenter claps pieces of wood n times, while d = 1155m
the other starts the stop clock when the first sound is
heard and stops it when the last sound is heard.

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Example: 5 Case I Case II
A man is standing midway between two cliffs. He claps his
hands and hears an echo after 3 seconds. Find the distance 2x 2x
between the two cliffs. V= V=
t1 t1
(Velocity of sound = 330m/s)
2d1 Since the man is mid way 2x 2y
V= 330 = ⇒ 2x = 2 × 330 330 = ⇒ 2y = 3.5
t1 between the cliffs, 2 3.5
d2 = d1 = 495m × 330
2d1 x = 330 m
330 = ⇒ 2d1 = 990 d = d1 + d2 y = 577.5 m
3
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑠, 𝑑 = 𝑥 + 𝑦
d1 = 495 m d = 495 + 495 𝑑 =𝑥+𝑦
𝑑 = 330 + 577.7
d = 990m 𝑑 = 907.5 m

4. A student, standing between two vertical cliffs and

Example: 6 480m from the nearest cliff shouted. She heard the 1 st
A student made 50 claps in one minute. If the velocity of echo after 3 seconds and the second echo 2 seconds
sound is 330s, find the distance between the student and the later. Calculate;
wall. (i) The velocity of sound in air.
2n(distance) (ii) The distance between the cliff.
Speed =
time
2nd Solutions:
V=
t Let distance between cliffs = d
2 × 50 × d
330 =
60
100d = 330 × 60
d = 198
1. A boy stands at a distance of 990m from a tall building x = 480m 𝒅−𝒙
𝐭 = 𝟑𝐬 𝐭 = 𝟓𝐬
and makes a loud sound. He hears the echo after 6
seconds. Calculate the speed of sound in air.
Case I Case II
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒐 2x 2(d − x)
V= V=
t1 t2
𝒅 = 𝟗𝟗𝟎𝐦; 𝐭 = 𝟔𝐬
2 × 480 2(d − 480)
V= ⇒ 3V = 960 320 =
3 5
2d 2  990
V   330ms 1 2(d − 480) = 5 × 320
t 6 V = 320 ms −1
d − 480 = 800
2. A sound wave of frequency 200Hz is produced 300m
away from a high wall. If the echo is received after 2 d = 1280 m
seconds. Find the wave length of sound wave.
Questions
2d 2  300 1. A boy standing 100m from the foot of a high wall claps
V   3000ms 1 his hands and the echo reaches him 0.5s after. Calculate
t 2 the speed of sound in air.
v 300
f      1.5m 2. A sound wave is produced 600m away a high wall. If an
f 200
echo is received after 4 seconds. Find the frequency of
sound wave length is 2m.
3. A man stands between two cliffs and fires a gun. He
hears the 1st echo after 2seconds and the second echo
3. A sound wave of frequency 250Hz is produced 120m
after 3 ½ seconds. Calculate the distance between two
away from a high wall. Calculate;
cliffs and speed of sound in air = 330ms-1.
(i) The wavelength of the sound wave
Solutions:
(ii) The time taken for the sound wave to travel to
the wall and back to the source and speed of
sound in air = 330ms-1.

𝒙 𝒚 4. A man standing between two vertical walls and 170m

𝐭 = 𝟐𝐬 𝐭 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝐬 from the nearest wall shouted. He heard the 1st echo
after 4s and the 2nd echo 2 seconds later. Find the
distance between the walls.

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 (ii) Sound waves and water waves.
5. A boy standing 150m from a high cliff claps his hands
and hears an echo. If the velocity of sound in air is 1. A man standing midway between two cliffs makes a
320ms-1. Find the time taken for the sound to travel to sound. He hears the first echo after 3s. Calculate the
the wall and back to the source. distance between the two cliffs (Velocity of sound in air
= 330m/s)
6. A man stands at a distance of 340m from a high cliff
and produces sound. He hears the sound Again after 2 Refraction of sound waves
seconds. Calculate the speed of sound. Refraction occurs when speed of sound waves changes as it
crosses the boundary between two media. The speed of
7. A child stands between 2 cliffs and makes sound. If it sound in air is affected by temperature.
hears the 1st echo after 1.5 seconds and the 2nd echo Sound waves are refracted when they are passed through
after 2.0 seconds. Find the distance between the 2 cliffs. areas of different temperatures. This explains why it is easy
(Speed of sound in air = 320ms-1). to hear sound waves from distant sources at night than
8. A man sees the flash from a gun fired 1020m away and during day.
then hears a bang. How long does the bang take to reach
him? [Ans: 330x1020 s]. Refraction of sound during day.

9. The echo sounder on a boat sends down the sea, a pulse

and receives its echo 0.3 seconds later. Find the depth
of the sea. (speed of sound in water is 1445ms-1)
[Ans: 216.8m].

10. A girl at A clapped her hands once and a boy at B heard

two claps in an interval of 1 second between the two
sounds. Find the distance AB. [Ans: 330m]. During day, the ground is hot and this makes the layers of
air near the ground to be hot while that above the ground is
11. Two people X and Y stand in a straight line at distances generally cool. The wave fronts from the source are
of 330m and 660m respectively from a high wall. Find refracted away from the ground.
the time interval taken for X to hear the first and second Refraction of sound during night
sounds when Y makes a loud sound. [Ans: 2.0 s].

Reverberation
In a large hall where there are many reflecting walls,
multiple reflections occur and cause or create an impression
that sound lasts for a longer time such that when somebody
makes a sound; it appears as if it is prolonged. This is called
reverberation.

Definition of Reverberation
Reverberation is the effect of the original sound being During night, the ground is cool and this makers layers of
prolonged due to multiple reflections. air near the ground to be cool while above to be warm. The
wave fronts from the source are refracted towards the
Advantages of reverberation ground making it easier to hear sound waves over long
In grammar, reverberation is used in producing sound. distances.
Complete absence of reverberation makes speeches Diffraction of sound
inaudible. This refers to the spreading of sound waves around corners
Disadvantages of reverberation or in gaps. When sound waves have wave length similar to
During speeches, there is a nuisance because the sound the size of the gap. They are diffracted most.
becomes unclear. Sound waves easily bend around corners because they have
longer wavelength and are easily diffracted.
Prevention of reverberation
The internal surfaces of a hall should be covering the sound A person in one room can be heard by another person in the
absorbing material called acoustic materials. next room because of diffraction of sound waves.
The mouth acts as a gap and the waves from mouth spread
Why echoes are not heard in small rooms? and the person is able to hear the sound.
This is because the distance between the source and If you are sitting in a room and the door is open, you can
reflected sound is so small such that the incident sound hear music from a radio in the next room; the sound waves
mixes up with the reflected sound making it harder for the from the radio pass through the door and spread out into the
ear to differentiate between the two. room you are in.

Questions: Note:
(a) Outline four properties of electromagnetic waves. Light waves are not easily diffracted because they have
(b) Distinguish between: short wave length.
(i) Sound waves and light waves.

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Interference of sound (iii) Timber (Quality)
When two sound waves from two different sources overlap, This is the characteristic of a note which allows the ear to
they produce regions of loud sound and regions of quiet distinguish sounds of the same pitch and loudness it depends
sound. The regions of loud sound are said to undergo on the number of overtones produced, the more the number
constructive interference while regions of quiet are said to of overtones, the richer and the sweeter the music and
undergo destructive interference. therefore the better the quality.

An experiment to show interference of sound waves. Overtone

This is a sound whose frequency is a multiple of a
fundamental frequency of the musical note.

Pure and impure musical notes.

Pure refers to a note without overtones. It is very boring and
only produced by a tuning fork.
Impure refers to a note with overtones. It is sweet to the ear
and produced by all musical instruments.

Beats
A beat refers to the periodic rise and fall in the amplitude of
the resultant note.

VIBRATION IN STRINGS
Many musical instruments use stretched strings to produce
sound. A string can be made to vibrate plucking it like in a
Two loud speakers A and B are connected to the same signal guitar or in a harp putting it in pianos. Different instruments
generator so that sound waves from each are in phase and produce sounds of different qualities even if they are of the
are of the same frequency. Interference of waves from A same note.
and B occurs
An observer moving in front of the loud along AB hears Factors affecting the frequency of the stretched string.
alternating loud and soft sound as he moves which
corresponds to constructive and destructive interferences
respectively.
With the sound set at a lower frequency (long wave length)
the interference pattern becomes widely spread.

Qn. Describe an experiment to show interference of

sound waves. A. =Fixed bridge; B.=Movable bridge

MUSICAL NOTES OR TONES: (a) Length

A musical note or a tone is a single sound of a a definite For a given tension of the string, the length of the string is
pitch and quality made by a musical instrument or voice. inverse the proportion to the frequency of sound produced.
This can be demonstrated by an instrument called sonometer
Music: This is an organized sound produced by regular as shown above.
vibrations. By moving bridgeB, higher frequency can be obtained for a
short length AB and lower frequency for a long length. The
Noise: This is a disorganized sound produced by irregular relation can be expressed as ;
vibrations. 1
𝑓 ∝ ⇒ 𝑓𝑙 = 𝑘 ⇒ 𝒇𝟏 𝒍𝟏 = 𝒇𝟐 𝒍𝟐
𝑙

Characteristics of musical notes

(b) Tension
(i) Pitch
Adding weights or removing them from its ends at load R
This is the loudness or softness of sound. It depends on the
the tension of the higher sonometer wire. It will be noted
frequency of sound produced, the higher the frequency the
that the higher the tension, the higher the frequency of the
higher the pitch.
note produced.
(ii) Loudness 𝑓 𝒇𝟏 𝑻𝟏
This depends on the amplitude of sound waves and 𝑓 ∝ √𝑇 ⇒ =𝑘⇒ =√
√𝑇 𝒇𝟐 𝑻𝟐
sensitivity of the ear.
 Amplitude; This is the measure of energy transmitted
(c) Mass per unit length (𝜇)
by the wave. The bigger the amplitude, the more
Keeping length (l) and tension (t) constant, the frequency of
energy transmitted by the wave and the louder sounder
sound produced depends on the mass per unit length of the
sound produced.
string. Heavy strings produce low frequency sounds. This
 Sensitivity of the ear. If the ear is sensitive, then soft
is seen in instruments such as guitar, base strings are thicker
sound will be loud enough to be detected and yet it will
than solo strings. If the tension and length are kept constant,
not be detected by the ear which is insensitive.
the frequency of sound is inversely proportional to the mass

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of the strings thus a thin short and taut string produces high
frequency sound. Musical Interval:
1  This is the ratio of the frequencies of two notes.
𝑓∝ ⇒ 𝑓 √ 𝜇 = 𝑘 ⇒ 𝒇𝟏 √ 𝝁𝟏 = 𝒇𝟐 √ 𝝁𝟐
√𝜇 Name of musical note Tone ratio
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Where, 𝜇 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = Octave tone 2:1
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Minor tone 5:4
The three factors can be combined into a single formula to Major tone 9:8
give the expression for frequency of a stretched string (wire) Semi tone 16:5
as: Octave:
 This is the span of notes between one pitch and another
𝟏 𝑻 that it is twice or a half its frequency.
𝒇= √
𝒍 𝝁
Where, l is the length in m, T is the tension in N and 𝜇 Note: Two notes with fundamental frequencies in a ratio of
is mass per unit length in kgm-1 any power of two (e.g half, twice, four times e.t.c) will
sound similar. Because of that, all notes with these kinds of
Example: 1 relations can be grouped under the same pitch class.
A musical note has frequency of 420𝐻𝑧 and length (l), if the
1 Note: In calculations involving octave use the formula;
length of the string is reduced by , find the new frequency. 𝒇𝟐 𝟐 𝒏
2
𝑓1 𝑙1 = 𝑓2 𝑙2 =( )
𝒇𝟏 𝟏
1
But, 𝑙2 = 𝑙1 Where, 𝑓2 = Higher frequency
2 𝑓1 = Lower frequency
1
420 × 𝑙1 = 𝑓2 ( 𝑙1 ) 𝑛 = Number of octaves above or below 𝑓1
2
𝑓2 = 840 Hz
Example: 1
Find the frequency of a note four octave above a note of
A stationary wave is a wave formed when two progressive
frequency 20Hz.
waves of the same frequency and wave length travelling in
Solution: 𝑓1 = 20𝐻𝑧, 𝑛 = 2 (𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒); 𝑓2 =?
opposite direction meet producing nodes and antinodes.

Progressive wave is a wave in which energy is transmitted 𝑓2 2 𝑛 𝑓2 2 2

=( ) ⇒ = ( ) ⇒ 𝑓2 = 22 × 20 = 80𝐻𝑧
from one place to another and is not stores. 𝑓1 1 20 1

Vibrating strings
The ways in which a string vibrates are called harmonics. Example: 1
The sound is produced when notes are performed at both Find the frequency of a note of four octaves below a note of
ends of a stationary wave. frequency 512Hz.
Solution: 𝑓2 = 512𝐻𝑧, 𝑛 = 4 (𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤); 𝑓1 =?
Modes of vibration
The ends of a stretched string are fixed and therefore the 𝑓2 2 𝑛 512 2 4
ends of the string must be the displacement nodes. =( ) ⇒ = ( ) ⇒ 𝑓1 = 24 × 20 = 32𝐻𝑧
𝑓1 1 𝑓1 1
If the string is displaced in the middle, a stationary wave is
formed.

Fundamental note:
(i) First Position of resonance (fundamental note)
 Is a note with the lowest audible frequency. 1st harmonic vibration
 It is the note produced at the first position of resonance.
Overtones:
 Is a note whose frequency is higher than the
fundamental frequency.

Uses of overtones:
-Determining the overall quality of sound
-Describing sound systems in pipes or plucked strings.

Harmonics: The wave formed in this case is the simplest form of

 Is a note whose frequency is an integral multiple of the vibration and is called the fundamental note .
fundamental frequency. The frequency at which it vibrates is called the fundamental
frequency.
If f is the frequency (Fundamental frequency). Then
v
f1   
   , But   2l

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 v An experiment to demonstrate Resonance using a
f1    coupled pendulum and tubes.
 2l  , Where v is the speed of the wave. Procedures:

(ii) Second Position of resonance (first Overtone).

When the wave is plucked quarter way from one end, the
wave formed is shown below.

Hang four pendulum bobs on the same taut string such that
pendulum, A has variable length while B, C and D have
If f2 is the frequency of the wave, then; different fixed lengths.
Set pendulum A to the same length as D. Make it swing and
v v 2 v v
f2      2     2 f1 observe the mode of swinging of the pendulums.
2 l 2 l  2l 
Thus, it is also called the second harmonic. Set pendulum A to the same length as B. Make it swing and
observe the mode of swinging of the pendulums.
(iii) Third Position of resonance (2ndoverstone)
Observation:
When length of A is equal to length of D, B and C vibrate
with smaller amplitudes while D swings with larger
amplitudes.
When length of A is equal to length of B, the motion of A
will be transferred to B in greater amplitude and B will start
to swing with appreciable amplitude while C and D will
jiggle a little but they will not swing appreciably.

Common consequences of resonance:

(i) A playground swing can be made to swing high by
v v v
f3  
2 3 l   3  3 f1 someone pushing in time with the free swing.
3 2l (ii) Soldiers need to break a step when crossing a bridge.
(iii) Vibrations of the sounding box of a violin.
Thus, it is also called the third harmonic. (iv) A column of air in a tube resonates to a particular note.
(v) A diver on a spring board builds up the amplitude of
Therefore in a stretched string all the harmonics are possible oscillation of the body by bouncing on it at its natural
f 2 f 3 f ,4 f .. frequency.
and their frequencies are; 1, 1, 1 1
(vi) Singers who can produce very high frequency notes can
Thus harmonics obtained from vibrating strings cause wineglasses to break when the notes have the
are𝑓1 ,2𝑓1 ,3𝑓1 etc. hence both even and odd harmonics are same frequency as the natural frequency of the glass.
obtained. [Opera singers]
A- Antinodes- these are points that are permanently at rest.
No disturbance occurs at these points. Applications of Resonance:
 In determining the speed of sound in air using a tuning
RESONANCE fork and the resonance tube.
This is when a body is set into vibrations with its own
 In tuning strings of a musical instrument e.g a guitar
natural frequency by another nearby body vibrating at the
and tuning electrical circuits which include indicators.
same frequency.
The final amplitude of the resonating system builds up to a
Dangers of Resonance
much greater value than that of the driving system.
 Causes bridges to collapse as soldiers match across
them. This can be prevented by stopping the matching.
 Causes buildings to collapse due to earthquake.
 Chimneys can also collapse due to strong resonance.

Vibrations of air in pipes.

(a) When a wave of a particular wave length and frequency
is set into a closed pipe, reflection of the wave occurs at
the bottom of the pipe. The reflected wave will
interfere with the incidence when the length of the wave
is adjacent so that a node is reflected at the reflected
surface, a standing wave is produced.

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The air column is now forced to vibrate at the same These are Pipes which are open at both ends.
frequency as that of the source of the wave which is a In open pipes, standing waves resulting into resonance are
natural frequency of the air column. created when the incident waves are reflected by the air
molecules at the other end. Possible ways in which waves
(a) Closed pipes. travel are shown below:
This consist essentially of a metal pipes closed at one end In open pipes, the sound nodes are produced when antinodes
and open at the other. are formed at both ends.

Closed pipes boundary conditions. Open pipes boundary conditions:

At the closed end, there is a displacement node. Antinodes are at both ends.
At the open end here is displacement antinode. The allowed oscillation modes or standing wave patter are:-
The allowed oscillation modes or standing wave patterns
are:- (i) Fundamental note.( 1st harmonic)

(i) Fundamental note

v v
f1 
v

v f1  
 4l ……………….(i) Fundamental frequency; 1 2l
Fundamental frequency, 1

Fundamental or lowest audible frequency (f1)

(ii) First overtone (second harmonic)
It is obtained when the simplest stationary wave form is
obtained.
(ii) First overtone (3rdharmonic)

v v 2 v v
f2      2 
2 l 2 l  2l 
f3 f 2  2 f1
Frequency of first overtone is given by;
v v Thus frequencies for notes produced by open pipes are
f2  
2  4l  3v v f1 ,2 f1 ,3 f1 ,4 f1 .......... ..
   3     3 f1 So an open pipe can produce both odd and even harmonics.
 3  4l  4l  Therefore, open pipes produce a richer note than that from a
(iii) Second overtone (5thharmonic) similar closed pipe, due to the extra harmonics.

In general;
𝒗
 For a closed pipe: 𝒇𝒏 = 𝒏 ( ) = 𝒏𝒇𝟏 , Where, n = 1,
𝟒𝒍
3, 5, 7………
𝒗
 For an open pipe: ;𝒇𝒏 = 𝒏 ( ) = 𝒏𝒇𝟏, Where, n = 1,
𝟐𝒍
2, 3, 4………
v v 5v
f3     5 f1 End correction
3  4l  4l Then, at the open end of the pipe is free to move and hence
  the vibration at this end of the sounding pipe extend a little
5 into the air outside.
The frequencies obtained with a closed pipe are f1, 3f1, 5 f1,
7f1 9f1, etc i.e. only odd harmonics’ are obtainable. Because An antinode of the stationary wave due to any note is in
of the presence of only odd harmonics, closed pipes are not practice a distance, c from the open end. The distance, c is
as rich as open pipes. known as the end correction.
In closed pipes, nodes are formed at closed ends and
antinodes at open end. For the closed pipe;-
Fundamental mode
(b) Open pipes

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  Gently lower the resonance tube until the 1st resonance
(loud sound) occurs.
 Measure the length 𝑙1 at which it occurs.
1
𝑙1 + c = λ…………………………………. (i)
4
 Raise the resonance tube until the 2nd resonance (loud
sound) occurs.
 Measure the length 𝑙2 at which it occurs.
3
𝑙2 + c = λ……………………………........ (ii)
4
𝜆1
= 𝑙 + 𝑐 ⟺ 𝜆1 = 4(𝑙 + 𝑐)  Subtract equation (i) from (ii) to eliminate c
4
𝑣 𝑣 3 1
𝑓1 = = (𝑙2 - 𝑙1 ) + (c-c) = λ - λ
4 4
𝜆1 4(𝑙 + 𝑐) 1
𝑙2 - 𝑙1 = λ
2
Fundamental frequency, 2 (𝑙2 - 𝑙1 ) = λ
𝒗  Hence the speed or velocity of sound in air is
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟒(𝒍 + 𝒄) determined from the expression. 𝑉 = 𝑓𝜆.
𝑽 = 𝟐𝒇(𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 )
For open pipe;- Example: 1.
Fundamental mode, In an experiment the velocity of sound in air using a
resonance tube, the following results were obtained:
 Length of 1st resonance = 16.1cm
 Length of 2nd resonance = 51.1cm
 Frequency of tuning fork = 480 𝐻𝑧
(i) .
(i) Calculate the wave length (ii) The end correction of the
of sound produced. resonance tube.
𝜆 = 2(𝑙2 − 𝑙2 ) 1
𝑙1 + 𝐶 = 𝜆
𝜆 = 2(51.1 − 16.1) 4
λ = 70 cm 1
𝜆1 16.1 + 𝐶 = × 70
= 𝑙 + 2𝑐 ⟺ 𝜆1 = 4(𝑙 + 2𝑐) 4
2 𝐶 = 17.5 – 16.1
𝑣 𝑣 𝐶 = 14 cm
𝑓1 = =
𝜆1 2(𝑙 + 2𝑐)
(iii)The velocity sound in air.
Fundamental frequency, V = 2𝑓(𝑙2 − 𝑙1 )
𝒗
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟐(𝒍 + 𝟐𝒄) 51.1 16.1
Open pipes are preferred to closed pipes because they give V = 2 × 480 ( − )
100 100
both odd and even harmonics hence better quality sound.
V = 336ms −1
Determination of velocity of sound in air by Resonance
method. Example: 2.
A glass tube open at the top is held vertically and filled with
water. A tuning fork vibrating at 264 Hz is held above the
table and water is allowed to flow out slowly .The first
resonance occurs when the water level is 31.5cm from the
top while the 2nd resonance occurs when the water level is
96.3cm from the top. Find the;-

Solution:
(i) Speed of sound in (ii) End correction.
the air column. 𝜆 = 2(𝑙2 − 𝑙2 )
V = 2𝑓(𝑙2 − 𝑙1 )
96.3 31.5
96.3 31.5 𝜆 = 2( − )
V = 2 × 264 ( − ) 100 100
100 100 λ = 1.296 m

V = 342.144ms −1 1
𝑙1 + 𝐶 = 𝜆
C = End correction, 𝑙1 , 𝑙2 = Length of air columns. 4
1
 Assemble the apparatus as in the diagram. 0.315 + 𝐶 = × 1.296
 Put a vibrating tuning fork just above the resonance 4
𝐶 = 0.324 – 0.315
tube.
𝐶 = 0.009 m

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Example: 3. 4. (a) A tuning fork of 256𝐻𝑧 was used to produce
The frequency of the third harmonic in a closed pipe is 280 resonance in a closed pipe. The first resonance position
Hz. Find the length of the air column. (Speed of sound in air was at 22cm and the 2nd resonance position was at
= 330ms-1) 97cm. Find the frequency of sound waves.
Alternatively; (b) An open tube produced harmonics of fundamental
For a closed pipe, the frequency 256𝐻𝑧 , what is the frequency of the 2nd
possible frequencies are; harmonics.
f1, 3f1, 5f1…..; where 𝑓1 = 5. A tuning fork of frequency 256 Hz was used to produce
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 resonance in a a tube of length 32.5cm and also in one
( )
𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒 of length 95.0cm. Calculate the speed of sound in the
air column. [320ms-1]
4𝑙 But frequency of third 6. A tuning fork of frequency 512Hz is held over a
= harmonic = 3𝑓1 = 280Hz. resonance tube of length 80cm. The first position of
3 resonance is 16.3 cm from the top of the tube and the
From; 𝑣 = 𝑓
Thus; second position of resonance is 49.5cm. Find the speed
4𝑙 3𝑓1 = 280 of sound in air. Why is it better to use a frequency of
330 = 280 × 𝑓1 = 93.33 𝐻𝑧 512Hz rather than one of 256Hz? [340ms-1]
3 7. See UNEB
3 × 330 = 280 × 4𝑙 𝑣 Sound 1989 Qn27 2006 Qn42 1989 Qn2
𝑓1 =
4𝑙 waves 1997 Qn23 2008 Qn26 1991
990 = 1120𝑙
2001 Qn19 1994Qn10 1997 Qn26 Qn14
330 1990 Qn40 1998 Qn25 1999 Qn27 1991
𝑙 = 0.884 93.33 =
4𝑙 1995Qn22 2002 Qn25 Qn40
2002 Qn17 1992
4𝑙 × 93.33 = 330 Qn32
1997
𝑙 = 0.884 m Qn33

Example : 4. Progressive 2000 Qn12 Qn22 1990 Qn6

The frequency of the 4th overtone in an open pipe is 900Hz and/stationary 2000 Qn29 2005 2000 Qn6
when the length of the air column is 0.4m. Find the waves 2000 Qn30 Qn39 2004 Qn7
(i) Frequency of the fundamental note 1988 Qn25 2002 2008 2008 Qn6
(ii) Speed of sound in air. 1989 Qn9 Qn31
Solution: 1995 Qn21 2008
(i)Frequency of the Thus; Qn35
fundamental note 5𝑓1 = 900 Section B
𝑓1 = 180 𝐻𝑧
For an open pipe, the
possible frequencies are; (ii) Speed of sound in air.
f1,, 2f1, 3f1, 4f1, 5f1…..;
where f1 = 𝑣
𝑓1 =
frequency of the 2𝑙
( )
fundamental note
𝑣
v 180 =
f1  2𝑙
2l
But frequency of 4th 𝑣 = 2 × 0.4 × 180
overtone = 𝟓𝒇𝟏 = 900Hz.
𝑣 = 144ms −1

Exercise:
1. The frequency of the 3rd overtone (4th harmonic)
produced by an open pipe is 840𝐻𝑧 . Given that the
velocity of sound in air is 330m/s, calculate;
(i) Length of the people
(ii) Fundamental frequency

2. A pipe closed at one end has a length of 10cm, if the

velocity of sound is 340m/s; calculate the frequency of
the fundamental note.

3. A tuning fork produces resonance in a tube at a length

of 15.0cm and also at a length of 40.0cm. Find the
frequency of the tuning fork.

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 5. ELECTROSTATICS
Differences between conductors and insulators
Conductors Insulators
- Electrons easily move - Electrons hardly move
This refers to the study of charges at rest.
- Electrons loosely held - Electrons tightly held
To understand the nature of charge, it is necessary to know
- The charge acquires is not - Charge acquires is fixed
the structure of an atom.
fixed.
Structure of an atom
Electrification
The atom consists of three particles, namely
This is the process of producing electric charges which are
Particle Charge Location
either positive or negative.
(i) Neutron No charge In the nucleus of the atom
(ii) Proton Positive (+) In the nucleus of the atom Methods of producing Electric charges.
(iii) Electron Negative Outside the nucleus of the (i) By friction or rubbing or electron transfer (good for
(+) atom insulators and non conductors).
(ii) By conduction/contact (good for conductors).
(iii) By induction (conductors).

(i) Electrification by friction

 Two uncharged bodies (insulators) are rubbed together.
Electrons are transferred from the body to the other.
 The body which looses electrons becomes positively
charged and that which gains electrons becomes
negatively charged.

Acquire positive charge Acquire negative charge

-Glass, Fur, Cellulose -silk, Ebonite (hard rubber),
The electrons are negatively charged while protons are Polythene
positively charged. The two types of charges however are
of the same magnitude in a neutral atom.
Explanation of charging by friction
In a neutral atom, the number of negative charges is equal to
All insulators do not have electrons arranged in the same
the number of positive charges and the atom is said to be
way i.e. some insulators have electrons held to them fairly
electrically neutral. Therefore, electrostatics is the study of
loosely e.g. in glass electrons are held fairly loose compared
static electricity because the charges which constitute it are
to silk.
stationary.
When glass is rubbed with silk, glass tends to lose electrons
Conductors and insulators faster than silk. This results in electrons being lost from
A conductor is a material which allows charge to flow
atoms of glass at the same time being carried by silk.
through it.
The lost electrons from glass are carried by atoms of silk, so
It has loosely bound electrons known as conduction
glass becomes positively charged and silk becomes
electrons. The flow of these electrons constitutes current
negatively charged.
flow.
Conduction occurs when electrons transfer charges as they
NOTE: The production of charge by rubbing is due to
move from one part to another.
electrons being transferred (lost) from materials where they
Examples: all metals, graphite, acids, bases and salt
are less held by the nucleus to the other materials where they
solutions are conductors.
are tightly held by the nucleus.
An insulator is a material which does not allow flow of
Law of Electrostatics
charge through it.
 Like charges repel each other.
It has no conduction electrons because its electrons are
strongly bound by the nuclear attractive forces.  Unlike charges attract each other.
Examples: rubber, dry wood, glass, plastic, ebonite, fur,
polythene, sugar solutions etc. NOTE: However, attraction between a charged body and
any other body DOES NOT necessarily mean that the other
Note: A body (Conductor or Insulator) can lose or gain body is of opposite charge.
electrons. Thus the only SURE/ TRUE test for presence of charge on a
body is repulsion.
 Loss of electrons leaves the body with a positive
charge.
 Gain of electrons leaves the body with a negative
charge.

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Explanation of attraction between a charged body and an  Earthing the side of the conductor remote to the
uncharged body charging rod in presence of the charging rod.
When a negatively charged body is brought near a The other side of the conductor is earthed to allow inflow or
conductor, induced charges are produced on the conductor. out flow of electrons from or to the earth.
The negative charges on the conductor are repelled by the
negative charge on the rod.  Breaking the earth connection in presence of the
Consequently, the part of the conductor near the rod charging rod.
becomes positively charged and the far end becomes While the charged body is still in position, the earth line
negatively charged. disconnected.
Because the positive charge on the conductor is nearer the
negatively charged rod than the negative charge on the  Removing the charging rod
conductor, the attraction between the positive charge and The charged body is the removed and the net charge
negatively charged rod is greater than the repulsion between distributes its self all over the conductor.
the negative charge and the negatively charged rod. Note: The charge obtained is always opposite to that of
The net force between the rod and the conductor is therefore the charging body.
an attraction. Therefore because of this fact, the only SURE/
TRUE test for presence of charge on a body is repulsion. (a) Charging the body positively.

Electrification by conduction i.e Contact method

(By sharing excess electrons)

 Support the uncharged conductor on an insulated stand. Procedure:

 Put a positively charged rod in contact with the  Bring a negatively charged rod near the conductor
conductor. placed on an insulated stand. The positive and negative
 Because of mutual repulsion between the positive charges separate as shown in (a)
charges in the rod, some of them are converted or  In presence of the charged rod, earth the conductor by
transferred to the conductor. momentarily touching it at the side furthest from the
 When the conductor is removed from the rod, it is charging rod with a finger. Electrons flow from it to the
found to be positively charged. earth as shown in (b).
 In presence of the charged rod, disconnect the earth line
NOTE: and then remove the charged rod.
 The negative charges (electrons) migrate from the un  The conductor is found to be positively charged.
charged body to the charged body until the positive
charge on both of them is the same. (b) Charging the body by induction negatively,
 Sphere B acquires a positive charge because it has lost
electrons while sphere A is still positive but it is left
with less positive charges.

 The insulated stand prevents flow of charge away from

the conductor.
 To charge the conductor negatively, a negative rod is
used.

Electrification by induction (By Electrostatic induction)

Electrostatic Induction is the acquisition of charges in an un
charged conductor from a charged body placed near it but Procedure:
not in contact with it.  Bring a positively charged rod near the conductor
placed on an insulated stand. The positive and negative
Facts about charging a conductor by induction. charges separate as shown in (a)
 Bringing a charging rod near the conductor to be  In presence of the charged rod, earth the conductor by
charged. momentarily touching it at the side furthest from the
A charged body is brought near one end of the conductor to charging rod with a finger. Electrons flow to it from the
be charged without touching it. earth as shown in (b).
It induces charges on the conductor. That is electrons are  In presence of the charged rod, disconnect the earth line
either repelled or attracted to one end. and then remove the charged rod.

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 The conductor is found to be negatively charged. charging rod) is earthed by touching it in presence of the
charging rod.
Charging two bodies simultaneously:
(i) Such that they acquire an opposite charge. The gold leaf electroscope

 Two identical metal X and Y are supported by

insulating stands.
 A negatively charged rod is placed between the two
metal spheres.
 Positive charges in each sphere are attracted towards the  It consists of a brass cap and brass plate connected by a
negatively charged rod and negative charges (electrons) brass rod.
are repelled to the side remote to the charging rod.  A gold leaf is fixed together with a brass plate with a
 In presence of the charging rod, both conductors are brass.
earthed at the same time by touching the sides remote to  The brass plate, gold leaf and part of brass rod are put
the charging rod. inside a metallic box which is enclosed with glass
 On earthling the sphere, electrons flow to the ground. windows.
When the earth is disconnected, the radial spheres are
left with positive charge. Mode of action
 When the charging rod is withdrawn, the positive  When a charged body is brought near or in contact with
charge on the spheres distributes themselves over the the cap of the electroscope, the cap will acquire an
entire surface of the sphere. opposite charge to that on the body by induction.
 The charge on the body will repel all charges similar to
Alternatively; it down to the metal rod, to the plate and the leaf.
 Due to presence of like charges on the plate and gold
leaf, the leaf diverges as it is repelled by the plate.
 Leaf divergence implies that the body brought near or
in contact with the cap carries a charge.

Charging a gold leaf electroscope by induction.

(i) Charging it positively

 Support two uncharged bodies, X and Y on an insulated

stand and then place them in contact as shown in (a)
 Bring a positively charged rod near the two bodies,
positive and negative charges separate as in (b).
 Separate, X from Y in presence of the inducing charge.
 Remove the inducing charge, X will be negatively
charged and Y will be positively charged.

(ii) So that they acquire the same charges

 Bring a negatively charged rod near the cap of the gold

leaf electroscope.
 Positive charges are attracted to the cap and negative
charges are repelled to the plate and gold leaf.
 The leaf diverges due to repulsion of the same number
of charges on the plates.
 Earth the gold leaf electroscope in presence of a
negatively charged rod.
 Electrons on the plate and leaf flow to the earth.
To charge the two spheres simultaneously such that they  The leaf collapses.
acquire the same charge, Sphere Y (one remote to the

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  Remove the negatively charged rod, positive charges Increase in leaf divergence occurs when the test charge
on the ca spread out to the rod and leaf therefore the and the charge on the gold leaf electroscope are the
leaf diverges hence the gold leaf is positively charged. same.
(ii) Charging it negatively.
3. To compare and measure potentials.
Two bodies which are similarly charged are brought in
contact with the cap of a G.L.E one after the other.
The divergences in the two cases are noted and compared.
The body which causes more divergence is at a higher
potential.

4. To classify conductors and insulators.

Bring the body under test in contact with the cap of a
charged G.L.E.
If the leaf collapses suddenly, then the body is a good
conductor.
If the leaf collapses gradually, then the body is a poor
conductor. The leaf collapses due to charge leakage.
 Get an uncharged gold leaf of electroscope. If the leaf does not collapse, then it is an insulator.
 Bring the positively charged rod near the gold leaf cap.
 Negative charges are attracted to the cap and positive Distribution of charge on a conductor.
charges are repelled to leaf and glass plate. Surface density is the quantity of charge per unit area of the
 Earth the gold leaf electroscope in presence of a surface of a conductor.
positively charged rod.
 Negative charges flow from the earth to neutralize  The distribution of surface density depends on the shape
positive charges on plate and leaf. of the conductor.
 The leaf collapses.  It is investigated using a gold leaf electroscope and a
 Remove the positively charged rod, negative charges on proof plane (a small metal disc with a handle made of
the cap spread out on the leaf plate, therefore, the leaf insulator).
diverges and a gold leaf therefore becomes negatively  The surface conductor is touched using a proof plane.
charged. The proof plane is then transferred to an electroscope
by allowing it to touch the cap of the G.L.E.
Uses of a Gold leaf Electroscope  The angle of leaf divergence is noted and it gives a
1. To detect the presence of charge on a body. rough measure of the charge transferred and hence the
Bring the body under test near the cap of a neutral G.L.E. magnitude of surface density at that point.
If the leaf deflects, then the body has got a charge.
However, if the leaf remains un deflected, then the body is Experimental results show that:
neutral (has no net charge). (i) Charge density is greatest at the most curved point.
(ii) Charge always resides on the outside of a hollow
2. To test the nature or sign of charge on a body. conductor.

(a) Hollow conductor

Bring the body under test near the cap of a charged G.L.E.
If the leaf diverges further, then the body has a charge
similar to that on the G.L.E.

However, if the leaf collapses, then the body is either neutral

or it carries a charge opposite to that on the G.L.E. In this When the proof plane is placed on the outside surface of a
case, we cannot conclude. But the G.L.E is discharged by charged hollow conductor, charge is transferred to the
touching its cap with a finger and then given a charge uncharged G.L.E, the leaf diverges as shown in (a). This
opposite to the one it had previously and the experiment is proves that charge was present on the outside of the surface.
repeated. When the proof plane is placed on the inside of a charged
If still the leaf collapses, then the body is neutral. conductor is transferred to the uncharged G.L.E, the leaf
does not diverge as in (b) therefore, charge resides on the
NOTE: An increase in leaf divergence is the only sure outside surface of the hollow charged conductor.
test for the sign of charge on a body.
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 (b) Curved bodies It provides a safe and easy passage of charge to the earth
A curve with a big curvature has a small radius and a curve hence safe guarding the building.
with small curvature has big radius therefore, curvature is
inversely proportional to radius. A straight line has no A lightening conductor is made up of:
curvature. (i) Spikes placed high up on a tall building.
Surface charged density is directly proportional to the (ii) copper strip which is fixed to the ground and on
curvature. Therefore a small curvature has small charge the walls of the tall building ending with several
density. Surface charge density is the ratio of charge to the (iii) Copper plate buried under the grounded
surface area.
How it works

ACTION OF POINTS
Charge concentrates at sharp points. This creates a very
strong electrostatic field at charged points which ionizes the
surrounding air molecules producing positive and negative
ions. Ions which are of the same charge as that on the sharp
points are repelled away forming an electric wind which
may blow a candle flame as shown in the diagram below
and ions of opposite charge are collected to the points.

 Charging the clouds negatively by friction: A moving

cloud becomes negatively charged by friction.
Therefore, a charged sharp point acts as;  Induction: Once it approaches the lightening conductor,
(i) Spray off’ of its own charge in form of electric it induces opposite charge on the conductor.
wind.
(ii) Collector of unlike charges.  Ionization and neutralization: A high charge density on
The spraying off and collecting of charges by the sharp the conductor ionizes the air molecules and sends a
points is known as corona discharge (action of points.) stream of positively charged ions which neutralize some
of the negative charges of the cloud.
Application of action of points (corona discharge)
 Used in a lightening conductor.  Conduction: The excess negatively charged ions are
 Used in electrostatics generators. safely conducted to the earth through a copper strip.
 Electrostatic photocopying machines.
 Air crafts are discharged after landing before Faraday’s Ice pail experiment
passengers are allowed. Air crafts get electrified but
charge remains on the outer surface.

Lightening
A lightening is a gigantic (very large) discharge between
clouds and the earth, or between the charges in the
atmosphere and the earth.

A lightening conductor:
Lightening conductor is a single component in a lightening
protection system used to safe guard tall building from being
destroyed by lightening.

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PART I Electric Field patterns
Procedures: (a) Isolated charges
 Place an un charged metal can on an uncharged G.L.E.
 Suspend a positively charged metal sphere and lower it (i) Isolated positive charge (ii)Isolated negative charge
into the pail, without touching the pail as shown in
diagram (a).
 Move the charged metal sphere about inside the can and
then remove the metal sphere completely.

Observation:
Action Observation
On lowering the metal sphere G,L,E diverges Field lines point away from
the charge. Field lines point towards
On moving the metal sphere No observable change the negative charge.
about
(b) Unlike charges close together
On complete removal of the Leaf returns to its original
metal sphere shape.

PART II
Procedures continued:
 Lower the metal sphere again into the metal can, this
time allow the sphere to touch the bottom of the can as
shown in diagram (b).
 Test the charge on the sphere using another G.L.E.
The lines of force connect from positive charge to negative
Observation: charge.
Action Observation (c) Like charges close together
On touching the metal can G,L,E remains diverged The field lines repel side ways.
On testing the metal sphere The sphere is found to have (i) like positive charges (ii) like negative charges
with another G.L.E lost all the charge

Conclusions from Faradays’ experiment.

 A charged metal object suspended inside a neutral metal
container induces an equal but opposite charge on the
inside of the container.
 When the charged sphere touches the inside of the (d) Two charged plates/ a charged plate and a
container, the induced charge exactly neutralizes the point charge
excess charge on the sphere.
 When a charged body is suspended within a metal
container, an equal charge of the same sign is forced to
the outside of the container.

Electric fields
This is a region a round the charged body where electric
forces are experienced. Electric fields may be represented
by field lines.
Field lines are lines drawn in an electric field such that their
directions at any point give a direction of electric field at
that point. The direction of any field at any given point is Exercise:
the direction of the forces on a small positive charge placed
1991 Qn.2 2005 Qn.34 2002 Qn.30
at that point.
1997 Qn.28 2008 Qn.6 2005 Qn.5
1998 Qn.28 Lightening & 2006 Qn.33
Properties of electric field lines
Electric fields
 They begin and end on equal quantities of charge.
1999 Qn.31 1992 Qn.21 2007 Qn.32
 They are in a state of tension which causes them to
2000 Qn.35 1994 Qn.14 1988 Qn.17
shorten.
2001Qn.22 1995 Qn.26
 They repel one another side ways.
2004 Qn.10 1998 Qn.40
2005 Qn.28 2000 Qn.17

SECTION B
1989 Qn. 60
(a) Sketch the electric field patterns for the following;
(i) Two negative charges close to each other
(ii) A positively charged conducting sphere
(iii) Two oppositely charged parallel plates

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(b) Explain the following observations; 2005 Qn.4
(i) The leaves of a positively charged gold leaf (a) Describe how you would use a gold leaf
electroscope fall when the cap is touched. electroscope to determine the sign of a charge on a
(ii) When a positively charged conductor is lowered in given charged body.
an ice pail placed on the cap of an uncharged (b) Explain how an insulator gets charged by rubbing.
electroscope, the leaves diverge. When the (c) Sketch the electric field pattern between a charged
conductor touches the inside of the pail, the point and a metal plate.
divergence of the leaves is not altered.
(c) Explain how a lightening conductor safe guards a house (d) Four non- metallic rods W, X, Y and Z are tested
against lightening. for charges. X attracts W and Y and repels Z. Z
repels W and Y. W and Y repel each other. Which
1990 Qn.8 of the following statements is true about W, X, Y
(a) Draw a well labeled diagram of a gold leaf and Z?
electroscope. A. X is charged, Y is uncharged.
(b) Describe an experiment to test the charge on a charged B. X is un charged, W and Y are charged.
body using a gold leaf electroscope. C. W, Y and Z carry the same charge.
(c) Draw electric field patterns for; D. X, Y and Z carry the same charge.
(i) Two positively charged bodies at a small distance
apart. (e) Two pith balls are suspended by a nylon thread.
(ii) An isolated negative charge. When a positively charged rod is placed between
them, A is attracted while B is repelled.
1991 Qn.7
(a) State the law of electrostatics.
(b) Describe how two identical metal balls may be charged
positively and simultaneously by induction.
(c) (i) Explain what happens when a negatively charged rod
is brought near the cap of an uncharged electroscope
and slowly taken away.
(ii) Briefly explain how an electroscope can be used to test
whether a material is a conductor or an insulator.
(d) What precautions should be taken when carrying out What charge does A and B have?
experiments in electrostatics? A B
A Positive Positive
1994 Qn.7 B Neutral Positive
(a) Explain why a pen rubbed with a piece of cloth attracts C Positive Negative
pieces of paper. D Neutral Neutral
(b) A positively charged metallic ball is held above a
hollow conductor resting on the cap of a gold leaf
electroscope.
Explain what happens to the leaf of the electroscope as
the ball is lowered into the hollow conductor.

1998 Qn.10
(a) Explain what happens to an insulator when it is rubbed
with another insulator of different material?
(b) The figure below shows a conductor supported on an
electrical insulator. The conductor is given some
positive charge.

Show how the charge is distributed on the conductor.

(c) Sketch the electrical field pattern due to two unlike

charges P and Q below.

©bagiradnl@[Link] 168
 6. ELECTRICITY
At the cathode
When the circuit is complete, the zinc rod slowly dissolves
A cell is a device which directly changes chemical energy to and goes into electrolyte as zinc ions Zn2+ , according to the
electrical energy. equation;
𝐙𝐧 (𝐬) → 𝐙𝐧𝟐+ (𝐚𝐪) + 𝟐𝐞̅
Types of electric cells
At the anode
a) Primary cells, these are cells which cannot be recharged
The electrons travel through the external circuit and arrive at
and their chemical reaction which produces electrical
the copper electrode, where they are picked up by the
energy cannot be reversed e.g the simple cells, dry cells
hydrogen ions from the acid to form hydrogen gas according
b) Secondary cells, these are cells that can be recharged
to the equation:
and the chemical reaction that produces electricity can
𝟐𝐇 + (𝐚𝐪) + 𝟐𝐞̅ → 𝐇𝟐 (𝐠)
be reversed by passing the current thru the opposite
direction.
 Thus bubbles of a colourless gas are seen at the copper
plate.
(a) Primary cells
 The reaction generates an electric current.
These are cells which produce electricity from an
irreversible chemical reaction.
DEFECTS OF A SIMPLE CELL
They cannot be recharged by passing a current through them
Defect How to minimize
from another source and their chemical reaction which
1. Polarization: -Use of a depolarizing
produces electrical energy cannot be reversed
This is the formation of agent like potassium
hydrogen bubbles on the copper dichromate,(K2,Cr2O7)
Examples of primary cells;
plate. The hydrogen given off or manganese dioxide
(i) Simple cells (Voltaic cells)
insulates the anode from the (MnO4), which oxides
(ii) Leclanche’ cell (Dry cell and Wet cell)
electrolyte. This reduces the hydrogen to form
voltage of the cell. water.
(i) Simple cells (Voltaic cells)
-Brushing the copper
A simple cell is made up of two electrodes and an
plate occasionally.
electrolyte. A more reactive metal becomes the cathode
while the less reactive metal becomes the anode.
It commonly consists of a copper rod (Positive electrode) 2. Local action: -Rubbing clean Zinc
and the zinc rod (Negative electrode) dipped into dilute This is due to some reaction with mercury
sulphuric acid (Electrolyte). The electrodes are connected by between the impurities in Zinc (amalgamating
pieces of conducting wires. and the acid resulting into the zinc).This prevents
formation of hydrogen bubbles contact of the
In a simple cell, the cathode is Zn, the Anode is copper and on the zinc plate. The hydrogen impurities with the
the electrolyte is dilute H2SO4. bubbles insulate zinc from the electrolyte)
electrolyte. -Cleaning Zinc with
conc. H2SO4.

NOTE: A simple cell stops working after a short time

because of polarization and local action.

(ii) Leclanche’ cells

 Dry Leclanche’ cell (Portable, electrolyte cant pour out,
faster depolarizing action & can maintain high steady
current for some period of time)

 Wet Leclanche’ cell (Bulky and electrolyte can easily

pour out, slow depolarizing action & cannot maintain
high steady current which lights).

Here polarization and local action are avoided

 Manganese (iv) oxide is in place to act as a depolarizing
Mechanism of the simple cells agent to oxidize hydrogen to water. Thus preventing
A simple cell gets its energy from the chemical reaction polarization.
between Zn and H2SO4 (aq) i.e.  The carbon powder reduces the internal resistance of
Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 the cell and increases the conducting surface area.

Electrons flow the negative plate zinc to the positive plate

copper while current flows from the positive to negative
plate.
©bagiradnl@[Link] 169
 Dry Leclanche’ cell

The cathode is lead, the anode is lead dioxide and the

electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid.
When it is working both electrodes gradually change to lead
sulphate while the acid becomes more dilute and its relative
density decreases.

Mechanism of an accumulator.
Carbon is the anode and Zinc is the cathode. The electrolyte When in use, the negative lead electrode dissociates into
is ammonium chloride jelly. The chemical reaction between free electrons and positive lead (ii) ions.
zinc and ammonium chloride is the source of electrical 𝐏𝐛 (𝐬) → 𝐏𝐛𝟐+ (𝐚𝐪) + 𝟐𝐞̅
energy is a dry cell and therefore e.m.f is up. The electrons travel through the external circuit while the
Zn (s) + 2NH4Cl (aq) ZnCl2 + 2NH3 + H2 (g) lead (ii) ions combine with the sulphate ions in the
electrolyte to form lead (ii) sulphate.
The e.m.f produced goes on to fall due to polarization and 𝐏𝐛𝟐+ (𝐚𝐪) + 𝐒𝐎𝟒 𝟐+ (𝐚𝐪) → 𝐏𝐛𝐒𝐎𝟒 (𝐚𝐪)
local action. These are the defects of a dry cell.
When the electrons re-enter the cell at the positive lead
Polarization dioxide electrode, a chemical reaction occurs. The lead
The formation of Hydrogen bubbles at the carbon rod. dioxide combines with the hydrogen ions in the electrolyte
Its prevention and the electrons to form water, releasing lead (ii) ions into
The manganese IV oxide around the carbon rod acts as a the electrolyte to form additional lead (ii) sulphate.
depolarizing agent which oxides hydrogen to water. 𝐏𝐛𝐎 (𝐬) + 𝟐 𝐇 + (𝐚𝐪) + 𝟐𝐞̅ → 𝐇𝟐 𝐎(𝒍) + 𝐏𝐛𝟐+ (𝐚𝐪)
Note:Even if the cell is not working (giving out e.m.f) e.m.f Care and maintenance of lead –acid accumulator
reduces because of local action. Dos DONTs
(i) The battery should be (iv) Cells should not be left
(b) Secondary cells (Accumulators) (or storage cells) charged regularly. uncharged for a long time.
Secondary cells are cells that can’t be recharged by passing
a current through them from another source once they stop
(ii) The liquid level should (v) When charging, avoid
working or reduce on the amount of current being supplied.
be maintained using nearby flames because O2
Current is produced as a result of a reversible chemical
distilled water to ensure and H2 are given off during
change taking place within the cell.
that electrodes are nor the process i.e. O2 is from
exposed. Anode and H2 from
Use of accumulators cathode.
-To start (ignition) of a cars and other locomotives and to
(iii) Cells should be
provide light to motor cars.
charged if the R.D. reduces (vi) Avoid shortening the
-Used in factories to run machines
to 1.18 R.D. can be terminal i.e. you should not
checked using a connect the terminals with a
Examples of secondary cells (Accumulators) hydrometer. low resistance wire or metal
There are two types of accumulators.
because when shortened too
(i) Lead acid accumulator
much current is taken away
(ii) Alkaline accumulator (e.g Nickel – cadmium cell;
from the cell.
NiCd cell, Nickel – iron cell ; NiFe cell)
(vii) Avoid overcharging
and over discharging.
(i) Lead acid accumulators
A Lead acid storage battery consists of cells connected in
(ii) Alkaline cells
series. Each cell consists of a lead plate (negative
 Nickel – cadmium (NiCd cells)
electrode), lead dioxide (or lead (iv) oxide) (positive
Anode is the Nickel –hydroxide and cathode is cadmium
electrode), and dilute sulphuric acid as the electrolyte.
When the accumulator is fully charged, the relative density
 Nickel – Iron (NiFe Cells)
of the acid is about 1.25 and the e.m.f of each pair is 2.2V.
Anode is Nickel hydroxide and cathode is iron.
In both cases, the electrolyte is potassium hydroxide
dissolved in water (caustic potassium solution)

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 Charging an accumulator (battery charging)

Uses
- Used in battery driven vehicles
- Used for emergency lighting

Advantages of alkaline cells over Lead-acid cells or

accumulators An accumulator is recharged by passing a current through it
Alkaline Accumulators Lead-acid accumulators from a D.C supply in the opposite direction to the current it
(i) Require no special Require special supplies.
maintenance. maintenance Positive of the D.C. supply is connected to the positive of
the accumulator while negative terminal of the D.C. supply
(ii) May be left uncharged for They get damaged if left is connected to the negative of the accumulator.
a long time without being un charged for a long The acid becomes more concentrated during charging and
damaged. They can be out of time. R.D. of the acid increases.
use for a long time
The Rheostat varies resistance to make the current
(iii) Are less heavy. Are heavy.
adjustable.
(iv) Are long lasting. Are not long lasting.
The ammeter measures the charging current which becomes
(v) They provide large They provide low low as the accumulator is charged and restored to usable
currents without being currents. condition. This is due to the rise in the e.m.f of the
damaged. accumulators.
(vi) Are suitable for
supplying steady current for a When chemicals have been restored to their original
long time. condition, hydrogen gas is given off (gassing process) and
(vii) Can with stand over Can be damaged by over the cell is said to be fully charged.
charging. charging.
Note;
 When an accumulator (battery) is being charged,
Disadvantages of the alkaline cells over the lead acid electrical energy charges to chemical energy.
cells.  When a battery (an accumulator) is being used
 Alkaline cells are expensive compared to lead acid (supplying current), chemical energy changes to
cells. electrical energy.
 Alkaline cells have a low e.m.f and a higher internal  Direct current is used during the charging process
resistance. because alternating current would charge the
 Cadmium compounds are poisonous accumulator in the first half cycle and then discharge it
 They do not properly store charge. in the next half cycle.

Capacity of an accumulator Question:

This is the amount of electricity which an accumulator can Six accumulators each of e.m.f 2V and each of internal as
store. It’s measured in ampere hours (Ah) shown below;
𝐂𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 = 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 (𝐀) 𝐱 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 (𝐡)
𝐂𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 = 𝐈𝐭

Example:
How long wills a cell marked 80Ah supply a current of 4.5A
before it is exhausted.

Solution:
Capacity = current (A) x time (h)
Capacity = It
80 = 4.5 × t (i) Explain why its necessary to include a rheostat in
t = 17.8 Hours the circuit.
(ii) Explain why direct current is used in the charging
process.
(iii) What will the ammeter read if the Rheostat is set at
5.4Ω. (I = 2A)

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(iv) Find the rate at which electrical energy is
converted to chemical energy in (ii) above. (P = 2
4W).

Differences between primary cells and secondary cells.

Primary Cell Secondary Cell
-Cannot be recharged once -Can be recharged when
it stops working they stop working.

-Current is produced as a -Current is produced as a

result of irreversible result of reversible
chemical change. chemical change.

-Provide a lower e.m.f -Provide a hiigher e.m.f

-Works for a shorter time -Works for a longer time.
-Higher internal resistance -Lowe internal resistance

Exercise:
1.
1995 Q.28 1998 Q.33 1998 Q.39 2002 Q.15

2. Which of the following statement(s) is or are true?

(i) Regular charging
(ii) Maintaining the level of acid by topping it up
with distilled water.
(iii) Avoid over discharging
(iv) Avoid shorting the terminals.
A: (i), (ii) and (iii) only. B: (i) and (iii) only.
C: (i), (iii) and (iv) only. D: all

3. 1993 Qn.6
(a) (i) Draw a diagram to show the structure of a
simple cell.
(ii) Give one defect of a simple cell and state how it is
minimized.
(b) Explain how a lead acid accumulator can be
recharged when it has run down.

4. 1994 Qn.4
(a) List four different sources of e.m.f
(b) State two advantages of a secondary cell over a
primary cell.

5. 1995 Qn.6
(a) Explain why a current does not flow between
the electrodes in dilute sulphuric acid until a
certain value of p.d is exceeded.

6. 1996 Qn.10
(a) State two advantages of nickel iron
accumulator over a lead acid accumulator.
(b) Name the gases evolved during the charging of
the lead acid accumulator.
(c) Why a dry cell is called a primary cell?

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 D.C source A.C source
A cell Battery Alternating
current (a.c)
Electricity is the flow of charged particles such as electrons
and ions.
Electricity has various forms which include static electricity
and current electricity. Static electricity is discussed in or
or
Electrostatics and current electricity will be discussed
majorly now.

Electric current is the rate of flow of charge. OR It is the

rate of flow of electrically charged particles. Meters
Ammeter Voltmeter Galvanometer
Steady current is the constant rate of flow of charge.
It’s measured in amperes represented by A. 1 A = 1 CS-1.
An ampere is a current when the rate of flow of charge is
one coulomb per second. Resistors
Qn. What type of quantity is current? Fixed resistor Variable resistor
(Rheostat)
Source of electric energy
It has various sources which include among others;-

(i) Chemical energy. It is also known as potential or stored Bulb or Lamp

energy and releasing it always requires combustion of
burning of coal, natural gas etc.

(ii) Thermal energy. Heat means thermo/ it can produce Wires

electrical energy when /after combustion of fossil fuels and Connected wires Wires not joined Open switch
biomass.

(iii) Kinetic energy. This is energy in motion e.g. moving

water, moving wind etc as they turn the turbines.
Capacitors
(iv) Nuclear energy. Its energy in the bonds inside atoms
and molecules during its release it can emit radioactive and Fixed capacitor Variable capacitor
thermal energy as well. It is normally produced in nuclear
reactors

(v) Solar energy. This is energy from the sun which can be Others
captured by photovoltaic cells and then a source of electrical Diode Fuse
energy. or

There could be other sources of energy but generally, the

above are the major sources. There are very many symbols but these are the mostly used
electrical symbols.
Common electrical /appliances we use in Uganda
include. Terms used;
- Electrical lamps - Electric kettles (i) Charge, Q; Is the quantity of electricity that passes a
- Electric plates (cookers) - Electric flat irons given point in a conductor at a given time.
N.B. Electrical appliances can be defined as devices used to The S.I unit of charge is a coulomb. A coulomb is the
simplify worker but use electricity as a form of energy. quantity of electric charge that passes a given point in a
conductor when a steady current of 1A flows in one second.
Electric circuits and symbols
Symbols Q
(ii) Current, (I); Is the rate of flow of charge. i.e. I = .
Electric symbols are symbols used in electricity during the t
circuits to draw them schematically and represent electrical The S.I unit of current is an ampere. An ampere is a current
and electronic components. flowing in a circuit when a charge of one coulomb passes
They include; any point in the circuit in one second.
𝟏𝐀 = 𝟏𝐂𝐬 −𝟏

Example 1: UNEB 2008 Qn.32

A current of 6A amperes flows for two hours in a circuit.
Calculate the quantity of electricity that flows in this time.

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Solution: it’s the p.d when current is being delivered to an
Given: 𝐐 = 𝐈𝐭 external circuit.
I = 6A, t = 2hrs Q = 6 × 7200
= 2 × 60 × 60 = 7200s. Q = 43200 C NB. The value of the terminal p.d. is always less than e.m.f
Q =? because of the opposition to the flow of current inside the
cell.
Example 2: UNEB 2007 Qn.48 (b) Internal resistance: Is the opposition to the flow of current
A charge of 180C flows through a lamp for two minutes. within the cell.
Find the electric current flowing through the lamp. p. d across the internal
E. m. f = Terminal pd. + ( ).
resistance, r
Solution: E = VR + Vr
Given: 𝐐 = 𝐈𝐭 𝐄 = 𝐈𝐑 + 𝐈𝐫
Q = 180 C, t = 2minutes 180 = I × 120
= 2 × 60 = 120s. I = 1.5 C Factors affecting resistance of a conductor.
Q =? The resistance of a conductor is independent of the P.d, V
and the current I through the conductor but it depends on
(iii) Potential difference (P.d); Is the work done in physical factors like; length, cross sectional area and
transferring one coulomb of charge from one point to temperature.
another in a circuit. Factor Effect on resistance
Whenever current flows, it does so because the electric (i) Length, l Increasing the length increases the
potential at two points are different. If the two points are at 𝑅∝𝑙 resistance of the conductor.
W This is because increase in length
the same potential, no current flows between them. P. d =
Q increases the number of collisions
The S.I unit is a volt. A volt is the potential difference electrons have to make with atoms
between two points in circuit in which, 1J of work is done in as they travel through the conductor.
transferring 1C of charge from one point to another. This reduces the drift velocity of the
𝟏𝐕 = 𝟏𝐉𝐂 −𝟏 free electrons and hence increases
the resistance of the conductor.
(iv) Electromotive force, (e.m.f): Is the work done in (ii) Cross sectional When there is an increase in the
transferring one coulomb of charge around a complete area, A cross sectional area of the conductor,
circuit in which a battery is connected. 1 the number of free electrons that
It is the p.d across a cell in an open circuit. 𝑅∝ drift along the conductor also
𝐴
increases.
Sources of electrical e.m.f. This means that there is an increase
(i). Electric cell: This converts chemical energy to in the number of electrons passing a
electrical energy. given point along the conductor per
(ii). Generators: These convert mechanical energy to second, thus an increase in current
electrical energy. Consequently, this reduces the
(iii). Thermo couple: This converts thermal energy (or resistance of the conductor.
heat energy) to electrical energy.
(iv). Piezo-electric effect (Crystal pick ups) (iii)Temperature, T When there is an increase in the
(v). Photo electric effect (solar cells) 1 temperature of the conductor, the
𝑅∝ atoms vibrate with greater amplitude
𝑇
(v) Electrical Resistance, (R): Is the opposition to the flow and frequency about their mean
V
of current in a conductor. R = . positions.
I
The S.I unit of resistance is an ohm (). An ohm is the The velocity of the free electrons
resistance of a conductor through which a current of one increases which increases their
ampere flows when a p.d across it is one volt. kinetic energy. Consequently, the
number of collisions between the
(vi) Internal resistance of a cell, r: free electrons and the atoms
Internal resistance of a cell is the opposition to the flow of increases.
current within the cell. This leads to a decrease in the drift
velocity of the electrons. This means
(vii) Open circuit: where current is not being supplied to an that there is a decrease in the number
external circuit. of electrons passing a given point
(viii) Closed circuit: Where the cell is supplying current to along the conductor per second, thus
an external circuit. a decrease in current
1. E.m.f:- Is the work done to move a charge of IC Consequently, this increases the
through a circuit including a source (cell) i.e. the p.d. resistance of the conductor.
when the cell is not supplying current to an external
circuit. (iv) Nature of the Good conductors like metals have
substance. low resistance while poor conductors
2. Terminal p.d. The work done to move a charge of IC (insulators) have very high
through a circuit across the terminals of a battery i.e. resistance.

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Note: Supper conductors are materials whose resistance Limitations of ohm’s law
vanishes when they are cooled to a temperature near  It only applies when the physical conditions of a
−2730 𝐶. conductor are constant e.g. temperature, length of a
conductor, cross section area e.t.c.
Combining the first two factors at constant temperature, we  It doesn’t apply to semi conductors e.g. diodes and
get: electrolytes
𝑙 𝒍
𝑅∝ ⟺𝑹=𝝆 Ohmic and non- ohmic conductors
𝐴 𝑨
- Ohmic conductors are conductors which obey ohm’s
Where, 𝜌 is a constant which depends on the nature of the law. E.g. Metals.
conductor. It is called the Resistivity of the conductor. - Non Ohmic conductors are conductors which do not
Thus thick and short conductors have lower resistances obey ohm’s law e.g. filament lamps, in diodes, neon gas
compared to thin and long conductors. tubes.

Resistivity, 𝝆: The graphs of current against voltage for different

Is the electrical resistance across the opposite faces of a conductors.
cube of 1m length. (i) Ohmic conductor (ii) Electrolytes
The S.I unit of resistivity is an ohm metre,(m). (Pure metal)

Conductivity, 𝝈: I (A)
Cu SO4 Dil. H2 SO4
Is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.
𝟏 I (A) solution & carbon
𝝈= electrodes
𝝆
V (V)
Ohms law: V (V)
The straight line passes
It states that the current through an ohmic conductor is
directly proportional to the P.d across it provided the through the origin. Conductions in electrodes
physical conditions remain constant. The conductor closely and electrolytes are both
obeys Ohm’s law. ohmic.
Experiment to verify Ohms law; For some electrodes
conduction begins after the
K Cell voltage has reached a certain
value,
(iii) Semi Conductor (iv) Thermionic diode
R A
diode (diode valve)

I (A) I (A)
V
-The circuit is connected as shown above.
-Switch, K is closed, and a current, I flows through the
V (V) V (V)
circuit.
-Read and record the ammeter reading and the
There is a slow rise in the The graph is fairly Ohmic. At
corresponding voltmeter reading.
current and it is nearly saturation, the current
-The rheostat is adjusted to obtain several values of V and I.
Ohmic. becomes constant.
-Plot a graph of V against I
(v) Thermister (vi) Filament bulb
And carbon resistor

I (A)
I (A)

V (V) V (V)
The resistance of a At low currents, the graph is
-It is a straight line graph through the origin, implying that thermister decreases as a straight line. As current
V is directly proportional to I which verifies Ohm’s law. temperature increases. A increases, more heat is
fall in resistance causes produced and temperature
Note: In case the experiment requires resistance, then the current to increase more increases which increases the
slope of the graph is the resistance. rapidly. resistance of the filament
𝐕
From the graph; 𝐒𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞, 𝐑 = = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛉. wire.
𝐈
Where θ is the angle between the line and the horizontal. (v) Acid water (vi) Neon gas

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 Resistor Net works
I (A) (i) Series arrangement of resistors
I (A)
Resistors are said to be in series when they are connected
V (V) V (V) end to end so that the same amount of current is the same.
The positive of one load is connected to the negative of
another load.

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
An electric circuit can be defined as a combination of
electric appliances represented by electric symbols for a In series
particular purpose. (i) Same current flows through each resistor.
A circuit can be open (incomplete) or closed (completed). (ii) P.d across each resistor is different
An open circuit is circuit in which electrons are not (iii) Total p.d V = sum of p.d across each resistor.
continuously flowing.
A closed circuit is a circuit which is complete and having Thus: V = V1 + V2 + V3
electrons continuously flowing.
Using Ohm’s law, V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3
V = IR1 + IR 2 + IR 3
Parallel and series electric circuits’ connection V = I(R1 + R 2 + R 3 )
In connections, we must either connect in series or in
parallel. If R is the resistance of a single resistor representing the
Some examples three resistors, then V=IR.
1. A current of 4A flows through an electric kettle when IR = I(R1 + R 2 + R 3 )
the p.d. across it is 8V. Find the resistance.
2. What voltage is needed to make a current of 0.4A flow
𝐑 = 𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 + 𝐑𝟑
through when the appliance has resistance of 20Ω?
Series circuits
Questions The current is the same at all points around a series circuit
1. Give the unit and its symbol for connections i.e. from the source (battery/cell) up to all
(a) Current points when its fully connected.
(b) Charge
2. What instrument is used to measure current.
3. A charge of 4C flows through an ammeter in 1s. What
reading will the ammeter show? If the same charge
flowed through the ammeter in 2s. What would the
current be?
4. (a) Draw a circuit diagram to show two cells connected
in series with a switch and two bulbs.

(b) Draw a 2nd circuit diagram with the same components,

but with a switch and two bulbs in Parallel with each other. Which is a series connection and current being measured in
series.
Qn. Determine resistance from the information given.
(ii) Parallel arrangement of resistors
p. d (V) 1.05 1.40 1.80 2.20 2.40 Resistors are said to be in parallel if they are connected such
I (A) 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.34 that they branch from a single point (known as a node) and
join up again.
RESISTANCE The positive of one load is connected to the positive of
It can be defined as the opposition to the flow of current thru another load.
a conductor. A resistor is a conductor which opposes the
flow of current thru it. I1 R1

The unit of resistance is an ohm ( Ω ) I2 R2

An ohm is the resistance of the conductor when a current of
1 A is flowing and a p.d. of 1 V is across its ends. I3 R3
I

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For parallel Examples:
(i) P.d across each resistor is the same. 1. Show that for two resistors in parallel, the effective
(ii) The main current flowing splits and therefore, R 1R 2
the current through each resistor is different R
(iii) Total current, I is equal to sum of the current resistance
R1  R 2
through each resistor.
Thus: I = I1 + I2 + I3 2. What is the total resistance of the resistors below;
V V V
Using Ohm’s law, V1 = ; V2 = andV3 =
R1 R2 R3
V V V
I= + + 3. What is the effective resistance of the circuit below?
R1 R 2 R 3

1 1 1
I = V( + + )
R1 R 2 R 3

If R is the resistance of a single resistor representing the More combinations:

𝐕
three resistors, then: 𝐈 = . It’s very possible to have series and parallel connections
𝐑
V 1 1 1 combined and in this case, we apply both principles within a
.= V( + + ) given circuit.
R R1 R 2 R 3

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝐑 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟑

Note: For only two resistors in parallel, the effective

resistance can be obtained as follows:
1 1 1 1 R 2 + R1 𝐑𝟏𝐑𝟐
= + ⇔ = ⇔𝐑=
R R1 R 2 R R1 R 2 𝐑𝟐 + 𝐑𝟏
If the effective is R
Let the effective of R1 and R2 be Rp
1 1 1 R1 + R 2 R1 R 2
Parallel circuits .= + = ⇔ Rp =
Rp R1 R 2 R1 R 2 R1 + R 2

Let the effective of R3 and R4 be R s

Rs = R3 + R4

Thus the effective resistance R is given by:

R = Rp + Rs
R1 R 2
R= + R3 + R4
R1 + R 2

Voltage and connections

Voltages or e.m.f’s can also be connected in series or
Ammeters are for measuring the current in a parallel circuit. parallel.
It’s characteristic in parallel connections to derive current Cells in series
whenever it reaches the parallel arms of the circuit. But In this case, we sum all the individual e.m.f’s to obtain the
current later recombines to form the original current again total e.m.f’s:
before it returns to the cell.

Ammeter Voltmeter
-A device used to -A device used to measure
measure current potential different
Effective e.m.f, E Effective resistance, r
-It has a very low -It has a very high resistance
resistance -Connects across the path of the E = E1 + E2 + E3 r = r 1 + r2 + r3
-Always placed in the conductor whose p.d. is to be
path of current, i.e in determined, i.e in parallel.
series Cells in parallel
For the case of parallel connection of e.m.f. they have the
same e.m.f.
A R

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 Solution:
Let R1= 3Ω, R2= 3Ω, I= 2A, V=?
Effective e.m.f, E Effective resistance, r
First determine the Now that we know I and R,
E = E1 = E2 = E3 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 effective resistance, R let us use Ohms law; V=IR
.= + + V = IR
𝐫 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟑
1 1 1 V = 2 × 1.5
= +
R R1 R 2 V = 3 V.
EXAMPLES
1 1 1 2
= + =
1. (1991 Qn. 35). In the circuit diagram below, the R 3 3 3
ammeter reading is 0.2 A. Find the voltmeter reading.
3
R = Ω = 1.5Ω
2

4. (2007 Qn. 3). What will be the reading of the ammeter

in the figure below if switch K2 is;

Let R1=10Ω, R2=20Ω, R3=30Ω, I=0.2A, V=?

First determine the Now that we know I and R,

effective resistance, R let us use Ohms law; V=IR
R = R1 + R 2 + R 3 V = IR
R = 10 + 20 + 30 V = 0.2 × 60
R = 60Ω V = 12 V. (i) Open and K1 is closed
(ii) Closed and K1 is closed.
Solution:
2. (1997 Qn. 35). Two coils of wire of resistance 2Ω and (i) When K2 is open and K1 closed, current flows
3Ω are connected in series with a 10 V battery of through the 4Ω only. Let R = 4Ω, V=1.5 V, I=?
negligible internal resistance. Find the current through
the 2Ω resistor. [Ans: 2A] First determine the Now that we know I and R,
Solution: effective resistance, R let us use Ohms law; V=IR
Let R1=10Ω, R2=20Ω, R3=30Ω, I=0.2A, V=? V = IR
1.5 = I × 4
R = 4Ω I = 0.375 A

(ii) When K2 is closed and K1 closed, current divides

into the 2Ω and 4Ω. Let R 1= 2Ω, R 2= 4Ω, V=1.5 V, I=?

First determine the Now that we know I and R,

First determine the effective Now that we know V and R, effective resistance, R let us use Ohms law; V=IR
resistance, R let us use Ohms law; V=IR 1 1 1 V = IR
R = R1 + R 2 V = IR = +
R R1 R 2
R=2+3 10 = I × 5 4
R = 5Ω 5I = 10 1.5 = I ×
1 1 1 3 3
I= 2A = + =
R 2 4 4
I = 1.125 A
3. (1993 Qn. 15). A current of 2A in flows in a circuit in 4
which two resistors each of resistance 3Ω are connected R = Ω = 1.33Ω
3
as shown in the figure below. Calculate the P.d across
XY.
5. (2008 Qn. 28). The figure below shows two cells each
of e.m.f 4.5 V and internal resistance 0.5Ω, connected
to a 2Ω resistor.

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 (iii) P.d across the 2Ω resistor
P.d across the 2Ω resistor is equal to the P.d across the
3Ω which is equal to the P.d across the parallel
combination.
Thus from Ohms law; V=IR.
VP = IR P
5
VP = × 1.2
3
What is the ammeter reading? VP = 2 V
Solution: Thus the P.d across the 2Ω resistor is 2V.
Let r1= 0.5Ω, r2= 0.5Ω, R3= 2Ω V= 4.5V (Voltages in
parallel; E1=E2=V), I=? (iv) Current through the 3Ω resistor.
Let the 3Ω resistor = R1; Then;
First determine the This resistance Rp is now V1 = I1 R1 ; In this case, V1 = VP = 1.2 V
effective resistance, Rp of in series with the 2Ω 1.2 = I1 × 3
the resistors in parallel. resistor. I1 = 0.4 A
Thus the effective Thus the current through the 3Ω resistor is 0.4A.
1 1 1 resistance, R is;
= +
r r1 r2 R = RP + R3
R = 0.25 + 2 7. (2001 Qn. 31). Find the effective resistance when two
1 1 1 4 R = 2.25Ω resistors of 5Ω and 15Ω joined in series are placed in
= + = parallel with a 20Ω resistor.
R 0.5 0.5 1
Now that we know I and Solution:
1 R, let us use Ohms law; Let R1= 5Ω, R2= 15Ω, R3= 20Ω,
R = Ω = 0.25Ω
4 V = IR A sketch diagram showing the network of resistors.
4.5 = I × 2.25
I = 2 A.

6. (1994 Qn. 4). The diagram below shows three resistors,

1.8Ω, and 2.0 Ω and 3Ω resistor.

First determine the effective Now Rs is in parallel

resistance, Rs for the with the R3= 20Ω.
resistors in series. Thus the effective
R s = R1 + R 2 resistance in the circuit
R s = 5 + 15 is;
R s = 20Ω RsR3
Calculate the; (i) Effective resistance of the circuit R=
(ii) Current through the circuit. Rs + R3
(iii) P.d across the 2Ω resistor
20 × 20 400
(iv) Current through the 3Ω resistor. R= =
Solution: 20 + 20 40
(i) Effective resistance of the circuit
The 2Ω and 3Ω are in parallel. Their effective R = 10Ω
resistance is in series with the 1.8Ω resistor.
Thus the effective resistance R is given by:
R = Rp + Rs
8. In the figure below, find the ;
R1 R 2
R= + R3
R1 + R 2

2×3 6
R= + 1.8 ⇔ R = + 1.8 ⇔ R = 1.2 + 1.8
2+3 5
R = 3Ω

(ii) Current through the circuit.

From Ohms law; V=IR.
V = IR
5= I×3
(i) Effective resistance in the circuit.
5 (ii) Current through the circuit.
I = = 1.67 A
3 (iii) P.d across the 2Ω resistor.
(iv) P.d across the 6Ω resistor.

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 4 and 12 resistors are parallel, their effective resistance
Solution: 4  12
Let R1= 5Ω, R2= 6Ω, R3= 3Ω, R4= 4Ω, R5= 2Ω, R1   3
(i) Effective resistance in the circuit. is 4  12
First determine the effective Now Rp is in series with R1 and 3 resistors are in series, their effective resistance is
resistance, Rs for the 5Ω and the 2Ω resistor. R2  R1  3  3  3  6
6Ω resistors in series. Thus the effective
R2 and 6 resistors are in parallel, their effective resistance
R s = R1 + R 2 resistance in the circuit
66
Rs = 5 + 6 is; R3   3
R s = 11Ω R = RP + R5 is 66
R = 0.674 + 2 R3 and 1 resistors are in series, their effective resistance is
Now Rs is in parallel with R = 2.674Ω
the 3Ω. and 4Ω resistors. R  R3  1  3  1  4
Thus the effective resistance (ii) Current through Hence effective resistance of the whole circuit is R = 4
in parallel is; the circuit. V 2
1 1 1 1 From Ohms law; V=IR. I   0 .5 A
= + +
V = IR Current flowing R 4
Rp Rs R3 R4
14 = I × 2.674
1 1 1 1 2.674I = 14 Exercise:
= + + I = 5.236 A 1. Calculate the effective resistance of the circuit below.
R p 11 3 4 [Ans: 4Ω]
1 12 + 44 + 33 89 (iii) P.d across the 2Ω
= = resistor.
Rp 132 132
From Ohms law; V=IR.
V = IR
1 12 + 44 + 33 89
= = V = 5.236 × 2
Rp 132 132 V = 10.472 V
132
Rp = Ω = 0.674Ω
89
(iv) P.d across the 6Ω resistor. 2. Eight identical cells each of e.m.f 1.5 and internal
The P.d across R s (5Ω and 6Ω) is equal to the p.d resistance 0.1Ω are connected in a circuit as shown bellow.
across the 3Ω and is also equal to the p.d across the 4Ω
resistor.
This is because, R s , 3Ω and 4Ωare in parallel.
P.d across the parallel Then the P.d across the
combination: 6Ω resistor is obtained as
From Ohms law; V=IR. follows;
VP = IP R P From Ohms law; V=IR.
VP = 5.236 × 0.674 V = Is R
VP = 3.529 V = 0.321 × 6
V = 1.925 V
Current through
R s (5Ω and 6Ω) resistors. Calculate the;
From Ohms law; V=IR. (i). Current in the circuit.[Ans: 4A]
VP = Is R s (ii). Ammeter reading, A. [Ans: 1.6 A]
3.529 = Is × 11
11Is = 3.529 3. Three identical cells each of e.m.f 1.5V and internal
Is = 0.321 A resistance 0.1Ω are connected as shown bellow.

Example: 8
1 3 12

2V 4
6

Calculate the current in the circuit. [Ans: 0.88A]

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4. (1997 Qn. 30). A battery of e.m.f 12V is connected across (ii). What will be the voltmeter’s reading when the
two resistors of 6Ω and 3Ω as shown below. switch is closed?
(iii). What will be the voltmeter’s reading when X is
connected to Z? Give a reason for your answer.

An experiment to obtain internal resistance of a cell.

(a) Method I: Using a voltmeter and standard resistors.

Calculate the current through the resistors.

5. A number of 8 ohm resistors are available. How would

you connect a suitable number of these to obtain an effective
resistance of :
(i) 2 ohms.
(ii) 24 ohms
-A high resistance voltmeter is connected across the
6. See UNEB Paper1 terminals of the cell, we take the reading which is the E.m.f.,
Section A:
E of the cell.
1987 Qn.29 1989 Qn.32 1992 Qn.8 1994 Qn.4 -A standard resistor is connected to the cell terminals and
1998 Qn.35 2000 Qn.37 2006 Qn.38 2008 Qn.36 the voltmeter reading is taken again which is V.
1992 Qn.15 1989 Qn.11 1991 Qn.28 1994 Qn.24 -Calculate the internal resistance of the cell, r from;
1995 Qn.29 1998 Qn.37 2004 Qn.6 2007 Qn.12 𝐑(𝐄 − 𝐕)
1994 Qn.32 𝐫=
𝐕
-Repeat the procedure using other resistors of different
Section B: resistances.
2002 Qn.50 1994 Qn.5 1997 Qn.8 1998 Qn.8 -Finally take the mean value of internal resistance.
2000 Qn.9 2002 Qn.7
(b) Method II: Using a voltmeter, Ammeter and
(1989 Qn. 7). (b) A battery of e.m.f 2.0 V and of negligible standard resistors.
internal resistance is connected as shown below.

-A high resistance voltmeter is connected across the

terminals of the cell, we take the reading which is the E.m.f.,
E of the cell.
-A standard resistor is connected in series with the cell
Find the reading of the ammeter, A. terminals and the voltmeter connected across it as shown
above.
(c) A battery of e.m.f 12 V and internal resistance1Ω is -Read and record the voltmeter reading, V and the
connected for three minutes and two seconds across a corresponding ammeter reading, I.
heating coil of resistance 11Ω immersed in a liquid of mass -Calculate the internal resistance of the cell, r from;
0.2 kg and specific heat capacity of 2.0 × 103 Jkg −1 K −1 . 𝐄−𝐕
𝐫=
Find the rise in temperature of the liquid. Clearly state any 𝐈
assumptions made. -Repeat the procedure using other resistors of different
resistances.
(1989 Qn. 7). (b) A cell of e.m.f, E and internal resistance -Finally take the mean value of internal resistance
1.0 Ω is connected in series with a 2Ω resistor as shown Derivation: For the resistor alone;
bellow. Find the total resistance V = IR … … … … … … . . (ii)
using R and r and them apply
ohm’s law Subtracting equation (ii)
Total resistance = R + r from equation (i) , we get;
E = I × Total restance E − V = Ir
E = I(R + r) Making r the subject of the
E = IR + Ir … … … … (i) formula gives;
𝐄−𝐕
𝐫=
𝐈
Note: The expression 𝐄 − 𝐕 is called lost volt and it is
The voltmeter reads 1.5V when the switch is open. defined as the voltage wasted in overcoming the internal
(i). Find the value of E. resistance of a cell.

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Alternatively: 240I = 1500 (240)2
V E−V I = 6.25 A 1500 =
From; V = IR, I= r= R
R V 1500R = 57600
( )
Substituting for current, I in R R = 38.4 Ω
the equation for r above,
gives; 𝐑(𝐄 − 𝐕) (iii) The energy consumed in One can use;
𝐫=
𝐕 1
1 hours: 𝐕𝟐
2 𝐄 = 𝐈𝐕𝐭, 𝐨𝐫 𝐄 =
𝐄 = 𝐏𝐭 𝐑
E = 1500 × (1.5 × 60 × 60)
E = 8,100,000J
The advantage of electric energy is the ease with which it
may be transferred to light, heat and other forms of energy.
Because of this, it can be used in many types of equipment 2. In the diagram, below, a 12V battery of internal
like refrigerators, cookers, lamps, e.t.c. resistance 0.6Ω is connected to the 3 resistors. A, B, C.

When electricity passes thru an appliance, it develops and

produces some heat which may depend on any of the
following;
 Resistance of the conductor
 The amount of current flowing
 The time for which the current has been flowing

Work done by an electric current. Find the:

When a charge moves through a resistance wire, the work (i) Current in each resistor.
done becomes the electrical energy which changes to heat (ii) Power dissipated in the 4Ω resistor.
energy.
𝐖𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐝𝐨𝐧𝐞 = 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 × 𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 Solution:
𝐖 = 𝐕 × 𝐐 R=0.6Ω; E= 12V, I = ?
Effective resistance of the (i) Current through the
From the definition of current, Q = It: Thus; circuit circuit.
W = V × It The 2Ω and 3Ω are in From Ohms law; V=IR.
𝐖 = 𝐕𝐈𝐭 … … … … … … … … … . (𝐢) parallel. Their effective V = IR
resistance is in series with 12 = I × 4
But from Ohm′ s law, V = IR ∶ Thus; the 1.8Ω resistor.
W = IR × It Thus the effective 12
resistance R is given by: I= = 3A
𝐖 = 𝐈 𝟐 𝐑𝐭 … … … … … … … … … (𝐢𝐢) 4
R = Rp + Rs Thus current through the 1Ω
𝐕𝟐𝐭 resistor is 3 A.
𝐖 = … … … … … … … … (𝐢𝐢𝐢) R1 R 2
𝐑 R= + R3 + r P.d across the parallel
R1 + R 2
combination, 4Ω and 6Ω
Electrical Power
4×6 resistors.
Power is the rate of doing work or it’s the rate of energy R= + 1 + 0.6
4+6 From Ohms law; V=IR.
transfer.
Work done Energy transfered 24 VP = IR P
Power = = R= + 1 + 0.6 VP = 3 × 2.4
Time taken Time taken 10
R = 2.4 + 1 + 0.6 VP = 7.2 V
IVt R = 4Ω Thus the P.d across the 4Ω
Power, P = = IV and 6Ω resistors is 7.2V.
t
Current through the Ω Current through the 6Ω
𝐕𝟐 resistor. resistor.
𝐏 = 𝐈𝐕 = 𝐈 𝟐 𝐑 = From Ohms law; V=IR. From Ohms law; V=IR.
𝐑
Examples V1 = I1 R1 V2 = I2 R 2
1. An electrical flat iron of rated 240V, 1500W. calculate 7.2 = I1 × 4 7.2 = I2 × 6
the; 4 I1 = 7.2 6 I2 = 7.2
(i) The current through the flat iron. I1 = 1.8 A I2 = 1.2 A
(ii) The resistance of the flat iron
1 Alternatively:
(iii) The energy consumed in 1 hours.
2 I2 = I − I1
Solution: I2 = 3 − 1.8
P = 1500W; V = 120V, I = ? I2 = 1.2 A
(i) the current through the flat (ii) The resistance of the (ii) Power dissipated in One can use;
iron. flat iron the 4Ω resistor. 𝐕𝟐
𝐏 = 𝐈𝐕 𝐕𝟐 P = I2R 𝐏 = 𝐈𝐕, 𝐨𝐫 𝐏 =
𝐏 = 𝐑
1500 = I × 240 𝐑 P = (1.8)2 × 4

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P = 3,24 × 4 Exercise:
P = 12.96 W 1. An electric appliance is rated 200V, 0.05kW. Calculate
the;
(i) Current through the appliance.[0.25A]
3. (1992 Qn. 6). An electrical appliance is rated 240V, (ii) Resistance of the appliance.
60W. (a) What do you understand by this statement? (iii) Time it will take to transfer energy of 10,000J.
(b) Calculate the current flowing through and the resistance [200 seconds]
of the appliance when operated at the rated values above.
[0.25A, 960Ω respectively] 2. Appliance A allows 3A of current to go through it when
Solution: connected to a 200 V supply while appliance B has a
(a) 240V, 60W means that the appliance supplies or resistance of 40Ω when connected to the same supply.
consumes 60 joules of electrical energy in one second when Which of the two appliances heats up first and why?
connected to a 240V mains supply.
3. see UNEB
(b) V=240V, P=60W, I=? Section A
1997 Qn. 37 1989 Qn. 8 2007 Qn. 4 2003 Qn. 38
(i) From: P = IV
60 = I × 240 V2 1988 Qn. 10 1991 Qn. 15 1998 Qn. 35 1999 Qn. 36
(ii) From: P = 2006 Qn. 36
240I = 60 R
V2
I = 0.25A P=
R Example: 5
(240)2 A battery of un known e.m.f and internal resistance is
60 = connected in series with a load of resistance, R ohms. If a
R
60R = 57600 very high resistance voltmeter is connected across the load
R = 960Ω reads 3.2V and the power is dissipated in the battery is
0.032W and efficiency of the circuit is 80%. Find the:
4. (1990 Qn. 3). (c) In the diagram below, two batteries of (i) Current flowing
e.m.f 1.5V and internal resistance of 1Ω each are (ii) Internal resistance of the battery.
connected to a network of resistors in a circuit which (iii) Load resistance, R
includes a switch, S. (iv) E.m.f of the battery.
Solution:
E r

Total resistance, = R + r From equation (iii)

(i). What will be the reading on the ammeter when From the circuit formula; I(4r) = 3.2 … … … . … (iv)
switch S is closed? [Ans: 0.23A] E
(ii). What is the power developed in the 4Ω resistor I= … … … … … … . (𝑖)
R+r Equation (ii) ÷ (iv)
when S is closed? [Ans: 0.21 W] Power dissipated in the I 2 r 0.032
Solution: battery; =
R1= 4Ω; R2= 3Ω; R3= 6Ω; V1= 1.5V; V2= 1.5V; 4Ir 3.2
P = I 2 r = 0.032 … . . … (ii) I = 0.04 A
r1= 1Ω; r2= 1Ω;
Effective resistance of the (i) Current through the From Ohm’s law; the From equation (ii)
circuit ammeter. terminal p.d is; (0.04)2 𝑟 = 0.032
For the two cells in parallel. From Ohms law; V=IR. 𝑟 = 20Ω
r1 r2 1×1 V = IR V = IR = 3.2 … … … … (iii)
r= = = 0.5Ω
r1 + r2 1 + 1 1.5 = I × 6.5 P. out R = 4r
6.5I = 1.5 Efficiency, = × 100
P. in R = 4(20) = 80Ω
For the two standard I = 0.23 A
resistors in parallel. 80 I2R From equation (ii)
R1 R 2 3×6 (ii) power developed in =
RP = = 100 ER E = I(R + r)
R1 + R 2 3 + 6 the 4Ω resistor when S is I2R E = 0.04(40 + 20)
= 2Ω closed? 0.8 = 2
I (R + r) E=4V
From Ohms law; V=IR. R = 0.8(R + r)
Thus effective resistance is; P = I2R R = 4r
R = Rp + Rs + r P = (0.23)2 × 4
R = 0.5 + 2 + 4 P = 0.0529 × 4
R = 6.5 Ω P = 0.21 W Example:6
A battery of e.m.f 12V and un known internal resistance is
connected in series with a load resistance, R reads 11.4V
and the power dissipated in the battery is 0.653W. Find the:

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(i) Current flowing.
(ii) Internal resistance of the battery.
(iii) Load resistance, R. There are always charges for electricity consumed that the
(v) Efficiency of the circuit. electricity board gives for us for payment and they use our
meters to estimate the energy consumed.
Solution: The energy consumed is measured in kWh which is an
abbreviation for kilowatt hour.
The commercial unit of electrical energy is a kilowatt-hour,
E=12V r (kWh) since a watt second is very small.

A kilowatt hour is the electrical energy used by a rate of

I working of 1000 watts for 1 hour.
It is the quantity of electrical energy converted into other
R forms of energy by a device of power 1000watts in one
hour.
From Ohm’s law; the From equation (iii) 1 watt = 1 joule per second
terminal p.d is; (1.088)2 𝑟 = 0.653 1 kWh = 1000x1hr
V = IR r = 0.55Ω = 1000 x 60 x 60 x 60 joules.
= 11.4 … … … … (i) 1 kWh = 3,600,000J = 3.6 MJ
From equation (i)
P.d across the internal IR = 11.4 Cost of electric energy calculation
resistance is lost volts (1.088)R = 11.4
(Ir). From; R = 10.48Ω 𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬 𝐮𝐬𝐞𝐝 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞
E = I(R + r) ⇔ Ir [ ]=[ ]×[ ]
(Energy consumed) (in kW) (in hours)
=E Power output
Efficiency, =
− IR Power input 𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬 𝐮𝐬𝐞𝐝 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐩𝐞𝐫
Ir = 12 − 11.4 × 100% 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭 = [ ]×[ ]
(Energy consumed in kWh) 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭
Ir I2R
= 0.6 … … … … … … … (ii) = × 100% The rate per unit is the cost per unit of electrical energy
ER
consumed. Thus the cost of using an appliance is given by;
Power dissipated in the (1.088)2 (10.48)
battery; = 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐭 𝐩𝐞𝐫
12(1.088) 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐭 = [ ]×[ ]×[ ]
P = I2r × 100% (in kW) (in hours) 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭
= 0.653 … … . (iii) = 95%
Equation (iii) ÷ (ii)
I 2 r 0.653 Examples;
= 1. (1995 Qn. 33). Four bulbs each rated at 75W operate
Ir 0.6
I = 1.088 A for 120 hours. If the cost of electricity is sh.100 per
unit, find the total cost of electricity used.
Solution:
Number of bulbs = 4;
Question: Power rating for each bulb = 75W
A cell of electromotive force 2.0V and negligible internal Total Power rating for 4 bulb = 4 × 75W = 300W
resistance is connected in series with a resistance of 3.5Ω 300
= kW
and an ammeter of resistance 0.5Ω. Calculate the current in 1000
the circuit. [Ans: 0.5A] = 𝟎. 𝟑 𝐤𝐖
Total Time = 120 Hours Cost per unit = sh. 100
Commercial Electric Energy
All electric appliances are connected in parallel so that each
is at the same voltage.
Power Time Cost per
All electric appliances are marked showing the power rating Total Cost = [ ]×[ ]×[ ]
(in kW) (in hours) unit
in watts (W) and the voltage in volts (V).
The power of an appliance indicates the amount of electrical
Total Cost = [0.3 kW] × [120 hrs] × [sh. 100]
energy it supplies or the amount of work it does per second.
Total Cost = sh. 3600
For example: A heater marked 240V, 1000W, means that
the heat consumes 1000J of electrical energy every second
2. An electric immersion heater is rated at 3000W, 240V.
when connected to 240V.
Calculate the;
(i) Current and resistance of the heating element.
(ii) Total number of electric units it consumes in
1
1 hours.
2
(iii) Cost per unit if sh. 9000 is paid after using it
for 3hours everyday for ten days.

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Solution: Total power = (2.4 + 1 + 0.18 + 0.3) kWh = 3.88 kWh
(i) V= 240V, P =3000W, I=?, R = ?
From: P = IV V2 Total time = (3 × 30) hours = 90 hours.
From: P =
3000 = I × 240 R

240I = 3000 V2 Power Time

P= Cost per
R Total Cost = [ ]×[ ]×[ ]
I = 12.5A (in kW) (in hours) unit
(240)2 Total Cost = [3.88 kW] × [90 hrs] × [sh. 200]
3000 =
R
3000R = 57600 Total Cost = sh. 69840
R = 19.2Ω
(ii) 4. Find the cost of running five 60 W lamps and 4 100 W
Total Power = 3000W 1 lamps for 8 hours if the electric energy costs shs. 5.0
Total Time = 1 hours
2 per unit.[ Shs.28 ]
3000
= kW 3
1000 = hours 5. A house has one 100 W bulb, two 75 W bulbs and 5 40
2 W bulbs. Find the cost of having all lamps switched on
= 𝟑 𝐤𝐖 for 2 hours every day for 30 days at a cost of shs. 30 per
= 𝟏. 𝟓 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐬 unit.
[Shs. 810].

Number of units used Power Time 6. See UNEB

[ ]=[ ]×[ ]
(Energy consumed) (in kW) (in hours) Section A
2002 Qn. 36 1999 Qn. 40 2003 Qn. 37 2006 Qn. 28
Number of units used 2007 Qn. 14
= 3 × 1.5
(Energy consumed) Section B
1992 Qn. 2 1997 Qn. 8 2008 Qn. 4
Number of units used
= 4.5 kWh = 4.5 Units
(Energy consumed)
Generation and Transmission of electricity
(a) Generation of electricity
(iii)
Electricity is generated at power stations by using one of the
Total Power = 3000W Total Time = 3 × 10 hours following;
 Coal, Nuclear reactions, Falling water, e.t.c.
3000 = 30 hours
= kW
1000 (b) Transmission of electricity
 The electricity generated at the power station is then
= 3 kW stepped up to higher voltage using step up transformers
for transmission.
Let the cost per unit be y  Electricity is transmitted at high voltages to reduce
Power Time Cost per
Total Cost = [ ]×[ ]×[ ] power loss through heating effect in the transmission
(in kW) (in hours) unit cables.
Transmission cables are made thick to reduce its resistance
9000 = 3 × 30 × 𝑦
hence minimizing power loss through the 𝐈 𝟐 𝐑 −
9000 = 90𝑦
mechanism.
y = sh. 100
 The electricity is then stepped down using step down
transformers in phases. That is, it is first stepped down
3. Mr. Bagira uses 3 kettles of 800W each, a flat iron of
to heavy factories, industries, cities, towns, and finally
1000W, 3 bulbs of 60W each and 4 bulbs of 75W each.
to homes.
If they are used for 3 hours every day for 30 days and
 The transmission can either be over head or
that one unit of electricity costs sh. 200, find the total
underground. In some developed countries, the grid
cost of running the appliances.
system is used
The grid system is a system where different power stations
Solution: are inter connected or networked so that in cases there is
Kettles Flat irons 60W Bulbs 75W Bulbs power failure in one power station or when one station is
P P P = 3 × 60 P stopped for maintenance work, the other stations continue to
= 3 × 800 = 1 × 1000 P = 180 W = 4 × 750 supply the power.
P P = 1000 W P = 300 W
= 2400 W (c) House wiring.
1000 180
= kW = kW 300
1000 1000 Domestic electric installation
2400 = kW
1000 Power is connected in a house by thick cables from the pole
= kW = 1 kW = 0.18 kW
1000 called mains to the fuse box {meter box}, then main switch
= 0.3 kW and to the distribution box. Here, power is directed to
= 2.4 kW

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electrical equipments. Each circuit has its own fuse which is Connection of appliances
connected to a live wire. Electrical appliances are usually connected in parallel with
The main switch board (distribution box) breaks both wires the mains so that;
when in OFF position and is therefore called a double pole (i) They receive full main potential difference.
switch. (ii) When one circuit is faulty or switched off, the
It completely cuts off the supply in the house. other circuits remain working.

In supply cable: (a) Light circuits

Power enters the house thru the supply cable from the All lamps in house wiring are connected in parallel with the
electric pole from which two insulated wires, the live and switch on the live wire to the lamp.
the neutral come from. They are distinguished by colour i.e;

Type of wire Colour

(i) Live wire Red or Brown
(ii) Neutral wire Blue or Black
(iii) Earth wire Yellow or Green or Yellow with
green stripes

The earth wire is usually earthed and is therefore at zero

potential while the live wire is at a potential of 240V for the
case of Uganda.
The electricity being supplied is alternating and it therefore
alternates from positive to negative in a single cycle.
(i) Filament Lamp / Incandescent lamp:

Switches, Sockets and Plugs

Electric Connection
system
(i) Switches  Control the flow of current
 Connected to the live wire to prevent
the appliance from being live when -When switched on, the coiled tungsten filament is heated, it
switched off. Thus they are called becomes white hot and emits light.
single pole switches. -The higher the temperature of the filament, the greater the
electrical energy changed to light.
(ii) Fuses  It is a thin wire of low melting point
which melts when the current exceeds Note:
a required value so as to break the  The filament is made out of tungsten, because tungsten
circuit. has a higher melting point. Hence it can’t easily melt
 It must be connected to the live wire. when white hot.
(iii) Sockets  These are power points usually put on  The filament is coiled in order to reduce space occupied
the walls. and hence reduce the rate of heat loss by convection
 They have 3 holes leading to the live currents in the gas.
wire L, neutral wire N and earth wire  The glass bulb is filled with an inert gas at low pressure,
E. to prevent evaporation of tungsten and increase the
(iv) Plugs  These are points which connect or tap operating temperature. Otherwise it would condense on
power from the socket to the the bulb and blacken it.
appliance.
 It has 3 pins that fit into the 3 holes in
the socket. The pins are marked with
L, N and E for live, neutral and earth
wires respectively.

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(ii) Fluorescent lamps/ Tubes/ Discharge lamp.

-When switched on, the mercury vapour emits ultra-violet

radiations.
-The radiations strike the fluorescent powder (e.g Zinc Safety precautions in a house
sulphide, ZnS) and the tube glows emitting light.  Electric cables must be properly insulated
 Keep hands dry whenever dealing with electric supply
Differences between a filament lamp and a fluorescent  In case of an electric shock, switch off the main switch
lamp immediately
Filament lamp Fluorescent lamp  Before a fuse is replaced check the fault in the circuit
-Not long lasting -Long lasting which caused the problem and make sure it’s rectified.
-Cheaper -Expensive
-Emit light by heating the -Emit light by sending an Sources of e.m.f
filament in the bulb. electrical discharge through an They are;
ionized gas. - Cells. These change energy to electric energy
-Have high operating -Have low operating - Batteries/accumulators. Also convert chemical energy
temperatures. temperatures. to electrical energy
-Can easily be disposed -Care should be taken when - D.C and A.C. generators
off since the inert gasses disposing them off, since - Photo cells, they convert light energy to electrical
are not poisonous. mercury vapour is poisonous. - Thermo couples. They convert heat energy to electrical
-High energy/ power -Low energy/ power energy.
consumption, hence high consumption, hence low
energy costs. energy costs. Exercise:
1. (1989 Qn. 17). How many lamps marked 75W, 240V
Qn. With the aid of diagrams, describe how a filament lamp could light normally when connected in parallel having
and a fluorescent/discharge lamp work. a 5A fuse.
A: 1 B: 3 C: 16 D: 26

(b) Socket ring mains. 2. (1990 Qn.39). Very high voltages are used when
The sockets on the ring main circuit are connected in distributing electric power from the power station
parallel so that they receive full main potential difference. because;
The use of a ring of wire reduces the thickness of wire A: Some electric equipment require very high voltages
which has to be used. B: Currents are lower, so energy losses are smaller
Both ends of the loop are connected to the fuse box. C: Very high voltages are generated at the power stations
The current, I flowing is normally 12 amperes. Thus the fuse D: There is less likely hood of the transmission lines being
used should be just above 12 A. struck by lightning.

Choosing an ideal fuse for the appliance 3. (1991 Qn.7). An electric toaster plate rating is 220-
The ideal fuse to be used should have a maximum rating 240V, 750W. The fuse is:
which is a little higher than the normal current expected. A: 1 A B: 3 A C: 5 A D: 13 A

Example: 4. (2000 Qn. 31). For safety in a house, a fuse and a

Suggest an appropriate fuse value to be used for a 3kW switch are connected to:
appliance when used on a 240V main supply. Fuse Switch
P = 3kW=3000 W; V = 240 V A Live wire Neutral wire
P = IV B Neutral wire Earth wire
3000 = I × 240 C Live wire Live wire
240I = 3000 D Earth wire Neutral wire
I = 12.5A
Thus the appropriate fuse should be slightly higher than 5. (1999 Qn. 39). Which of the following statements are
12.5A true about electric wiring?
(i) The fuse is always connected into the live wire
leading to the circuit.
(ii) The fuse is always connected into the Neutral
wire leading to the circuit.
(iii) When a fault develops in a circuit, it is the
neutral which has to be disconnected.

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 A: (i) only B: (iii) only (c) Describe the functions of;
C: (i) and (iii) only D: (i), (ii) and (ii). (i) A fuse.
(ii) An earth wire
6. (2002 Qn. 18). The device which disconnects the mains (d) Describe briefly how power is transmitted from a power
when there is a sudden increase in voltage is; station to a home.
A: Fuse B: Switch C: Earth wire D: Circuit breaker (e) Find the cost of running two 60W lamps for 20 hours if
the cost of each unit is sh.40.
7. (1992 Qn. 2). In a house wiring system, all connections
to the power points are in parallel so as to:
A: Supply the same current.
B: Operate at the same voltage.
C: Minimize the cost of electricity
B: Consume the same amount of energy.

8. (2008 Qn. 17). The possible energy transfer in an

electric bulb is;
A: Light energy to heat energy.
B: Heat energy to electrical energy.
C: Electrical energy to light energy.
D: Light energy to electrical energy.

9. (1993 Qn. 33). Which of the following circuit diagrams

shows the correct positions for the lamp and the switch
K in a lighting circuit?

10. (1991 Qn. 7).

SECTION B
11. (1991 Qn.3). The figure below shows a circuit diagram
of a part of a wiring system of a car. H 1 and H2 are
headlamps and P1, P2, P3 and P4 are parking lamps.

(a) How can;

(i) All the lamps be switched on?
(ii) Both headlamps be switched off without
affecting the parking lamps.

(b) State what happens to the lamps if P1 is broken when all

the lamps are on. Give a reason for your answer.

12. (2000 Qn.8). (a) Describe the structure and action of a

fluorescent tube.
(b) Give one advantage of a fluorescent tube over a filament
lamp.

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 7. MODERN PHYSICS
(c) Isotopes
These are atoms of the same element having the same
STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
atomic numbers but different mass numbers.
(a) The atom
An atom is defined as the smallest electrically neutral Thus Isotopes of an element have;
particle of an element that can take part in a chemical (i) The same number of protons and electrons.
(ii) Different number of neutrons.
reaction.
An atom consists of 3sub atomic particles namely -:
- Proton Examples of Isotopes:
- Neutrons Element Isotopes
- Electrons Carbon -Carbon-12 ( 𝟏𝟐𝟔𝐂 ); Carbon-13 ( 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝐂 );
It is made up of the central part called nucleus around which Carbon-14 ( 𝟏𝟒𝟔𝐂 )
electrodes rotate in orbit or shells or energy levels. The Chlorine -Chlorine-35 ( 𝟑𝟓 𝟑𝟕
𝟏𝟕𝐂𝐥 ); Chlorine-35 ( 𝟏𝟕𝐂𝐥 );
protons and neutrons lie within the nucleus and these
particles are sometimes referred to as nuclei particles or Uranium -Uranium-35 ( 𝟐𝟑𝟔 𝟐𝟑𝟐
𝟗𝟐𝐔 ); Uranium-35 ( 𝟗𝟐𝐔 )
nucleons.

Isotropy is the existence of atoms of the same element with

the same atomic number, but different mass number.

Question:
Describe the composition of the following nuclides.
(i) 𝟐𝟐𝟖
𝟖𝟖𝐑𝐚 (ii) 𝟐𝟏𝟎
𝟖𝟐𝐏𝐛 (iii) 𝟑𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝐔

Exercise:
1. (1991 Qn. 18): 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟖𝟎𝐗 is a symbol for a nuclide whose
Name of Symbol change Location number of neutrons is
p’cle A. 40 B. 80 C. 120 D. 200
Protons 1H +1 In the nucleus 2. (1990 Qn. 7): The table below shows the numbers of
Neutrons 0n 0 In the nucleus the respective particles constituting atoms of elements
Electrons −1e −1 Outside nucleus P,Q, R and S.
The nucleus is positively charged Element Neutrons Protons Electrons
P 0 1 1
The atom of an element is represented in a chemical Q 2 1 1
equation using a chemical symbol as shown below. R 2 2 2
S 2 3 3
The isotopes are
A. P and Q C. Q and R
Where, X is the chemical symbol of the element, A is the B. C. R and S D. Q and S
mass number and Z is the atomic number.
An atom with specified number of protons and neutrons (or 3. (1990 Qn. 11): The copper atom 𝟔𝟑
𝟐𝟗𝐂𝐮 has
specified A and Z) is called a nuclide. electrons protons Neutrons
A 29 29 34
(b) Atomic number and mass number B 34 34 29
(i) Atomic number (Z) C 34 29 29
This is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. D 34 39 34

(ii) Atomic mass (A) 4. (1991 Qn. 8): If X is an isotope of Y, then the
This is the sum of protons and neutrons in a nucleus of an A. Atomic mass of X is equal to that of Y
atom. It is sometimes called Mass number or nucleon B. Atomic mass is equal to the atomic number of Y
number. C. Atomic number of X is equal to that of Y
D. Atomic number of X is equal to the atomic mass
The atomic number, Z, mass number, A and the number of of Y
neutrons, n are related by the expression:
𝐀𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐜 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 = 𝐀𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐜 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 + 𝐍𝐨. 𝐨𝐟 𝐧𝐮𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐨𝐧𝐬 5. (1994 Qn. 9): An atom has mass number 88 neutrons
𝐀=𝐙+𝐧 and atomic number 38. Which of the following
statements are correct about the atom;
(i) It has 38 protons and 50 neutrons
(ii) It has 38 protons and 38 electrons
(iii) It has 50 protons and 38 neutrons
A. (i) and (ii) C. (ii) and (iii)
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 B. C. (i) and (iii) D. (i), (ii) and (iii)

6. (1995 Qn. 18): Isotopes are nuclides with the same

number of;
A. Protons but different but different number of
electrons
B. Protons but different number of neutrons
C. Neutrons but different number of protons
D. Electrons but the same number of protons

7. (2004 Qn. 22): The table below shows the structure of

four atoms P,Q, R and S Electromagnetic radiations (eg Ultra violet radiation) are
Elements Neutrons Protons Electrons directed onto the cathode and supplies sufficient energy that
P 6 6 6 causes the liberation of electrons.
Q 8 6 6 The electrons are then attracted by the anode. and produce
R 2 2 2 current in the circuit hence the ammeter deflects.
S 2 3 3 Note: The flow of electrons to the anode completes the
A. P and Q C. Q and R circuit and hence an electric current flows which causes the
B. P and S D. P and R ammeter to deflect.
 The magnitude of the current produced is proportional
8. (2004 Qn. 32): An atom contains 3 electrons, 3 protons to the intensity of the incident radiation.
and 4 neutrons. Its’ nucleon number is?  If gas is introduced into the tube, current decreases
A. 3 B. 4 C. 6 D. 7 slowly because gas particles collide with electrons
hence reducing the number of electrons reaching the
(2006 Qn. 21): A Nickel nuclide, 𝟔𝟎 anode.
9. 𝟐𝟖𝐍𝐢 contains
A. 28 protons and 28 neutrons
B. 32 electrons and 28 neutrons Conditions for photoelectric effect to take place.
C. 28 protons and 32 neutrons  Nature of the metal.
D. 28 electrons and 32 protons  Frequency of the incident electromagnetic radiation. It
should be noted that electrons are not emitted until a
𝟐𝟑𝟔
and 𝟐𝟑𝟐 certain frequency called Threshold frequency is
10. 𝟗𝟐𝐗 𝟗𝟐𝐗 are isotopes of an element. Find the
number of neutrons in the nucleus of 𝟐𝟑𝟐𝐙𝐗. reached.
A. 144 B. 140 C. 92 D. 4
(b) Thermionic Emission:
𝟑𝟓 This is the process by which electrons are emitted from
11. An isotope of nuclide, 𝟏𝟕𝐗,
has
metal surface by heating. The steams of electrons are
A. 18 protons and 17 neutrons
transmitted or travel in a straight line and these steams are
B. 17 electrons and 18 neutrons
called cathode rays.
C. 17 protons and 20 neutrons
D. 18 protons and 18 neutrons
CATHODE RAYS:
Cathode rays are steams of fast moving electrons.
12. (a) What is the difference between atomic number and
mass number?
Production of Cathode rays:
(b) What is meant by;
(i) Mass number?
(ii) Atomic number?

PHOTOELECTRIC AND THERMIONIC EMISSIONS

(a) Photoelectric Emission:

Photo electric emission is the ejection of electrons from a
certain metal surface e.g zinc plate, when electromagnetic
radiation of sufficient frequency falls on it.
It normally occurs in phototubes or photoelectric cells.

Phototube or Photoelectric cell The cathode is heated by a low P.d applied across the
 A photoelectric cell consists of a cathode coated with a filament.
photo sensitive material and an anode. These are The cathode then emits electrons by thermionic emission.
enclosed in a vacuum glass tube. The emitted electrons are then accelerated by a high p.d
 The glass tube is evacuated in order to avoid collision (E.H.T) applied between the filament and the anode so that
of the ejected electrons with the air or gas molecules. they move with a very high speed to constitute the cathode
This would otherwise lead to low currents. rays.

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Other methods by which cathode rays are produced are; (a) The electron gun:
 Photoelectric emission This consists of the following parts
 Applying a high p.d (i) The cathode: It is used to emit electrons.
 By natural radioactive nucleus which emit beta (ii) The control grid: It is connected to low voltage
particles. supply and is used to control the number of
electrons passing through it towards the anode.
Properties of cathode rays (iii) The anode: the anode is used to accelerate the
 They travel in a straight line electrons and also focus the electrons into a fine
 They carry a negative charge. beam.
 They are deflected by an electric field. They are Note: Since the grid controls the number of electrons
deflected towards the positive plate, since they are moving towards the anode. It consequently controls the
negatively charged. brightness of the spot on the screen.
 They are deflected by a magnetic field. In an electric
field, cathode rays are deflected towards the positive (b) Deflecting system:
plate and in the magnetic field; the direction of This consists of the X- and Y- plates. They are used to
deflection is determined using Fleming’s left hand rule. deflect the electron beam horizontally and vertically
But remember, the direction of flow of current is respectively.
opposite to that of electrons.
 They ionize air and gas molecules. The X- plates are connected with the C.R.O to a special type
 They cause fluorescence to some substance e.g zinc of circuit called the time base circuit.
sulphide.
 They darken photographic film. Time base switch: This is connected to the X – plate and is
 They posses kinetic energy and momentum used to move the bright spot on the screen horizontally.
 They produce X-rays when stopped by matter.

Experiment to show that cathode rays travel in straight The Time Base or sweep generator
line (Thermionic tube). This is a special electrical circuit which generates a “saw
tooth” voltage (i.e. a voltage p.d that rises steadily to a
certain value and falls rapidly to zero.)
This p.d (time base) is connected to X-plates and causes the
spot of electron beam to move across the screen from left to
right, This is called a linear sweep.
The spot returns to the left before it starts the next sweep.
This is called fly-back. The time for the fly back is
negligible.

Cathode rays are incident towards the Maltese cross.

A shadow of the cross is formed on the fluorescent screen.
The formation of the shadow verifies that cathode rays
travels in a straight line.

Applications of Cathode rays

The thermionic emission and cathode rays are utilized in Note: During the fly back, the control grid is automatically
cathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.O), X – ray tube, Image tube made more negative thereby suppressing the brightness of
of a Tv, Electron microscope, etc. the spot.

(c) Fluorescent Screen:

THE CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (C.R.O) This is where the electron beam is focused to form a bright
The C.R.O consists of three main components. spot.
The coating on the screen converts kinetic energy into light
energy and produce a bright spot when the electron beam is
focused on it.

The graphite coating on the inner wall of the cathode ray

tube traps stray electrons emitted from the screen and makes
the potential in that region uniform.

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Action of a C.R.O
(a) A.C out put on the screen of a C.R.O Uses of a C.R O
Connecting a signal in form of alternating current (a.c) (i) Measurement of a.c and d,c voltage
voltage across the plates has the following traces on the (ii) Measurement of frequency
screen of a C.R.O. (iii) Measurement of phase difference
(iv) Displaying pictures in TV sets.
(i) (ii) (iii) (v) Displaying wave forms
Time base off. Time base off. Time base on,. X
X-plate a.c signal Y-plate a.c signal and Y-plate a.c Displaying wave forms:
only. only signals combined

Horizontal line at Vertical line at the Sinusoidal wave

the centre centre

(i) When time base (x- plate ) is switched on and there is no

signal on the y-plate , the spot is deflected horizontally . The
horizontal line is observed at the centre of the C.R.O...

(ii) When alternating current (a.c) is applied to the y- plate

and time base (x –plate ) is off , the spot is deflected
vertically . The vertical line observed at the centre of the
C.R.O.. Frequency measurements
This is achieved by comparing a wave form of known
(iii) When a.c is applied on the y-plate and x- plate is on ,a frequency with unknown frequency
wave form is observed on the screen.
Method
When time base is switched off , and no signal to the y- Adjust the time base of a C.R.O until one complete wave is
plate , a spot is only observed. obtained without altering the control grid of the C.R.O ,
Apply a signal ( input to the Y-plate) of known frequency.
(b) D.C out put on the screen of a C.R.O A steady waveform of the input will be displayed on the
Connecting a signal in form of direct current (d.c) voltage c.r.o.
across the plates has the following traces on the screen of a Then compare the frequency by counting the number of
C.R.O. complete waves
(i) (ii) (iii)
Time base off. Time base off. Time base off. If a signal repeats, it has a frequency. The frequency is
No signal on the X-plate signal Y-plate signal measured in Hertz (Hz) and equals the number of times the
plates only only signal repeats itself in one second.

Spot at the centre One direction One direction

horizontal line vertical line from
from the centre the centre

Note:
(i) (ii) (iii)
Time base off. Time base on, Time base on.
d.c signal on the d.c signal on the d.c signal on the
Y-plates Y-plates X-plates Measurement of p.d
A C.R.O can be used as voltmeter because the spot is
deflected depending on the p.d between the plates

Method
 Connect a cell 1.5V to the y-plate and adjust the grid
Spot One direction One direction control until the trace indicating the p.d is 1cm above
horizontal line vertical line 0 so that every 1cm deflection represents a p.d of
1.5V.

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  Get unknown p.d and connect it to y-plate and then
compare the deflection by counting the number of of
cm deflected. This means that we can measure
unknown p.d.

Measuring d.c. Potential Difference

 switch off the time-base.
 a spot will be seen on the c.r.o. screen. Adjust the grid
control (Y- gain control) until the trace indicating the
p.d is 1cm above 0 so that every 1cm deflection
represents a p.d of 1.5V
 d.c. to be measured is applied to the Y-plates. For a.c voltage
 spot will either be deflected upwards or downwards. The length l of the vertical trace is measured and
 Deflection of the spot is proportional to the d.c. voltage Voltage gain
applied. Then compare the deflection by counting the Vpp = [ ] × Vertical deflection
( or Y − sensitivity)
number of cm deflected. This means that we can
measure unknown p.d. Where𝐕𝐩𝐩 is the peak to peak voltage. The maximum
𝐕
voltage (amplitude, V0 ) is given by 𝐕𝟎 = 𝐩𝐩 and the actual
Measuring d.c. Potential Difference 𝟐
In this case, the voltage gain or the Y-sensitivity is set at a voltage at root mean square (r.m.s) is given by
suitable value. Then the p.d to be measured is connected to
the Y-plates and the time base is switched off. 𝐕𝟎
𝐕𝐫.𝐦.𝐬 =
The vertical deflection is measured and the direct voltage is √𝟐
got from:
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝑽𝒅𝒄 = [ ] × 𝑽𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
( 𝒐𝒓 𝒀 − 𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚)

If the Y-gain control is set at 2 volts/division And the

vertical deflection, y, is 1.5 divisions
Then d.c. voltage Example: 1
= 1.5 × 2 A CRO with Y-sensitivity (voltage gain) of 8Vcm-1 has its
= 3.0 𝑉 Y-plates connected (with the time base turned off) to:
(a) A d.c accumulator delivering 16 V,
Measuring a.c. voltage (b) An a.c voltage delivering 16 V at root mean square.
 switch off the time-base (i) Determine the deflection of the spot in (a)
 a spot will be seen on the c.r.o. screen. above and the length of a vertical line in
 a.c. to be measured is applied to the Y-plates. (b) above.
 spot will move up and down along the vertical axis (ii) Explain with a diagram what will happen if
at the same frequency as the alternating voltage. the plates are connected with time base on
 The spot moves to the top when the voltage to a voltage in (b) above.
increases to its maximum (positive) Solution
 The spot moves to the bottom when the voltage (a)
decreases to its lowest (negative) . Given:
Vdc = 16 V
When the frequency is high.
 The spot will move so fast that a vertical line is Voltage gain
[ ] = 8V cm−1
seen on the screen. ( or Y sensitivity)
 Length of the vertical line gives the peak-to-peak Then from;
voltage (Vpp) applied to the Y-plate. 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
 The peak voltage (Vp) = Vpp/2 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = [ ] × 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
( 𝑜𝑟 𝑌 − 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦)

16 = 8 × 𝑑
𝑑 = 2 cm
The spot will be deflected by 2 cm from the zero line.
(b)
Vr.m.s = 16V

Voltage gain
[ ] = 8V cm−1
( or Y sensitivity)

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 (iii) Calculate the frequency of power source if the time
base setting on the C.R.O is 5 X 10-3scm-1..
Solution:
Time sensitivity,
[ ] = 5.0 × 10−3 scm−1
(Time base setting)
V0 V0 From the graph, Length for 2 cycles = 8cm
Vr.m.s = ⇒ 16 = ⇒ V0 = 16√2 V
√2 √2 Time, t for 2 cycles =?

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 Time, t for 2 cycles

𝑉𝑝𝑝 = [ ] × 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
( 𝑜𝑟 𝑌 − 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦) Time sensitivity,
Time, t = [ ] × Legnth on time axis
(Time base setting)
−3
2 × 16√2 = 8 × 𝑙 Time, t = (5.0 × 10 ) × 8
𝒍 = 4√2 cm Time, t = 0.04 s

(ii) If the time base is on and Y-plates connected then we Time, T for 1 cycles (Period time, T)
shall obtain the wave from below with a peak value t 0.04 s
Time, T = = = 0.02 s
No. of cycles 2
Vo  16 2 V
Frequency;
1 1
Frequency, f = = = 50 Hz
T 0.02

Trial Question:
A cathode oscilloscope CRO with time base switched on is
connected across a power supply. The wave form shown in
figure below is obtained.

Example: 2
A C.R.O with time base switch on is connected across a
power supply; the wave form shown below is obtained.

The distance between each line as 1cm.

(i) Identify the type of voltage generated by the
power supply.
(ii) Find the amplitude of the voltage generated if the
voltage gain is 5Vcm-1.
(iii) Calculate the frequency of the power source, l the
time base setting on the C.R.O is 5 X 10-3scm-1.

Example: 3
Distance between each line is 1cm Determine the frequency of the signal below, if the time
base is set at 10 mill-second per cm.
(i) Identify the type of voltage generated from the
power source. Alternating current voltage.

(ii) Find the amplitude of voltage generated if voltage

gain is 5V per cm.
Solution:
Voltage gain
[ ] = 5V cm−1
( or Y − sensitivity)
From the graph, Amplidude = 2 cm

Voltage gain 2 cycles occupy = 15 cm

V0 = [ ] × Amplitude 1 cycle occupies = 15/2 = 7.5 cm
( or Y − sensitivity)
V0 = 5 × 2
V0 = 10 V

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 Legnth
Period time, T = ( ) × (Time base setting)
for 1 cycle Energy Changes in the X-ray tube.
Period time, T = 7.5 × 10 ms cm−1
Period time, T = 75 ms Electrical Heat enegy in K. E of E/m
→ → →
Period time, T = 75 × 10−3 s energy the filament electrons energy

Frequency; Note:
1 1 (i) The x – ray tube is evacuated to prevent fast moving
Frequency, f = = = 13.33 Hz electrons from being hindered by friction due to air
T 75 × 10−3
resistance.
Note (ii) The heat generated is conducted away thru the copper
If the CRO has no calibrated time base setting, when the anode to the cooling fins, or by use of a circulating
f 2 of the signal is determined from the liquid, oil or water through the hollow anode.
unknown frequency (iii) The curvature of the cathode helps to focus the
relation electrons onto the anode.
(iv) The target is made of tungsten because tungsten has a
1 very high melting point (33800).
Since, f ∝ ⇒ 𝐟𝟏 𝐝𝟏 = 𝐟𝟐 𝐝𝟐
d (v) The lead shied is used to absorb stray X-rays hence
preventing exposure of X-rays to un wanted regions.
Where
d1  horizontal distance occupied by signal 1 for one cycle Intensity of X-rays:
Intensity of X-rays refers to the number of X-rays produced.
d 2  horizontal distance occupied by signal 2 for one cycle  The intensity of X-rays increases when the filament
f1  known frequency of signal at same time base setting. current or heating current (the low P.d) is increased.
This is because when the filament current is increased,
the number of electrons hitting the target increases.
 The intensity also increases with the applied voltage
Advantages of a C.R.O over an ammeter and voltmeter
across the tube since the applied voltage increases the
(i) It has infinite resistance and therefore draws very little
energy with which the electrons hit the target hence
current from the circuit.
increasing energy for X-ray photons.
(ii) It can be used to measure both a.c and d.c voltages.
(iii) It has instantaneous response.
Penetrating Power (Strength or Quality) of X-rays:
(iv) It has no coil that can burn out.
 The penetrating quality of X-Rays increases with the
applied voltage across the tube
X – RAYS
These are electromagnetic radiations of short wave length.  X-rays of low frequency or low penetrating power are
They are produced when fast moving electrons are suddenly called soft X-rays and are produced when a low voltage
stopped by a metal target. is applied across the tube.
The process involved in the production of X-rays is the  If the applied voltage is high, X-rays (hard X-rays) of
inverse of Photoelectric emission. high frequency are produced.
 The penetrating power of X-rays is independent of the
Production of X-Rays filament current.
X-rays are produced in an X-ray tube.
Types of x – rays
(i) Soft x –rays are X-rays of low penetrating power i.e
low frequency and long wave length produced when a
low accelerating p.d is applied across the x-ray tube.

(ii) Hard x –rays are X-rays of high penetrating power i.e

high frequency and short wave length produced when a
high accelerating p.d is applied across the x-ray tube.

Properties of x- rays
 They can penetrate matter (the penetration increases
with the frequency and its minimum in materials of
high density e.g. lead.).
 They travel in straight lines at the speed of light.
 They are not deflected by both electric and magnetic
The cathode is heated to emit electrons by thermionic fields since they are not charged.
emission .using a low voltage supply.  They can ionise a gas increasing its conductivity.
A high p.d is applied across the anode to accelerate the  They affect a photographic plate or film.
electrons towards the anode.  They cause some substances to fluoresce e.g. Zinc
When the cathode rays strike the metal target, about 99% of sulphide.
their kinetic energy is converted to heat energy and 1% is  They are electromagnetic radiations of short wave
converted to X- rays. length.

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 They can produce photo electric emission. Low penetrating power High penetrating power
 They undergo refraction, reflection and diffraction. Deflected by both Not deflected since they
Magnetic and electric fields have no charge.
Health hazards of X-rays
Frequent exposure to X-rays can lead to dangers like; Exercise:
 They destroy cells especially hard x- rays. 1. Thermionic emission may occur when
 Cause gene mutation or genetic change. A. Fast moving electrons hit a metal
 Cause damage of eye sight and blood. B. A metal is given heat energy
 Cause cancer eg Leukemia (cancer of the blood) C. Metal receives light energy.
 Produce deep seated skin burns. D. A substance undergoes radioactive decay

Safety Precautions 2. Which one of the following will affect the number of
 Avoid unnecessary exposure to x –rays. electrons emitted in a thermionic tube?
(i) The p.d between anode and cathode
 Keep exposure time as short as possible.
(ii) The pressure of the filament
 The x- ray beam should only be restricted to parts of the
(iii) The current flowing in the filament circuit
body being investigated.
A. (i) and (ii) only C. (i) and (iii) only
 Soft X-rays should be used on human tissues.
B. (ii0 and (iii) only D. (iii) only
 Workers dealing with x-rays should wear shielding
jackets with a layer of lead. 3. What is the process by which electrons are emitted from
 Exposure should be avoided for unborn babies and very a hot filament?
young children. A. Radioactivity
B. Nuclear reaction
Uses of X-rays C. Thermionic emission
a) Medicine (Hospital Use) D. Thermo-electric effect
 Used to investigate bone fractures. 4. Which one of the following are properties of cathode
 Detecting lung tuberculosis.. rays?
 Used to locate swallowed metal objects. (i) They travel in straight lines
 Used to detect internal ulcers along a digestive track (ii) They can penetrate a thick sheet of paper
 Used to treat cancer especially when it hasn’t spread by (iii) They darken a photographic plate
radiotherapy i.e very hard x-rays are directed to the (iv) They are deflected by a magnetic field
cancer cells so that the latter are destroyed.
A. (i), (iii) and (iv) only C. (i), (ii) and (iv) only
How an x-ray is used to locate broken parts of a bone . B. (i), (ii) and (iii) only D. (iv) only
Bones are composed of much denser material than flesh
hence if x- rays are passed thru the body , they are absorbed 5. The phenomenon by which electrons are released from
by the bones onto a photographic plate which produces a a metal surface when radiation falls on it is known as
shadow of the photograph the bone that is studied to locate A. Radioactivity C. Photoelectric effect
the broken part. B. Thermionic emission D. Reflection

b) Industrial use 6. Streams of electrons moving at high speed are called?

 Used to detect cracks in car engines and pipes. A. X-rays C. Gamma rays
 Used in inspection of car tyres B. Cathode rays D. Alpha particles
 Used to locate internal imperfections in welded joints
e.g pipes , boilers storage tanks e.t.c. 7. The process by which electrons are emitted from the
 Used to detect cracks in building. surface of a metal by application of heat is known as
A. Photoelectric emission
c) X-ray crystallography B. Electromagnetic emission
 Used to determine inter – atomic spacing in the crystal. C. Thermionic emission
This done by using X-ray diffraction. D. Heat emission

d) Security: 8. Fig below shows a beam of electrons incident mid way

 X-rays are used to check luggage for potentially between two charged metal plates.
dangerous weapons and smuggled items at airports and
custom security check point.

Differences between cathode rays and x-rays

Cathode rays X-rays
Which one of the following is correct? The beam
Negatively charged Have no charge
A. Is deflected towards the positive plate
neutral
B. Is deflected towards the negative plate
highly
C. Moves perpendicular to the plates
penetrating cannot be
D. Passes through the plates undetected.
deflected
Travel at low speed Travel at high speed

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9. The particles that are emitted from a hot metal surface
are called
A. Electrons C. Neutrons
B. Protons D. Alpha
The spot can be turned into a horizontal straight line shown
10. Cathode rays are; in (b), by;
A. Electromagnetic waves A. Switching off the time base.
B. Streams of X-rays B. Switching on the time base.
C. Protons emitted by a hot cathode C. Making one of the plates positive.
D. Streams of electrons moving at high speed D. Connecting the a.c voltage to the Y- plates

11. A Zinc cathode was enclosed in an evacuated glass tube 16. The cathode ray oscilloscope may be used to;
as shown in fig below. (i) Measure energy.
(ii) Measure potential difference.
(iii) Display wave forms.
A. (i) only. C. (ii) and (iii) only.
B. (i) and (ii) only. D. (i), (ii) and (iii).

17. Which of the following represent the appearance on the

screen of a cathode ray oscilloscope when a d.c voltage
is connected across the Y- plates with the time base
switched on?
A. B. C. D.
When the cathode was irradiated with ultra violet radiation,
the ammeter gave a reading
(i) Explain why the ammeter gave a reading.
(ii) A gas was gradually introduced into the glass
tube. Explain what happened. 18. The brightness on the screen of a T.V is determined by;
A. Darkness in the room.
12. (a) What is meant by the following? B. Size of the screen.
(i) Thermionic emission. C. Number of electrons reaching the screen.
(ii) Photoelectric effect D. Direction of the aerial.
(b) State the conditions necessary for photoelectric
effect to occur. 19. Which one of the following sketches represents the
(c) With the aid of a diagram, describe how cathode appearance the wave form observed in a C.R.O
rays are produced by thermionic emission. connected across an a.c supply when the time base of
the C.R.O is on?
13. A. B. C. D.

20. The brightness of the spot on a C.R.O screen is

controlled by;
A. X – Plates. C. Grid.
The wave form obtained when X and Y are connected to a B. Anode. D. Cathode.
cathode ray oscilloscope is:
A. B. C. D. 21. The X and Y – plates in a cathode ray oscilloscope
make up the:
A. Electron gun. C. Deflection system
B. Focusing system. D. Accelerating system.
14. A sinusoidal wave is observed on a cathode ray
22. (a) (i) Draw a well labeled diagram of a cathode ray
oscilloscope, when;
oscilloscope. (C.R.O).
A. A cell is connected to the Y- plates with time base
(ii) State one function of each part you have labeled in
off.
(i) above.
B. A low frequency alternating voltage is connected
to the Y-plates with time base on.
(b) The diagrams below show the traces of a cathode ray
C. A high frequency alternating voltage is connected
beam on the screen of a cathode ray tube.
to the Y-plates with time base on.
D. A cell is connected to the Y- plates with the time
base on.
Explain how each one may be obtained.
15. The figure below, (a) shows a spot of light on the screen
of a C.R.O. (c) Give two uses of a C.R.O.

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23. The diagram below shows the main parts of a cathode D. Soft X – rays are produced at high potential
ray oscilloscope (C.R.O). differences.

29. The diagram below shows a hot cathode X – ray tube.

(a) Name the parts labeled; A, B, C, D, E, U, V and X.

(i) Explain why the C.R.O is evacuated.
(ii) Describe briefly the principle of operation of a
C.R.O. (a) Name the parts labeled P, Q, R, S and T.
(iii) Describe how a bright spot is formed on the
(b) What is the purpose of the;
screen.
(i) Low voltage.
(b) Using diagrams, show what is observed when on the
(ii) High voltage
screen of the C.R.O when;
(c) State two applications of X – rays .
(i) The CRO is switched on and no signal is applied (d) Explain why part Q must be cooled.
to the Y - plates.
(ii) The time base is switched on and no signal is
30. (a) What are X – rays?
applied to the Y - plates.
(b) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe the structure
(iii) An alternating signal is applied to the Y- plates
and mode of operation of an X – ray tube.
while the time- box is switched off.
(c) Explain how each of the following can be increased in an
(c) Give two applications of a cathode ray oscilloscope. X – ray tube:
(i) Intensity of the X – rays.
24. Which of the following is the correct sequence of the
(ii) Penetrating power of the X – rays.
energy conversions in an X – ray tube?
(d) Give two biological uses of X – rays.
𝐀. Electrical Heat Electro magnrtic
→ → K. E → (e) State any four ways in which X – rays are similar to
energy energy energy
gamma rays.
𝐁. Heat Electrical Electro magnrtic
→ → K. E →
energy energy energy

𝐂. Electrical Heat Electro magnrtic

→ → → K. E
energy energy energy
𝐃. K. E Electrical Heat Electro magnrtic
→ → →
energy energy energy energy

25. Which of the following is true about X – rays?

(i) Cause photographic emissions.
(ii) Deflected by an electric field.
(iii) Ionize matter
(iv) Not deflected by a magnetic field.
A. (i), (ii) and (iii). C. (ii) and (iv).
B. (i) and (ii). D. (i), (iii) and (iv).

26. The following are some of the uses of X – rays except;

A. Detection of flaws in a material.
B. Detection of affected tissues in living organisms.
C. Destruction of cancer cells.
D. Preservation of cereals.

27. The difference between X – rays and ultra – violet rays

is that X – rays have;
(i) Greater velocity. (iii) Lower frequency.
(ii) Shorter wavelength. (iv) More energy.
A. (i), (ii) and (iii). C. (i) and (ii).
B. (ii) and (iv). D. (i), (iii) and (iv).

28. The difference between soft and hard X – rays is that;

A. Hard X- rays travel faster than soft X – rays.
B. Hard X – rays penetrate more than the soft X–rays.
C. Hard X – rays less dangerous than the soft X–rays.
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 RADIOCTIVITY 2. A radioactive substance 𝟐𝟑𝟖
𝟗𝟐𝐗 undergoes decay and emits
Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of heavy two alpha particles to form nuclide Y. Write a balanced
unstable nucleus to form stable nucleus accompanied by equation for the process.
release of radiations.
(b) A beta particle
−𝟏
Activity is the number of disintegrations (or break down A beta particle is a high energy electron i.e. 𝟎𝐞 .
emissions) per second.
Properties
The radiations emitted are:  It is negatively charged with a charge of −1.
Alpha particles (α), beta particle (β) or gamma radiations  It has a low ionising power because of its low charge
(γ). Elements that emit radiations spontaneously are said to (−1).
be radioactive elements.  It has a higher penetrating power because of its low
Radioactivity is considered as a random process because mass and due to this; it can be stopped or absorbed by
you can not tell which atoms of a molecule will disintegrate an aluminium foil (a few cm).
at a particular instant.  It can also be deflected by both electric and magnetic
fields at a higher angle and it is deflected towards a
Properties of Radiations emitted positive plate.
 It has a high range in air.
(a) Alpha particle Note:
An alpha particle is a helium nucleus which is positively When a radioactive nuclei decays by emitting a beta
charged i.e. 𝟒𝟐𝐇 . particles. Its mass number is not affected but the atomic
number increases by one.
Properties
 It is positively charged with a charge of +2. When an element decays by emitting a beta particle, it loses
 It has a low penetrating power because of its relatively an electron. This results from the decay of a neutron to a
large mass and due to this; it can be stopped or proton:
absorbed by a thin sheet of paper. 1
 It can be deflected by both electric and magnetic fields
1
0 n 1 P 0
-1 β
because of its charge and it is deflected towards a neutron proton beta particle
negative plate.
 It has a high ionising power due to its high charge or Beta decay can be expressed as:
great charge. A 0
A e
 It has a low range in air. Z X Z1 Y -1
parent daughter beta
Note: When un stable nuclei emits an alpha particle, the
nuclide particle
mass number reduces by 4 and atomic number reduces by 2. nuclide
When a nuclide decays by release of an alpha particle, it
loses two protons and two neutrons. This can be expressed Example
as below: Radioactive sodium undergoes beta decay to become
magnesium. This can be written as:
A A-4 4
X Y 2 He 24 24 0
-1 e
Z- 2 Mg
Z
Parent Daughter alpha 11 Na 12
Note: When a nuclide undergoes beta decay:
nuclide nuclide particle
(i) Its atomic number increases by one.
Example (ii) Its atomic mass remains the same.
(i) Uranium decays by emitting alpha particles to
become thorium; Questions:
238 206 4 1. An unstable nuclide 𝟐𝟐𝟔𝟖𝟖𝐗 decays to form a stable nuclei Y

92 U 82 Th 2 He by emitting a beta particle.

(i) Write down an equation for the process.
(ii) Polonium – 210 undergoes alpha decay to become (ii) How would nuclide X be affected if a beta particle
lead – 206; was emitted instead of the alpha particle?
(iii) Compare the nature and properties of an alpha
210 206 4
84 Po 82 Pb 2 He particle with those of a beta particle,

2. A radioactive nucleus 𝟐𝟐𝟔

𝟖𝟖𝐑𝐚 undergoes decay and emits
Question: two alpha particles and two beta particles to form nuclide S.
1. A radioactive substance 𝟐𝟑𝟖
𝟗𝟐𝐗 undergoes decay and emits State the atomic number and mass number of nuclide S.
an alpha particle to form nuclide Y. Write an equation for
the process. 3. (a) Consider the equation below.
206 206
(𝑖) (𝑖𝑖) 81 Z
210
82 X 80 Y

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Name the particle emitted at each of the stages (i) and (ii). Deflection of Alpha, Beta and Gamma radiations in electric
and magnetic fields
(c) Gamma Rays
These are neutral electromagnetic radiations with the
shortest wave length.

Properties
They are neutral (not charged) and therefore can not be
deflected by both electric and magnetic fields.
They have the highest penetrating power because of their
light mass and due to this they can be stopped or absorbed
by a lead metal or shield which has the highest density.
They can also cause ionisation of a gas by knocking off
electrons from the neutral atoms but this is by small
amounts.
They have the highest possible range in air.

Question:
1. (a) Describe the composition of the 𝟐𝟑
𝟏𝟏𝐍𝐚 atom.
(b) 𝟔𝟎
𝟐𝟕𝐂𝐨 is a radioisotope of Cobalt which emits a beta
particle and very high energy gamma rays to form an Alpha particles are deflected in a direction towards the
element Y. Write a balanced equation for the nuclear South Pole while beta particles are deflected towards the
reaction. North Pole.
Alpha particles are less deflected than beta particles
0
60 60
e 𝛾 implying that alpha articles are heavier than beta particles.
27 Co 28 Y -1 The gamma rays are not deflected in the magnetic field
implying that they have no charge.
2. A radioactive nuclide 𝟐𝟑𝟎
𝟗𝟎𝐗 emits 4 alpha particles, 2
beta particles and gamma radiations to turn into If the radiations are subjected to an electric field, the paths
another nuclide, Y. Find the mass number and atomic below are seen.
number of Y.

3. A radioactive nuclide 𝟐𝟑𝟎 𝟗𝟎𝐗 decays to nuclide Z

according to the decay process below.
228 228 228
89 Z
232
90 X 88 Y 89 Z
Alpha particles are deflected towards the negative plate
A B C since they are negatively charged, while beta particles are
deflected towards the positive plate since they are negatively
(a) Identify the particles or radiations A, B and C. charge.
(b) State two differences between radiations A and B. The gamma rays are not deflected in the electric field
implying that they have no charge.
Note: In a chemical reaction or equation,
(i) The total mass number on the left must be equal to Penetration Power of Alpha, Beta and Gamma radiations
the total mass number on the right hand side.
(ii) The total atomic number on the left must be equal
to the total atomic number on the right hand side.

Ionising effects of the radiations

Ultra violent radiation is incident on a clean zinc plate
resting on the cap of a charged G.L.E as shown below

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 (b) Differences between alpha and beta particles.
Property Radiation
Alpha particle Beta particle
Charge Positive Negative
Nature Helium particles High energy
which have lost the electrons
electrons
Deflection in Towards negative Towards positive
fields plate and south pole plate and north pole
Penetrating Low: Penetrate thin High: Penetrate
power paper but stopped by thick paper and thin
thick ones. alluminium foil but
stopped by thick
alluminium sheets.
 When a radioactive source is brought near the cap of a Ionizing High (Most) Moderate
charge G.L.E , the leaf falls , this show that the G.L.E power
has been discharged as a of the ionization of air around Absorbed by Thick sheets of 5mm of alluminium
the cap. paper
 If the G.L.E is positively charged negative ions or
(electrons) from air attracted and the gold leaf falls and (c) Differences between Gamma rays and X-rays
if is negatively charged, irons are attracted and leaf also Gamma rays X-rays
falls. (i) Wave Shorter wave length Longer wave length
Length than X-rays. than gamma rays.
Question: (ii) Origin From nuclei of atoms From cathode rays
Explain what is observed when; as a result of suddenly stopped by
(i) The G.L.E is positively charged. radioactivity. matter.
(ii) Radio wave is used instead of ultra violent radiation.

Answer (d) Comparison of Alpha, Beta and Gamma radiations

(i) No further divergent of the leaf is observed because Property Radiation
the ultra violent radiation eject electrons from the Alpha Beta Gamma
metal surface but the electrons are immediately particle particle rays
attracted back hence no loss of charge. Charge Positive Negative No charge
(ii) Radio waves have low energy thus are unable to (+2) (-1) (0)
release electrons so there will be no effect on the leaf Nature Helium High energy High energy
divergence of the electroscope. particles electrons electromagne
which have tic radiation.
Back ground radiation lost the
These are radiations which are naturally existing even in the electrons
absence of radioactive source .they are caused by natural Deflection in Towards Towards Not
tracks of radioactive materials in rocks. Cosmic rays from fields negative positive deflected
outer space. plate and plate and
These cosmic rays are very high energetic radiated particles south pole north pole
which come from deep in space. So the correct count rate = Penetrating Least Moderate Most
actual rate plus back ground count rate. power
Ionizing Most Moderate Least
Example: power
Given that the back ground rate is 2 counts per minute and Absorbed by Thick 5mm of Thick sheet
the Geiger Muller count rate is 25, determine the sheets of alluminium of lead
approximate number of radiations present. paper
Count rate = 25 − 2 Range in air 0.05 3 100
= 23 C min−1 (in m)
Note:
Comparisons of the Radiations (iii) Range of radiation is the maximum distance
(a) Similarities between alpha and beta particles. covered by a radiation in air before it is totally
 Both ionize gases. absorbed.
 They both penetrate matter. (iv) Ionisation is the process of changing the neutral
 They are both deflected by and magnetic fields. atoms of a gas into positive and negative ions.

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Detectors of the radiations  Avoid eating, drinking or smoking where radioactive
These include: sources are in use.
(i) Ionisation chamber  Radioactive sources must be kept in lead boxes when
(ii) Geiger Muller Tube (G.M tube) not in use.
(iii) Cloud chamber (both expansion type and diffusion  Wash hands thoroughly after exposing them to
cloud chamber) radioactive materials.
(iv) Scintillation counter  Any cut on the body should be covered before dealing
with radioactive sources.
 Operators should put on gloves and lead coats.
Cloud chamber tracks for the Alpha, Beta and Gamma  During experiments with radioactive materials, the
radiations radiations should not be directed towards the people.
When an ionising radiation from a radioactive source, enters
the chamber the ions are produced.
Alcohol droplets in the cloud chamber will collect around Applications of Radioactivity
these ions produced forming strings. (Uses of alpha , beta ,and gamma rays)
Using a strong illumination, the droplets can be The uses in various fields are based on the following
photographed by using a camera.  Gauge control and fault finding:
The type of radiation depends on the thickness or length of If a radioisotope is placed on one side of a moving sheet of
the traces of ions formed. material and a GM tube on the other, the count rate
decreases if the thickness increases. Flows in a material can
Alpha particles produce, thick short, straight and continuous be detected in a similar way; the count-rate will increase
tracks, Beta particles produce longer but wavy tracks and where a flaw is present.
Gamma rays have an irregular and faint tracks as shown  Radioactive tracers:
below. A small amount of a weak radioisotope is injected into the
system and traced by a GM tube or other detectors.
Alpha particle Beta particle Gamma rays  Radiotherapy
Gamma rays are used in the treatment of cancer and
detecting breakages in bones.

 Sterilization
Gamma rays are used to sterilize medical and industrial
instruments and foods.

 Archaeology
Living plants and animals take in radioactive carbon. When
Short, straight and Long and wavy Irregular and
a tree dies, no fresh carbon is taken and the carbon starts to
continuous tracks tracks faint tracks
decay. By measuring the residual activity of carbon
containing material such as wood, charcoal the age of
Dangers of radiations.
archaeological remains can be estimated.
(i) Alpha particles;
Alpha particles are less dangerous unless the source enters
(a) Industrial uses:
the body.
They are used;
 in tracer techniques to investigate the flow of liquids in
(ii) Beta Particles and Gamma radiations:
chemical plants. (Identifying oil leakages in oil pipe
These are very dangerous because they damage skin tissues
lies).
and destroy body cells.
 in the automatic control of thickness or uniformity of
They cause:
materials in industries. (e.g Cigarettes)
(i) Radiation burns. (i.e. redness and sore on the skin).
 In the study of wear and tear in machinery.
(ii) Leukemia, (Blood cancer).
 To detect faults in thickness of metals sheets in welded
(iii) Sterility, (Inability to reproduce).
joints. (gamma rays)
(iv) Blindness, (i.e. they damage the eye sight)
 in food preservations.
(v) Low body resistance to normal diseases, due to
 to sterilize equipments in food industry
damage of blood corpuscles.
 to detect smoke
(vi) Mutation. (A harmful genetic change, that occurs
 in energy production: Nuclear reactors use radio
during DNA replication and protein synthesis).
isotopes to produce electricity.
The effects of genetic mutations appear in the subsequent
generations. E.g, a child may be born with one arm or both
(b) Medical uses
but when one is shorter than the other.
 Used to treat cancerous cells. (Radiotherapy).
 They are used to kill bacteria in food (x- rays).
Safety precautions when dealing with radioactive
 Used to sterilize medical surgical equipments.
sources
 Locate broken bones
Radioactive sources should be handled with care. In that;
 Asses the amount of blood in a patient
 They should be held with forceps or a pair of tongs
and not with bare hands.
(c) Archeological uses

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 Used to determine the time that has elapsed since death (i) Cardboard and aluminum sheet.
of a certain organism occurred in a process called (ii) Aluminum and the lead sheets
carbon dating.
(d) Geology (d) (i) Name any three precautions which must be
 They are used to determine the age of rocks. undertaken by one working with ionizing radiation.
(ii) Give 2 uses of radioactivity.
(e) Biological uses (iii) Name two health hazards of radioactivity.
 Used to study the uptake of fertilizers by plants.
 Used to sterilize insects and hence eliminate pests that (e) Name one;
destroy crops. (i) Industrial use;
(ii) Biological use of radio activity.
(f) Defense
 Nuclear reactions of fusion and fission are used in
manufacture of weapons of mass destruction like HALF LIFE
nuclear and atomic bombs. Half life is the time taken for a radioactive substance to
Exercise: decay to half of its original mass (or nuclei).
1. Which one of the following radiations has the listed
properties? Half life can be measured in any unit of time, e.g seconds,
(i) Long range in air. minutes, hours, days, weeks, months and years.
(ii) Not deflected by magnetic and electric fields. It is not affected by physical factors like temperature and
(iii) Cause very little ionization of air molecules. pressure.
A. Alpha. C. Gamma It is different for different nuclides as shown for some
B. Beta. D. X - rays. nuclides in the table below.
Radioactive Symbol Half life Radiati
2. A radioactive source decays by emission of all the element ons
three radiation. The radiation enters normally into Polonium – 218 218
3.05 minutes 𝛼
84Po
electric field as shown in figure 3. Thorium – 234 234
24.10 days 𝛽, 𝛾
90Th
Uranium – 234 234
92U 2.47 × 105 years 𝛼, 𝛾
Uranium – 238 238
92U 4.51 × 109 years 𝛼, 𝛾

Note:
 These values are not to be memorized.
 The last two are called Radioisotopes. (Radioactive
atoms of the same element with the same atomic
number but different mass numbers).

Experiment to determine the half life of a radioactive

nuclide.
 Place the source of the radioactive nuclide into the
ionization chamber or Geiger Muller tube.
 Note and record the count rate (Change in the intensity
(a) Which radiation is most likely to detect at; of radiations from the source with time).
(i) Position A. (ii) Position B. (iii) Position C.  Plot a graph of intensity or number of nuclei remaining
against time.
(b) (i) What can you deduce about the charges of the  Read off the half life from the graph.
radiation?
(ii) State two differences between radiation A and B. How to read half life from the graph:
(iii) What happens when the radioactive source is  Draw a horizontal line from half of the original amount
completely covered with an ordinary sheet of paper. (or count rate or original number of nuclei) to meet the
(iv) Draw diagrams to show the paths of the particles curve.
named in (d) above.  Draw a vertical line from the point on the curve to meet
the time axis.
(c) A radioactive source that emits all the three radiations is  Read the value of half life from where the vertical line
placed in front of the cardboard aluminum and lead sheets as meets the time axis.
shown in the figure above. Name the radiations likely to be
between the card board.

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 given by; 𝐭 = 𝐧𝐭 𝟏
𝟐
Where, 𝐧 is the number of half lives in a time, 𝐭

Method III: Using the formula

The mass remaining after a time t, Mt , when an original
sample of mass Mo decays with a half- life of t 1 is given by;
2
𝟏 𝐧 𝐭
𝐌𝐭 = 𝐌𝐨 ( ) : Where, 𝐧 =
𝟐 𝐭𝟏
𝟐

Case I: Finding the half life when the final mass, M and
time taken, t are given,.
In some cases, the original mass may not coincide with the
 In this method, we continuously half the initial count
zero (0) time.
rate or initial mass until the given count rate or final
mass.
 Then we use the formula; 𝐭 = 𝐧𝐭 𝟏 . Where, t is the time
𝟐
taken for the decal to half, 𝐭 𝟏 is the half life and n is the
𝟐
number of half lives.

Example 1:
(1994 Qn. 15): The count rate of a radioactive isotope falls
from 600 counts per second to 75 counts per second in 75
minutes. Find the half life of the radio isotope.

Solution:
Calculations of Half life: Method I: Using a table
Method I: Using a table M0 = 600 Cs −1 ; Mt = 75 Cs −1 ; t = 75s
Count rate(Cs −1 ) Number of half- lives, n
Time 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 Mass Decayed M0 = 600 0
Taken, t 𝐫𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐧𝐠, 𝐌𝐭 𝐌𝐃 = 𝐌𝐨 − 𝐌𝐭 300 1
150 2
0 M0 0 Mt = 75 3
t1 1 1 Then from; 𝐧𝐭 𝟏 = 𝐭.
2 Mo ( ) 𝟐
2 3t 1 = 75.
2t 1 1 2 2
2 Mo ( ) t 1 = 25 minutes
2 2
3t 1 1 3
2 Mo ( )
2 Method II: Arrow Diagram (Crude method)
- -
- -

nt 1 1 n
2 Mo ( )
2

Where: 𝐧𝐭 𝟏 = 𝐭 Then from; 𝐧𝐭 𝟏 = 𝐭.

𝟐 𝟐
3t 1 = 75.
2
Method II: Arrow Diagram (Crude method) t 1 = 25 minutes
2
𝐭𝟏 𝐭 𝐭𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏𝟐 𝟏 𝟏𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 Method III: Using the formula
𝐌𝟎 𝐌𝟐𝟎 𝐌𝟎 𝐌𝟎 𝐌𝟎 𝐌𝟎 𝐌𝟎 𝐌𝟎
𝟖 𝟖
𝟐 𝟐 𝟒 𝟒 The mass remaining after a time t, Mt , when an original
sample of mass Mo decays with a half- life of t 1 is given by;
t = t1 2
2 𝟏 𝐧 𝐭
𝐌𝐭 = 𝐌𝐨 ( ) : Where, 𝐧 =
t = 2t 1 𝟐 𝐭𝟏
𝟐
2
t = 3t 1
2

The total time taken for the required amount to decay, is

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 Method III: Using the formula
1 n Alternatively; At the stage The mass remaining after a time t, Mt , when an original
Mt = Mo ( ) :
2 of; sample of mass Mo decays with a half- life of t 1 is given by;
1 n
75 = 600 ( ) : 1 2
2 2−n = 𝟏 𝐧 𝐭
75 = 600(2−1 )n 8 𝐌𝐭 = 𝐌𝐨 ( ) : Where, 𝐧 =
𝟐 𝐭𝟏
Introducing logarithms to 𝟐

75 base 10 on both sides;

(2)−n =
600 1 n
log 2−n = log 0.125 Nt = N ( ) : Alternatively; At the stage
2 of;
1 N 1 n
2−n = −n log 2 = log 0.125 = N( ) : 1
8 16 2 2−n =
16
2−n = 2−3 log 0.125 1 1 n Introducing logarithms to
−n = = ( ) base 10 on both sides;
log 2 16 2
−n = −3
−n = −3 log 2−n = log 0.0625
n=3 2−n = 2−4
n=3
−n log 2 = log 0.0625
Then from; 𝐧𝐭 𝟏 = 𝐭. −n = −4
𝟐
n=4
3t 1 = 75. log 0.0625
2 −n =
t 1 = 25 minutes log 2
2
−n = −4
Example 2: n=4
(1987 Qn. 6): After 18 hours, a sixteenth of the original Then from; 𝐧𝐭 𝟏 = 𝐭.
mass of a radioactive isotope remained. What is the half life 𝟐

of the isotope. 4t 1 = 18.

2
t 1 = 4.5 hours
Solution: 2
Method I: Using a table
Let the initial amount be N; Case II: Finding the mass left when half life and time
N taken are given
N =? ; Nt = ; t = 18 Hours  Half the original mass continuously until we reach the
16
Mass Number of half- lives, n time given.
M0 = N 0  The mass that corresponds to the time given is the mass
N left.
1𝐭 𝟏
𝟐
2 Example 3:
N 2𝐭 𝟏 (1994 Qn. 6): The half life of a radioactive element is 2
𝟐
4 minutes. What fraction of the initial mass is left after 8
minutes?
N 𝟑𝐭 𝟏
𝟐
8 Solution:
N 4𝐭 𝟏 Method I: Using a table
Mt = 𝟐
16 Let the initial amount be N;
N
N =? ; Nt = ; t 1 = 2 minutes; t = 8 minutes;
Then from; 𝐧𝐭 𝟏 = 𝐭. 16 2
𝟐 Mass Number of Time
4t 1 = 18. half- lives, n taken, t
2
t 1 = 4.5 hours (minutes)
2 M0 = N 0 0
1 1𝐭 𝟏 2
Method II: Arrow Diagram (Crude method) N 𝟐
2
1 2𝐭 𝟏 4
N 𝟐
4
1 3𝐭 𝟏 6
N 𝟐
8
𝟏 4𝐭 𝟏 8
Then from; 𝐧𝐭 𝟏 = 𝐭. Mt = N 𝟐
𝟐
𝟏𝟔
4t 1 = 18.
2
t 1 = 4.5 hours 1
From the table, the fraction left after 8 minutes =
2 16

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Method II: Arrow Diagram (Crude method) Method II: Arrow Diagram (Crude method)
Try using the crude method, you will still get themass
left after 120 days = 𝟐 𝐠

Method III: Using the formula

The mass remaining after a time t, Mt , when an original
sample of mass Mo decays with a half- life of t 1 is given by;
2
𝟏 𝐧 𝐭
𝐌𝐭 = 𝐌𝐨 ( ) : Where, 𝐧 =
𝟐 𝐭𝟏
𝟐
t 120
n= = =5
t1 24
2
1
From the above, the fraction left after 8 minutes =
16 1 n
Method III: Using the formula Nt = N ( ) :
2
The mass remaining after a time t, Mt , when an original 1 5
Nt = 64 × ( ) :
sample of mass Mo decays with a half- life of t 1 is given by; 2
2
𝟏 𝐧 𝐭 1
𝐌𝐭 = 𝐌𝐨 ( ) : Where, 𝐧 = Nt = 64 ×
𝟐 𝐭𝟏
𝟐 32
t 8
n= = =4 Nt = 2 :
t1 2
2 Thus, the mass left after 120 days = 2 g

1 n
Nt = N ( ) : Case III: Finding the mass decayed when half life and
2
1 4 time taken are given
Nt = N ( ) :
2  Half the original mass continuously until we reach the
time given.
Nt 1 4  The mass that corresponds to the time given is the mass
= ( ) left.
N 2
 Find the mass decayed from the expression:
Nt 1 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐝𝐞𝐜𝐚𝐲𝐞𝐝 = 𝐎𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 − 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐥𝐞𝐟𝐭
=
N 16
1 Where: Original mass = mass at a time t = 0.
Thus, the fraction left after 8 minutes =
16 Mass left = mass corresponding to the given time

Example 4: Example 5:
(1994 Qn. 6): The half life of Uranium is 24 days. (2001 Qn. 4) (e) : The half life of a radioactive substance is
Calculate the mass of Uranium that remains after 120 days if 24 days. Calculate the mass of the substance which has
the initial mass is 64g. decayed after 72 days, if the original mass is 0.64g.
Solution: Solution:
Method I: Using a table Method I: Using a table
Let the initial amount be N; Let the initial amount be N;
M0 = 64 g ; Mt =? ; t 1 = 24 days; t = 120 days; M0 = 0.64 g ; Mt =? ; t 1 = 24 days; t = 72 days;
2 2
Mass (g) Number of Time Mass (g) Number of Time
half- lives, n taken, t half- lives, n taken, t
(days) (days)
M0 = 64 0 0 M0 = 0. 64 0 0
32 1𝐭 𝟏 24 0.32 1𝐭 𝟏 24
𝟐 𝟐

16 2𝐭 𝟏 48 0.16 2𝐭 𝟏 48
𝟐 𝟐

8 3𝐭 𝟏 72 Mt = 0.08 3𝐭 𝟏 72
𝟐 𝟐
4 4𝐭 𝟏 96 From the table, the mass left after 72 days = 0.08 g
𝟐 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐝𝐞𝐜𝐚𝐲𝐞𝐝 = 𝐎𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 − 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐥𝐞𝐟𝐭
Mass decayed = 0.64 − 0.08
Mass decayed = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔 𝐠
Mt = 𝟐 5𝐭 𝟏 120
𝟐
Method II: Arrow Diagram (Crude method)
From the table, the mass left after 120 days = 𝟐 𝐠 Try using the crude method, you will still get the mass
left after 72 days = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖 𝐠 and Mass decayed = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔 𝐠

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Method III: Using the formula
The mass remaining after a time t, Mt , when an original
sample of mass Mo decays with a half- life of t 1 is given by;
2
𝟏 𝐧 𝐭
𝐌𝐭 = 𝐌𝐨 ( ) : Where, 𝐧 =
𝟐 𝐭𝟏
𝟐
t 72
n= = =3
t 1 24
2

1 n
Nt = N ( ) :
2
1 3
Nt = 0.64 × ( ) :
2

1
Nt = 0.64 ×
8

Nt = 0.08 :

Thus, the mass left after 72 days = 0.08 g

𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐝𝐞𝐜𝐚𝐲𝐞𝐝 = 𝐎𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 − 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐥𝐞𝐟𝐭
Mass decayed = 0.64 − 0.08
Mass decayed = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔 𝐠
From the graph above, half life,
Example 6: 𝐭 𝟏 = 5 + 4(0.5)
𝟐
(2002 Qn. 23): The half life of a radio active substance is = 𝟕𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐮𝐭𝐞𝐬
10s. How long will it take for a mass of of 16g of the
substance to reduce to 2g? [Ans: t = 30s]. (b) Radioactive materials emit radiations, alpha, beta
particles and gamma rays which are harmful to human life.
Example 7: Lead containers absorb these radiations and prevent them
(2008. Qn.8) (c): A radioactive element has a half life of 4 from coming into contact with people.
minutes. Given that the original count rate is 256 counts per
minute, (c) (i) The element takes 3000 years to decay to half its
(i) Find the time taken to reach a count rate of 16 counts original mass.
per minute. [Ans: t = 16 minutes] (ii)
(ii) What fraction of the original number of atoms will be
left by the time the count rate is 16 counts per minute?
𝟏
[Ans: 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐥𝐞𝐟𝐭 = ]
𝟏𝟔
(iii)
Example 8: Method I: Using a table
(a) The table below shows results obtained in an experiment
to determine the half life of a radioactive substance. %age mass Number of half- lives
Count rate 250 175 76 38 25 100 0
Time (min.) 0 5 10 15 20 50 1
Draw a graph of count rate against time and use it to 25 2
determine the half life of the radioactive substance. 12.5 3
Therefore, 12.5% of the original mass will remain after 3
(b) Explain why radioactive substances must be stored in half lives.
thick lead containers.
Method II: Arrow Diagram (Crude method)
(c) The nuclide 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟖𝟒𝐗 has a half life of 3000 years and decays
to nuclide Y by emission of an alpha particle. and three beta
particles
(i) State the meaning of the statement “Half- life of a
Thus the percentage of the original sample that remains after
nuclide is 3000 years.”
3 half lives is given by;
(ii) Write a balanced equation for the decay process. Mass left
(iii) What percentage of the original sample of the nuclide, = × 100%
remains after three half lives. Original mass

27.5
Solution: = × 100%
(a) 220

= 12.5%

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 11. The following values obtained from the readings of a
Method III: Using the formula rate meter from a radioactive isotope of iodine
The mass remaining after a time t, Mt , when an original Time (min) 0 5 10 15 20
sample of mass Mo decays with a half- life of t 1 is given by; Count rate (min -1) 295 158 86 47 25
2
𝟏 𝐧 𝐭
Plot a suitable graph and find the half life of the radioactive
𝐌𝐭 = 𝐌𝐨 ( ) : Where, 𝐧 = iodine.
𝟐 𝐭𝟏
𝟐
12. The following figures were obtained from Geiger miller
Thus the percentage of the counter due to ignition if the sample of radon gas
1 n original sample that remains Time (min) 0 102 155 …. 300
Mt = Mo ( ) :
2 after 3 half lives is given by; Rate (min-1) 1600 … 200 100 50
1 3
Mt = 220 ( ) :
2
1 Mass left (a) i ) Plot a graph of count rate against time
Mt = 220 × : = × 100%
8 Original mass ii) determine the half life
Mt = 27.5 g 27.5 iii) Find the missing values
= × 100%
220
= 12.5% (b) (i) what is the count rate after 200 minutes
(ii) after how many minutes is the count rate 1000 minutes
Exercise:
1. If a radioactive element of mass 32 decays to 2g in 13. The following figures were obtained from Geiger miler
96days .calculate the half life. counter due to ignition of the sample of radon gas
Time (min) 0 102 155 208 300
2. A certain radioactive substance takes 120years to decay Rate (min-1) 1600 1400 200 100 50
from 2g to 0.125g. Find the half life.
a) Plot a graph of count rate against time.
3. The half life of substance is 5days. Find how long it b) Determine the half life.
takes for its mass to disintegrate from 64g to 2g. c) What is the count rate after 200 minutes?
d) After how many minutes is the count rate 1000
4. A radioactive sample has a half life of 3 × 103 years. minutes?
Find how long it takes for three quarters of the sample
to decay.

5. The activity of a radioactive element with a half life of

NUCLEAR REACTIONS:
A nuclear reaction is a process in which energy is
30 days is 2400 counts per second. Find the activity of
produced by either splitting a heavy nucleus or combining
the element after 120 days.
two lighter nuclei at high temperatures.
A nuclear reaction takes place in a nuclear reactor.
6. The count rate from a radioactive source is 138 counts
per minute when the back ground rate is 10 counts per
minute. If the half life of the source is 6 days, find the Types of nuclear reactions:
count rate after 18 days. (i) Nuclear fission
This is the splitting of a heavy unstable nucleus into two
lighter nuclei with the release of energy.
7. A radioactive element has a half life of 4years .if after
This process can be started by bombardment of a heavy
24hours 0.15g remains calculate the initial mass of the
nucleus with a fast moving neutron. The products of the
radioactive material.
process are two light atom and more neutrons which can
make the process continue.
8. A certain mass of a radioactive material contains 2.7 ×
1024 atoms, how many atoms decayed after 3200years
Example:
if the half life of material is 1600years?
When Uranium – 235 is bombarded with slow moving
[Ans: 2.025 × 1024 atoms]
neutrons, Uranium – 236 is formed.
Uranium – 236 then under goes nuclear fission to form
9. (a) The activity of a radioactive source decreases from
Barium, (Ba) and Krypton, (Kr) with the release of neutrons
4000 counts per minute to 250 counts per minute in 40
and energy according to the equation below.
minutes. What is the half life of the source?
(b) A carbon source initially contains 8 × 106 atoms. 𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟏𝟒𝟒
𝟗𝟐𝐔 + 𝟏𝟎𝐧 → 𝟐𝟑𝟔
𝟗𝟐𝐔 → 𝟓𝟔𝐁𝐚 + 𝟗𝟐 𝟏
𝟑𝟔𝐊𝐫 + 𝟐 𝟎𝐧 + 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲
Calculate the time taken for 7.75 × 106 atoms to decay.
The energy released in a single nuclear fission reaction of a
10. The table below shows the count rates of a certain
single Uranium atom is about 200 MeV.
radioactive material.
Count rate (s-1) 6400 5380 3810 2700 1910 1350
Conditions for nuclear fission to occur:
Time (min) 0 1 3 4 7 9
 Low temperatures.
Plot a suitable graph and use it to find the half life of the  Fast moving neutrons
material.
Application of nuclear fission:
 Used in making atomic bombs.

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  Used to generate electricity. 2. (1991 Qn. 1). The process whereby the nuclei of alight
 Used to generate heat energy on large scale. elements combine to form a heavy nuclei is called?
Note: Nuclear reactors make use of controlled nuclear A. Fission B. Fusion
fission while atomic bombs make use of un controlled C. Ionisation D. Radioactivity
nuclear fission.
3. (1993 Qn. 22). The process by which a heavy nucleus
. split to form lighter nuclei is called?
(ii) Nuclear fusion: A. Fission B. Fusion
This is the union (or combining) of two light nuclei at high C. Ionisation D. Radioactivity
temperatures to form a heavy nucleus with the release of
energy. 4. (1994 Qn. 18). 235 1 144 92
92U + 0n → 56Ba + 36Kr + 2𝑥
The equation above represents a nuclear reaction. Identify x.
Example: A. Proton B. Neutron
When two Deuterium (Heavy hydrogen) nuclei combine at C. Alpha particle D. Beta particle
very high temperature (of about 108K), Helium – 3 and a
neutron are produced accompanied by the release of energy 5. (2000 Qn. 7). In the atomic bomb, energy is produced
according to the equation below. by:
A. Fission B. Fusion
𝟐 𝟐 𝟑 𝟏
𝟏𝐇 + 𝟏𝐇 → 𝟐𝐇𝐞 + 𝟎𝐧 + 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 C. Thermionic emission D. Radioactivity

Reactions of this type occur in the in the sun and stars and 6. (2001 Qn. 17). When Uranium – 235 is bombarded
are the source of the sun’s or star’s energy. with a neutron, it splits according to the equation;
235 1 M 92 1
92U + 0n → N𝐏 + 36Kr + 3 0n
Conditions for nuclear fission to occur: M and N on P represent;
 Very high temperatures. M N
 The light nuclei should be at very high speed to A 56 141
over nuclear division. B 141 56
C 199 36
Application of nuclear fission: D 107 128
 Used to produce hydrogen.
 Used in making atomic bombs. 7. (a) (i) Distinguish between nuclear fission and nuclear
 Used to generate electricity. fusion.
 Used to generate heat energy on large scale. (ii) two conditions necessary for each to occur.
Similarities between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. (b) State one example where nuclear fusion occurs naturally.
 In both nuclear reactions, nuclear energy is (c) State one use of nuclear fission.
released which can be used to generate electricity,
heat or in atomic bombs. (d) The following nuclear reaction takes place when a
 Energy changes in a nuclear reactor: neutron bombards a sulphur atom.
𝟑𝟒 𝟏 𝐚
𝟔𝐒 + 𝟎𝐧 → 𝐛𝐘
Nuclear Chemical Kinetic Electrical
( )→( )→( )→( ) (i) Describe the composition of nuclide Y formed.
energy energy energy energy
(ii) Nuclide Y decays by emission of an alpha particle
and a gamma ray. Find the changes in mass and
Differences between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. atomic number of the nuclide.
Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion
Is the disintegration of a Is the combining of two
heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei to form a
lighter nuclei.. heavy nucleus.
Requires low temperature. Requires high temperatures
Requires slow neutrons for Neutrons are not required.
bombardment For fusion to occur
High energy is released Lower energy is released
Results into 4 products Results into 3 products

Exercise:
1. (a) What is meant by radio activity?
(b) The equation below shows a reaction which takes place
in a nuclear reactor.
235 1 236 141 y 1
92U + 0n → 92U → xBa + 36Kr + 3 0n + Energy

(i) Name the reaction represented by the equation

(ii) Find the values of x and y.

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 8. MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETISM
Note: Magnets strongly attract ferromagnetic materials,
weakly attract paramagnetic materials and weakly repel
Magnetism is the force exerted by a magnetic field. diamagnetic material.
A magnet is a piece of metal that attracts other metals. It
has two poles i.e. North Pole and South Pole. Hard and soft magnetic materials
A magnet is a substance which has the capacity of attracting (i) Hard magnetic materials.
and holding the other substance e.g iron, steel, Nickel etc. These are ferro-magnetic materials which are not easily
magnetized but retain their magnetism for a long period. E.g
Examples of magnets include Lodestone magnet, which is a steel
form of Iron (ii) oxide called magnetite which is a naturally Hard magnetic materials are used for making permanent
occurring magnet. magnets used in instruments like
It always points in north and south directions if it is freely  Electricity meter
suspended.  Radio loudspeaker
 Telephone receiver
Types of Definition and magnetic Examples
material properties. (ii) Soft magnetic materials
(a) Magnetic This is a material which has iron, steel, These are ferro-magnetic materials which are easily
material the property of being nickel, e.t.c. magnetized but lose their magnetism easily. E.g iron
attracted or repelled by a Soft magnetic materials are used in
magnet.  Transformer
(i)Ferro- These are materials which are iron, cobalt  Magnetic keepers
magnetic strongly attracted by a and nickel,  Making of temporary magnets used in: electric bells,
materials magnet. Gadolinium relays, electromagnets, dynamos, motor armatures, etc
 Their magnetic dipoles (Gd)
line up more readily. Experiment to distinguish between hard and soft
 When placed in a magnetic materials
magnetic field, they
retain their magnetism
after the external field is
removed.
(ii)Non These are materials which are
Ferro- weakly attracted by a
magnetic magnet? e.g. iron, cobalt and
materials., nickel

 Para- These are materials that are Aluminium,

magnetic slightly or weakly attracted Wood,
materials by a strong magnetic field. brass,
 They become more copper,
magnetic when they are platinum,
very cold. uraniumetc.

 Dia- These are materials that are Zinc,, gold, Procedure

magnetic weakly repelled by a strong Bismuth, Two strips of iron and steel are attracted to a magnet as
materials magnetic field sodium shown above
 When in a strong chloride, The arrangement is then dipped in the iron fillings.
magnetic field, they mercury,
become weakly Benzene, Observations:
magnetized in a direction water (i) More iron fillings are attracted to the iron strip than
opposite to the e.t.c. the steel strip. This is because the induced magnetism
magnetizing field. in iron strip is stronger than that in steel. Iron is easily
magnetized than steel.
(b) Non- These are materials which (ii) On removing the permanent magnet almost all iron
magnetic cannot be attracted or fillings on iron fall off and very few if any fall from
materials repelled by a magnet e.g. steel. Steel.
copper, brass, wood, plastic, This is because the induced magnetism in iron is
wood, rubber etc. temporary while induced magnetism in steel is
permanent.

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Conclusion Properties of magnets
Iron is a soft magnetic material i.e temporarily magnetized  Magnets attract only certain materials.
while steel is permanently magnetized and thus hard  Magnets have two ends called magnetic poles. Its at
magnetic material. these ends where the attractive forces are strongest
{Assn. Describe an experiment to show that
Assignment: give some differences between steel and iron attractive forces of a magnet are strongest at its
as magnetic materials ends}
This is shown by dipping a magnet into a container of
Storing magnets iron fillings.
Magnets tend to become weaker with time due to repulsion Iron fillings are seen in large numbers at the magnetic
of the free like poles of molecular magnets near the ends. poles than in the middle of the magnet.
This upsets the alignment of the atomic dipoles.
To prevent this self demagnetization of magnets, bar  Magnets with two poles i.e. North Pole & South Pole
magnets are stored in pairs with un like poles put together when freely suspended come to rest in the north-south
and pieces of soft iron called magnetic keepers are placed at direction.
the end as shown below. {Assn. Describe an experiment to show that a freely
suspended magnet comes to rest in the north-south
direction}

 Magnets have a basic law which states that unlike poles

attract while like poles repel.
{Assn, Describe an experiment to verify the law of
magnetism}

Testing polarity/magnetism [How to identify the pole of a

Explanation magnet]
How magnetic keepers are used to store magnets
 Magnetic keepers become induced magnets and their (a) By suspension method
poles neutralize the poles of the bar magnets. In other
words, the keepers and the bar magnets form a closed
loop with no free poles thus eliminating self
demagnetization.

Uses of magnets
 Used in industries to lift heavy loads
 Tapes and tape recorders use a special type of magnetic
materials with very fine powder where each particle can
be magnetized
 Used in electric motors and generators to rotate the
wheels of a machine Procedures:
 Used in a relay reed switch and as a circuit breakers  Suspend a given un marked magnet with a help of a
 Used in telephone receivers and loud speakers. etc thread so that it can rotate freely.
 Wait until the magnet comes to rest.
Polarity of a magnet
Polarity of a magnet refers to the points at the ends of a Observation:
magnet that have opposite magnetic properties where the The magnet points in north-south direction.
magnetic strength is more powerful. The points are called
poles. Conclusion:
Magnets are never found as monopoles. (Single magnetic The end facing the geographic north is the North pole and
poles). Every magnet has two poles called North pole(N) the end facing the geographic south is the south pole.
and South pole (S).
The North Pole is the pole which is attracted to the (b) Using a magnet of known poles
geographic north and the South Pole is the pole which is
attracted to the geographic south.

Law of magnetism:
It states that, unlike poles attract and like poles repel.
Note: The attraction or repulsion between two magnets
depends on the strength of the magnets and the distance
between them.
The further apart the magnets are, the less they attract or
repel one another.

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Procedures: Double touch method
 Suspend an iron bar and mark its ends X & Y
 Bring the N-pole of a magnet slowly towards the end X
and after towards end Y. Note the observations in each
case.

 Repeat the above procedures using the S- pole of a

known pole magnet.

Observations
(i) Attraction: Probably due to attraction between unlike
poles or due to attraction between a magnet and a
magnetic material.
Therefore we cannot make a conclusion here. In this method, the steel bar is stroked several times from
the centre outwards with unlike poles of the two permanent
(ii) Repulsion: It is due to like poles. If repulsion occurs, magnets.
then the unknown pole is similar to the known pole of After each stroke, the stroking pole should be raised higher
the magnet. and higher to avoid weakening of the induced magnetism in
In this case we can make our conclusion of the the steel bar.
unknown pole. The polarity produced at the end of the bar is also of the
Magnetic opposite kind to that of the stroking pole.
North Pole South Pole Substance
North Pole Attraction Attraction Consequent pole magnet.
Repulsion
Consequent poles of a magnet are double like poles both at
South Pole Attraction Repulsion Attraction the centre and at the ends.
Magnetic
Substances Attraction Attraction No effect Consequent poles are obtained when a steel bar is double
stroked using two like poles from the centre outwards as
Note: Repulsion is the only sure way of testing for the shown below.
polarity of a magnet and not attraction because attraction
occurs for both magnets and magnetic materials.

Methods of magnetizing a magnet

(i) Single touch/stroke method
(ii) Divided/double touch/stroke method.
(iii) Electrical method using direct current.
(iv) Induction method.
(v) Absolute method

Single touch method

If such a magnet is freely suspended in air, it does not come
to rest.

Qn. (a) What is a consequent pole magnet?

(b) Briefly describe how a consequent pole magnet is
made..

Electrical method

In this method, the steel bar is stroked from end to end

several times in one direction with one pole of a permanent
magnet.

The polarity produced at the end of the bar is of the opposite

kind to that of the stroking pole.
The material to be magnetized is inserted into a solenoid to
which a steady d.c is connected to flow.

The current is switched on for a few minutes and then off.

When the steel bar is removed, it is found to be magnetized.

The current flowing in the same direction makes the atomic

magnets in the Domains to point in same direction.
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Determining the polarity of the magnet produced. (iv) Using
The polarity of the magnet produced depends on the Alternating
direction of the current at the ends of the solenoid. current
It can be established by using one of the following methods:

(i) Using the direction of flow of current.

Look at the ends of the solenoid; -The magnet is placed in a solenoid
 If the current is flowing in a clockwise direction, that whose ends are connected to an a.c
will be a South Pole. supply.
 If it is flowing in an anti-clockwise direction, then that -It is then withdrawn from the solenoid
will be the North Pole. slowly so that the changing magnetic
flux destroys the order of alignment of
(ii) Using the Right hand grip rule. the atomic magnets.
Grip the solenoid such that the fingers point in the direction
of current in the solenoid. Then, the thumb points in the Note: the demagnetized magnet should be removed in an
North pole. East-West direction to avoid magnetization by the earth
field.

The domain theory of magnetism

A magnet is made up of small magnets lined up with their
north poles pointing in the same direction; this is illustrated
when the magnet is broken into two pieces intending to
separate the North Pole and the South Pole as shown below.

Absolute method.
In this method, the steel bar is heated to red hot, hammered
and allowed to cool while facing in the north- south
direction.
No matter how many times the magnet is broken, the small
Induced magnetism pieces will still be magnets. These atomic magnets are
A piece of un-magnetized steel/iron becomes magnetized called magnetic di- poles.
when its either near or in contact with a pole of a magnet. In a magnetic substance e.g magnetized steel bar, there are a
This is a process called induced magnetism or magnetization number of magnetized region called domains. Domains are a
by magnetic induction. The end nearest to the pole of the grip of atoms which are tied magnets called dipoles.
magnet acquires an opposite pole.
Domain theory states that in an un magnetized substance
the dip holes in all domains are not aligned, so when the
magnet is made, the domain are aligned in the same
direction
Once they are all aligned, the substance can’t be magnetized
any further and it is said to be magnetically saturated.

Magnetic saturation

When a magnetic material is magnetized, it reaches a point

where it cannot be magnetized further. This is called
magnetic saturation.

 Demagnetization
It is the process by which a magnet loses its magnetism. i.e. Magnetic Magnetic material Magnetic material
the atomic magnets are now in a random arrangement and dipole in un magnetized in magnetized state
facing in different directions. (molecular state
It can be demagnetized by: magnet)

Method Explanation
(i) Hammerin The magnet is hammered while lying in
g the E-W direction.
(ii) Dropping The magnet is dropped on a hard surface
several times.
(iii) Heating The magnet is heated until it becomes red
hot and then allowed to cool while lying
in the East-West direction.

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QN. Explain in terms of the molecular theory how a steel MAGNETIC FIELDS
bar gets magnetized and demagnetized. A magnetic Field is a region or space in which:
When a magnet is stroked on the steel bar the magnet  A magnetic dipole (magnet) experiences a force.
domain are forced to align in the direction of the magnetic  A current carrying conductor experiences a force or a
field from the magnet. They do so and remain in that moving charge experiences a force.
direction hence the bar gets magnetized.  An emf is induced in a moving conductor.
However, when a magnet is heated strongly, dropped on a
rough surface or alternating current passed through it, the Magnetic flux.
domain is set to point in opposite directions which aren’t Magnetic flux is a group of magnetic field lines passing
north – south hence weakening the magnet. This is called through a certain area.
demagnetization.
Field lines are used to represent the direction and magnitude
Magnetic saturation: of the magnetic field. The strength of the magnetic field is
Is the limit beyond which the strength of a magnet can’t be proportional to the density of the field lines.
increased at constant temperature. The direction o the magnetic field is represented by the
magnetic field lines. The magnetic field lines are taken to
QN. Explain why increase in temperature destroys the pass through the magnet, emerging from the North Pole and
magnetism of a magnet. returning via the South Pole. The lines are continuous and
When a substance is heated, molecules vibrate with greater do not cross each other.
energy, these increased vibrations destroy alignment of tiny
magnets in the domain and the magnetism is decrease. Magnetic lines of force do not intersect or touch and can
pass through a non-magnetic substance.

Methods of locating magnetic flux

(i) Using a plotting compass.

-Place a magnet on a flat surface and then place a piece of

paper on top of the magnet.
-Place a plotting compass near one pole of the magnet, note
and mark the position of the North pole of the compass
needle using a pencil dot.
-Move the compass needle onto the dot marked on the paper
and make a second dot.
-Continue the process until you reach the south pole of the
magnet.
-Join the dots to give a line of force and show the direction
of the force using an arrow.

(ii) Using Iron fillings.

-Place a magnet on a flat surface and then place a piece of

paper on top of the magnet.
-Sprinkle iron fillings all over the paper.
-Tap the paper gently

Observation: The iron fillings re-arrange themselves as

shown above.

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Magnetic flux patterns Magnetic shielding or screening
(a) Isolated bar magnet This is the creation of a magnetically neutral space or region
in the neighbour hood of the magnetic field irrespective of
the strength of the field.

Iron has the ability of drawing and concentrating all the flux
from its surroundings through itself. It is thus said to be
more permeable to the magnetic flux than air.

Iron in form of a ring causes the lines of force to pass

through its walls and no magnetic flux passes the
surrounding ring.
The space inside the ring is said to be shielded or screened
from magnetic flux.

(b) Unlike poles close together (attraction)

(c) Two like poles (repulsion)

All lines of force incident on the ring induce magnetism into

it. These create a neutral region inside the ring
Magnetic shielding can be applied
 In non digital watches
 In T.V tubes and cathode ray tubes
 In electron beams
They are used to shield them from external magnetic field
by placing a strong iron cylinder along the neck of the tube.
A neutral point in a magnetic fields
The earth’s magnetic field
A neutral point is a point in a magnetic field where the
A freely suspended bar magnet always comes to rest
resultant magnetic field strength is zero (0). The opposing
pointing in the North-South direction.
magnetic fields are of equal strength and therefore cancel
This is due to the magnetic field of the earth
out.
The earth behaves as though it contains a short bar magnet
inclined at a small angle to its axis of rotation with its South
Pole in the northern hemisphere (geographic North) and the
North Pole pointing to the Southern hemisphere (geographic
South).

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 Generally, the angle of dip increases from at the equator up
to at the North Pole

Earth’s magnetic field;

This is the series of parallel lines running from geographic
south to geographic north as shown below.

Interaction of earth’s field with a bar magnet.

(a) When the South Pole of (b) When the North Pole of
the bar magnet is pointing the bar magnet is pointing
north and the magnet is in the north and the magnet is in
magnetic meridian the magnetic meridian

Magnetic meridian: this is the vertical plane containing or

passing through the earth’s magnetic north and south poles

Geographical meridian: This is the vertical plane passing

through the geographical north and south directions

Angle of Dip, : This is the angle between the earth’s

magnetic field and the horizontal; OR Angle of dip is the
angle that the axis of a freely suspended bar magnet makes
with the horizontal when the magnet sets.

Angle of declination (Magnetic variation) is the angle

between the earth’s magnetic and geographical meridian Magnetic effect of an electric current.
This is the angle between geographic North Pole and the Any straight conductor carrying current experiences a
magnetic north pole. magnetic field around it.
The field pattern obtained can be studied by using iron
Magnetic axis: is the imaginary line passing through the fillings or plotting compass.
earth’s magnetic north and south poles. It is found that the magnetic lines of force form concentric
circles with the wire as the centre.
Geographical axis: This is the imaginary line through the
center of the earth and passing through the geographical
north and south

Variation of Angle of dip, as one moves from the

magnetic equator up to the North Pole
Magnetic Equator: This is the greatest circle in a
horizontal plane perpendicular to the magnetic meridian
where a freely suspended bar magnet experiences zero
magnetic dip.
The direction of a magnetic field around the conductor is
Explanation given by the right hand grip rule. which states that imagine a
At the magnetic equator, the earth’s magnetic field lines are conductor to be griped in the right hand with the thumb
parallel to the horizontal; therefore the angle of dip at the pointing in the direction of the magnetic field, then the
equator is zero, fingers will point in the direction of the current.
As one moves along a given longitude towards the North
Pole, the resultant magnetic field lines meet the earth’s Right hand grip rule
surface at angles greater than 00 but less than 900 thus the It states that imagine a conductor to be griped in the right
angle of dip at such a position is also greater than zero but hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of the
less than 900. magnetic field, then the fingers will point in the direction of
i.e. the current.
At the North Pole, the magnetic field lines are normal to the
surface of the earth, thus they are perpendicular to the Grip the soft iron bar with the right hand figure, following
horizontal. Therefore the angle of dip at the North Pole the direction of current. The end where the thumb points is
equals 900 i.e. . the north pole.

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 The field lines around each side are concentric circles.
Magnetic fields near the center of the circular coil are
uniform hence the magnetic field lines are nearly straight
and parallel

(iii) Magnetic flux due to a current in a solenoid

A solenoid is a coil whose diameter is smaller than its
length.

(i) Magnetic fields due to a straight wire carrying

current
Current out of the page Current into the page

The field pattern due to a solenoid is similar to that of a bar

magnet when current is switched on.

The direction of the field is determined as follows:”if the

coil (solenoid) is viewed from one end and the current flows
in an anticlockwise direction at that end, then the end is a
North Pole and if the current flows in a clockwise direction,
then that end is a south pole”

The strength of the flux density depends on:

 The current in the solenoid
Maxwell’s right hand rule:
This is used to find the direction of the field.
If one grasps the current carrying straight wire in the right  Number of turns
hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of current,
then the fingers curl pointing in the direction of the Exercise:
magnetic field. 1. (1991 Qn. 23).
SECTION A
(ii) Magnetic field due to a current carrying circular coil. 1994 Qn. 1 1993 Qn. 1997 Qn. 1998 Qn.
37 29 32
2000 Qn. 2002 Qn. 2004 Qn. 8 2006 Qn.
36 20 14
2008 Qn. 1991 Qn.
18 23

SECTION B
2. (2008 Qn. 3). (a) Define the following terms as applied
to magnetism:
(i) Ferromagnetic material.
(ii) Neutral point
(b) Sketch he magnetic field pattern around a bar magnet
Alternatively the field lines of a current carrying circular whose axis lies along the magnetic north.
coil can be sketched as follows; (c) (i) State one method of magnetizing a magnet.
(ii) What is meant by a magnetically saturated material?

3. (1995 Qn. 7). (a) With the aid of a diagram, explain

how a piece of iron can be magnetized by a single touch
method.
(b) How can you determine the polarity of a magnet?
(c) Explain why a magnet loses its magnetism when placed
in a coil of wire carrying alternating current.

4. (2004 Qn. 41). (a) List two ways by which a magnet

may lose its magnetic properties.

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 (b) The figure below shows an iron ring between two
opposite magnetic poles.

(a) Origin of the force that causes motion of a current

carrying conductor placed across a magnetic field.
When a current carrying conductor is placed across a
magnetic field (e.g between the poles of a powerful magnet),
it sets up a magnetic field around itself.
(i) Sketch the magnetic lines of force on the diagram. The two fields then interact with each other causing a
(ii) Explain what happens to the steel nails. resultant force.
If the field or the current is reserved, the direction of the
5. (2004 Qn. 4). (a) (i) What is a magnetic field? force also reverses.
(ii) State the law of magnetism
(b) Sketch the magnetic field pattern of two bar magnets
whose north poles are facing each other.

6. (2006 Qn. 3). (a) Distinguish between angle of dip and

angle of declination.
(b) Draw a diagram to show the magnetic field pattern
around a bar magnet placed in the earth’s field with the
north pole of the magnet pointing to the earth’s magnetic
south. The combined field exert a force on the current carrying
conductor. The force is towards the region with fewer field
(c) Describe what happens to the compass needle, C, as it is lines (i.e less flux density).
moved closer to the bar magnet along the dotted line shown
below.

7. (2002 Qn. 6). (a) What happens when a magnet is ;

(i) Dipped in iron filings. On one side of the conductor, the magnetic fields oppose
(ii) Freely suspended in air. each other and some cancel out resulting in formation of a
relatively weaker field there.
(b). A powerful magnet Q is placed on a soft board. Plastic
pins are firmly stuck in the soft board around the magnet. On the other side of the conductor, the applied magnetic
An identical magnet P, is held in the space surrounded by field lines are forced to curve or concentrate resulting in
the pins above the magnet Q. When the magnet P is formation of a strong magnetic field there.
released, it floats above the magnet Q as shown below. There are more field lines above the wire since both fields
act in the same direction.

A force is therefore exerted on the conductor that moves it

from a region of strong magnetic field to a weaker magnetic
field.

If we suppose field lines to be a stretched elastic material,

these below will try to straighten out and in so doing will
exert a down ward force on the wire.
Explain; [See the kicking wire experiment for verification]
(i) why P floats above Q.
(ii) why are plastic pins used instead of steel pins. Fleming’s Left Hand Rule (Motor rule)
(iii) What would happen to magnet to magnet P if all the The direction of the force in a current carrying conductor
pins were removed at the time. placed across a magnetic field is predicted by the Fleming’s
(c) Explain in terms of the domain theory how a steel bar Left Hand Rule.
gets magnetized by stroking.
It states that if the thumb, first and second fingers of the left
hand are held mutually at right angles with the thuMb
pointing in the direction of magnetic force (or Motion), the
First finger indicates the direction of the field while the

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seCond finger indicates the direction of current in the
conductor.

(b) Factors affecting the magnitude of a force on a current

carrying conductor.
Experiments show that the magnitude of the force exerted is
proportional to the:- The fields in the middle of the conductors are in opposite
(i) Current I in the conductor directions. Hence they attract each other.
(ii) Length, l, of the conductor
(iii) Strength of the magnetic field by a quantity called A force on each wire acts from a region of strong field
magnetic flux density, B. hence straight parallel wires carrying current in the same
(iv) Number of turn in the conductor, N direction attract. i.e. “like currents attract”
(iv) The angle 𝛉, where 𝛉 is the angle between the
conductor and the magnetic field. Magnetic field due to straight wires carrying current in
All these factors can easily be generated from the expression opposite directions
for the force on a current carrying conductor below.
𝐅 = 𝐍𝐁𝐈𝐋𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉

Note: current flowing into the paper is donated by (X) and

current flowing out of the paper is denoted by, (•)

“Unlike currents repel”

The fields in the middle of the conductors are in the same
direction. Hence they repel each other.
Force between two straight conductors carrying current
in a vacuum A force on each wire acts from a region of strong field
Two current carrying conductors (wires) exert a force on hence straight parallel wires carrying current in opposite
each other due to the interaction of the magnetic fields set direction repel. i.e. “Unlike currents repel”
up around each conductor.
Depending on the direction of the currents, in the two Applications of Electromagnets
conductors, the force exerted can be;
(i) Attractive (Same direction of current ) An electromagnet is any current carrying conductor which
(ii) Repulsive (Different directions of current) acts as a magnet.
If a soft iron is placed in a solenoid, it will be strongly
Magnetic field due to two straight wires carrying current magnetized only when the current is flowing.
in the same direction When the current is switched off, all the magnetism
acquired is lost.

The soft iron inside the solenoid is acting as an

electromagnet. The strength of the field of an electromagnet
can be increased by:
 Placing an iron core inside the coil.
 Increasing the magnitude of the current.
 Increasing the number of turns in the coil.

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Applications of electromagnets
Electromagnets are used in:
 Lifting magnets
 Electric bells
 Moving coil loud speaker
 Telephone receivers
 Magnetic Relays, e.t.c.

(i) Lifting magnets

They are mainly used for lifting and transporting heavy steel
from one place to another in a factory. The coils are made of
insulated copper wire wound on a U-shaped soft iron so that
opposite polarity is produced. The opposite adjacent poles
increase the lifting power of the electromagnet.

The coil is wound in opposite directions on each of the soft

iron.
Action:
 When the phone is lifted, a steady current flows through
the solenoids. However when a person speaks into the
microphone on the other end, the sound energy is
converted into varying electrical energy of the same
frequency as the original sound.
 This is transferred through the cables to the receiver and
magnetizes the electromagnet.
(ii) Electric bell  The strength of the electromagnet varies according to
It consists of a hammer, a gong, soft iron armature, contact the magnitude of the electric current which also
adjusting screw, a push switch, steel spring and an depends on the original sound.
electromagnet made of two coils wound in opposite  This causes the magnetic alloy diaphragm which is
directions on the iron cores. under tension to have a varying pull. As a result, the
diaphragm vibrates reproducing the vibration of the
speech and so the speech is reproduced.

(iv) Magnetic relay

A magnetic relay switch uses a small current in the primary
circuit to control a larger current in the secondary circuit.

Action
 When the switch is pressed, current flows through the
electromagnet which becomes magnetized.
 It attracts the soft iron armature and hence breaking the
contacts.
 This causes the hammer to strike the gong and sound is
heard. When current flows in the coil from the primary circuit AB,
 As the armature moves, the current is broken causing the soft iron core is magnetized and hence attracts the L-
the electromagnet to lose its magnetism. The spring shaped iron armature.
pulls the armature again to its original position and As the armature is attracted, its top rises making it rock on
contact is made again. its pivot hence closing the contacts at C in the secondary
 The process is repeated on and on hence a continuous circuit. Connected to DE.
sound will be heard. The relay is then said to be energized or on.

(iii) Telephone receiver (v) The moving coil loud speaker

It consists of an electromagnet which is mad e of two coils It converts electrical energy into sound energy. It is used in
wound in opposite directions on two soft iron cores, a radio receivers, record players, etc.
diaphragm and a permanent magnet which attracts the
diaphragm and keeps it under tension.

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Structure
Action:
When the current to be measured flows through the coil, a
resultant magnetic field is set up. By Fleming’s left hand
rule, two equal and opposite parallel forces act on the two
vertical sides of the coil. The two forces together form a
deflection couple causing the coil to rotate until the
deflecting couple is just balanced by the opposing couple
setup by the hair springs.

As the coil rotates, the pointer moves with it and hence the
magnitude of the current can be obtained from the linear
scale.

Sensitivity of the moving coil galvanometer

A galvanometer is said to be sensitive if it can detect very
small currents.
The sensitivity can be increased by;
It consists of a light coil of wire known as a speech coil
 Using very strong magnet to provide a strong
wound tightly round a cylindrical former to which a large
magnetic field
thin cardboard cone is rapidly attached. The coil is in a
 Using very weak hair springs
radical magnetic field provided by the permanent magnet
which has circular pole.  Suspending the coil so that it can turn freely
 Using a coil with many turns
Action
 Varying electric currents from an amplifier flows Advantages
continuously in the speech coil through the leads. (i). It has a linear scale because of the uniform field
 The varying current produces a varying electromagnetic provided by the radial field.
force on the coil making it to vibrate at the same (ii). It can be made to measure different ranges of
frequency as the current. current and potential difference.
 This makes the frame and the paper cone to vibrate at (iii). External field around the galvanometer has no
the same frequency sending the surrounding air in influence because the magnetic field between the
vibration hence a loud note (sound) is heard. magnets and the soft iron is very strong.
 The greater the electrical energy supplied to the coil, the
louder the note produced. Conversion of a moving coil galvanometer into an
ammeter and voltmeter.
Applications of the force on a current carrying (i). Conversion of a galvanometer to an ammeter
conductor Use of shunts
(a) Moving coil Galvanometer An ammeter is constructed in such a way that it has a very
It is used to detect and measure an electric current and low resistance so that a large current passes through it.
potential difference.
To convert a galvanometer into an ammeter, a low
resistance called a shunt is connected in parallel with it.

Rg
I Ig
G
Is

Rs
Is = I − Ig
Ig is the full-scale deflection of the galvanometer
P. d across the shunt = P. d across galvanometer
⟺ (𝐈 − 𝐈𝐠 )𝐑 𝐬 = 𝐈𝐠 𝐑 𝐠

Most of the current will pass through the shunt and only a
small part through the galvanometer.
It consists of a rectangular coil with many insulated turns Example:
wound on an aluminum former, soft iron cylindrical core A moving coil galvanometer has a resistance of 5Ω and
between the curved poles of a powerful permanent magnet, gives a full deflection of 15mA. How can it be converted
the springs which control the rotation of the coil, a pointer into an ammeter to measure a maximum of 3A?
and a linear scale. The current is led in and out by two hair
springs.

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 (i). Thus a low resistance resistor of 0.0016Ω should be
Solution connected in parallel with the instrument.
(i)
Let Rs be the resistance of the shunt required. (ii)
R g = 4Ω
Ig = 15mA R g = 5Ω Rm
Ig = 6mA
G G
I = 3A
Is
Vg Vm
Rs V=20V
P. d across the shunt = P. d across galvanometer P. d across
⟺ (I − Ig )R s = Ig R g V=( ) + (P. d across galvanometer)
the multiplier
⟺ (3 − 0.015)R s = 0.015 × 5 V = Vm + Vg
2.985 R s = 0.075 V = Ig R m + Ig R g
𝐑 𝐬 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝛀
Thus a low resistance resistor of 0.025 Ω should be 𝑉 − Ig R g
connected in parallel with the galvanometer. Rm =
Ig
20 − 0.006(4)
Example1. Rm =
A moving coil galvanometer gives a full scale deflection of 0.006
4mA and has a resistance of 5Ω.How can such instrument be
converted into an ammeter giving a ful-scale deflection of 𝐑 𝐦 = 𝟑𝟑𝟐𝟗𝛀
10A?
Example 3.
Solution: A moving coil galvanometer of resistance5Ω and current
Let Rs be the resistance of the shunt required. sensitivity of 2 divisions per milliampere, gives a full-scale
deflection of 16 divisions. Explain how such an instrument
R g = 5Ω can be converted into;
Ig = 4𝑚𝐴
(i). An ammeter reading up to 20A?
I = 10A
G (ii). A voltmeter in which each division represents 2V?
Is Solution:
(i)
Rs Current sensitivity = 2div/mA
Full scale deflection = 16div.
P. d across the shunt = P. d across galvanometer 2div → 1mA
(I − Ig )R s = Ig R g 16div → x
⟺ (10 − 0.004)R s = 0.004 × 5 On cross multiplying, we get;
𝐑 𝐬 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝛀 2𝑥 = 16𝑚𝐴
Thus a low resistance resistor of 0.002Ω should be 𝑥 = 8𝑚𝐴 = 8 × 10−3 𝐴 = 0.008𝐴
connected in parallel with the instrument.
Ig = 8𝑚𝐴 R g = 5Ω
Examp2.
I = 20A
G
A moving coil galvanometer gives a full scale deflection of
6mA and has a resistance of 4Ω.How can such instrument be Is
converted into;
(i). an ammeter giving a ful-scale deflection of 15A? Rs
(ii). A voltmeter reading up to 20V?
P. d across the shunt = P. d across galvanometer
⟺ (I − Ig )R s = Ig R g
Solution:
(i) ⟺ (20 − 0.008)R s = 0.008 × 5
Let Rs be the resistance of the shunt required. 𝐑 𝐬 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝛀
Thus a low resistance resistor of 0.0016Ω should be
R g = 4Ω connected in parallel with the instrument.
Ig = 6mA
I = 10A
G Voltimeter sensitivity = 1div/2V
Is Full scale deflection = 16div.
1div → 2V
Rs 16div → y
On cross multiplying, we get;
P. d across the shunt = P. d across galvanometer 𝑦 = 16 × 2 = 32𝑉
⟺ (I − Ig )R s = Ig R g
⟺ (15 − 0.006)R s = 0.006 × 4 𝑉 − Ig R g
𝐑 𝐬 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝛀 Rm =
Ig

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 32 − 0.008(5) (b) The simple direct current (d.c) motor
Rm = The d.c motor changes electrical energy to mechanical
0.008
energy.
𝐑 𝐦 = 𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟓𝛀
Structure:
(i). Conversion of a galvanometer to a voltmeter It consists of a rectangular coil which can rotate about a
A voltmeter has a high resistance so that no current passes fixed axis in a magnetic field provided by the permanent
through it. magnet. The ends of the coil are soldered to two halves of a
copper ring (commutator).
To convert a galvanometer to a voltmeter, a high resistance Two carbon brushes press lightly against the commutators.
called a multiplier is connected in series with it.

Use of multipliers
Rg Rm
Ig
G

Vg Vm
V = Vm
+[Link] the P. d across
V=( )+( )
multiplier galvanometer Action
V = Vm + Vg
V = Ig R m + Ig R g  When current flows in the coil, side BC experiences a
𝐕 = 𝐈𝐠 (𝐑 𝐦 + 𝐑 𝐠 ) downward force and AD an upward force. (Fleming’s
left hand rule).
 The two forces constitute a couple which rotates the
Example coil.
(ii) In the above example, if the galvanometer is to measure  When the coil reaches the vertical position, the brushes
a maximum p.d of 1.5V, the value of R can be obtained as lose contact with the commutator and current is cut off.
below. However the coil continues to rotate past this vertical
position because of the momentum gained.
 The current in the coil reverses as the brushes change
R g = 4Ω contact with the commutator, side AD now experiences
Ig = 0.015A
Rm a downward force and BC an upward force. Thus the
G coil continues to rotate as long as the current is flowing.

Energy losses in a d.c motor

Vg Vm
V= 1.5V 1. Energy losses in the winding of the armature (I2R)

2. Eddy current losses.

3. Energy losses due to friction e.g. between the brushes
P. d across
V=( ) + (P. d across galvanometer) and the commutator. These can be minimized by;
the multiplier
V = Vm + Vg
(i) Using low resistance copper wire
V = Ig R m + Ig R g
(ii) Eddy currents are minimized by winding the coil
𝑉 − Ig R g on a laminated core.
Rm =
Ig (iii) Energy losses due to friction are minimized by
1.5 − 0.015(5) lubrication,
Rm =
0.015
Exercise:
𝐑 𝐦 = 𝟗𝟓𝛀 1. ([Link]. 2). (c) A moving coil galvanometer, has a
Thus resistance of 95Ω must be connected in series with the coil of resistance 4Ω and gives a full scale deflection
galvanometer. when a current of 25mA passes through it. Calculate the
value of the resistance required to convert it to an
ammeter which reads 15A at full scale deflection.[Ans:
6.68 × 103 𝛺.]

2. ([Link]. 10). A galvanometer has a resistance of 5Ω

and range 0-40mA. Find the resistance of the resistor
which must be connected in parallel with the

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 galvanometer if a maximum current of 10A is to be (iii) The force on the coil can be increased by increasing the
measured. [Ans: 0.02Ω] number of turns.
(iv) The coil will come to rest with PQ at right angles to the
3. ([Link]. 2). A galvanometer of reads 0.05A at full magnet field.
scale deflection and has resistance of 2.0Ω. Calculate
the resistance that should be connected in series with it A. (i) , (ii) and (iii) only. B. (i) and (iii) only
to convert it to a voltmeter which reads 15V at full scale C. (ii) and (iv) only. D. (iv) only.
deflection. [Ans: 298Ω]
5. (2005 Qn. 2). The direction of motion of a conductor
4. A galvanometer of internal resistance100Ω gives full a carrying current in a magnetic field can be predicted by
fsd of 10mA. Calculate the value of the resistance applying ;
necessary to convert it to: A. Faraday’s law. B. Maxwell’s screw rule
(a) Voltmeter reading up to 5V. [400Ω] C. Fleming’s left hand rule. D. Fleming’s right hand rule.
(b) Ammeter reading up to 10A. [0.1Ω]
(1990 Qn. 4), 1994 Qn. 38, 1995 Qn. 40, 1998 Qn. 31.
Exercise: SECTION B
1. ([Link]. 24).
6. (1992 Qn. 10). An Alluminium foil carrying a current
is placed in a magnetic field as shown below.

An electron beam is incident into the page at right angles to

the magnetic field formed between two magnets R and S as
shown in the above diagram. The beam will be deflected.
A. Down wards. B. Towards magnet R
C. Towards magnet S. D. Upwards.

2. (1991 Qn. 13). The diagram below shows a beam of

electrons directed to pass between the poles of a
magnet.

The electron beam would be;

A. deflected towards the S-pole. B. deflected downwards
C. Slowed down. D. reflected backwards.

3. (2003 Qn. 22). Which of the following factors affect the

magnitude of force on a current –carrying conductor in
a magnetic field?
(i) Direction of current.
(ii) Amount of current
(iii) Direction of the magnetic field
(iv) Strength of the magnetic field.

A. (i) and (ii) only. B. (ii) and (iii) only

C. (i) and (iii) only. D. (ii) and (iv) only.

4. (1997 Qn.31). The figure below shows a current

carrying coil PQRS pivoted about XY between two
magnets.

Which of the following statements are true about the coil?

(i) The sides PS and QR shall experience a force.
(ii) As seen from X, the coil will rotate anticlockwise.

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 -This e.m.f tends to oppose the growth of current in the coil.

-Switch k is opened, current, I decays out from the coil and

Electromagnetic induction is the producing of an the bulb (lamp) first lights up brightly and then gradually
electromotive force (electric current) in a circuit from goes off.
magnetism by varying the magnetic flux linked with the -The magnetic flux linking the turns of the coil changes
circuit. hence inducing an e.m.f in the coil.
. -This e.m.f tends to oppose the decay of current in the coil.
An electric current produces a magnetic field around the
conductor through which it flows. Similarly, a magnetic Note: Just as self induction opposes the growth of current in
field induces a current in a conductor when the conductor a circuit when K is closed; it also opposes its decay when K
cuts the field. This effect is called electro magnetic is opened.
induction.
Mutual induction
The means that current or (e.m.f ) can be induced when; This is the generation of an e.m.f in one coil due to change
 The magnetic field strength around an electromagnet is in current in the nearby coil.
increased and decreased. A magnet can be used to induce current in a coil. A
 Constantly moving a permanent magnet in and out of a secondary coil carrying current can be used instead of the
coil of wire. magnet to induce current
 Constantly moving a conductor near a stationary
permanent magnet. Assignment; describe briefly an experiment to show mutual
Electromagnetic induction forms the basis of working of induction with the aid of a diagram.
power generation, dynamos, generators etc.
Demonstration of Mutual induction
Types of electromagnetic induction: a) Based on changing magnetic field.
 Self induction Experiment to show that the induced current (or e.m.f) is as
 Mutual induction. a result of a changing magnetic field.
(a) Coil-coil experiment
Self induction  Consider cols A and B wound on a soft iron rod as
Self induction is the process where an e.m.f is induced in a shown below.
coil (or circuit) due to a changing current in the same coil.
The flux due to the current in the coil links that coil and if
the current changes, the resulting flux change induces an
emf in the coil itself.
When current flows in a coil, it sets up a magnetic field
within the coil and when it is switched off, the magnetic
field collapses (changes). A current is induced in the coil to
oppose the change.
This effect is called self induction. The coil is said to have
self inductance, (L) and the coil is said to be an inductor.
Back e.m.f is the e.m.f induced in a coil (or circuit) due to a
changing current in the same coil (or circuit).
The induced e.m.f tends to oppose the growth of current in  When switch, K is closed, current flows in the primary
the coil. coil, A and the galvanometer momentarily deflects in
one direction and no more deflection there after as the
Demonstration of self induction switch remains closed.
Consider a coil of known number of turns connected in  When the rheostat, R is adjusted so as to decrease the
series with the battery and switch k as shown below. resistance (hence increasing current), a deflection on
one side of the galvanometer is obtained.
 When the rheostat, R is adjusted so as to increase the
resistance (hence decreasing current), a deflection on
the opposite side of the galvanometer is obtained.

 When the switch is opened (at a break), the

galvanometer deflects in the opposite direction and no
more deflection there after as the switch remains open.
-Switch k is closed, current, I flows in a coil and the bulb (b) Similar observations above could be made when the
(lamp) lights up slowly to maximum brightness. coils are arranged as shown below.
-The magnetic flux linking the turns of the coil changes
hence inducing an e.m.f in the coil .
-This e.m.f tends to oppose the growth of current in the coil.
Alternatively;
-The current, I is varied by using a variable resistor, R.
-The magnetic flux linking the turns of the coil changes
hence inducing an e.m.f in the coil.

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 (iv) The direction of the deflection is reversed when either
the pole of the magnet is reversed or the direction of motion
of either the magnet or coil is reversed.

Assignment; describe briefly an experiment to show mutual

induction with the aid of a diagram.

Laws of electromagnetic Induction:

(i) Faraday’s law.
i) Larger deflections are obtained when a bunch of soft  Whenever a conductor moves through a magnetic flux
iron is inserted into the coil compared to hard solid iron or whenever there is a change in magnetic flux linked
bar or air cored coil. with a circuit, an e.m.f is induced.
ii) The deflection obtained in the secondary coil (coil B)  The magnitude of induced e.m.f in a circuit is directly
depends on the induced e.m.f in it, which depends on proportional to the rate of change of the flux linking it.
the;
 Number of turns in coils A and B (ii) Lenz’s law.
 Area of coils A and B. The direction of the induced current is such as to oppose the
 Proximity of the two coils (distance between the change causing it.
coils) It followed Faraday’s law when Lenz studied the direction
of the induced current in a complete circuit.
Similar observations above could be made when there is
relative motion between a magnet and a coil as shown Direction of induced e.m.f
below. The direction of induced e.m.f (or induced current) is
obtained by using Lenz’s law.
However, if the current is being induced by the motion of a
conductor in a magnetic field, it is more convenient to use
the Cork’s screw rule or Fleming’s Right hand Rule
(dynamo rule).

Fleming’s right hand rule

 When both the magnet and coil are stationary (or

moved with the same velocity in the same direction),
there is no deflection. This is because, there is no
varying magnetic field created hence no e.m.f is
induced in the coil, and so the galvanometer does not
deflect.

 When the coil is fixed and the magnet moved into the
coil or when the magnet is fixed and the coil moved It states that: “When the thumb, first finger and second
towards the magnet. The magnet experiences an finger of the right hand are held mutually at right angles,
opposing force. This is because the induced e.m.f flows with the thumb pointing in the direction of motion, the first
in such a direction that the magnetic flux due to it finger in the direction of the magnetic filed, then the second
opposes that due to the magnet. finger points in the direction of the induced current”.
A varying magnetic field is created which induces an e.m.f
in the coil, hence the galvanometer deflects in one direction. In summary; thuMb – motion, First finger – field ,seCond
 When the magnet is withdrawn from the field, the finger – current.
magnet experiences an attracting force. Magnetic flux Note: we use the Right hand for Direction of Current
threading the coil decreases. The induced e.m.f flows in produced or (RDC).
such a direction that the magnetic flux due to it
enhances that due to the magnet. The galvanometer Direction of the induced current in a straight wire.
deflects in the direction opposite to the first one. A wire is placed between the poles of a permanent magnet
and connected to a galvanometer. The wire is moved up and
Observations from the above experiments: down at right angles to the magnetic flux.
(i) Whenever there is relative motion between a coil and a
magnet, the galvanometer shows a certain deflection. This  It’s observed that when the wire is moved down, the
indicates that current is induced in the coil. galvanometer deflects to the right meaning that induced
(ii) The deflection is temporary. It lasts so long as the current is flowing in the clockwise direction.
relative motion between the coil and the magnet continues.  When the wire is moved up, the deflection is reversed
(iii) The deflection increases with increase in relative indicating that the current is reversed. ( anticlockwise )
motion. The above observation can be verified using Fleming’s right
hand rule as shown below.

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 induced e.m.f helped rather than opposed, the principle of
conservation of energy would be violated.

Applications of Electromagnetic Induction.

1. Generators
2. Transformers
[Link] coils
Assignment: draw a coil in a magnetic field and show its
1) GENERATORS
rotation when current is moving in different direction. A generator transforms mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
Experiment to verify Lenz’s law
(Illustration of Lenz’s law)
(a) D.C generator
Structure:

-A battery is connected in series with a galvanometer and a

mega ohm resistor. Switch K is closed and the direction of
flow of current is noted from the deflection of the
galvanometer.
-The battery is then replaced by a coil AB of known sense of
winding as shown below.

The d.c generator is a device used for producing direct

current energy from mechanical energy.

Part Function
(i)Permanent Provide a strong radial magnetic
magnet poles field.
 When the North Pole of the magnet is moved towards
the coil, the current induced in the coil flows in the (ii)Armature It’s the moving part in the radial
direction such that the magnetic flux due to the coil (Rectangular coil) field.
opposes that due to the magnet (i.e it flows in a It brings about electromagnetic
direction that makes end, A a north pole). The induction in the generator.
galvanometer deflects in the clockwise direction. End A (iii) Commutator Two half rings from which current is
of the coil becomes the North Pole. (Like poles repel). (C1 and C2). tapped by brushes.

 When the magnet is moved away from the coil, the (iv) Carbon brushes Blocks of carbon which convey
galvanometer deflects in the opposite direction. The current between the moving and the
induced current flows in a direction such that the stationary parts of the generator.
magnetic flux due to the coil reinforces that due to the
magnet. (i.e it flows in a direction that makes end, A a
south pole).. The galvanometer deflects in the ant- Mode of operation
clockwise direction. Thus end A of the coil becomes the -When the coil rotates with uniform angular velocity in the
South Pole. magnetic field, in accordance to Fleming’s Right Hand rule.
The magnetic flux density linked with it changes and an emf
 In both cases, the induced current flows in a direction is induced in the coil.
so as to oppose the change in flux causing it. This is The induced emf is led away by means of the slip rings S 1
Lenz’s law. and S2.
-Applying Fleming’s right hand rule, the induced current
Lenz’s law and conservation of energy enters the coil via, AB and leaves the coil via CD.
Lenz’s law is an example of conservation of energy. In order -When the coil passes over the vertical position, after half
not to violate the principle of conservation of energy, the the rotation, the slip ring changes contact. C1 goes into
effect of the induced e.m.f must oppose the motion of the contact with B2and C2 goes into contact with B1.
magnet, so that the work done by the external agent in -The forces on the sides of the coil change, thus the current
moving the magnet is the one converted to electrical energy. in the coil is reversed. The current flowing through the load
Other wise the induced magnetic field would increase the thus continues to flow in the same direction.
velocity of the magnet thereby increasing its kinetic energy.
However, there is no source for this energy. Thus if the

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-Hence the direction of the induced e.m.f doesn’t change in  Magnetic flux density (field strength)
the external circuit during one complete revolution of the  Position of the coil
amateur coil. The output of the generator is unidirectional.  Frequency of rotation of the coil.

Variation of induced e.m.f, E of a D.C generator with time Variation of induced e.m.f, E of an A.C generator with
time

Note:
-The induced e.m.f and hence current are maximum when
the plane of the coil is horizontal. This is because cutting
between the coil sides and the magnetic field lines are Structural modifications to convert A.C generator to a
greatest. D.C generator:
-The induced e.m.f and hence current are minimum (zero) -Replace the slip rings with two halves of slip rings
when the plane of the coil is vertical. This is because there is (commutators)
no cutting between the coil sides and the magnetic field
lines. 2) THE TRANSFORMERS
This is a device which transfers electrical energy from one
A simple A.C generator (Alternator) circuit to another by Mutual electromagnetic induction.
Structure
-The simple a.c generator consists of a rectangular coil, Structure
ABCD, mounted between, N, S- pole pieces of a strong -It consists of a laminated soft iron ring around which
magnet and freely to rotate with uniform angular velocity. primary and secondary coils are wound.
-The ends of the coil are connected to copper slip rings S 1 -Ideally the primary coil has zero resistance and the
and S2, which press against carbon brushes B1 and B2. secondary coil has high resistance.

Action:
 An alternating voltage, Vp is applied to the primary coil
Mode of operation at some instant and an alternating current Ip flows in the
 When the coil rotates with uniform angular velocity in primary coil.
the magnetic field, in accordance to Fleming’s Right  This sets up a varying magnetic field in the soft iron
Hand rule. The magnetic flux density linked with it core, which links up the secondary coil.
changes and an emf is induced in the coil. The induced  The magnetic flux density B, is changing hence an e.m.f
emf is led away by means of the slip rings S1 and S2. is induced in the secondary coil.
The induced e.m.f is proportional to the number of turns in
 When sides AP and CD interchange positions, the the secondary coil.
current in the terminals X and Y reverse the direction
and the coil continues rotating in the clockwise Types of Transformers:
direction. There are two types of mains transformers;
(i) Step Up transformers
 Therefore, the induced e.m.f generated flows following (ii) Step down transformers.
a sinusoidal wave.
(i) Step-up transformer (ii) Step-up transformer
Factors affecting the magnitude of e.m.f induced in a It has more turns in the It has more turns in the
rotating coil. primary circuit than in the secondary circuit than in
 Number of turns on the coil. secondary. the primary.
 Area of the coil

©bagiradnl@[Link] 228
 constantly magnetized and demagnetised
demagnetized.
Each time the direction of
magnetization of the frame is
reversed, some energy is wasted in
This is usually installed in This is stationed near the overcoming internal friction.
power stations and consumers and in electrical When a core which can not be
transmission stations. It appliances. It changes the easily magnetised and
changes the voltage to a output voltage to a lower demagnetised is used, power losses
higher value by using more value. The number of turns occur.
turns in the secondary coil in the secondary coil is less
than in the primary to the than those in the primary (iv) Magnetic flux leakage (i) Wind one coil on
ratio of the output voltage coil. Flux leakage occurs when all the top of the other.
required If Ns<Np, Vs<Vp, Is > Ip magnetic flux due to the currents in (ii) Use E- shaped
If Ns>Np, Vs>Vp, Is < Ip and and the transformer is the primary coil do not link up with cores.
the transformer is called step- called step-down. the secondary coil. A small amount
up. of flux associated with the primary
coil fails to pass through the
secondary coil.
For an ideal transformer, (A transformer which is 100%
efficient), the power in the primary is equal to the power Transformer Equation
developed in the secondary i.e. VpIp = VsIs , where Ip and Is
are flowing in the primary and secondary coils respectively. 𝐒𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐒𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐧𝐬
=
𝐏𝐫𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐏𝐫𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐧𝐬
Note:
 Transformers operate only on a.c and not dc because dc 𝐕𝐬 𝐍𝐬
=
does not produce changing magnetic flux in the and 𝐕𝐩 𝐍𝐏
therefore no emf is induced in the secondary coil.
 In practice, transformers are not 100% efficient because Efficiency a transformer
of the energy losses. 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐩𝐮𝐭
𝐄𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐮𝐭
Electric power transmission
 Electricity has to be transmitted over long distances Power out put = Power in secondary circuit = 𝐈𝐬 𝐕𝐬
from generating power stations to the consumers. This Power in put = Power in primary circuit = 𝐈𝐏 𝐕𝐏
causes some power loss in the transmission lines.
 This loss can be minimized if the power is transmitted 𝐈𝐬 𝐕𝐬
at high voltage (or low current). 𝐄𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐈𝐏 𝐕𝐩
 Electric power is stepped up before transmission and
stepped down at the consumers’ end by using
transformers. No machine (No transformer) is perfect/ ideal and therefore
the value of efficiency cannot be 100% because of the
Causes and remedies of power losses in transformers energy losses discussed earlier.
Cause of Energy or power loss How it is minimized
Example. 1
(i) Resistance in the windings: Use thick copper
1. A transformer whose secondary and primary coils have
-Some of the energy is dissipated wires of low
60 and 1200 turns respectively has its secondary coil
as heat due to the resistance of the resistance.
connected to a 3.0Ω resistor. If the primary is connected to a
coil (joule-ohmic energy loss),
240V a.c supply. If the transformer is 80% efficient,
hence power loss through the 𝐈 𝟐 𝐑
calculate the current flowing in the primary circuit.
mechanism.
Solution:
(ii) Eddy currents Use a laminated core
Eddy currents are currents induced made of thin strips or
in the soft iron core due to the laminars separated
changing magnetic flux linking the from each other by a
core.. layer of insulating
They cause unnecessary heat in the varnish.
transformer through the 𝐈 𝟐 𝐑
mechanism and therefore reduce
the amount of electrical power Vs Ns Po
transferred to the secondary. = Efficiency = × 100
Vp NP Pin
(iii)Hysteresis(Magnetic Use a soft iron core, 80 46
Vs 60
reversal): which can easily be = =
The core or frame of iron ring is magnetised and 240 1200 100 Pin

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 1200Vs = 240 × 60 0.8Pin = 46 4. A step up transformer is designed to operate from a 20
Pin = 57.5W V supply and delivers energy at 250 V. If it is 90%
1200Vs = 14400 efficient,
Vs = 12 V Pin = IP VP a) Determine the primary and secondary currents
57.5 = IP × 240 when the output terminals are connected at
Vs = Is R IP = 4.174 A 250V, 100W lamp.
12 = Is × 3 b) Find the ratio of the primary turns to the
Is = 4A secondary turns..

Po = Is Vs Assignments;
Po = 4 × 12 1. a) Describe with the aid of a diagram the operation of a
Po = 46 W transformer.
b) A 240 V step down mains transformer is designed to
Exercise: light ten 12 V, 20 W ray box lamps and draws a current of 1
1. UNEB 1998: A in the primary coil. Calculate the:
A transformer is designed to work on a 240V, 60W supply. i) Power supplied to the primary coil.
It has 3000turns in the primary and 200 turns in the ii) Power delivered in the secondary coil
secondary and it is 80% efficient. Calculate the current in iii) Efficiency of the transformer.
the secondary and primary coils.
2. A transformer connected to 240 V A.C mains is used to
light a 12 V 26 W lamp.
Vs Ns Po a) What current does the lamp need to light correctly?
= Efficiency = × 100 b) If the efficiency of the transformer is 75%, what
Vp NP Pin
current is taken from the mains?
c) Calculate the magnitude of the series resistor that
Vs 200 𝐏𝐨 = 𝛈𝐏𝐢𝐧
= would be necessary if the lamp were connected
240 3000 directly to the mains.
80
60 = P
3000Vs = 240 × 200 100 in 3. A transmission line between a power station and a
factory has resistance of 0.05 Ω in each of the two
Vs = 16 V Pin = 75W
wires. If 100 A is delivered at 100 V.
Ps = Is Vs Pin = IP VP
a) What useful power is delivered into the load.
60 = Is × 16 b) How much power is wasted is wasted during
Is = 0.27 A 75 = IP × 240
transmission.
IP = 0.3125 A
c) What total power must be supplied by the
generator?
2. UNEB 1999 37, 2000 No. 6 (c), 2002 No. 5 (c), 2004
Calculating the value of alternating current.
No. 5 (d),
The maximum value of an alternating current is known as its
peak value which is reached momentarily, twice for every
revolution of the coil.
Example
We need to obtain the mean square value and then root-
1. A transformer connected to 240 V A.C mains is used to
mean square value (r.m.s) value of the alternating voltage
light a 12V, 26 W lamp.
(or current) in order to avoid zero average.
(i) What current does the lamp need to light correctly?
The peak value is related to the root-mean square value by
(ii) If the efficiency of the transformer is 75%, what
an equation;
current is taken from the mains? 𝐩𝐞𝐚𝐤 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞
(iii) Calculate the magnitude of the series resistor that 𝐫. 𝐦. 𝐬 =
would be necessary if the lamp were connected √𝟐
directly to the mains. 1. Peak value is the maximum value of alternating current
or voltage.
2. A transmission line between a power station and a Peak value is just momentarily reached twice every
factory has resistance of 0.05 Ω in each of the two complete revolution. It is therefore greater than the effective
wires. If 100 A is delivered at 100 V. value of the supply.
(i) What useful power is delivered into the load. 2. Root –mean square value is the effective value of
(ii) How much power is wasted is wasted during alternating current or voltage.
transmission. It is equivalent to the direct current (or direct voltage) which
(iii) What total power must be supplied by the would dissipate the same amount of power when passing
generator? through a resistor as the alternating current of peak value.

3. A transformer with a ratio of 5:2 and efficiency of 90%

has a primary voltage of 240V. If a current of 2.5A
flows through the primary coil, determine the current
through the secondary coil.

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Example. 1 RECTIFICATION
In Uganda, the A.C mains voltage is 240 V. calculate the Rectification is the process by which a.c is converted to d.c.
peak value of the mains. During rectification, a diode which shows low resistance to
peak value = 240V the flow of current in one direction and a very high
resistance to current flow in the opposite direction is used.
peak value
r. m. s =
√2

peak value
240 =
√2 Types of Rectification:
(a) Half-wave rectification
V0 = 240 × √2 This is where a.c is converted to d. c such that current in the
= 339.4 second half cycle is blocked by the diode.
Advantages of a.c over d.c
 A.C is easy to generate.
 A.C is is easy to transmit to around the country with
minimal power loss.
 Alternating current can easily be stepped up and down
for home consumption.
-When current flows clockwise, the resistance of the diode
Disadvantages of a.c over d.c is low.
 A.C cannot be used to charge a battery. -In the 2nd half cycle, when current would be flowing in the
 A.C cannot be used in electroplating. opposite direction (anti- clockwise), the resistance of the
 A.C cannot be used in electrolysis. diode is very high and so current is switched off.
Rectification is the converting of A.C to D.C which is -The energy in the switched off half cycle appears as heat
already discussed under electronics in modern physics. energy and warms up the diode.

Similarities between a.c and d.c. Alternatively, we can use a vacuum- tube.
Both can be cause: When the anode becomes positive, electrons are attracted
-Magnetisation from the cathode hence current flows in the circuit.
-Heating And when the anode becomes negative, electrons from the
-Lighting cathode are repelled and therefore no flow of current.
The result is that the current in the circuit is uni-directional.
Differences between a.c and d.c.
D.c A.c
-Can be used in -Ac is useless in this aspect
electrochemical processes.
E.g electro plating
-Can be used in electric -The train would simply
trains for locomotion. move forward and
backwards at the frequency Or:
of the a.c supply.
-Can’t be stepped up or -Can easily be stepped up
down and down by using
transformers.
-cannot -Can be transported for long
distances with minimum
power loss
-D.c can’t be conducted by -A.c can be conducted by
capacitors capacitors
-D.c is already rectified -A.c can easily be converted
to d.c using rectifiers

A moving coil galvanometer can be used to measure the

average value of the current, < I > .

©bagiradnl@[Link] 231
(b) Full-wave rectification:
Although current has been rectified and made to flow in one
direction, during half wave rectification, half of the energy
is lost.
To over come this problem, we use full- wave rectification
in which four diodes are arranged in a circuit bridge below.
A. Repel each other all the time
B. Attract each other all the time.
A C. Attract each other for just a brief moment
1 D. Have no force of attraction or repulsion between
4 them.
a.c source
Load, R 15. (2002 Qn.5): The figure below shows a coil connected
to a center zero galvanometer G.
2 3
B

 During the 1st half cycle, point A is positive relative B.

Thus current flows through diodes 1 and 2. Diode 2
takes back the current to the source.
 During the 2nd half cycle, point B is made positive
relative B. Thus current flows through diodes 3 and 4.
Diode 4 takes back the current to the source. The poles produced at the ends X and Y of the coil when
the north pole of the magnet approaches it , is;
 Thus there is always a current flowing in the same
A. X- north pole Y-south pole
direction through the load, R.
B. X-south pole Y-north pole
C. X-north pole Y-north pole
D. X-south pole X-south pole

16. (2002 Qn.40): The induced current in a generator

A. Is a maximum when the coil is vertical
B. Is a minimum when the coil is horizontal
C. Changes direction when the coil is horizontal
A moving coil galvanometer can be used to measure the D. Increases when the speed of rotation increases
average value of the current, < I > .
From the definition of mean value; 17. (2004 Qn.9): Which of the following is the correct
order of energy changes or conversions in a generator
A. Heat energy in cylinder →
EXERCISE kinetic energy in piston → electrical energy
13. (2000 Qn.6): The arrangement in figure below is used
to produce an e.m.f. what causes the e.m.f? B. chemical energy from fuel →
heat energy from cylinders →
kinetic energy in pistons →
rotational kinetic energy in dynamo →
electrical energy

C. chemical energy from fuel →

rotational kinetic energy in a dynamo →
rotational kinetic energy in piston →
electrical energy.
A. The attraction between the coil and the magnet
B. The magnetic field outside the coil D. electrical energy →
C. The magnet placed close to the coil. rotational kinetic energy in dynamo →
D. The variation of magnetic lines linking the coil. rotational kinetic energy in pistons →
sound energy.
14. (2000 Qn.22): In figure 6 below when switch K is
closed, the two soft iron cores will; 18. (2004 Qn.42):
a) State two differences between a.c and d.c
generators.

b)

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 SPACE PHYSICS MADE EASY

THE SOLAR SYSTEM, STARS, GALAXIES

AND SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

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THE SOLAR SYSTEM

The solar system is the gravitational bound system of the sun and the objects (planets) that
orbit it.

The Earth is part of a bigger system called the solar system.

The Solar system consists of the Sun and the eight planets moving around the Sun in orbits by the
force of gravity.

Qn. Identify the components of the Solar system.

 Sun
 Planets[ such as Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune]
 Asteroids
 Comets, etc

Qn. Name the force you think holds the components together.

 Gravitational force.

The Sun is one star that is orbited by planets and other terrestrial objects.

Categories Of Planets.
 The rocky planets[ terrestrial/inner planets]: These have a rocky surface where astronauts are
able to walk. Earth and Mars are both rocky/ terrestrial planets
 Jovian/ outer planets: These are made of various condensed gases (mainly hydrogen and
helium) and some ice particles and do not have a hard rocky surface. Astronauts are not able
to walk on them. E.g Jupiter and Saturn

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Inner And Outer Planets

Inner planets [Terrestrial planets] Outer planets [Jovian planets]
Mercury Jupiter Gas giants
Venus Saturn
Earth Uranus Ice giants
Mars Neptune

■ Asteroids; these are thousands [millions] of small pieces of rocks similar to those found in
the planets that orbit the sun mostly between the orbits of the mars and Jupiter.

■ The largest asteroid is called cera.

■ This orbit is called the asteroid belt.

Asteroid belt: This lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter and is composed of rock and metal

Kuiper belt: This is beyond Neptune’s orbit.

NB:

1) Before 2006, Pluto, the farthest object orbiting the sun, was considered a planet. Because of
its very small size compared to the other planets, it was removed from the list of planets.
2) In 2006 the international astronomical union [IAU] changed the definition of a planet which
disqualified PLUTO from being a planet to a dwarf planet.
3) The dwarf planets identified by IAU are ceres, Pluto, haumea, makemake and Eris.
4) The sun and all planets that orbit around it are spherical.
5) In the solar system, a planet is a celestial body that orbits around the Sun and has sufficient
mass to keep it in a round(spherical) shape.

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Properties Of The Planets In The Solar System.

1. Mercury
 Is the closest planet to the sun and the smallest in the solar system.
 One day in Mercury is equal to 59 days on Earth.
 It takes 89.97 earth days for mercury to orbit the Sun.
 It has a very thin atmosphere due to this, its temperature reach C at mid-day and drops
to C immediately after night fall.
2. Venus
 This is the 2nd planet from the sun.
 It is the brightest body in the Sky after the moon and Sun.
 Its atmosphere is very dense and mainly composed of .
 It is the hottest planet in the solar system of temperature about C
 A day on Venus is equivalent to 243 earth days and its year is 225 earth days.
 Has no natural satellites.
3. Earth
 Is the 3rd distant planet from the Sun.
 It is the more dense and 5th largest planet in the solar system.
 It is the only planet where life was able to adopt.
 70% of its surface is covered with water and the rest is solid.
 It takes about 24hours for the earth complete a rotation about its axis and 365.26days to orbit
the sun.
4. Mars
 Is the 4th planet from the Sun and the 2nd smallest planet after Mercury.
 One day on Mars is 246 hours on earth while a year is 669.6 earth days
 Has two moons ie Phobos and Deimus.
 Has a steep relief with the tallest mountain in the Solar system known as Olympus
5. Jupiter
 Is the 5th planet from the sun and the largest in the solar system.
 One day on Jupiter is 9.9 earth hours and its year is 12 Earth years.
6. Saturn
 Is the 6th planet from the Sun.
 Giant gas planet and 2nd largest after Jupiter.
 Composed of ice particles and dust
 Has more than 82 natural satellites
7. Uranus
 7th planet from the Sun and 3rd largest.
 The blue-green colour is mainly due to presence of methane in its atmosphere
 One Uraniun day is 17.2 hours and its year is 84 Earth years.
 Has over 27 natural satellites some of which include Titania, Oberon, Miranda and Ariel.
8. Neptune
 Is 8th and farthest planet from the Sun.
 Its bluish- colour is as a result of atmospheric methane which absorbs red light.
 One day one day on Neptune is 16.1 hours while its years is 165Earth years.
 Has 14 natural satellites with Triton as the largest.

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Life exists on Earth due to the following:

 Sufficient atmosphere.
 Existence of fresh water.
 Presence of oxygen which supports life and many others.

Presence of sufficient atmosphere, oxygen and water on Earth’s surface are supported by the
gravitational pull which does not allow them to escape.

MOTION OF PLANETS AROUND THE SUN.

All planets have almost circular orbits which lie with in a nearly flat disc referred to as the Elliptical
plane. The motion of planets is both rotational and revolutional.

Rotation involves the planet spinning about a fixed axis and

Revolution involves a planet travelling around the Sun.

One complete rotation is equal to one day and one complete revolution is equal to a year. e.g one day
on Earth is about 24hours and a year is 365days.

The orbital motion is facilitated by the gravitational force between the planets and the Sun.

The speed of rotation/revolution of the planets reduces as their distance from the sun increase due to
the reducing force of gravity from the Sun as their distance increases .

Days and Nights.

The Earth is a spherical body which spins on its axis as it moves around the Sun. One part of the Earth
faces the Sun while the other faces away into space.

As the Earth rotates on its axis, the side which faces the Sun receives light and heat from it, this side
therefore experiences day time. The part of the earth which faces away into space is cooler and darker,
and is therefore experiencing night time. This is the reason why it is day time in Uganda ,it is night
time in some other countries. e.g China, USA, etc.

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Causes of Change in Seasons.

■ This is due to the revolution of the Earth and the earth’s tilt about its axis. It is this tilt that
causes the changes in seasons. The number of daylight hours is greater for the hemisphere
that is tilted towards the sun. The hemisphere that is tilted towards the sun receives more
hours of sunlight each day than the hemisphere that is tilted away from the sun. When the
northern hemisphere faces the sun, it experiences summer while the southern hemisphere
experiences winter.

■ In the northern and southern hemisphere spring start on the day of the vernal equinox. A
vernal equinox has a balance of hours between daylight and night.

■ Equinoxes are days in which days and nights are of equal duration. The two yearly equinoxes
occur when the sun crosses the equator.

NB;

On earth we experience four seasons that is winter simmer autumn and spring. However, Equatorial
countries e.g. Uganda only experiences only two seasons [dry and wet] which represents summer and
winter.

Causes of Sea/Ocean tides

■ Tides are periodic rise and fall in the level of water in large bodies like oceans and seas.

■ Tides are caused due to gravitational pull [force] of the moon on the earth this generates a
tidal force which causes the earth and its water bulge out on the side of the moon.

■ Another bulge occurs on the opposite side since the earth is also pulled towards the moon
[away from the water body on the far side]. These bulges are high tides.

■ The side of the earth that are not facing the moon experiences low tides

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Tides can be helpful in the following ways:

 High tides help in navigation over the oceans or sea.

 Tides bring more fishes closer to the shores for the fishermen.
 Tides can be used to generate electricity.

However tides can be dangerous in the following ways;

 Tides cause floods for the people leaving near the shores.
 Tides cause accidents to people moving on the sea.
 Tides danger the file of the marines

THE MOON

The Moon doesn't emit (give off) light itself, the 'moonlight' we see is actually the Sun's light
reflected off the lunar surface. So, as the Moon orbits the Earth, the Sun lights up different parts of it,
making it seem as if the Moon is changing shape. It is a universal fact the Moon does not produce
light itself. It is the Sun who produces the light and the Moon brightens from the Sun's light. Because
of the Moon's changing position as it orbits our planet, the Sun's light focus on different parts of it,
giving the illusion that the Moon is changing shape over time. But the fact is that the Moon never
changes its shape. The shape of the Moon that appears at night, is the only part of the Moon which is
facing us and in sunlight.

Phases of the moon

There are eight total phases of the moon cycle, four primary phases, and four secondary phases. The
primary phases are the new moon, first quarter, full moon, and last quarter. The secondary phases are
waxing crescent, waxing gibbous, waning crescent, and waning gibbous.

1. New moon: The moon is between the sun and the earth causing none of the illuminated side
of the moon to be visible to the earth.
2. Waxing crescent: After a new moon, A small illuminated crescent becomes visible. The
moon is now said to be waxing.
3. First quarter (Half-moon): When the moon reaches the first quarter of its phases, it appears
as a half-moon. One half of the moon is now lit up by sunlight.

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4. Waxing Gibbous: After the first quarter, the moon moves towards full moon. As more of its
half but less than its full is lit up. The illuminated portion continues to grow as the moon
moves towards full moon.
5. Full Moon: When the Moon appears as a full moon, the entire side (face) of the moon is
illuminated and visible from the Earth.
6. Waning gibbous: After a full moon, the moon begins to decrease again. The moon is now
Said to be waning.
7. Last quarter: The moon continues waning until it reaches its last quarter, also known as half-
moon.
8. Warning crescent : A small, illuminated crescent is visible, decreasing in size. The moon is
transiting back to the new moon.

NOTE

The term waxing refers to the growth of the moon's image, while the term waning refers to a
shrinking of the moon’s image.

Gibbous means between semi-circle and a full circle in shape.

ECLIPSES.

This is the total or partial obscuring of one celestial body by another.

In astronomy, it is the obscuring of one celestial body by another, particularly that of the sun or a
planetary satellite.

Types of eclipse:

I. Lunar eclipses and/eclipse of the moon

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II. Solar Eclipses/ eclipse of the sun.

i. A Lunar Eclipse occurs when the earth is between the sun and the moon and its shadow
darkens the moon. A solar eclipse occurs when the moon is between the sun and the earth
and its shadow moves across the face of the earth.

Lunar eclipse: This is when the earth is between the sun and the moon. The earth, lit by the sun,
casts a long, conical shadow in space. At any point within that cone, the light of the sun is wholly
obscured. Surrounding the shadow cone, also called the umbra, is an area Of partial shadow called the
penumbra.

A total lunar eclipse occurs when the moon passes completely into the umbra.

A partial lunar eclipse occurs when only a part of the moon enters the umbra and is obscured. The
extent of a partial eclipse can range from near totality, when most of the moon is obscured, to a slight
or minor eclipse, when only a small portion of the earth's shadow is seen on the passing moon.

ii. Solar eclipse: This is when the moon is between the earth and the sun. Total solar
eclipses occur when the moon's umbra reaches the earth

At certain times when the moon passes between the earth and the sun, its shadow does not reach the
earth. At such times, an annular eclipse occurs in which an annulus or bright ring of the solar disk
appears around the black disk of the moon.

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THE Origin of the Universe.

The universe is everything that is in space, matter and energy the space contains. The earth and the
moon are part of the universe as well as other planets. The universe therefore contains everything that
exists including stars, galaxies, satellites etc.

There are many theories that talk about the universe and these include;

The Big Bang theory: It states that the universe began as just a single point that expanded and
stretched to grow as a large entity and is still stretching up to now. The universe is therefore a very big
place and it has been around for a very long time hence thinking about how it started may not be so
easy. It was observed that the galaxies far away from us are moving faster than the galaxies very close
to us and this shows that the universe is still expanding.

The Big Bang theory is based on the following basic assumptions that is;

 The universe is constant

 The universe has the beginning
 The universe is homogenous
 The universe is not centered around us

The steady state theory: It states that the counting of the galaxies in our universe is constant and the
new galaxies being formed continuously fill the empty spaces that are created by those heavenly
bodies that have crossed the boundary lines of the universe.

The pulsating theory: It states that there is a possibility that after some passage of the time the
expansion of the universe may top. This may result into the contraction of the universe to a certain
size and the explosion will take place and as a result the universe will start expanding again.

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STARS
Most stars are clearly visible to us at night.

The sun is one star that is visible even during day. It appears very bright to us because it is very near
to the Earth. But there are many other stars; some of which are brighter and bigger than the sun, only
that these stars are too far away from the Earth.

The sun produces too much energy but only a small proportion of it reaches the Earth. Of this
proportion a small percentage is put to use and the bigger portion is reflected back into the
atmosphere.

The star’s brightness greatly depends on its stage in life and the amount of fuel it has at a time.

Stars
Stars are luminous balls of gas, mostly hydrogen and helium, held together by its own gravity.

Stars are found in clouds of dust and gas at high concentrations. There are about 200 billion stars in
our galaxy, the Milky Way. There are also billions of stars in other galaxies. Thus the number of stars
in space is very big.

The distance of the stars from the earth varies, some are closer and some are farther away. The
distance determines the brightness of the stars,

Stars become visible to humans at night

Importance Of The Stars To Humans.

 They provide light to people during darkness.
 They help in navigation through the Earth e.g ancient sailors used the stars to help guide them
while they were at sea.
 Stars since ancient times are described as forever, hope, destiny, heaven and freedom. most of
the stars that are the brightest are the closest to earth while those that are fainter are far away.

Variation In Brightness And Colour Of Stars

 Brightness
The apparent brightness of a star depends on distance from that star and its size, some are closer and
some are farther away. Most of the stars that are the brightest are the closest to earth while those that
are fainter are far away for instance, the Sun appears brighter and is actually hotter when viewed from
the Venus than from the Earth because Venus is closer to the sun than the Earth.

The brightness of a star is defined by two characteristics; luminosity and magnitude.

Luminosity is the amount of light that a star radiates/emits. This is mainly determined by the size and
surface temperature of the star. The more energy emitted the higher the brightness.

Apparent magnitude of a star is its perceived brightness

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DID YOU KNOW? The brightest star in the Sky is Sirius, also known as “Dog Star” or the Alpha
Canis Majoris, because of its position in the constellation Canis Major.

 Colour
A star’s colour depends on its surface temperature. Cooler stars appear reddish in colour while hotter
stars appear bluish. Medium-temperature stars appear yellow, such as our sun.

The coolest stars are approximately 2,500K, while the hottest stars can reach 50,00K. Our Sun is
about 5,500K.

Why stars appear to twinkle?

This appearance is due to the effect of the atmosphere. When light from the stars enter the
atmosphere, it is continuously refracted by regions with different temperatures and optical densities.
When light rays are refracted towards the observer, a star is seen and when the rays are are refracted
away from the observer, the star disappears. This is explains why stars appear to twinkle.

Source Of Energy In Stars.

 The Sun as the Source of Earth’s Energy

The Sun is the main source of almost all the energy on earth. It produces too much energy and the
Earth only receives about one billionth of the Sun’s total energy output. The Earth reflects back a
bigger percentage to the space.

The Source of Energy that the Sun Produces

The Sun generates energy from a process called nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion is the process by
which light elements combine to form heavier elements giving off energy. This happens in a star’s
core at extremely high pressure and temperature. Hydrogen nuclei fuse to form one helium atom.
During the fusion process, a large amount of energy in the form of light and heat is released which
travels through space and reaches the Earth. This life is important for life on our planet.

Importance Of Solar Energy

Solar energy provides necessary light energy for plants during photosynthesis.

Provides warmth necessary energy for seeds to sprout and begin growing.

etc

Qn. How does nuclear fission bring about energy production in a star?

Nuclear fission is the process by which heavy elements split to form lighter elements giving off
energy. It happens when a low speed neutron is absorbed by a heavy molecule causing it to destabilize
and split into various nuclear fission products and energy.

Qn. Discuss the different energy changes that take place in the sun

Chemical energy to nuclear energy to thermal energy and light energy

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Discussion Qn. What are importance of the energy produced by the sun

Classification Of Stars.
The stars are classified as average stars and massive stars.

(a) Average stars: These are stars whose mass is 0.5 to 8 times the mass of the sun. The mass
of the sun is about 1.989X Kg . Our sun is an average star. Average stars have a longer
life than massive stars .

Average stars include; Proxima centauri, Bernard’s star and Luyten’s Star.

(b) Massive stars: These stars are extremely heavy, hot and bright. Their mass can be as many
as thirty times the mass of the sun and more than 100,000 times brighter than the sun. The
Carina Nebula, at a distance of 8,500 light years, contains dozens of hot , massive stars

Star Formation
In space, there are trillions and trillions of free atoms and dust particles.

When huge amounts of atoms of lighter elements (hydrogen and helium) collect together, they create
a gravitational force that holds them together.

This gravitational force continues to grow as more elements are pulled to his collection. This creates
pressure on the nuclei of the elements and forces the nuclei to start to undergo nuclear fusion.

When the fusion reactions begin, a star is born. As long as the outward pressure on the gas collections
due to nuclear fusion are balanced by the inward gravitational force due to the mass of the gas
collection, the star is said to be stable.

The Life Cycle Of A Star

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The lifecycle of a star varies depending on its mass, but it generally follows
these stages:
1. Nebula: Stars begin their lives in vast form of gas and dust known as nebulae. Gravitational
forces causes these clouds to collapse and form protostars.
2. Protostar: As the gas and dust continue to collapse, they heat up and form a protostar. When
the core temperature becomes high enough, nuclear fusion begins.

[Link] sequence: The star begins fusing hydrogen into helium in its core spending most of its
life in this stable phase and stars steadily release of energy. Our Sun is currently in this stage.
For average stars[Low mass stars] For Massive stars[High mass stars]
[Link] giant: When hydrogen in the core exhausts, 4. Red Supergiant: When hydrogen in the core
outer layers expand and cool. exhausts, the star expands fusing heavier elements in
successive stages in the core.
5. Planetary Nebula: The outer layers are ejected, 5. Supernova: When the core accumulates iron, it
creating a glowing shell of gas and dust around the cannot sustain fusion and collapses, causing a
contracting core catastrophic supernova explosion that disperses the
outer layers into space
6. White dwarf: The remaining core becomes a [Link] star: If the core’s remnant is between
white dwarf, a small, dense, hot object that will about 1.4 and 3times the mass of the sun, it becomes a
gradually cool over billions of years. neutron star, an incredibly dense object composed
mostly of neutrons.
7. Black dwarf: Over an extremely long period, the
white dwarf will cool and fade to become a black
dwarf. However, this stage has not been observed
since the universe is not old enough.
QN. What is the difference between:

(a) Red giant and Red Super giant?

(b) White dwarf, neutron star and black hole?

solutions

(a). Red giants form when a star with mass of about one solar mass runs out of fuel while red super
giants form when stars form more 10 solar masses run out of fuel.

(b). White dwarfs are the end products of average stars while neutron stars and black holes are end
products of massive stars.

Take Note;

Stars and humans share similar phases in their life cycles. Stars begin their lives as dense clouds of gas
and dust.

Like humans, stars spend most of their life in the Main Sequence Stage(adulthood). If a star begins its life
with a great amount of mass, it burns hot and fast to maintain equilibrium. So fuel runs out quickly. The
star dies young with a super massive explosion.

An average-sized star lives longer(about 1 billion light years) and dies a quite peaceful death.

A star’s life cycle is determined by its mass. The larger its mass, the shorter its lifecycle. A star’s mass is
determined by the amount of matter that is available
GALAXIESin its nebula(the giant cloud of gas from which it was
born).
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A galaxy is a huge collection of billions of stars, gas and dust. It is held together by gravity.

In a galaxy, there are very many stars arranged in recognizable shapes called Constellations.

There are millions of galaxies in the universe

Galaxies are classified on their shape

Types of Galaxies

SPIRAL GALAXIES ELLIPTICAL GALAXIES IRREGULAR GALAXIES

e.g Andromeda and e.g Ursa Major and Messier 87 e.g Small Magellanic cloud

the Milky way and Large Magellanic cloud

Our galaxy, the Milky Way also has a supermassive black hole. The nearest galaxy to us is the
Andromeda galaxy.

Characteristics of Galaxies

Spiral Galaxies Elliptical Galaxies Irregular Galaxies

1. Disc shaped with spiral 1. Oval(elliptical) or 1. No definite pattern or
arms. round shaped shape
2. Consists of old dimmer 2. Consists of old and 2. Consists of young stars
stars at its Centre and dimmer yellow stars 3. Normally larger than
young hot stars at the 3. Lower temperature elliptical galaxies but
arms 4. Contains subtle gas or smaller than spiral
3. Brighter than other dust galaxies
types of galaxy 5. Normally smaller than
4. Normally larger than spiral and irregular
elliptical and irregular galaxies
galaxies
Measurement of the stars and galaxies.
Physical quantities such as mass and distance of the stars and galaxies are very huge. This makes it
hard to measure them with the conventional (S.I) units of the quantities. For this reason, the scientists
came up with other larger units that can easily accommodate these large quantities as shown below;

Light year

A light year is a unit of astronomical distance equivalent to the distance light travels in one year.

1 ly = 3.0x108365.25x24x3600 = 9.5x1015 m

Astronomical year, Au

An Astronomical Unit [AU] is the average [mean] distance between the earth and the sun and it’s
about 150 million km;

■ 1AU=1.5 x 108 km.

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How galaxies are formed

The big bang theory posits that the universe began as a singularity approximately [Link] years
ago. This singularity was an infinitely small, infinitely hot, and infinitely dense point.

The singularity began to expand rapidly in a process known as cosmic inflation. This caused space
itself to stretch and expand, leading to the cooling of the universe.

As the universe expanded and cooled, energy transformed into particles such as quarks, electrons and
neutrinos. Quarks combined to form protons and neutrons leading to the formation of the first atomic
nuclei.

About 380,000 years after the big bang, the universe had cooled enough for protons and electrons to
combine and form neutral hydrogen atoms.

Over time, gravitational attraction caused matter to coalescence into clouds of gas and dust, leading to
the formation of the first stars and galaxies.

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SATELLITES AND COMMUNICATION

Applications of satellites are very common in our community. The telephones we use, Tvs we watch ,
etc are supported by satellites. Today we have the global positioning system(GPS) which enables us
to locate positions of places. There is a giant satellite in space; the International Space Station that
serves as a laboratory for space research.

A Satellite refers to an object moving in a curved path (orbiting) around a larger object in space
.The moon is a satellite because it moves around Earth.

The satellites are primarily grouped into;

■ Natural satellites: These are God made objects or celestial objects orbiting a planet in space

and

■ Artificial satellites: Artificial satellites are machines that are launched into space and orbit
around a planet in space to do a specific purpose.

Types of artificial Satellites & their uses

Artificial satellites are classified based on their purpose

1. Communication Satellites: These are used to transmit and receive signals for communication
purposes. E.g GPS sa tellites for navigation, weather satellites for forecasting, and TV satellites for
broadcasting programs.

2. Navigation Satellites: These are used to Provide accurate positioning and navigation services. E.g
GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites used in smartphones and navigation devices,Global
satellite Navigation system(GLONASS) launched by Russia, BeiDou Navigation Satellite(BDS)
launched by China, etc

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3. Weather Satellites: These are used to Monitor weather patterns, track storms, and provide data for
weather forecasts. E.g GOES (Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite) series used by
meteorologists.

More on the uses of satellites

 Research: Satellites help scientists study Earth's atmosphere, climate changes, and
natural disasters.
 Observation Satellites: These are used to observe and gather data about Earth's surface,
weather patterns, and environmental changes. E.g Environmental monitoring satellites.
 Disaster Management: They provide early warnings for natural disasters like
hurricanes, earthquakes, and wildfires, aiding in evacuation and rescue operations.
 Spy Satellites: These are used to gather intelligence and surveillance information for military
and security purposes. E.g KH-11 series used for reconnaissance by governments
 Agricultural Monitoring: Satellites monitor crop health, soil moisture, and land use,
assisting farmers in improving crop yield and resource management.
 Telecommunication: Satellites enable global communication networks, supporting
internet services, phone calls, television and data transmission for businesses and
individuals worldwide

Sizes and altitudes of Artificial satellites

The satellites follow different paths (orbit) at varying altitudes. These are determined by the purpose
of a satellite.

The Satellite Orbits Are Largely Categorized Into :

(a). Basing on altitudes;

1. Low Earth Orbit (LEO): This is an orbit positioned relative to the Centre of the earth within an
altitude range of 2000 Km or less. Here space objects are fast moving which enable them to overcome
the gravitation pull.

2. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): Most Medium Earth orbit satellites are at an altitude of about
20000 Km. It is above the low earth orbit but below geosynchronous orbit. This is where most
artificial satellites are stationed.

3. Geostationary Orbit (GEO): These satellites orbit the earth at about 36000Km above the earth.
The time taken by the GEO satellites to make one complete orbit around the earth is [Link] is
to match the rotation of the earth so that the satellite appears to stay above the same point above the
Earth’s surface all the time. Many GEO satellites are used for communications and meteorogical
purposes.

(b).Basing on inclination

1. Equatorial orbit: When the satellite rotates in an orbit directly above the equator, usually in a
circular path.

2. Polar orbits: The satellite rotates in a path that takes it over the North and South poles in an orbital
pattern that perpendicular to the equatorial plane.

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3. Inclined orbit: These are virtually all orbits except those that travel directly above the North and
South poles.

Question.

How satellites hold in their positions in the space without falling back to the earth?

Satellites In Modern Technology

Operation of Satellite Communications

Microwave signals are transmitted from the ground station to a geostationary satellite in space. The
microwave signals picked by the geostationary satellite in space( uplink) are weak due to the distance
travelled. The geostationary satellite in space then amplifies (boosts) the signals. The signals are then
retransmitted and received by a receiver on the earth

Application of Satellite Communication

1. Telecommunication (Long Distance Telephone Calls):

Satellites allow us to make long-distance phone calls without wires, connecting people all over the
world.

How it Works:

When you make a phone call, your voice is turned into microwave signals and sent to a satellite in
space. The microwave signals picked by the geostationary satellite in space (uplink) are weak due to
the distance travelled. The geostationary satellite in space then amplifies (boosts) the signals. The
signals are then retransmitted to the person's phone. This process happens quickly, allowing us to talk
to anyone, anywhere.

2. Satellite TV (e.g., DStv):

Satellite TV services like DStv use satellites to broadcast television programs.

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How it Works
TV stations or providers transmit their programs in form of microwaves. Ground stations
transmit signals to communication satellites using radio waves. The signals picked by the
geostationary satellite in space (uplink) are weak due to the distance travelled. The geostationary
satellite in space then amplifies (boosts) the signals. The signals are then retransmitted and received
by the satellite dishes installed at subscribers' homes. These Signals can carry various types
of data, including voice, video, internet, and broadcast television.

Advantages of Satellite Communication

 Global Coverage: Satellites can reach remote and inaccessible areas where traditional
infrastructure is impractical.

 Reliability: Satellite communication is less susceptible to natural disasters and

infrastructure damage.

 Scalability: Satellite networks can be easily expanded to accommodate growing

demand for connectivity.

Challenges of Satellite Communication

 Latency: Signals traveling to and from satellites experience some delay, impacting
real- time applications like online gaming.

 Cost: Building and launching satellites is expensive, leading to higher service costs
compared to terrestrial networks.

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 Spectrum Allocation: Limited spectrum availability can constrain the number of users
and services that satellite networks can support.

Global positioning system (GPS)

A global positioning system (GPS) is a network of satellites and receiving devices used to
determine the location of something on Earth. Some GPS receivers are so accurate they
can establish their location within1 centimetre.

GPS receivers provide location in latitude, longitude, and altitude. They also provide the
accurate time.

GPS is a system made up of three parts i.e satellite, ground stations and receivers.

How GPS Works:

The GPS system consists of a group of 24 to 32 satellites orbiting the Earth. These satellites are
positioned in such a way that at least four satellites are visible from any point on the Earth's surface at
any given time.

Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts signals containing information about its position and the
precise time the signal was sent. The signals are transmitted in the form of radio waves at specific
frequencies.

A GPS receiver, such as those found in smartphones, car navigation systems, or standalone GPS
devices, picks up these signals. The receiver needs to have a clear view of the sky to receive signals
from multiple satellites.

The GPS receiver calculates its distance from each satellite by measuring the time it takes for the
signals to travel from the satellites to the receiver. Since the speed of electromagnetic waves is
known, the receiver can determine how far away each satellite is based on the time delay of the
signals.

By knowing the distances to at least four satellites, the GPS receiver uses some special geometry
(known as trilateration) to determine its precise position on Earth in 2 or 3 dimensions.

Uses Of Global Positioning System (GPS)

1. Surveyors use the GPS information to help them carry out accurate surveys and mappings
2. Navigation, It helps people to easily move from one place to another.
3. Tracking of Objects. Wildlife organizations often use this technology to locate where abouts
of some wildlife when carrying out population counts.
4. Determining location of people. Smartphone being GPS device has often been used to
precisely locate whereabouts of individuals.
5. Timing. GPS is useful aid in taking accurate time measurements.

SPACE EXPLORATION
Space exploration represents humanity's desire and quest for knowledge about the universe
we inhabit.

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From the first satellites launched into orbit to the monumental achievements of manned
missions to the Moon and robotic probes exploring distant planets, space exploration has
expanded our understanding of celestial bodies, their origins, and the vastness of space.
Reasons As To Why Space Exploration Remains An Important Element Of Science;

1. Discovering New Frontiers: Space exploration helps us learn about other planets,
stars, and galaxies, expanding our understanding of the universe.
2. Technological Advancements: Developing and launching satellites requires advanced
technology, which leads to innovations in science and engineering.
3. Global Connectivity: Satellites play a vital role in global communication, making the
world more connected and accessible.
4. Origins of the universe: Space exploration helps us to understand how certain objects
in the universe such as stars and planets form, by harnessing this knowledge, we can
best understand the planet on which we live.
5. Environmental Monitoring: Satellites help monitor Earth's environment, contributing
to conservation efforts and disaster management.

Space stations
These are artificial orbital structures designed in such a way that they can support human life when on
exploration in the outer space. i.e the International Space Station

International Space Station (ISS)

International Space Station is a habitable space laboratory. It orbits the Earth once every 92minutes.
Scientists inside the ISS are able to many valuable experiments in a microgravity environment. NASA
is using the Space Station to learn more about living and working in space.

Role of International Space Station.

 Remote sensing ISS can be used as a platform for earth observation and remote sensing. This
facilitates broad range studies in basic and applied science across many fields including the
study of earth’s surface and atmosphere.
 The ISS provides a suitable platform for researchers to validate technologies for space crafts,
satellites and materials which require to withstand harsh conditions on earth.
 It serves as a symbol of international coloration with contributions from space agencies like
NASA, Roscosmos, ESA, JAXA and CSA

Hubble Space Telescope

Hubble Space Telescope is a space telescope that was launched into low Earth orbit that has played as
a vital research tool. It faces towards space and takes photograph of planets, stars, comets and
galaxies. It only takes images in black and white. It has seen galaxies that are trillions of miles away.
Scientists are learning a lot about space from Hubble Pictures. The Hubble space telescope does not
travel to stars, planets or galaxies. It takes pictures of them as it whirls around the earth at about
17000 meters per hour

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Uses of the Hubble space telescope.

■ Studying the Universe's History: Hubble has been instrumental in determining the age of
the universe, helping to refine estimates of the Hubble constant, which describes the rate of
expansion of the universe. By observing distant galaxies and measuring their redshift, Hubble
has provided crucial data for understanding the universe's past and its future.

■ Exploring Galaxies: Hubble has captured stunning images of galaxies at various stages of
their evolution, shedding light on their structures, formation, and interactions. It has
contributed to our understanding of galaxy mergers, the role of supermassive black holes at
galactic centres, and the distribution of dark matter within galaxies.

■ Studying Exoplanets: While Hubble wasn't specifically designed to detect exoplanets, it has
been used to study their atmospheres indirectly through techniques like transit spectroscopy.
By analysing the light that passes through the atmospheres of exoplanets as they transit in
front of their parent stars, scientists can infer their composition and properties.

■ Investigating Star Formation: Hubble's high-resolution images have provided insights into
the processes of star formation within our own Milky Way galaxy and in nearby star- forming
regions. It has observed protoplanetary disks around young stars, capturing the birthplaces of
new planetary systems.

■ Probing the Early Universe: Hubble's ability to observe distant objects has allowed
astronomers to study the early universe shortly after the Big Bang. It has detected some of the
most distant galaxies ever observed, providing clues about the conditions in the early universe
and the formation of the first stars and galaxies.

QUESTION

1.(a) What are the uses of artificial satellites?

(b) Discus how people’s lives would be disrupted in the absence of satellites.

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2.(a) What is GPS and how does it work? (b)What are the uses of GPS?

3.(a) What is Hubble space telescope?

(b) What makes Hubble Space telescope different from telescopes on earth?

(c) What is NASA and other space agencies learning from the Hubble Space Telescope?

4.(a) Describe any three areas of research on the International Space station?

(b) Why is the Space Station important?

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 BIOLOGY
Biology is a word derived from two Greek words i.e. “Bios” meaning life and
“logos” meaning knowledge.
Therefore Biology is a branch of science which deals with the study of life or living
things. All living things are called organisms.

BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
Biology as a science is very wide and has many branches which include the
following;
1. Botany, the study of plants.
2. Zoology, the study of animals.
3. Anatomy, the study of the structure of living things.
4. Nutrition, the study of food and how living things feed.
5. Ecology, the study of how organisms are related to their environment /
surrounding.
6. Mycology, the study of fungi.
7. Virology, the study of virus.
8. Bacteriology, the study of bacteria.
9. Entomology, the study of insects.
[Link], the study of microorganisms.
[Link], the study of process and functioning of the body parts.
[Link], the study of inheritance.
[Link], the study of classification of organisms
[Link], the study of birds.
[Link], the study of fish.

WHY DO WE STUDY BIOLOGY? (IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING

BIOLOGY)
 To get knowledge on how to treat the sick
 To shape for our future careers such as doctors, opticians and nurses
 To get knowledge on how to manufacture drugs (pharmacists)
 To get knowledge on how to conserve the environment
 To know how our body functions.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

A living thing is biologically known as an organism, for example man, plants,
animals, birds, insects.
All living things share certain basic features called characteristics of living things.
1. Nutrition/feeding
It’s a process by which living things obtain food from the environment.
All living things take in food from which they obtain materials for energy
production, body growth, and Repair.
Green plants make their own food while the rest obtain already made food from the
environment.
2. Respiration
This is the breakdown of food to release energy in the body using oxygen obtained
from the environment.
3. Excretion
Is the process by which waste products are removed from the body e.g. urea in
urine, carbon dioxide, etc.
4. Reproduction
This is the ability of an organism to give rise to new organisms similar to the
parent.
5. Movement
This is the ability of an organism to transfer its body from one place to another.
They move in search for food, water, shelter, mates, and run away from predators.
6. Growth
Growth is a permanent increase in size of an organism. It is followed by
development.
7. Irritability / sensitivity
It is the ability of an organism to respond to changes in its environment

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

Plants Animals
i) Have cell wall. Lack cell wall.
ii) Have chlorophyll. Lack chlorophyll.
iii) Movement is by growth of plant parts. Movement involves the whole organism.
iv) They make their own food by Feed on already made food.
photosynthesis.
v) Respond to stimulus slowly since it Quick / immediate response to stimulus.
involves growth.
vi) Growth occurs throughout life Growth is up to maturity and no further
growth after.
vii) Growth occurs in particular plant Growth occurs all over the body.
parts

TOOLS USED TO STUDY BIOLOGY

1. HAND LENS:
A normal hand lens is a convex lens mounted in a frame. It is placed a shorter
distance of about 5cm from the eye and the object.

Determination of magnification using a hand lens

Magnification refers to how much larger the object appears compared to its real
size.

Example
Calculate the magnification of an object, which is 10cm tall whose image
appears to be 20cm tall.
Solution
Using the formulaSize of image/drawing
Magnification 
Size of object
20 cm

10 cm
2
(Teacher should give more examples on calculations)

2. MICROSCOPES
There are two types of microscopes i.e.
 The electron microscope which uses a beam of electrons.
 The compound light microscope.

THE COMPOUND LIGHT MICROSCOPE

It is called so because it uses a beam of light to view objects and has more than one
convex lens. it is used in hospitals, schools and some industries.

Structure of a compound light microscope

 FUNCTIONS OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS
1. Eye Piece:
 Enables one to view the specimen
 It magnifies the image from the objective lens.
2. Barrel:
 Provides support for the eye piece and objective lens.
3. Nose piece/ turret/:
 It holds the objective lenses in position
 Can be rotated to position a particular lens required for a particular
magnification.
4. Stage:
 It is where a prepared slide is placed for observation.
5. Mirror:
 It reflects light from external source through the specimen.
6. Stand / Base:
 Supports instrument in on a flat surface.
7. Diaphragm:
 Regulates the amount of light passing through the specimen.
8. Condenser:
 Concentrates the light reflected by the mirror through the object / specimen on
the stage.
9. Arm:
 Used for carrying the instrument.
[Link]:
 Keeps the slide firmly on the stage.
[Link] adjustment knob:
 Used for focusing of the object under study.
[Link] adjustment knob:
 Brings specimen into a sharp clearer focus (final focusing).
[Link] lens:
 Magnifies the specimen under study. They are normally two or three. Low
power (shortest), medium power and high power (longest).

Care of a microscope
The microscope is very delicate, expensive instrument which is very useful in the
study of biology. Thus it should be handled carefully doing the following;
 It should be carried with both hands.
 Should never be dropped.
 Always kept in an upright position
 Only wipe the lens with soft lens tissue.
 It should always be kept in its special designed box.

Determination of magnification of a microscope

Magnification refers to how much larger the object appears compared to its real
size.
Magnification = magnification of the eye piece lens X magnification of the
objective lens.

Example:
If the eye piece is marked x10 and the magnification of the objective lens is x40,
what is the total magnification of a microscope?
Magnification = magnification of the eye piece lens x magnification of the
objective lens.
=10 x 40=400
The specimen was magnified x400

Let magnifying objective lens. (x4)

Complete the table below
Eye piece lens Objective lens Magnification
X15 X7
X60 X240
X17 X340
X25 X8

THE CELL
The cell is the smallest basic unit of life.
Unicellular organisms are only made up of a single cell e.g. amoeba, paramecium.
Multicellular organisms are made up of many cells e.g. man, cows, bean plant, etc.

THE ORIGIN OF NEW CELLS

New cells are formed from already existing cells by a process called cell division.
The already existing cell is called a parent/ mother cell; and the new cells formed
are called daughter cells.

Structure of an animal cell

STRUCTURE OF A PLANT CELL

Cell wall
Middle lamella
Starch granules
Sap vacuole
Cell membrane
Chloroplast Nucleus
Cytoplasm

CELL ORGANELLES
Parts of cell and their functions
1. Cell Membrane
Is the outer living part of a cell and it is found in all cells.
Its semi permeable i.e. has tiny holes through which only very small molecules like
water can pass through.
Functions
 It allows movement of materials of in and out of the cell.
 It regulates the shape and strength of a cell.
 Offers protection to the / inner parts of the cell.
 Binds protoplasm/ cytoplasm.
2. Cell Walls
It is found in plant cells and it is made up of cellulose (a nonliving substance)
which gives it its rigid tough nature.
Functions
 It gives the plant cell its shape.
 Protects the inner parts of the cell cellular.
 Allows movement of materials in and out of the cell.
 It offers mechanical strength to the cell.

3. Nucleus
It is surrounded by double membrane called the nuclear membrane.
Functions of a nucleus
 Controls cell activities.
 Controls cell division
 Stores the genetic material of a cell
 Plays an active role in protein synthesis.
Functions of the nuclear membrane
 Binds the nucleus
 Separates the nucleus plasma from the cytoplasm.
 Allows for the exchange of materials between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

4. Cell Vacuole
Contains a watery substance called cell sap and is surrounded by a single
membrane called the tonoplast.
Each Plant cell possesses one large permanent central vacuole while each animal
cell has many temporary vacuoles.
Functions
 Stores waste materials before they are expelled.
 It is a temporary food store.
 Gives shape to the cell.

5. Cytoplasm
It is a fluid material that contains many organelles e.g. mitochondria, nucleus etc.
Functions
 Site for cell activities i.e. metabolic reactions.
 Site for storage of energy producing materials e.g. starch and glycogen.

6. Mitochondria
It is the cell power house and its function is to release energy through respiration.
7. Chloroplast
Found in only plant cells
 Contains a green pigment called chlorophyll that traps sunlight for
photosynthesis.

8. Golgi body
 Involved in cell secretions i.e. secretes enzymes.
 It transports materials in cells.

9. Lysosome
It secretes hydrolytic enzymes i.e. breaking down enzymes e.g. help in destruction
of old or worn out cells.

COMPARING A PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL

Differences:
Plant cell Animal cell
i) Regular in shape Irregular in shape
ii) Has a cellulose cell wall. Lacks a cellulose call wall.
iii) Has chloroplast. Lacks chloroplast.
iv) Large vacuole centrally located. Cell vacuole very small and positioned at
the side.
v) Has a middle lamella. Lacks a middle lamella.
vi) Nucleus is positioned at one side. Nucleus centrally located.
vii) Store food as starch granules. Store food as glycogen granules.
viii) Has a tonoplast around the Has no tonoplast
vacuole
ix) Has a Thin layer of cytoplasm Has a thick layer of cytoplasm

SIMILARITIES:
Plant cell and animal cell
 Both have a nucleus.
 Both have mitochondria.
 Both have a Golgi body.
 Both have a vacuole.
 Both have a cytoplasm.
 Both have a cell membrane.
 SPECIALISED CELLS
These are cells modified to perform a particular function. They become suited or
adapted for particular functions by modifying either their size, or shape, etc.
Examples of specialized cells in animals
i) Red blood cells in blood
These transport oxygen in our bodies.

ii) Sperm cells

These fuses with the ovum to form a zygote during fertilization

iii) Ovum or egg

This is the female reproductive cell that fuses with a sperm to form a zygote.

iv) White blood cells

This defends the body against infections and diseases

v) Platelets
These are used for blood clotting.
Examples of specialized cells in plants
i) Root hair cells
They are found in plant roots
They absorb water and mineral salts from the soil
ii) Palisade cells
These are found in leaves of green plants
They carry out the process of photosynthesis
iii) Guard cells
They are found in green leaves
They control the opening and closing of stomata in leaves

LEVELS OF ORGANISATION
Cell Tissue Organs Organ systems
Organism
TISSUE
A tissue is a group of similar cells linked together to perform a particular function.
A tissue may be made up of single type of cell or may comprise of different types
of cells. E.g.
i) Blood tissue made up of red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.
Blood transports materials in the body and offers protection.
ii) Nervous tissue made up of nerve cells. It transmits impulses in the body.
iii) Muscular tissue made up of muscle cells which cause movement of body
parts
iv) Photosynthetic tissue made of palisade cells for photosynthesis.

ORGAN(S)
An organ is a collection of tissues specialized in carrying out a specific function.
An organ is made up of different types of cells grouped together as a unit eg
i) eye for sight
ii) Heart for pumping blood
iii) Ear for hearing
iv) Kidney for purifying blood
v) Leaves for photosynthesis
vi) Roots for absorbing water and mineral salts
ORGAN SYSTEM
An organ system is a collection of different organs performing a specific
function(s) e.g.
i) nervous system (Brain, Spinal cord),
ii) circulatory system (Heart, Lungs and Blood vessels),
iii) Digestive system (gullet, stomach, small intestines).
iv) Shoot system (leaves stems. flowers)
v) Root system (roots)

ORGANISMS
Is a collection of organ systems working together efficiently as a unit. E.g. man,
cow, banana plant, etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS

Classification is the process of placing animals and plants into groups according to
their similarities in structure, physiological processes and behavioral.
This involves collecting organisms, observing their structural characteristics and
sorting them into groups known as taxa.
The branch of biology concerned with classification is called taxonomy.
The word taxonomy is derived from a Greek word taxis- meaning arrangement and
nomia-meaning distribution.

LEVEL OF CLASSIFICATION
The level of classification is called taxon. Plural –taxa. A taxon is a unit of
classification made of similar organisms. The largest taxon is the kingdom and the
smallest taxon is the species. All organisms have been put in seven major taxa and
these include:
1. Kingdom
2. Phylum (phyla)
3. Class
4. Order
5. Family
6. Genus (genera)
7. Species
Easy formula for seven taxa from highest to lowest
 Kings Play Cards On Fat Green Stools

K P C O F G S

(Kingdom) (Phylum) (Class) (Order) (Family) (Genus) (Species)

Kingdom
A kingdom is the largest taxon, and all the other taxa (groups of living organisms)
are placed in one the kingdoms. In modern classification system, there are 5
kingdoms:
1. Monera (bacteria)
2. Protoctista
3. Fungi (Mycota)
4. Plantae
5. Animalia

Note:
Viruses are not classified in any of the five kingdoms because they do not have all
the characteristics of all living things. For example;
 They do not have cellular structures like cytoplasm, organelles.
 They use nuclear material and organelles of other living organisms to carry out
their metabolic processes.
 They can survive out their host’s cell as inert organic crystals.

Species
A species is the smallest taxon which is made up of individuals that have almost
the same characteristic features and can interbreed freely to produce viable off
springs i.e. reproductively fertile off springs
Examples of hierarchy system of classification
Human Honeybee Maize Meadow
mushroom
Kingdom Animalia Animalia Plantae Fungi
Phylum Chordata Arthropoda Angiospermophyta Basidiomycota
Class Mammalia Insect Monocotyledoneae Basidiomcetes
Order primates Hymenoptera Commelinales Agaricales
Family Hominidae Apidae Poaceae Agaricaceae
Genus Homo Apis Zea Agaricus
Species sapiens Mellifera mays campestris
Binomial system of nomenclature:
Binomial nomenclature is the system of giving a scientific name to an organism.
The word binomial comes from two words bi- meaning two and nomial meaning
name.
The first accepted classification and nomenclature was introduced by a Swedish
scientist called Carl Linnaeus (1707 - 1778).

Rules of binomial system of nomenclature

 Each organism should be given two Latin or Greek names which include
generic (genus) name followed by specific (species) name.
 The generic name should start with a capital letter and a specific name starts
with the small letter
 When written both names should be underlined separately or printed in italics

Examples of some scientific name for common organisms

Human – scientific name is Homo sapiens
Maize – scientific name is Zea mays
Assignment: write the scientific names of the following; honey bee, meadow
mushroom and house fly.

Importance of classification
 It is easy to study organism in a group since the members of a specific group
resemble.
 It helps new organisms to be easily classified since they share certain
characteristics with those in existence.
 It helps the scientist to easily identify organisms belonging to the same group.
 The use of scientific names enables to prevent confusion that would arise if the
organism had different names used in different places.

KINGDOM: MONERA
This basically comprises of bacteria which are prokaryotes
General characteristics
 They are unicellular with cells occurring either alone or in colonies.
 The cells lack membrane bound organelles.
 The free living bacteria have flagella
 Some are parasitic and others are saprophytic
 The cell wall is covered with mucin
 They reproduce asexually by means of spores or binary fission.
 General structure of bacterium

Bacteria are grouped according to their shapes. There are four groups of bacteria
Shape Type Structure
Coccus Diplococcus:
Single These occur as a pair of spherical
spherical cells cells.
Staphylococcus:
Spherical shaped occurring in a bunch
or group
Streptococcus:
Spherical cells in a chain
Bacilli: Bacillus:
These are rod Single rod shaped bacterium.
shaped. Diplobacilli:
A pair of rod shaped bacteria.
Streptobacilli:
Rod shaped bacteria existing in a
chain.
Spherical spore bacilli:
These have spherical spore at the head
e.g. clostridium tetani which causes
tetanus
Vibrio: Vibrio cholera which causes cholera
Coma shaped
Spirillus These are spiral shaped bacteria
 Economic importance of bacteria
i) Bacteria causes decay of dead plants and animals thus releasing nutrients for
use by green plants
ii) Rhizobium converts the nitrogen into nitrates in the soils
iii) Bacteria manufacture vitamin B12 and k
iv) Used in curing tea and tobacco, making silage /retting flax. Curing is process of
treating and preserving tea / tobacco
v) Bacteria destroys harmful organisms in sewage in the sewage treatment
vi) Used in industrial processing of food like vinegar, cheese, and yoghurt
vii) Symbiotic bacteria in ruminants help in digesting cellulose by
secreting enzymes cellulose
viii) Bacteria cause decay and food spoilage
ix) Denitrifying bacteria converts nitrates in to free nitrogen in the soil.
x) Some bacteria cause harmful diseases to man like anthrax.

KINGDOM: PROTOCTISTA
Examples of protoctists are:
Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium, Trypanasomes, Chlamydomonas, etc.

Main features of Protoctista

i) They are unicellular organisms i.e. single celled organisms.
ii) They have a true nucleus with a nuclear membrane.
iii) They have double membrane organelles.
iv) Some members locomote freely using either pseudopodia (false legs) in
amoeba, cilia in paramecium or flagella in euglena and trypanosomes.
v) They have varied forms of nutrition e.g. euglena and chlamydomonas make
their own food by photosynthesis, amoeba and paramecium by phagocytosis
and simple absorption of digested food by trypanosomes.
vi) They live mostly in water or watery environments like wet lands.

PHYLUM PROTOZOA
This is the main phylum of kingdom Protoctista. It has several classes but the
most important are:
1. Rhizopoda e.g. Amoeba
These are free living organisms by means of pseudopodia or false legs
2. Ciliophora (ciliata) e.g. paramecium
These possess cilia all over the body for locomotion or movement.
3. Mastigophora e.g. trypanosomes.
These have a flagellum for locomotion.
 General characteristics of protozoans:
 They are unicellular.
 They are mainly found in fresh or marine water and in the soil.
 They are mostly free-living but some are parasites.
 They carry out locomotion by means of flagella, cilia or pseudopodia.
 Euglena have autotrophs and others protozoa-such as amoeba.
 They reproduce asexually by binary fission or multiple fission.

Examples of protozoa include Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena, Trypanosome and

plasmodium.

1. Amoeba
Amoeba is a free-living protozoa found at the bottom of ponds. It has temporary
extensions called pseudopodia used for locomotion. The pseudopodia are also used
for enclosing food particles which form food vacuoles. The food in vacuole is
digested by phagocytosis.
The extra amount of water can be regulated by contractile vacuole.

Structure of amoeba

Pseudopodi
um
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Food Contractile
vacuole vacuole

Locomotion in amoeba:
Amoeba moves by means of pseudopodia (false legs) that are formed by the flow
of cytoplasm (plasmosol and plasmogel) in the direction of movement but this is
followed by the flow of other protoplasm in the same direction, as shown be:

1 2 3
4
Direction of movement
The movement of amoeba is mainly determined by factors e.g. water, food, poison,
acidity, alkalinity, etc. and it will make amoeba move towards or away from such
factors.

Excretion in amoeba
Excess water is eliminated from its body by contractile vacuole. This collects the
water and moves from cell membrane where it discharges its contents. The process
is repeated and hence it is the means of osmoregulation by amoeba. Other by-
products diffuse out of the cytoplasm through the cell membrane e.g. CO2.

Feeding
Amoeba feeds on microscopic algae and bacteria. It captures the food by
developing pseudopodia around the food and it engulfs it. The cytoplasm flows
around the food. This one now forms the food vacuole.
Digestive enzymes are produced which break the food particles into soluble food
substances. The products are utilized and amoeba moves away from undigested
food remains. This is called egestion.

Reproduction in amoeba
Amoeba reproduces by binary fission.
Binary fission in amoeba;
i) An amoeba ready to reproduce stops moving and rounds off.
ii) The nucleus then constricts and divides into two identical parts. This will be
followed by nucleus complete separation as the cytoplasm begins to constrict so
that the separation of the remaining parts into 2 can occur.
iii) Two identical daughter amoebae forms and move apart to feed and grow into
mature amoebae before they divide again.
Illustration
2. Paramecium
Paramecium uses cilia for movement and collection of food. It has special row of
cilia that waft food particles into the hollow gullet. The food vacuoles move in a
very definite path through it and egestion occurs at only one point near the region
of ingestion.

Structure of paramecium
Unlike amoeba, paramecium has a distinct and permanent shape and certain areas
of cytoplasm, (cell organelles), are specialised to carry out specific functions.

3. Euglena
This is commonly found in water and in soil. It is photosynthetic and moves by
means of flagellum.
Structure of euglena

Flagellum

Cell membrane
Nucleus
Chloroplast

Cytoplasm

KINGDOM: FUNGI
Kingdom fungi mostly have multicellular eukaryotic organisms such as mushroom
and mould. Some are unicellular like yeast.
Other examples include toad stool, smuts, penicilium, mucor (grows on soil and
dead plants), Rhizopus (common bread mould).
Rhizopus is saprophytic fungus which grows on decaying food like bread and
fruits.

General characteristics
 Are multicellular except a few e.g. yeast.
 Fungi inhabit damp or aquatic plants
 They reproduce by means of spores. They have saprophytic or parasitic mode of
nutrition.
 Have vegetative body called mycelium which consists of a network of hyphae.
 They have cell walls which consist of a material called chitin.
 They lack chlorophyll though majority are plant-like.
Diagram of common bread mould (Rhizopus)

Sporangium containing spore

Spores being
released.
Sporangiophore

Mycelium
Hypha
Structure of a mush room

Sexual reproduction
i) Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of the male and female gametes to
form a zygote.
ii) During sexual reproduction, the two different hyphae face each other and
become swollen. The nuclei from each tip develop.
iii) The tips meet and form a cross wall.
iv) The cross wall breaks and nuclei from different tips pair and fuse.
v) A zygote is formed which develops a thick wall to form a zygospore.
vi) The zygospore remains dormant under unfavorable conditions and
germinates into a new mycelium in favorable conditions.
Illustrations:
The hyphae fuse and
- + their contents mix to
form a zygote

Two hyphae of
different mating
type come together

A thick wall develops

around the zygote to
form a zygospore

Under favorable conditions

the zygospore germinates
to produce new mycelia

Economic importance of fungi

 Fungi decay dead organic materials to release materials needed by green plants
 Yeast respiring anaerobically, provides alcohol for brewers and wine makers.
 Yeast cells are a source for vitamin B extract
 Fungi produce antibiotics e.g. penicillum.
 Fungi provide food e.g. mushroom also used in making cheese.
 Fungi can spoil food e.g. Rhizopus and penicillum on the bread, cakes, fruits
and jam.
 Fungi causes plant disease e.g. rust, white bright and smut.
 Dry rot fungus attacks the timber of houses.
 Fungi causes diseases to man e.g. ringworm, athlete’s foot.
 Fungi can be used by military to prepare biological weapons to be used in the
war fare.

KINGDOM ANIMALIA

Kingdom Animalia has several phyla each of which consists of a variety of

organisms.
The phyla include
1. Porifera e.g. sponges
 2. Coelenterata e.g. hydra
3. Platyhelminthes e.g. flat worms
4. Nematoda e.g. round worms
5. Annelida e.g. ringed worms
6. Mollusca e.g. snails
7. Echinodermata e.g. star fish
8. Arthropoda e.g. cockroach
9. Chordata e.g. man

General characteristics
i) Animals carry out locomotion
ii) They have heterotrophic mode of nutrition
iii) They are multicellular organisms.
iv) Their body has a definite shape.
v) They have cells without cellulose but contain true nucleus.

1. Phylum: Porifera – the sponges

The phylum is made of many types of sponges. They have the following
characteristics:
i) Possess simple bodies which are hollow and sac-like.
ii) They are marine dwellers
iii) They are sedimentary or sessile organisms found attached to the rocks or coral
reefs
iv) Some can live in colonies or individually.
v) They lack a nervous system.
vi) They have only one opening in their bodies.
vii) They have a body made up of two layers of cells i.e. ectoderm and
endoderm.

2. Phylum: Coelenterata (Cnidaria)

They include the following; the jelly fish, sea anemones, hydra and corals.
They have the following characteristics:
i) They are multicellular organisms.
ii) They are aquatic or marine organisms.
iii) They have soft bodies which are sac-like with body cavity called enteron
iv) They have radial body symmetry.
v) They have a single body opening.
vi) They have tentacles.
vii) They possess specialized cells such the stinging cells used for defense or
paralyzing their prey.
viii) They have a ring of tentacles for capturing prey.
Hydra structure

3. Phylum: Platyhelminthes (flat worms)

The phylum consists of organisms like flukes and tape worms. They have the
following characteristics:
 They have dorso-ventrally flattened body
 They have bilateral body symmetry.
 They are damp, moist or aquatic dwellers.
 They are parasitic organisms.
 They have alimentary canal without mouth.
 The body wall has three body layers of cells (triploblastic) i.e. ectoderm (outer),
mesoderm (middle) and endoderm (inner).
 The gut is branched to increase surface area over which digested food is
absorbed.
 They are hermaphrodites; have both male and female organs in the same
organism.
 They lack blood circulatory system and because of that, the gaseous exchange
occurs by simple diffusion all over the body surface.

The phylum has 3 main classes;

i) Turbellaria e.g. Planarians
 They are free living flat worms that live in wet soils, fresh water and seas.
 They have many simple eyes and cilia on the under surface of the body used for
movement over stones and weeds.
ii) Trematoda e.g. Liver fluke
 They live as endo parasites in cattle, goats and man.
 They have no cilia on their body and lack simple eyes
 They have suckers used for attachment on to the host.
 They suck digested food from the host.
iii) Cestoda e.g Tape worm

 They live as endo-parasites ni the gut of man, muscles of goats, cows and pigs.
 They have suckers and hooks for feeding and attachment on to the host.
 They have elongated bodies consisting of segments called proglotids.
 They absorb digested food directly from the host.

4. Phylum: Nematoda ( round worms)

The phylum has the examples like hookworms, pin worms, guinea worms, whip
worms and ascaris lumbricoides. They have the following characteristics:
 They have segmented bodies.
 They have elongated and cylindrical bodies pointed at both ends.
 They have closed circulatory system.
 They have gaseous exchange occurs all over the body surface.
 They have a complete digestive system with both mouth and anus.
 Some are parasitic and others are free living.

5. Phylum: Annelida (ring worm)

These are the ringed or segmented worms e.g. earthworms, leeches, rag worms,
lugworms, etc. They have the following characteristics:
 The body wall has three body layers of cells (triploblastic) i.e. ectoderm (outer),
mesoderm (middle) and endoderm (inner).
 They have true coelom.
 They have a closed circulatory system.
 They have gaseous exchange all over body surface.
 They have complete digestive system with both anterior (oral) and posterior
(Anal) openings.
 They are hermaphrodites and reproduce sexually but they often promote cross
fertilization.
 They are carnivorous and some live as external parasites.
 They have bodies divided into section called septae.
 Externally the body shows ring- like segments.
i) Earthworm ii) leech

6. phylum: Mollusca
The organisms are generally aquatic and live both on fresh water and marine.
Examples include snails, slugs, octopus, squids, mussels and oysters. They have
the following characteristics:
 They have soft and unsegmented bodies.
 Nearly all have shells with exception of octopus and squids.
 The foot is used for locomotion and attachment to the substratum.
i) Garden snail

7. Phylum: Echinodermata
The organisms are sea dwellers. Examples are bristles star, sea urchin, sea lilies,
sea star, star fish, sea cucumber. They have the following characteristics:
 They have unsegmented bodies.
 They have radial body symmetry.
 The bodies have five arms.
 The body wall has three body layers of cells (triploblastic) i.e. ectoderm (outer),
mesoderm (middle) and endoderm (inner).
 They have feet for locomotion and capturing the food (feeding).
 They have spiny skin which is a hard plate.
 They have water vascular system instead of blood circulatory system.
Structure of star fish
 PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
Arthropoda has a wide variety of animals. These animals occupy a wide variety of
habitats on land, sea and fresh water.

Main characteristics
i) They have a segmented body.
ii) Presence of an exoskeleton that is shed periodically.
iii) They have jointed limbs and appendages for feeding, locomotion, and
irritability.
iv) They have bilateral symmetry. This is the ability the body of an organism to be
divided into two identical parts.
v) They have an open circulatory system, where blood flows in open spaces.
vi) They have a well-developed nervous system
vii) They have a complete gut that runs from the mouth to the anus

Note: The exoskeleton is made up of chitin which is a fairly firm but flexible
carbohydrate. The exoskeleton provides support to terrestrial arthropods. It also
provides points of attachment for the muscles.
The exoskeleton prevents the desiccation of the body by secreting wax. The
exoskeleton also protects the organism from mechanical injury.
The phylum comprises of classes Crustacea, Chilopoda, Diplopoda, Insecta and
Arachnida.

1. Class: Crustacea
Crustacea are organisms whose body is covered by a carapace. A carapace is a
hard shell. Examples of members of the class Crustacea include crabs, crayfish,
lobsters, prawns, woodlice and shrimps.

Distinguishing characteristics
 Crustacea are mainly found in marine and fresh water. Thus, they occupy
aquatic habitats.
 They breathe by means of gills through the body membrane.
 Their body is divided into two parts. Their head and thorax are fused to form a
cephalothorax. The second division is the abdomen.
 They have a pair of compound eyes each on a raised stalk.
 They have two antennae and small short pair called atenules.
 They have four pairs of mouthparts namely: maxilla, mandible, labium and
labrum.
 They have five pair of limbs that are modified for swimming.

2. Class: chilopoda
Chilopoda is made up of centipedes. The centipedes are mainly found on land.

Distinguishing characteristics
 Centipedes have a clearly defined head while the rest of the segments are
similar.
 They have a pair of antenna
 They have one pair of mouthparts known as mandibles.
 They have simple and compound eyes, although some lack compound eyes.
 They have one pair of legs in each body segment.
 They carry out gaseous exchange by means of a trachea
 They feed on insects and worms.
 They occupy terrestrial habitats.
 Their body is flattened dorso-ventrally.
 They have one pair of poison claws.

3. Class: Diplopoda
Class Diplopoda is made up of millipedes. Millipedes are common on damp
places.

Distinguishing characteristics
 Millipedes have a clearly defined head. All the other body segments are
basically similar.
 They have one pair of antenna
 They have one pair of mouthparts, namely the mandibles.
 They have simple and compound eyes. In some cases, the millipedes may not
have compound eyes.
 They have two pairs of legs in each segment.
 They carry out gaseous exchange through the trachea.
 They feed on plants.
 They inhabit terrestrial habitats.
 They have a cylindrical body
 They have the ability to coil when disturbed or not active.

Note: class Chilopoda and Diplopoda used to be classified as class Myriapoda

but now are classified into different classes.

4. Class: Arachnida
Arachnida are terrestrial arthropods. Members of this class all have 8 legs.
Examples of arachnids include spiders, ticks, scorpions and mites
 Distinguishing characteristics
 Arachnida have two body parts. The head and thorax are fused to form the
cephalothorax or prosoma (cephalothorax). The abdomen is referred to as
opisthosoma.
 They do not have antenna but have a pair of pedipalp which they use for
sensory and defense purposes.
 They do not have mouthparts. However, they have one pair of appendages for
sensing prey. This pair of appendages is known as chelicerae. Thus, they have a
carnivorous mode of feeding.
 They have simple eyes.
 They have four pairs of walking legs.
 They carry out gaseous exchange by the lung book or trachea. A lung book
consists of folds of ectoderm with slit-like openings on the surface of the
abdomen
 Arachnids do not have wings.
 They inhabit terrestrial habitats.

5. Class: Insecta
Insects are the most successful animals on earth since they possess an exoskeleton
which reduces water loss from the body.
Insects are the largest group of arthropods.
They occupy every habitat on earth in such places as air, soil and water. However,
they mainly inhabit terrestrial habitats. Examples of insects include grasshoppers,
houseflies, butterflies, bees, and termites.

Distinguishing characteristics
i) Insects have three body parts, namely: the head, thorax, and abdomen.
ii) They have one pair of antenna.
iii) They have a pair of compound eyes. In some case, simple eyes are also present.
iv) They have three pairs of walking legs on the thorax. One pair of walking legs
per segment of the thorax.
v) Most insects have one or two pairs of wings on the second and/ or the third
segment of the thorax. Some insects have no wings.
vi) They breathe by means of spiracles and carry out gaseous exchange in the
tracheal system.
vii) They undergo complete or incomplete metamorphosis with a
larval stage.
viii) Some insects such as ants are carnivorous while others such as
grasshoppers are herbivorous.

They exhibit the longest level of organization in animals, i.e. social organization
especially in bees, wasps and ants. They are the only invertebrates which can fly.

Their success on land is attributed to:

i) Evolution of special organs for flight. The wings which enable them to diverse
and colonize new areas.
ii) Impervious exoskeleton made of chitin which has protected them from drying
up in the terrestrial environment.
iii) The small size has enabled them to tackle every place.
iv) Excretion of toxic products as uric acid has enabled them to conserve water
v) Tracheal system has enabled them to carry efficient gaseous exchange.
vi) Disposition of legs enables them to maintain swift locomotion.
vii) The compound eyes that provide wide field of view
for food and enemies.
viii) The modified mouth parts that suit a variety of food
materials.
ix) The high reproductive rate that ensures enormous number of offsprings is
produced.

Some insects are directly beneficial to man these include pollinators like butterfly,
moth and bees others are beneficial indirectly such as parasitic pest species.

Harmful insects include those that directly live on man as parasite like lice, flies,
mosquitoes, tsetse flies.

INSECT METAMORPHOSIS
Metamorphosis is the gradual developmental change from the eggs to the adult
stage.
It occurs in insects and amphibians. Insect metamorphosis is divided into two
types.
1. Complete metamorphosis (holometabolous);
This is a gradual development change where the eggs hatch into larvae and the
larvae change into pupa and finally the pupa change into an adult. It involves four
stages.
Illustration of compete metamorphosis.

Insects, which undergo complete metamorphosis, include butterflies, mosquitoes,

houseflies, tsetse flies, bees, wasps, and beetles.

2. Incomplete metamorphosis (hemimetabolous);

This is the gradual developmental change where an insect undergoes only 3 stages,
when eggs hatch, they give rise to adult-like nymphs which latter change into
adults. Insects showing this include locusts, grasshoppers, bedbugs, cockroaches,
and termites.
Illustration of incomplete metamorphosis

Some common orders of insects

Order Characteristic feather of the order Examples
(the word ptera means wing).
Dictyoptera Has hard outer wings Cockroach, beetles,
weevils.
Hymenoptera Has membranous wings Wasps, bees
Isoptera Has similar wings Termites
Lepidoptera Has scale wings Moths, butterflies
Diptera Have two pairs of wings. The second Mosquitoes, houseflies
pair is reduced into halteres for
balancing.
Orthoptera Has long straight wings Grasshopper, locusts,
Preying mantis

CITRUS BUTTERFLY
(Papilio demodocus)
The citrus butterfly is also referred to as lime butterfly because it feeds on lime and
citrus.
Classification
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Arthropoda
Class : Insecta
Order : Lepidoptera
Family : Papilionidae
Genus : Papilio
Species : demodocus.

Characteristics of order Lepidoptera

 They are small to large insects with entire covering of powdery scales on their
wings. (lepis-scale and ptera- wing)
 Wings are fastened together.
 No anal cerci.
 metamorphosis is complete.
 Sucking proboscis straightened when feeding but coils underneath the head
when not actively feeding.

Habitat
Butterflies live in gardens and forests and where they can feed on nectar from
flowers. They are active during day.

External features
The butterfly has three body divisions the head, thorax, and abdomen.
The head
 The head bears two large, bulging brown compound eyes.
 There are two simple eyes (ocelli) behind the compound eyes.
 Above eyes is pair of antenna. These are long jointed and lobbed at the ends.
They are sense organs for touch and smell.
 The head also bears the mouth part specially adapted for sucking nectar. The
sucking part is long, hollow and flexible tube called proboscis. This has a
modified pair of maxillae which coils up when not in use.
 The mandibles, the labium and labrum are poorly developed and hardly used.

The thorax
The thorax consists of prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax. These segments are
covered by hairs and divisions are not clearly seen.
Each thoracic segment bears a pair of jointed walking legs.
The mesothorax and Metathorax in addition bear a pair of wings each which are
large and membranous.
They are veined and covered by colored scales.
When the butterfly is flying, the wings are spread out but when at rest, the wings
are raised and held vertically above the body.

The abdomen
The abdomen has ten segments and each bears a pair of spiracles.
It is hairy and obscures the segmentation.
 Butterflies and moths
Butterflies and moths are both members of the Lepidoptera. Although they appear
very similar, there are differences in their bodies and behaviour.

Differences between a butterfly and a moth

Butterfly Moth
It is diurnal i.e. active during day time Nocturnal i.e. active during night
Wings are held upright at rest. Wings are held horizontally at rest.
Small body Fatter body
Body brightly colored The body is dull
Antennae are clubbed or knobbed at the tip Antennae are pointed at the tip and
feathery
Pupate above the ground Pupate in cocoons or in the soil

The life cycle of a butterfly

A butterfly undergoes complete metamorphosis.
A female butterfly ready for reproduction produces a peculiar scent that attracts the
male for mating.
During mating, the male butterfly deposits the sperms in the genital opening of the
female. The eggs are then fertilized internally.
The eggs are laid singly or small batches on the under surface of young leaves of
citrus plant. This protects them from damage by heat of sun or rain. The eggs are
tinny, spherical, white or greenish-white in colour.
The eggs hatch into larvae (caterpillars) after about 3 days.
The newly hatched caterpillars are small and black. They have powerful mandibles
for feeding, first, the egg shell and later young leaves. The young caterpillar has
horn- like body with head, thorax, and abdomen. The thoracic segments bear each
a pair of true walking legs and abdomen bearing a pair of claspers on the last
segment.
The caterpillar moults four times in three weeks before changing to a fully mature
caterpillar which majorly feed on leaves.
The caterpillar then pupates into pupa.
The fully developed caterpillar stops feeding and finds a suitable place usually a
vertical twig to pupate. It spins a silk pad on the twig and attaches its claspers to it.
It then spins its thorax and suspends itself in a slanting position with anterior end
pointing upwards. The caterpillar then moults for its last time and changes into
pupa (chrysalis). The pupa is inactive i.e. it does not feed nor move.
During pupa stage- there is internal reorganization of tissues involving the
formation of wing, compound eyes, proboscis and reproductive organs. This lasts
for about 7-10 days after which the pupa case split along the dorsal region.
After about 1 hour while the wings expand and dry, the adult butterfly emerges
ready to fly away, feed, mate and lay more eggs.

Economic importance of citrus butterfly

i) From the cocoons of butterfly, silk threads are obtained for making silk clothes.
ii) The larvae spoil the leafy vegetable with fecal drops such as dodo.
iii) The scales may be respiratory hazards when inhaled.
iv) The caterpillar stage of a butterfly is significantly destructive on vegetables
including crops such as cabbages, maize, millet sorghum etc. . . .
v) Some caterpillars feed on insects thus help in destroying insect pests.
vi) Butterflies can also be used as decorations because of their beautiful colour
patterns (ornamental purpose) used in art industry.
vii) The butterflies also are of much importance to the farmers in pollinating
flowers of the crops.

Control measures against butterflies

i) Apply environmental friendly insecticides
ii) Use of biological control methods
iii) By hand picking of the infected leaves and burning or burying them. This
destroys the eggs and some leaves.

COCKROACH
(Periplaneta americana)
The common species of cockroach in the tropics is Periplaneta americana. This is
most active at night, during day it hides in dark places and crevices of walls.

Classification
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Arthropoda
Class : Insecta
Order : Dictyoptera
Family : Blattidae
Genus : Periplaneta
Species : americana

Characteristics of order: Dictyoptera

 The mouth parts are of the biting type
 presence of broad membranous outer wings
 long and thread- like antennae
 possession of the anal cerci
 presence of long and tough tegmina
 Metamorphosis is incomplete.

Habitat
Cockroaches live in dark, dirty and dump warm places e.g. pipes that carry sewage.
During day they live in crevices of walls, cupboards, underneath drawers and in
boxes.
They are active at night thus referred to as nocturnal.

Adaptation of a cockroach to its environment

i) Cockroaches have dorso-ventrally flattened bodies to fit in narrow places.
ii) Its body is dark brown to camouflage well against a dark background.
iii) They are smooth and greasy to escape easily from predators.
iv) It has one pair of long antennae for feeling and smelling the area around their
body.
v) The shape and disposition of the legs enables swift running in confined spaces
where flight is impossible.
vi) Since they are omnivorous, they survive on a wide variety of food materials.
vii) Their nocturnal emergence renders them less liable to capture.
viii) Sensitivity of anal cerci to air, movements in crevices ensures a considerable
measure of safety for the eggs, with this further protection of the tough oothecal
coat.
ix) They have spines on their legs for defence.

NB:
Other insects belonging to the order Dictyoptera include locusts, crickets, praying
mantis and grass hoppers etc.

External features:
The adult cockroach is about 4cm long.
It is dorsal- ventrally flattened body with brown colour.
It has a hard thick exoskeleton made of chitin.
The body is made up of three main divisions, each segment of thorax and abdomen
consists of dorsal plate tegmen (plu:-terga) a ventral plate, sternum (plu-sterna) and
two internal plates, pleura.

Dorsal view
 The head
 The head is small and pear-shaped.
 It bears a large kidney- shaped pair of compound eyes.
 In front of each compound eye lies a long thread- like segmented antennae
(feelers). These are sensitive to touch, smell and vibrations.
 The head has biting and chewing mouth parts – mandibles for cutting and
crushing food, maxillary palps for holding food, a labrum (upper lip) and
labium (lower lip).
 The head is connected to the thorax by short neck.

Mouth parts of a cockroach

The thorax
 The thorax consists of three segments: the prothorax, the mesothorax and the
metathorax.
 Each of the segments bears a pair of jointed legs on its ventral surface. They
end in a pair of sharp claws with a soft hairy pad, the arolium (plural: arolia)
between them
 The prothorax is the largest of the thoracic segment
 The paired wings are attached to dorsal surface of mesothorax and metathorax.
 The anterior (fore) wings are narrow, brown leathery and still and are called
elytra or tegmina. They are not used for flight but for covering and protection of
broad, membranous posterior (hind) wings when at rest.

The fore wing

The hind wing

The hind leg

Structure of the hind leg

The abdomen
This is made up of 10 segments. Only seven are easily seen because tergum of
seventh segment lovers 8th and 9th segment
The flat, broad tergum of the 10th segment bears a pair of jointed sensory
structures, the cerci in males, another additional pair of short structures styles.
There are 10 pairs of oval openings called spiracles at the side of the body, 2 on
thorax and 8 in abdominal segment

Identification of a cockroach’s sex

In males, there is a pair of slender styles that are used to hold and manipulate the
female during copulation.
In females, there is a pair of boat shaped structures called the podical plates used
for holding eggs.

Differences between a male and female cockroach:

Male Female
1. Has a narrow abdomen Has a broader abdomen
2. Lack ootheca Has ootheca which develops after
fertilization.
3. Has rod-shaped structures called No styles on the 9th abdominal segment.
styles on the 9th abdominal
segments.
4. No podical plates. Has podical plate for carrying eggs.
Drawing: Drawing:

The life cycle of a cockroach

A cock roach undergoes incomplete metamorphosis.
After mating, the fertilized eggs are stored in an egg-case called ootheca.
This is hard, chitinous structure 1cm long containing eggs in rows of eight
The female carries ootheca for a number of days before depositing them in dark
obscure places. Within a week, it turns dark brown.
After six weeks, the eggs hatch out into young, wingless and colorless cockroaches
called nymphs. After 2 weeks they turn brown like adult but wingless.
The nymph grows and undergoes ecdysis, about 7 times and every two ecdysis, the
nymphs are called instars. After the last ecdysis, the nymph becomes adult
cockroach which has a life span of about 2 months.

Economic importance of cockroaches

i) They destroy clothes, books, shoes, furniture and spoil food.
 ii) They spread disease causing germs such as cholera, dysentery etc. especially
those in latrines
iii) They contaminate food if not properly covered.
iv) They dirten places with their faeces as they move around especially when
many.
v) They are food to some organisms like birds.
vi) They are used in biological studies as specimens.

Control of cockroaches
i) Improve personal and public hygiene.
ii) Use of environmentally friendly insecticides like doom, etc.
iii) Use of biological control methods.
iv) Polish the walls of the house to close the small crevices.

THE GRASSHOPPER
Classification:

Kingdom; Animalia
Phylum; Arthropoda
Class; Insecta
Order; Orthoptera
Characteristics
1. They have well developed mandibles for feeding on solid food.
2. They have a pair of long antennae.
3. They have two pairs of straight wings.
4. They have a pair of compound eyes.
5. Females have an ovipositor for depositing eggs in the soil.

Life cycle of a grasshopper

The grasshopper undergoes incomplete metamorphosis.
After mating, the females lay eggs in a worm moist sand following rain. It pushes
its ovipositor and part of the abdomen down into the sand and makes a burrow
where it deposits its eggs. In 10-20 days depending on temperature and moisture
the eggs hatch into adult-like nymphs, which make their way to the surface. As the
nymphs grow, they shade their cuticle 5 times. The stage between each moult is
called an instar. Each instar lasts for 4-5 days except for the 5th instar, which lasts
for 8 days. The nymphs feed on leaves and stems of vegetation. After the 5 th instar,
the nymphs change into adults. The adults become mature after five weeks and
start laying eggs and the cycle repeats.

Economic importance of grasshoppers

1. They are eaten as food.
2. They are a delicacy to many cultures.
3. They feed on vegetation and act as pests.
4. They are used for study purposes.

THE HOUSE FLY

(Musca domestica)

Classification
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Arthropoda
Class : Insecta
Order : Diptera
Family : Muscidae
Genus : Musca
Species : domestica
Scientific name is Musca domestica.

Characteristics of order Diptera

 They have a pair of wings
 the second pair of wings (hind wings) form halters or balancers
 Antennae are short
 mouth parts are after suctorial and sometimes piercing too
 the cerci are too reduced or absent
 metamorphosis is complete
 many are important vectors
Examples of members in the order include mosquitoes, housefly, tsetse fly etc
Habitat
House flies live in filthy or dirty places such as toilets, dust bins, manure heaps,
e.t.c.

External features
The body of the housefly is divided into three main parts, head, thorax and
abdomen.
General structure

The head
 The head bears three simple eyes (ocelli) arranged in triangle and on each side
is a large or prominent compound eye.
 The antennae are short with three joints with last having spine hair.
 The labium (upper lip) is modified into proboscis for sucking, which is
expanded at the distal end to form a funnel shape.
Structure

Life cycle of a housefly

The housefly undergoes complete metamorphosis.
After mating, the female housefly lays eggs in batches. The eggs are laid on rotting
matter such as meat or faeces, where it is warm and moist. This provides the
conditions for the eggs to develop.
After about 8-24 hours, the eggs hatch into larvae. The larvae (maggots) are white
and conical shaped. The maggot has a small head which is not easily visible. The
head bears a mouth with two hook-like teeth. These are used for feeding on
decaying matter in which the larva finds itself. The hook-like teeth also helps the
larva move through the decaying matter. The larva has no legs but has pads with
short spines that help in movement. Spiracles are present only on the 2 nd and the
last segment. They are used for breathing. The larva has no eyes but sensitive to
light. It prefers dark, moist, and warmer regions of the decaying matter. It grows
by shading its outer layer (cuticle).
After 5 days and shading its cuticle twice, the larva is about 1cm long. It then
moves to a drier region of the meat or faeces and pupates.
The pupa is cigar shaped. The cuticle hardens, darkens and becomes brown to form
the puparium or pupa case. This forms a protective covering as internal
reorganization of tissues takes place inside.
After the puparium bursts open, the adult fly emerges.
The wings expand and harden and after a few hours, the fly flies away.

Economic importance of house flies

i) They feed on faeces and manure heaps, hence help in garbage disposal.
ii) They are vectors of diseases i.e. spread or transmit diseases such as
dysentery, cholera, red eyes, trachoma, etc.
iii) It is a source of food for some organisms such as chameleons.
iv) They are specimens for study purposes.

Control of house flies and prevention of diseases they spread

i) Spraying with an insecticide such as pyrethrum to kill the adult.
ii) Proper disposal of faeces in latrines with covers, so that flies cannot get to
the waste to lay eggs.
iii) Washing hands with soap and clean water after visiting the latrine and
before eating or preparing food.
iv) Disposing of wastes in such a way that flies cannot reach them. E.g. burning
or burying them.
v) Covering or storing food properly so that flies cannot settle on it.

THE MOSQUITO
The mosquitoes are majorly found in the tropics and are best known for carrying
disease germs
They belong to the order Diptera and the important three genera are:
1. Anopheles that are vectors of malaria
2. Culex which are vectors of dengue fever and
3. Aedes, the vector of elephantiasis and yellow fever.

Classification
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Arthropoda
Class : Insecta
Order : Diptera
Family : Culicidae
Genus : Anopheles
Species : Anopheles, Aedes and Culex

Structure of mosquito
Mosquitoes are slender, long-legged insects and like all other Dipterans, they have
proboscis, a pair of wings and a pair of halteres.
Male mouth parts are for sucking but the female mouth parts are for piercing and
sucking.
When the female mosquito bites someone, she pierces the skin with the stylets and
inserts the sucking and salivary tubes. Saliva is secreted into the wound and
prevents the blood from clotting and blocking the tubes mean while the labium
bends back.
 Features on the thorax
 The thorax is large and easily visible.
 It has the usual three segments bearing a pair of long slender legs.
 The mesothorax bears a pair of membranous, transparent wings while the
metathorax bears a pair of halteres used in balancing and also sensory in
function.
 Has a pair of spiracles on each segment.

Features on the abdomen

 The abdomen is long and slender.
 It has 10 segments but only 8 are seen.
 It has a pair of spiracles on each segment.
 The last segment bears the external genitalia

Mode of life of a mosquito

 Hates light and like resting in dark places during day and comes out to feed at
night
 They feed mainly within late evening and early morning (day and dawn)
 Male mosquitoes feed on plant juices and nectar while the female feed on
blood.

Life cycle of a Mosquito

It begins with mating and internal fertilization and is a complete metamorphosis.
The difference however are observed for both Anopheles and Culex mosquitoes
Mosquitoes eggs are laid in still water (swampy pools, water collected in old pots/
tins, in axils of leaves, blocked drains or gutters), and the earliest stages of life take
place in water.
The eggs are boat shaped and those of Culex species stick together to form raft.
Those of anopheles are laid singly each with air float.

The larva consists of a head, thorax and abdomen. It swims through water, tail first
by wriggling its abdomen. Culex larva uses Siphons for obtaining oxygen whereas
an anopheles uses spiracles, located on the eighth abdominal segment on both
types of lava.
The pupa differs from the larva in being fairly active. It is comma-shaped with two
tail fins at the end of the abdomen. It breathes atmospheric oxygen through a pair
of trumpets on the thorax.
After few days the pupa skin splits and adult emerges. It rests on pupa case while
the wings unfold and harden and then flies a way.

The life cycle of mosquito

Economic importance of mosquitoes

They carry malarial parasites which cause malaria. These germs are carried by a
female anopheles. The disease causing parasite is referred to as plasmodium. The
four types of plasmodia are;
1. Plasmodium malariae 2. Plasmodium vivax
3. Plasmodium ovale 4. Plasmodium falciparum

Symptoms of malaria
 A Person with malaria has very high fever.
 Headaches.
 Sometimes vomiting.
 Pain in the joints and sometimes the general body.
 There is alternate cold and shivering spells as well as hot sweating.
 Loss of appetite.
 Anemia.
 Enlarged liver and spleen.
Malaria may cause convulsions and sometimes death in children and abortions in
pregnant women due to destruction of red blood cells by the parasites.

Control of spread of malaria

Of these diseases malaria is probably becoming the most serious and is
increasingly becoming a killer of such great as AIDS. This is mainly because the
parasites causing it are becoming resistant to drugs like chloroquine which in the
past have been very effective at old malaria.
As things stand now, effective control of the mosquito is as much prerequisite to
control malaria as it is to combat the disease.
Appropriate measures include;
 Destroying the breeding places where larvae develop from by draining or
applying a film of oil over the water surface to prevent oxygen reaching the
mosquito larva.
 Burning or burying all empty containers to prevent water from collecting during
the rainy season.
 Clearing bushes around homestead. Mosquitoes like to rest and breed on them
during the rainy season.
 Biological control which involves the introduction of fish into water bodies
which feed on the larvae and pupa.
 Mosquitoes can be killed by spraying with insecticides using special sprayers.
 Removal of small water containers such as old tins, bottles, and drainage
channels, so as to reduce on breeding sites.
 protecting our bodies from mosquito bites by using mosquito nets at night as
well as wearing clothes which cover both legs and arms in the evening
 Parasites development in the human body can be controlled by taking modern
prophylactic drugs regularly.
 Applying mosquito repellant cream to the body.

Aedes species carry a virus which causes Dengue. It also carries germs which
cause yellow fever.
The Culex species carry filarial worms which cause elephantiasis. It is not a killing
disease but causes discomfort due to large swelling of the legs and/ arm.

Differences between
Anopheles Culex
i) Eggs are laid singly Eggs are in rafts
ii) Eggs have air floats to keep buoyant Eggs have air float
iii) Eggs are boat shaped Eggs are cigar shapes
iv) Larva lies parallel to the water surface Lies at an angle to the water surface
v) Larva has a pair of spiracles for Larva has siphon for breathing
breathing
vi) Adult at rest lies at an angle to the At rest lies parallel to the object
object

THE HONEY BEE

(Apis mellifera)
Classification
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Arthropoda
Class : Insecta
Family : Hymenoptera
Order : Hymenoptera
Genus : Apis
Species : Apis mellifera

Characteristics of order hymenoptera

 Insects are social in behaviour.
 Parthenogenesis is complete
 After castes present are queens, drones, workers and soldiers
 Mouth parts modified for biting and sucking
 Metamorphosis is complete
 Antennae are short
Examples include bee swamps, ants, gull wasps

Generally, bees are social insects and live in colonies (large numbers) in bee hives.
They show division of labor among the castes for instance;
The queen produces other bees.
The drone fertilizes the queen.
The workers have a number of duties among which include collecting food and
cleaning the hive.

External features on the honey bee especially worker include:

 The head is not fixed on the thorax and therefore it is free to move (mobile).
 The compound eyes are prominent. In addition to these are simple eyes which
are three in number.
 The antennae are short and segmented.
 The mouth parts are a modified proboscis which is curved at the distal end. It is
used for lapping during feeding and also used for construction, the glossa also
modified for sucking.

The features on the thorax include pairs of legs which differ in various aspects as
shown below.

The fore leg

The fore leg has a pollen comb located at the end of the tibia. This is used for
cleaning pollen off the head.

The middle leg

These legs possess a hair like structure, prong at the distal end of the tibia. The
prong is used for scooping pollen grains out of the pollen basket on the hind leg.
 Hind leg
The leg is hairy with pollen baskets, which are responsible for carrying pollen
grains.

These have pollen baskets on their tibia which are used for carrying the collected
pollen grain to the hive. They also possess tufts of hairs on the tarsus called pollen
brush which are used for cleaning pollen off the body into the basket on the other
leg.

Wings:
There are two pairs of membranous and transparent wings. The hind wings are
smaller than the fore wings and are interlocked with the latter by means of hooks.
Abdomen:
Features on the abdomen include the first abdominal segment usually being fused
with the metathoracic segments. The last segment of abdomen has the stinging
device. They have flexible segments which allow the bee to bend, stretch, and
expand during breathing and stinging.
The abdomen has six segments four of which contain wax glands.

1. The Worker bees:

These are sterile females. They occur in large numbers within the colony. They
perform most of the work in the hive and that is why they are called workers.
The roles of workers include;
 They collect food for other bees in the hive.
 They guard the hive and protect other bees.
 They protect the hive.
2. The drone bees:
These are male bees. They are larger than workers and are usually very few in the
hive. Their role is to fertilize the queen after which they are stung to death by
workers.
3. The queen.
This is the fertile female bee. It is usually one in the hive. Its work is to produce all
the other bees in the hive.

Life cycle of a bee

Like a butterfly, a bee undergoes complete metamorphosis and differs in length
after the larva stage depending on what the larva is fed on. Therefore food will
determine the caste to be developed. This is summarized below
Workers take 21 days
Egg → Larva → Pupa → Adult
3 days 6 days 12 days
The larva here is fed on bees’ milk (royal jelly) for 3 days followed by a mixture of
honey and pollen.

Queen takes 16 days

Egg → Larva → Pupa → Adult
3 days 6 days 7 days

Here the larva is fed on royal jelly for 3 days and after on a mixture of pollen grain.
Generally the queen bee is the only female in the bee hive and therefore the only
capable one to lay eggs.
Also it is the largest caste, each bee hive has only one queen. She mates only once
in her life time with only one drone. The eggs produced are of two types, both
fertilized and unfertilized.
The fertilized one develops into queens and workers while unfertilized ones
develop into drones. Note that in fertilized eggs, the type of food fed to the larva
determines whether the caste will be queen or worker.
The queen does not do any work in the bee hive. It is fed and nursed by the
workers. It has a sting she uses to kill other developing queens so as to remain the
only queen in the hive.
 The old queen leaves the hive just before the new queen hatches from the pupa
and goes away from the hive with a few drones in a swarm.

The drones are the only male bees in a hive. They result from unfertilized eggs of
the queen. Only one of the drones and queen go out on a nuptial flight, like the
queen, the drone does not do any work in the hive. They are fed by the workers.
But in case of food shortage, some of them are killed by workers i.e. stung to
death.

The workers on their side do not lay eggs because they are infertile females. They
are the smallest in size among the bees but are the most humorous in the hive.
They perform the following duties among others.
i) Cleaning the bee hive by eating away dirt and rubbish.
ii) Feeding the old grubs (larva) on honey and pollen.
iii) Packing and storing honey and pollen in the cells of the honey comb.
iv) Feeding the young grubs on their milk produced by their own salivary glands.
v) Producing wax from their wax glands.
vi) Field work to collect food and pollen.
vii) Guarding the bee hive against any enemies.
NB
The wax produced is used for building the honey combs in which the honey is
stored and eggs are laid.
The wax is usually formed of sweat after they have eaten too much honey.

Economic importance of bees

 Source of honey which is a rich food (carbohydrate)
 Pollinate plants most of which provide food for man.
 Provide wax used in industry to make candles, varnish, shoe polish etc.
 Their honey is a drug for many diseases like cough.
 They are useful specimen for biological studies.
 The worker bees stings inflict irritation on our bodies.

WHY INSECTS ARE BIOLOGICALLY SUCCESSFUL

Insects are mainly terrestrial arthropods that have specialized features and
behaviours. These features have enabled the insects to live almost in any part of the
world. There are approximately 70,000 different species of insects.
1. Insects have a high rate of fertility and reproduction. They lay many eggs at
once such that when some are destroyed, many survive and develop into adults.
 They increase in number very rapidly because their life cycles are short. i.e.
they take few months or days.
2. Their bodies are covered with waxy cuticle made of chitin which does not allow
water to pass through hence reducing dehydration of insects in different
environments.
3. Insects have a wide range of modification in their mouth parts that are adapted
to feeding on different foods. E.g. the adult butterflies feed on nectar while the
caterpillars feed on plant leaves. This reduces competition for food.
4. Some insects have developed wings for flying and all have legs for walking,
thus enables the insects to disperse successfully, easily escape from enemies
(predators) and as a means of looking for food.
5. Possession of exoskeleton and some have fore wings hardened to provide
mechanical support.
6. Majority are small in size. Hence they take in little food, occupy small space
and escape easily from enemies. Others have variable shapes to fit their mode
of life in the locality they live in e.g. cock roaches’ body is dorsal-ventrally
flattened for easy passage in narrow path ways (crevices).
7. Some insects have a variety of colours for camouflage and some spots that have
false aggressive and warning appearance to predators e.g. false eyes on the
wings of butterflies.

PHYLUM: CHORDATA
Chordate refers to animals which possess a notochord.
Main characteristics
 The presence of a notochord during the early stages of development.
 They have bilateral symmetry.
 The body is composed of head, trunk and usually a tail at some stage of
development.
 Possess a hollow dorsal nerve cord.
 They have pharyngeal clefts.
 They limbs originate from different body segments.
This phylum mainly consists of the vertebrates and they are divided into 5 classes.
The 5 classes include the following;
1. Pisces (fishes) e.g. tilapia and the Nile perch,
2. Amphibia, e.g. frogs and toads
3. Reptilia e.g. snakes, lizards, crocodiles
4. Aves - birds
5. Mammalia e.g. man and whale
 CLASS: PISCES
This class contains fish.

Characteristics of organisms in class Pisces

 They live in water
 They have a streamlined body
 They scales on their skin
 They breathe using gills
 They have fins for swimming.
 They have eggs that are fertilized outside the body (externally)
 They are ectothermic – they rely on external conditions to maintain their body
temperature.
The fish is further sub divided into two sub classes, namely chondrichthyes and
osteichthyes.

Sub class: chondrichthyes

Chondrichthyes are also referred to as Elasmobranches. These are cartilaginous
fish. They include sharks, rays, dogfish and skates.

Subclass: Osteichthyes
Osteichthyes are also known as teleosts. Teleosts are bony fish.
Examples of bony fishes include tilapia and herring.
The figure below shows a tilapia fish
 Differences between bony and cartilaginous fish
Bony fish Cartilaginous fish
Have a bony skeleton Have a cartilaginous skeleton
Have smooth, overlapping, round- Have scales that are not round shaped-
shaped scales rough skin.
Have opercula (gill covers) covering Have no opercula, but have gill slits.
their gills.
Have homocercal tails ( in 2 equal parts) Have heterocercal tails (in 2 parts of
unequal size)
Swim forwards and back wards Can only swim forwards
Have a gas-filled swim bladder that Have no swim bladder
controls buoyancy.

CLASS: AMPHIBIA
This class includes the newt, salamander, toad and frog. The word amphibian
comes from two greek words: amphi- (both) and bios (life). This means that
amphibians spend part of their life (as larvae or tadpoles) in water, and part of their
life as adults on land. Amphibians live on land but require water for breeding.

Distinguishing characteristics
 Amphibians have a soft moist skin without scales.
 They have a bony skeleton.
 They have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs. A pentadactyl is one which has five
digits
 They have visceral clefts at the larval stages which are used as gills for gaseous
exchange. Adult amphibians use lungs for gaseous exchange.
 Amphibians have middle and an inner ear but no external ear. However, they
have a tympanic membrane also called the ear drum
 The egg of amphibians are laid in water and fertilized externally.
 An amphibian has a three-chambered heart with two auricles and a ventricle.
 They are poikilothermic / ectothermic.

CLASS: REPTILIA
Reptiles are mainly terrestrial with the exception of the turtle which lives in water.
Examples of reptiles include the lizard, snake, crocodile, tortoise and turtle.

Distinguishing characteristics
 Reptiles have dry skin with horny scales
 Their skeleton is made up of bones
 Most reptiles have pentadactyl limbs
 Some reptiles have a middle and inner ear. Snakes have no middle ear.
 Reptiles do not have an external ear.
 They use lungs for carrying out gaseous exchange
 Their eggs are fertilized internally and laid on land. Some snakes give birth to
live young ones
 Some reptiles have a three-chambered heart; two auricles and one ventricle.
Others have four chambered heart for example crocodile.
 Reptiles are poikilothermic.

CLASS: AVES
Aves refer to birds. There exists a wide variety of birds. Examples of birds include
eagle, ducks, flamingo, heron, dove etc.

Distinguishing characteristics
 The skin of birds is covered by feathers, except the legs which are covered by
horny scales. The feathers keep the bird warm and also used for flight.
 They have skeleton is made of hollow bones. The hollow and light bones
reduce weight and enable flight.
 They have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs. The fore limbs modified into wings
for flight while the hind are feet for walking or swimming.
 They have middle and inner ear but no external one. However, the have
tympanic membrane.
 They use lungs for gaseous exchange.
 They have beak for feeding.
 They have internal fertilization. They lay eggs in calcareous shells.
 Their hearts have four chambers.
 They are ectothermic.
 They show parental care.

CLASS: MAMMALIA
Mammals comprise a wide variety of animals. They mostly occupy terrestrial
habitats except few which occupy aquatic habitats. Examples of terrestrial
mammals are cows pigs, goats, monkeys, rats, lions etc. and the aquatic mammals
are seals, dolphins and whales.

Distinguishing characteristics
 The skins of mammals are covered by hairs or fur.
 The skin has sweat glands called sebaceous glands.
 They have an endoskeleton made up of bones.
 They use lungs for breathing or gaseous exchange.
 They have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs.
 They have an external, middle and inner ear.
 They have four types of teeth for feeding.
 They have four chambered heart.
 They have muscular diaphragm which separates the thoracic organs from the
abdominal organs.
 Their brains are well developed thus intelligent.
 They are homoeothermic.
 They have internal fertilization.
 They have mammary glands.
 Give birth to live young ones except the platypus.

Class Mammalia is divided into 3 sub classes;

1. Monotrema
These are the egg laying mammals. They include the spiny anti eaters, and
the duck billed platypus.
2. Metatheria
 These are the marsupials which keep their immature young ones in the
pouch where they continue to grow. They include the Kangaroos, Wallaby,
Koala bear, etc.
3. Eutheria
They have placenta. They give birth to fully developed young ones and
suckle the mammary glands. They include man, rats, cows, goats, etc.

KINGDOM: PLANTAE
The kingdom Plantae comprises a variety of plants.
General characteristics
 They are mostly green in colour thus carry out photosynthesis
 They are multicellular.
 They exhibit; limited movements such as opening and closing of petals etc.
 Their cells are surrounded by cellulose cell wall.
 They respond slowly to external stimuli and do not move from one place to
another.

The kingdom is sub divided into three divisions, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta,

spermatophyta and the algae.

ALGAE
They include;
1. Green algae(chlorophyta) e.g. spirogyra and chlamydomonas
2. Brown algae(phycophyta) e.g focus and laminaria
3. Red algae(rhodophyta)e.g chondrus

Characteristics of algae
 Commonly found in fresh and marine water.
 They are single-celled, colonial or filamentous.
 They are autotrophs.
 They have wide range of pigments, liked brown, green, blue, red and yellow.
 They have a thallus body which is not differentiated into leaves, item or roots
 They are non-vascular organisms.
 They reproduce asexually by fragmentation and binary fission. Few algae
reproduce sexually by conjugation.

Spirogyra
 Characteristics of spirogyra
 It is filamentous green algae found in fresh water of slow flowing water in
ponds, streams, and lakes
 It grows in length and its always one cell thick.
 Each cell is capable of living an independent life
 Each cell has one spiral chloroplast from one end to another
 Small protein bodies called pyrenoids are present on each ribbon like
chloroplast and are used to store starch
 The nucleus is in the center to control the activities of the cell
 There is a gelatinous sheath(mucilage) around the cells that gives them slimy
nature that is useful for protection

Reproduction in Spirogyra
1. Asexual reproduction
The vegetative reproduction is common and consists of part of the filament
breaking off and continuing to live as a separate plant. It can also be called
fragmentation.
2. Sexual reproduction
Spirogyra reproduces by conjugation between filaments lying side by side as
follows;
i) The opposite cells of the two different filaments lying side by side develop a
swelling or an out-growth which begins to grow towards each other.
ii) On touching they dissolve to form a conjugation tube and at the same time
the contents change into gametes.
iii) The gametes from one cell (male gamete) migrate through the conjugation
tube to another cell (female) gamete.
iv) The two gametes fuse to form a zygote which develops a thick resistant wall
and becomes a zygospore.
v) When the conditions are favorable, the zygospore germinates and grows into
another filament.
Illustration
Economic importance
 Algae are used in the manufacture of gar
 They provide food for humans and fish.
 When they die, they sink at the bottom of the sea bed on which they can turn
into oil.
 During photosynthesis, they release oxygen that is necessary for the respiration
of animals that live in water.
 They are used in the manufacture ice cream, cosmetics, and plants.
 They pollute water, i.e. producing foul smell.
 They clog water pipes in hindering the flow of water

DIVISION: BRYOPHYTA
The division is comprised of liverworts and moss plants.

Main characteristics
 They have simple leaves and rhizoids that are root-like structures. They are
used mainly for anchorage.
 Plants lack vascular bundles thus depend on diffusion for movement of
materials.
 They are photosynthetic.
 They are found in sheltered and wet areas.
 Their life cycle consists of the two generations which alternate a gametophyte
and sporophyte generation
Examples are mosses and liverworts which belong to 2 classes; musci and hepatica
respectively.

DIVISION: TRACHEOPHYTA
These show alternation of generations. The sporophytes differentiate into roots,
stems and leaves with lignified vascular tissues that are used for conducting water
and food.
This division is divided into 2 sub-phyla:
1. Pteridophyta
2. Spermatophyta

Pteridophyta
This is made up of ferns. Ferns are commonly found in shaded places which are
damp with cool temperature. Some ferns grow on trees as epiphytes.
The body of a sporophyte fern is divided into leaves, stems and roots. The leaves
are called fronds while the stems are rhizomes. The spore forming structures are
called sporophyta which occur on the underneath (side) of a frond in clusters called
sori.

Main characteristics
 The sporophyte is the dominant generation while gametophyte generation is
short lived.
 The rhizomes grow horizontally below the soil surface.
 Ferns have well-delivered conducting tissues i.e. vascular bundles. The xylem
also supports the plants.
 They have the adventitious roots which anchor the plants into the soil and
absorb materials.

DIVISION: SPERMATOPHYTA
The spermatophyta comprises of well-developed plants which are adapted to a
variety of habitats. The habitats include terrestrial and aquatic. The seed are either
contained inside the ovary wall or exposed.

General characteristics
 The body is divided into leaves, stem and root system
 Plants have complex and well developed vascular tissues.
 The supporting tissues like xylem, sclerenchyma and collenchyma, are found in
leaves, stem and roots. Turgid parenchyma cells also provide support.
 Reproduce sexually.
 Sporophyte generation is greatly reduced and short-lived( flower)

The division is subdivided into two sub divisions:

Gymnospermae (cone bearing plants)

These are commonly found in high lands/ altitudes areas. They show xerophytic
characteristics such as sunken stomata, needle-like leaves, thick waxy cuticle to
prevent or reduce rate of transpiration.
Examples include pines, cypress, cedar tree, cycads, jacaranda, and bougainvillea.
Gymnospermae refers to plants whose seeds are not enclosed.

Main characteristics
 They are non-flowering plants.
 Their seeds are found in the cone scale.
 Have needle like leaves which reduce the rate of transpiration.
 Found in high altitudes and can carry out photosynthesis at low temperatures.

Angiospermae (flowering plants)

These are flowering plants where seeds are enclosed in the ovary of the fruits.

General characteristics
 They are flowering plants
 Their seeds are enclosed in the ovary from where the fruits develop
 The reproductive organs are found within the flower

These are sub divided into two classes. Monocotyledonae and dicotyledonae.

Monocotyledonae
These are mainly grass family. Examples include wheat, rice, barley, star grass,
sorghum, maize, millet sugarcane etc.

Distinguishing characteristics
 Seeds have one cotyledon
 Have fibrous root system
 Have parallel veins in their leaves
 Leaves are generally narrow and long.
 Vascular bundles are scattered in the stem cross section
 Lack vascular cambium, i.e. no secondary thickening of the stem.
 Flowers are held on an inflorescence.
 The floral parts are in threes or multiples of threes.

Dicotyledonae
These include herbs, shrubs and trees. Herbs are non woody plants so turgidity of
cells supports them. Shrubs and trees have stems with supporting tissues such as
xylem.
Examples include beans, jacaranda, hibiscus, etc.

Distinguishing characteristics
 Have seeds with two cotyledons
 They have tap root system.
 Have network (reticulate) venation.
 Leaves are generally broad and short.
 Vascular bundles are radially arranged in the stem cross section.
 Have vascular cambium for secondary thickening.
 The floral parts are in fours or fives or in their multiples.
Question
State the differences between monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants.

FLOWERING PLANTS

These are plants that bear flowers. A typical flowering plant is composed of 2
systems:

 Root system
 Shoot system
The two systems are made up of two categories of organs i.e.

Reproductive organs: these produce fruits and seeds. They are directly involved
in the reproduction of the plant.

Vegetative organs: these are not directly involved in the reproduction. They
include roots, stems and leaves.

Structure of a flowering plant

 ROOTS

A root is a descending portion of the axis of the plant and develops from the
radical of the embryo during germination.

KINDS OF ROOTS

There are 3 main kinds of roots;

1. Primary roots
These are the first roots to grow out of a seed as an extension of the radicle.

2. Secondary roots
These grow laterally from the primary roots

3. Adventitious roots
These are roots that grow from the stems or leaves and not as branches from either
primary or secondary roots. They are almost of the same size.
 TYPES OF ROOTS

1. Tap root system

This consists of a main root growing straight down wards from the radicle. It
gives rise to side roots called lateral roots. Tap root system is a characteristic of
dicotyledonous plants.

2. Fibrous root system

This is the root system without a main root and all roots arise from the same
point of the base of the stem. The roots are almost of the same size and a
characteristic of monocotyledonous plants.

Functions of roots

i) They anchor the plant firmly in the soil.

ii) They absorb water and mineral salts from the ground to the plant.
iii) They conduct the absorbed water and mineral salts up to the stems and
leaves.
iv) In some plants, roots are modified into root tubers which store food e.g.
cassava.
v) Some roots are modified for breathing e.g. white mangrove.
 MODIFIED ROOTS
1. Storage roots
These are thick fleshly and succulent roots. They contain stored food like sugar
and starch. The roots are modified as root tubers e.g. carrots, cassava and sweet
potato roots.

2. Breathing roots
These are found on some plants growing in swampy areas e.g. white mangrove. Its
roots grow up through the mud to the air. The root parts above the mud are spongy
and absorb air from the atmosphere. The main root of such plants bears branch
roots.

3. Stilt roots
These roots develop from the main stem in certain plants such as red mangrove
which grow in muddy areas. Stilt roots provide additional support to the plant.

4. Prop roots
These are found growing on plants such as maize, sorghum and sugar canes. They
develop from the nodes of the stem close to the soil surface. They provide extra
support by holding the plant firmly to the soil surface.

5. Buttress roots
These are large thick roots growing from the base of certain stems e.g. Mvule
trees, silk cotton, etc. They provide extra support to the plant by anchoring it
firmly in the soil.

6. Clasping roots
These are roots growing from the nodes of climbing stems such as figs (mituba
trees), vanilla and orchids. They secret a sticky substance which dries up in air.
This helps such plants to cling on to other plants for support.
7. Epiphytic roots
These grow on certain plants called epiphytes. Epiphytes are plants which grow
and get support from other plants. These roots hang freely in the atmosphere.
They absorb moisture from the atmosphere.

8. Sucking roots
These are roots found growing on certain parasitic plants e.g. figs (mituba). They
grow from the stem and penetrate the host plant. These roots absorb water,
mineral salts and organic food compounds from the host plant.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A ROOT (LONGITUDINAL SECTION)

In a longitudinal section through the growing end of a root, its parts are divided
into 4 main zone or regions:

1) Root cap
2) Region of cell division (meristematic region)
 3) Region of cell elongation
4) Region of cell differentiation (maturation)
1) Root cap
This is found at the tip of the root and is made up of loosely arranged cells. It
protects the tender apex of a root from mechanical damage as it makes its way
through the soil. It’s absent in aquatic plants.

2) Region of cell division

This is the growing apex of the root lying just behind the root cap. The cells in this
region undergo repeated divisions to form new root cap and new cells that
increase the length of the root.

3) Region of cell elongation

This is the region lying just above the region of cell division. The cells in this
region absorb water and develop vacuoles, the cells being elastic, elongated and
enlarged. This causes an overall growth in the length of the root.

4) Region of cell differentiation

This is also called the region of absorption. The characteristic feature of this region
is the development of root hairs; these are fine, delicate, unicellular hair like
extensions of epidermal cells (periferous layer). They absorb soil water and
dissolved mineral salts from the soil. The cells in this region acquire specific
shapes and functions thus they are said to be differentiated or specialized.

NB: the region behind the zone of differentiation is the oldest part of the root. It
has permanent tissues and is covered by a layer of cork which prevents the
evaporation of water from the roots.

Transverse section of a root

1. Monocot root

2. Dicot root
The transverse or cross section of most young roots has two regions

 The outer cylinder (cortex)

 The central cylinder (stele)

1) Cortex
This is the outer most layer of a root which is wide, composed of many
smaller layers of thin walled cells called parenchyma (for strengthening the
root).
It is surrounded by the outer layer within thin walled cells called periferous
layer through which root hairs rise.
The periferous layer has no cuticle but the cells forming it have cellulose cell
wall.
This allows water and mineral salts to be absorbed from the soil by root hairs.
As the root grows older, the cells die and periferous layer is replaced by cork
cells which prevent water loss from the roots.
The inner most layer of the cortex is called endodermis. The endodermis is
made of a layer of barrel shaped cells which are thickened so as to allow free
movement of water. The endodermis is a ring around the central cylinder
(stele).

2) Stele
This is made of a pericycle, vascular tissue and pith (in case of monocots).
The pericycle is the outermost layer of the stele. It’s made up of thin walled
cells. It surrounds the vascular tissues of the root and it produces lateral roots.
The vascular tissues are composed of xylem and phloem and may contain
cambium and pith tissues.
Xylem is the water conducting tissue through which water and mineral salts
pass from the soil upwards to the stem and leaves.
 Phloem is the food conducting tissue that carries manufactured food from the
upper parts of the plant mainly leaves and distributes it to various parts of the
root.
Cambium: causes secondary thickening of the root. It adds all secondary xylem
cells on its inner side and secondary phloem cells on its outer side by continuous
cell division during growing season.

Pith: is a small area in the centre of the monocot root. It is composed of

parenchyma cells for strengthening the root. It’s normally absent in most roots
because the centre is normally occupied by the xylem. It also stores food and water
for the plant.

Differences between transverse section of monocot and dicot roots

Dicot root Monocot

1. Has no pith. Has pith.
2. Can form a ring of cambium. Cannot form a ring of cambium.
3. The xylem is star-shaped occupying The xylem and phloem alternates
the central part. forming a ring.

STEMS

This is the ascending portion of the plant axis that develops from the plumule of
the embryo. It has the following characteristic features;

i) It bears leaves at the nodes.

ii) It has nodes and internodes.
iii) It has buds in the axills called axillary buds.
iv) It has flowers or fruits.
v) Its terminal bud is located at the tip of the stem.
NB: the axill is the angle between the leaf and the stem.

Functions of stems

a) Primary functions
i) They hold leaves in the best position for receiving enough sun light needed in
the process of photosynthesis.
ii) They conduct water and mineral salts from roots to leaves and manufactured
food from leaves to other parts.
iii) They hold flowers and fruits in good position so that they can be easily
pollinated or dispersed.
iv) When stems are young, they carry out photosynthesis thus making food for the
plant.
v) Stems have lenticels (pores) that facilitate gaseous exchange.

b) Secondary functions
i) Some stems may specialize in storing food and water e.g. stem tubers like
corms, Irish potatoes, rhizomes and sugar cane.
ii) Protect a plant against browsers by forming thorns, spines or prickles.
iii) Vegetative reproduction or propagation through the stem cuttings e.g. cassava
and sweet potatoes.
iv) They support the plant by climbing stem tendrils e.g. pasum pea (wild pea).

TYPES OF STEMS
1) Erect stems
These can support themselves in an upright position. They may be woody or
herbaceous.

Woody stems: These have a high content of lignin and are hard. They are found in
shrubs and trees.

Herbaceous stems: These contain no or less woody materials e.g. tomatoes, rice.
The herbs are shorter than grass.

2) Weak stems
These can’t support themselves upright but either creep or climb for support.

3) Underground stems
These are modified stems which remain permanently underground. They are often
swollen and serve as food storage organs.

NB:

 Annual herbs only live for one year

 Bi – annual herbs live for two years
 Perennial herbs live for many years

MODIFICATION OF STEMS
Weak stems

1. Twinning stems (twinners)

These are stems that grow ascending spirally around a support. They are usually
long and slender e.g. Dutch man’s pipe and lianas.

2. Climbing stems
These are stems that grow clinging to the support of other plants by means of
tendrils. Tendrils are thin wire-like spirally coiled branches of certain stems. They
may be modified at axillary buds e.g. in passion fruit plants or terminal buds.

3. Creeping stems (creepers)

These are long thin stems which grow along the surface of the ground, giving off
roots at certain intervals of the nodes. Four types of creeping stems are;

a) Runners
This is a slender trailing stem lying flat on the ground possessing long
internodes. A runner arises as an axillary bud and creeps some distance away
from the mother plant and grow into another plant e.g. oxalis.
b) Offset stems
This is a horizontal thickened short stem. It originates from the axil of the leaf and
grows flat on the ground. It produces many leaves above and a cluster of roots
below e.g. water hyacinth and water lettuce.

4. Sucker
A sucker is a creeping stem that grows obliquely upwards, directly giving rise to a
leafy shoot. E.g. banana, pineapple, sisal plant, etc.

Underground stems

There are four types of underground stems namely:

1) Rhizome
2) Corm
3) Stem tuber
4) Bulb
1. Rhizomes
This is a horizontal thick underground stem having adventitious roots growing
from the lower side of the nodes. It has terminal buds which develop into aerial
shoots. It bears buds in axils of the reduced brown leaves called scale leaves.

Rhizomes store a lot food for the plant. Some also act as organs for vegetative
propagation e.g ginger, canalily, couch grass and Solomon’s seal.
2. Stem tuber
This is a short, fleshy underground stem swollen with large amounts of stored
food. It has scale leaves and axillary buds which form the “eyes” e.g Irish potato,
yams.

3. Stolon
A stolon is a horizontally growing stem that roots at the nodes and develops buds
that grow into new plants. E.g. straw berry.

4. Bulb
A bulb is short conical-shaped underground stem comprising of thick fleshy leaves
arranged in concentric circles. The thick fleshy leaves store food for the plant and
are protected by outer dry brown leaves called scale leaves.

A terminal bud lies at the top of the stem and give rise to the aerial shoot. Axillary
buds are situated between the leaf bases. Onions, garlic, tuberose, etc. are bulbs.

Structure of a bulb (onion)

5. Corm
A corm is a swollen fleshy underground stem that grows in a vertical direction. It
is round-shaped and somehow flattened from the top to bottom. It has a terminal
bud lying at the top of the stem and has scale leaves a rising from the nodes. Its
roots grow randomly from the stem. Examples of corms are cocoyams crocus and
yams.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF STEMS

Transverse section of a dicot stem

 Transverse section of a monocot stem

Internally stems have 3 main tissues;

1. Epidermis
It comprises of a single layer of cells which are brick-shaped. The outer wall of
these cells is thickened by cutin, a waxy material which forms the outside skin of a
stem called cuticle.

 It protects the stem against water loss.

 It also protects the inner tissues of the stem from mechanical injury.
 It prevents entry of bacteria and germs into stem.
2. Cortex
This is the part of the stem between the epidermis and the vascular bundles. It’s
made up of collenchyma, parenchyma and endodermis.

i) Collenchyma
This is the outer tissue of the cortex. It’s 3 or more cells thick. The cells are small,
tightly packed and thickened at their corners. They offer mechanical support, hence
strengthening and giving rigidity to the stem.

ii) Parenchyma
This is made up of large thin walled cells. These cells have air spaces between
them called intercellular spaces. The spaces provide passage for water vapour and
gases in the stem. Parenchyma cells offer support to the stem when filled with
water and store some food.

iii) Endodermis
This is a single layer of rectangular shaped cells. It contains starch usually, and its
main function is storage of food.

3. Vascular bundles
These are conducting or transporting tissues of a plant. They consist of xylem and
phloem. The phloem lies externally and the xylem lies internally in each bundle.
Phloem:

The phloem conducts and transports manufactured food. It is made up of three

main cells:

i) Sieve tubes
These are cylindrical tubes arranged end to end in long rows. Their cross-walls
have many fine pores forming a sieve plate. They conduct manufactured food in
the stem.

ii) Companion cells

These are smaller than the sieve tubes. They are filled with a dense cytoplasm and
have nucleus. They control the activities of the sieve tubes.

iii) Phloem parenchyma

It stores some food in the stem. They are the first to be formed in the vascular
bundle.

Xylem:

Xylem is water and mineral salts conducting tissue. It comprises of 2 types of cells
i.e. vessels and tracheids. These cells have their walls thickened with a substance
called lignin.

The xylem also provides mechanical strength to the stem due to the presence of
lignified dead cells.

The lignified dead cells formed between the endodermis and phloem is termed as
sclerenchyma.

Differences between dicot and monocot stems

Monocot stem Dicot stem

Lack cambium Has cambium. The cambium is
responsible for secondary growth or
thickening of the stem.
The vascular bundles are scattered The vascular bundles are arranged in
within the stem. form of a ring.
Lack a distinct cortex and pith. Has a distinct cortex and pith. The pith
is wide.
Its cortex has several layers of Its cortex has a few layers of
parenchyma cells. parenchyma cells.
 LEAVES

A leaf is a thin flattened structure which grows from the nodes of a stem or its
branches and has a bud in its axil. Leaves are generally green although some are
red or brown. The leaf is made up of 3 main parts;

External structure of a leaf

The monocot leaf

Leaf base; this is the part which attaches the leaf to the stem.

Petiole; this is the part which connects the leaf base to the leaf blade. Leaves with
a petiole are called petiolate and those without are called sessile.

The leaf stalk is a characteristic of dicots while a leaf sheath is found in monocots.
The leaf stalk/sheath can be hairy or smooth.

Lamina; this is the expanded and flattened portion of the leaf consisting of veins
and midrib.
Texture of lamina; the lamina may be hairy or smooth. It may be hard or soft.

VENATION

The arrangement of veins in the lamina of a leaf is called venation. Two broad
types of venation are;

1. Network venation
In network venation, the veins in the lamina branch while intersecting to form a
network. It’s a characteristic of dicots.

2. Parallel venation
In this venation, the veins run side by side without branching. This is a
characteristic of monocotyledonous plants.

LEAF COMPLEXITY

Leaves can be classified according to whether the leaf lamina is completely

divided or not divided. Two broad types are:

Simple leaves
Compound leaves

1. Simple leaves
A simple leaf has a single lamina which isn’t divided up into leaflets e.g. Avocado,
mango, orange, hibiscus, pawpaw, cassava, etc.

Cassava and pawpaw leaves are partly divided. The lobes are not considered to be
leaflets because the divisions do not reach down the midrib. They are simple
digitate i.e.

Simple leaf of a mango

Simple leaf of cassava

A swelling at the base of the leaf stalk is called pulvinus e.g. beans and cassava.
Some leaves have it while others do not have it.

2. Compound leaves
A compound leaf has a lamina which is completely divided into leaflets. They
resemble leaves but are not leaves because the axillary buds are absent in the axis
of leaflets e.g. beans, oxalis, cassia, etc.

Types of compound leaves

i) Compound pinnate leaves

These are compound leaves with leaflets arranged either in pairs opposite one
another or alternately along the midrib called rachis of the leaf. If the terminal
leaflet is present, the leaf is said to be imparipinnate and if the terminal leaflet is
absent, the leaf is said to be paripinnate.

Imparipinnate

Paripinnate

ii) Compound bipinnate leaves

These are compound leaves with 2 orders of leaflets. Leaflets are further divided
up to form leaf-like structures called pinnules e.g. jacaranda.

iii) Compound digitate leaves

These are compound leaves with leaflets radiating out from the end of the petiole-
like fingers of the hand.
iv) Compound trifoliate leaves
These are compound leaves with only 3 leaflets. They include soya beans, oxalis
and straw berry.

NB: stipules (foliar appendages) are attached to the leaf base or petiole e.g. in
beans, hibiscus and cassia.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A LEAF

1. Epidermis:
This is the outer most layer of a leaf. It acts as a skin covering the whole leaf
surface. It’s covered by a transparent water porous layer of cutin called cuticle.
This cuticle allows light penetration into the leaf and prevents excess water loss
from the leaf surface.

The epidermal tissue is divided into 2 according to the location on a leaf i.e. upper
and lower epidermis. The upper epidermis is a single layer of brick-shaped cells
covered by a thick cutin in case of terrestrial plants or land plants.

In most plants, it does not possess stomata and if present are few. This is so as to
control the amount of water loss during transpiration process.

The major function of this epidermis is to prevent evaporation of water from the
leaf cells and protection of the inner cells.

The lower epidermis is usually made up of one layer of cells and contains
numerous openings called stomata. These stomata are protected by 2 guard cells.
In water plant e.g. water lily or hyacinths, stomata are few on this side of the leaf.
Some chloroplasts are present in this layer of cells.

Stomata

These are small openings found in the epidermis of a leaf. They are surrounded by
2 guard cells. Plants growing on land have more stomata located in the lower
epidermis than in the upper epidermis. ( the reverse is true for aquatic plants)

The function of the stomata is to allow entry and exit of important gases like O 2
and CO2 into the leaf.

The stomata also regulate the loss of water vapour from the plant i.e. they control
transpiration.

Structure of the stomata

2. Mesophyll:
This is located between the upper and the lower epidermis. It’s differentiated into
two layers. i.e.
i) Palisade layer
It’s found just below the upper epidermis. It’s made up of cylindrical shaped cells.
The cells are closely packed together without air spaces. The palisade cells contain
many chloroplasts which are the major sites for photosynthesis.

Chloroplasts are small and made up of proteins. They contain chlorophyll which
gives green plants their colour. The chlorophyll absorbs sun light energy that is
used in the process of food manufacture (photosynthesis).

ii) Spongy mesophyll layer

It’s found under the palisade layer. It consists of cell called spongy cells which are
irregularly arranged. These cells are not closely arranged, and therefore have large
intercellular air spaces between them. The air spaces are connected with each.
There is also the sub-stomatal air chamber where the gases collect before moving
out of a leaf. Spongy cells contain fewer chloroplasts than the palisade cells hence
they manufacture food.

3. Vascular tissue
These are vascular bundles consisting of veins. Each vein has a phloem for
transporting manufactured food and the xylem for conducting and distributing
water and mineral salts. The veins also provide mechanical support to the leaf
lamina.

ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES ON A STEM

Arrangement is the insertion of leaves on the stem. Leaves develop at the nodes in
the stem and are arranged in different ways.

1. Alternate
This is when one leaf only arises from each node and the nodes are at different
levels and the successive nodes are at different nodes.

2. Opposite
This is when two leaves arise from nodes that are opposite each other and are at the
same level.

3. Whorls
This is where more than 2 leaves arise from each node.

TYPES OF LEAF MARGINS

Leaves can be classified according to the leaf margins.

1. Entire margin
The margin is smooth and without indentation of any kind. E.g. mango leaves.
2. Serrate margin
The margin is with indentations pointing towards the apex.
3. Dentate margin
The margin has indentations pointing towards the petiole.
4. Crenate margin
The margin has round indentations.
5. Lobed margin
The margin has relatively few and shallow indentations.

Types of leaf shapes

 Functions of leaves to plants

a) Primary functions
 The major function is to manufacture food for the plant during photosynthesis.
 Leaves have stomata which allow exchange of gases i.e. O2 and CO2.
 Leaves facilitate transpiration which sometimes helps the removal of excess
water within the plant.

b) Modified or secondary functions

 They store food and water for the plant e.g. the thick fleshy leaves of onions.
 Some plant leaves are useful in vegetative reproduction e.g. bryophytes.

Modification of leaves

Leaves of some plants have become modified to perform other functions other than
photosynthesis.

1. Leaf tendrils
These are slender wire like coil structures used as climbing organs in climbers for
support. The leaf may be partly modified into a tendril.

2. Leaf spines
These are sharp pointed structures of certain plants modified for defense.

3. Scale leaves
These are thin, dry membranous structures usually brown in colour and sometimes
colourless. Their main function is to protect the axillary bud from mechanical
injury and drying out. They are commonly found on underground stems. E.g. scale
leaves of onions, rhizome and garlic.

4. Insectivorous leaves
These are modified leaves whose function is to capture and digest insects. Such
plants are called insectivorous plants. Pitcher plants grow in soil with a deficiency
of nitrogen/nitrates. They obtain nitrogen from insects. E.g. Venus fly trap, butter
wort, sundew, bladder wort, nepenthes, and the pitcher.

5. Bryophyllum leaves
Leaves have series of buds at the end of vein. These buds grow into new plants
(plantlet) when the leaf is mature.

THE FLOWER

The flower is part of the shoot specialized for reproduction. Most flowers have
male and female reproductive organs though some are of a single sex. A group of
flowers is called an inflorescence e.g. maize flower.

General structure of a flower

Structure of a hibiscus flower (external structure)

 Internal structure of a hibiscus flower

When petals, calyx, epicalyx and the sheath of the staminal tube have been
removed, this is shown in the diagram

Spikelet of the male maize flower

 Single grass flower

Grass and male maize flowers grow in groups along the same axis. The flowers are
in pairs and each pair is called a spikelet. The whole individual flower is called a
floret. These flowers have no petals or sepals instead they have green leaf-like
structures called bracts. The outer and larger bract is called lemma and the inner
smaller one is called palea. At the base of each spikelet is a pair of modified leaves
called glumes.
 Parts of a flower

The floral parts are arranged in rings, spirals or whorls with short internodes. The
end of a flower stalk may be expanded to form a receptacle. The stalk of the flower
where floral parts grow is called pedicel.

The four floral whorls are

 Calyx
 Corolla
 Gynoecium
 Androecium
The calyx is the outer most floral whorls of the flower made up of sepals. The
calyx protects the inner whorls of a flower during the bad stage.

The corolla is the second floral whorl of a flower made up of petals. Most flowers
have scented petals to attract insects for pollination e.g. hibiscus, crotalaria, coffee,
morning glory, etc. the calyx and corolla are collectively known as Perianth.

Androecium is the male part of the flower consisting of stamen. Each stamen is
made up of filament and head called anther. Anthers contain pollen grains which
develop to form male reproductive cells called gametes.

N.B: an infertile or sterile stamen is called staminode.

Gynoecium (pistil) is made up of female reproductive parts called carpels. The

pistil occupies a central position in the flower. Each carpel is made up of;

 Ovary which contains ovules or female gametes.

 Style which connects the ovary to the stigma
 Stigma which receives the pollen grains
The wall of the ovary develops into the pericarp of the fruit. Nectaries are
swellings often at the base of the ovary or on the receptacle which produce a
sugary solution called nectar.

Types of pistils

Three main types of pistils are:

1. Monocarpous
This is a pistil with only one carpel e.g. morning glory and cow pea.
2. Syncarpous pistil
This is a pistil with carpels fused together e.g. hibiscus and isolanum.

3. Apocarpous pistil
This is a pistil with several carpels which are not fused i.e. as distinct carpels
e.g butter cap and Bryophyllum.

Types of ovaries
The two types of ovaries include the following

1. Superior ovary
Is the one that arises above the other floral parts e.g. hibiscus, cassia,
commelina, mimosa pudica, etc.
2. Inferior ovary
Is the one which arises below the rest of the floral parts e.g. morning glory.
Hypogenous

The gynoecium is situated at the apex of the receptacle and other whorls arise
below it. The sepals and petals are inserted independently below gynoecium.
Hypogenous flower has superior ovary.

Terms used

Complete flower: A flower having all the four whorls or floral parts i.e. calyx,
corolla, stamen and pistil.

Incomplete flower: A flower lacking one or more of the four floral parts.

Perfect flower: Is a flower with both male (stamen) and female (pistil) parts.

Imperfect flower: A flower lacking either stamen or pistil.

Unisexual flower: Has only one of the sexual parts i.e. staminate; when the flower
has stamens only. Pistillate (carpellary) when it has carpels only.

Staminode: sterile stamen.

Bisexual (hermaphrodite) flower: is one that contains both male and female
organs or parts.

Monoecious plant: Is one that has the pistillate and staminate that are born on the
same plant but at different points on the plant e.g. maize and castor oil plants.

Dioecious plant: is one that bears either pistillate or staminate flower only e.g.
pawpaw.

Dichogamy: Is a condition in which the male and female parts of a flower mature
at different times. There are 2 types;

 Protandry: when the anthers mature before the stigma.

 Protogyny: where by the stigma matures before the anthers.
Regular (actinomorphic) flower: a flower which can be divided symmetrically
(equally) in different planes.

Irregular (zygomorphic) flower: is one which can be divided into 2 similar

halves in only one plane.

Polysepalous: is when the sepals are borne free or are separate and are distinct
from each other.

Gamosepalous: is when the sepals are fused or joined together.

Petaloid: Sepals resembling petals and have the same colour.

Gamopetalous: Are petals which are wholly joined or fused together e.g. morning
glory, sweet potatoes.

Sepaloid: They are petals which resemble sepals and are green in colour.

Septum: Is an internal dividing wall or partition with in a syncarpous ovary.

Locules: Is an internal compartment of an ovary of fruits.

Simple flowers may be borne on a common flower stalk called peduncle while
individual flowers may be borne on a pedicel.

POLLINATION
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a flower.
There are two types of pollination.
1. Self-pollination. This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the
stigma of the same flower or between two flowers on the same plant.
2. Cross-pollination. This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers of
one flower to the stigma of another flower on a different plant but of the
same species.

Agents of pollination
These are things that aid the process of pollination. The agents of pollination
include.

Animals, Water, Wind and Artificial pollination

There are however two major agents that is wind and insects. Pollination can
therefore be described as wind pollination and insect pollination.

Characteristics of insect pollinated flowers

i) They have brightly coloured petals to attract insects.

ii) They have a scent to attract insects
iii) They have large conspicuous petals, which act as landing sites for insects.
iv) They have sticky pollen grains, which stick to the insects body.
v) They have sticky stigmas, which hold pollen grains.
vi) They produce few sticky pollen grains.
vii) They produce heavy pollen grains.
viii) They produce nectar from nectarines to attract insects.

Characteristics of wind pollinated flowers.

i) They have dull coloured petals.

ii) They have small petals.
iii) They produce light pollen grains, which can easily be carried by wind.
iv) They do not produce nectar
v) They have feathery stigmas to trap pollen grains carried by wind.
vi) They produce a lot of pollen grains.
vii) They have no scent
viii) They have long stamens and pistils hanging outside the petals to release and
receive respectively pollen grains easily.
 Differences between insect and wind pollinated flowers.

Insect pollinated flower Wind pollinated flower

Have brightly coloured petals Have dull coloured petals

Have a scent Have no scent

Produce nectar from nectarines Produce no nectar

Have large petals Have small petals

Produce few pollen grains Produce a lot of pollen grains

Have sticky stigmas Have feathery stigmas

Produce heavy pollen grains Produce light pollen grains

Have short pistils Have long pistils

Have short stamens Have long stamens

Characteristics of flowers pollinated by nocturnal insects

Nocturnal insects are those insects, which are active at night. Flowers pollinated by
such insects have the following characteristics.

1. They have light coloured petals mainly white and pink.

2. They produce a strong scent.
3. They open their petals at night and close them during daytime.

Modifications of flowers to prevent self-pollination

1. Protandry. This is a situation where stamens ripen before the stigma such that
when pollination occurs, the pollen grains cannot germinate on the immature
stigma.
2. Protogyny. This is a condition where the stigma ripens before the anthers.
3. Dioecious condition. This is a condition where a plant bears either pistilate or
staminate flowers but not both.
4. Self-incompatibility. This is where pollen grains from the same flower fail to
fertilize the stigma of that flower.
5. Structure of the flower. Sometimes the carpel is taller than the stamens of the
same flower and in some flowers the corolla covers the stamens preventing self-
pollination.

FERTILIZATION IN PLANTS

This is the fusion of male and female gamete to form a zygote. Fertilization in
plants is internal taking place inside the ovary in the structure called embryosac.

The process of fertilization in plants:

1. Pollen grain lands on the stigma of a flower of the same species.

2. On the stigma, pollen grain absorbs water, nutrients and then germinates to
form a pollen tube which grows through the style under the control of the tube
nucleus at the tip.
3. Pollen grain has two nuclei i.e. generative nucleus and pollen tube nucleus. The
generative nucleus divides mitotically to form two male nuclei which lie behind
the pollen tube nucleus.

4. The pollen tube enters the ovary and the tip of the pollen tube breaks. The
pollen tube nucleus disappears.
5. One of the male nucleus fuse with the egg nucleus to form a zygote which
divides mitotically to form embryo.
6. The other male nucleus fuses with two polar nuclei to form a triploid
endosperm which develops into endosperm. This is called double fertilization.

Events after fertilization

1. The zygote divides mitotically followed by growth and development resulting

into an embryo.
2. The triploid endosperm divides mitotically to form good solid organs called
endosperm.
3. The ovules develop into seeds.
4. The integuments become the seed coat.
5. The ovary develops into a fruit and ovary wall develops into a fruit wall which
protects the seeds.
6. Petals, stigma, style and stamen wither and fall off while the calyx may wither
and fall off or may remain in shriveled form.
 SEEDS

A seed is a fertilized mature ovule. It has one scar called hilium which is a spot
where it was attached to the pod inside a fruit.

Types of seeds

1. Monocotyledonous seeds: These contain only one seed leaf or cotyledon. E.g.
cereals like maize.
2. Dicotyledonous seeds: These contain 2 cotyledons e.g. legumes like beans,
peas and G. nuts.
External structure of a seed (dicot seed)

Internal structure of a dicot seed

External structure of a monocot seed
Internal structure of a maize seed

i) Testa
It is a protective -covering of the embryo of the seed formed from the integuments.
It is usually hard and dry. It protects it from fungi, bacteria and insects.

ii) Tegmen
It is the inner membrane of the seed coat and its also used for protection.

iii) Micropyle
It is a narrow opening into the seed through which water, mineral salts and oxygen
enter during germination.

iv) Radicle
It is a seed root (embryo root) which develops into primary root of the plant. A
developing root has a root cap which bores through the soil particles and protects
the newly formed cells at the root tip from mechanical damage.

v) Hilium
It’s a scar of attachment left by the stalk of the ovule to the ovary wall.

vi) Endosperm
Stores food especially starch for the embryo.

vii) Scutellum or cotyledon

Digests and absorbs food stored in the endosperm. It provides food to the whole
seed.

viii) Coleorhiza
It is the radicle sheath that offers protection to the radicle.

ix) Coleoptile
It is the plumule sheath that offers protection to the plumule.

x) Cotyledon
These contain stored food like starch, proteins and liquids for the initial growth of
the embryo during germination.

FRUITS

A fruit is a fully grown fertilized ovary containing one or more seeds. A fruit has 2
scars, one where it was attached to the receptacle and the other, the remains of the
style or stigma.

During a fruit formation, the wall of the ovary becomes a fruit wall called pericarp.
In some fruits such as banana and pine apple, the fruits develop without
fertilization. Such fruit are said to be parthenocarpic fruits. Therefore
parthenocarpy is the development of fruits without fertilization.

Classes of fruits

True fruits: develop only from the ovaries of a flower e.g. beans, tomatoes, etc.

False fruits: develop from the association of ovaries and other floral parts such as
receptacle. Examples include; pineapples and apples.

Classification of fruits

There are 3 groups of fruits namely;

 Simple fruits
 Aggregate fruits
 Multiple fruits
Simple fruits

These are formed from one flower in which the pistil consists of either one carpel
(monocarpic) or of several fused together (syncarpous) e.g. legumes, g, nuts, peas,
tomatoes, mango, beans, etc.
Aggregate fruits

These are formed from one flower in which the pistil consists of several free
carpels (apocarpous) e.g. apples and rose.

Multiple fruits

These are formed from several flowers and the ovaries become fused after
fertilization e.g. jackfruit and pineapple.

SIMPLE FRUITS

There are either dry or succulent according to whether the pericarp becomes dry or
juicy as the fruit ripens.

Types of simple fruits

Simple fruits are further divided into three categories.

1. Dry indehiscent fruits

2. Dry dehiscent fruits
3. Succulent fruits.
Dry indehiscent fruits

These are fruits with a dry pericarp that does not split up (dehisce) to release seeds.
This category contains five types of fruits. These are Achene, Nut, Caryopsis,
Cypsela and Samara.

The table below shows the different types of dry indehiscent fruits.

Type of dry Description Illustrative diagram

indehiscent
fruit
Achene This is a one seeded fruit An achene of sunflower.
covered by a dry pericarp, which
does not split open, e.g.
sunflower. The achene is the
simplest fruit.

Nut. This is similar to an achene but Section through a cashew nut

the pericarp is hard and tough,
e.g. cashew nut.

Note; coconuts and groundnuts

are biologically not nuts.

Caryopsis. This is an achene-like fruit in Caryopsis of maize.

which the testa and pericarp are
fused. These are mainly found in
grasses and maize.

Cypsela This is a fruit similar to an Cypsela of tridax.

achene in which the inferior
ovary has a pappus of persistent
calyx. It is common in composite
fruits, e.g. tridax and bidens
pilosa

Samara. This is a fruit similar to an Samara of jacaranda.

achene in which the pericarp is
extended to form one or more
wings, e.g. in jacaranda and
African rose wood.
 Dry dehiscent fruits

These are fruits with a dry pericarp that splits (dehisces) to release seeds. The fruits
split at particular lines of weakness known as sutures. These fruits are categorized
into the following different groups depending on the number of splits that occur on
the pericarp. These fruits include, Follicles, Legume, Capsule and Schizocarp.

The table below shows the different types of dry dehiscent fruits

Type of dehiscent Description Illustrative diagram

fruit

Follicle This is a dry fruit with many

seeds and splits open along
one suture, e.g. Sodom apple

Legume. This is a dry fruit with many Legume of a bean

seeds and splits open along
two sutures, e.g. beans, peas,
flamboyant and Barbados
pride.

Capsule This is a dry fruit with many

seeds and splits open along
many vertical slits. It is
formed from an apocarpous
flower, e.g. Dutchman’s
pipe, balsam, cotton, e.t.c.

Schizocarp. This is a dry several seeded

fruit, which breaks up into

separate parts each

containing one seed, e.g.
desmodium, sweet hearts
 and some cassia.

Succulent fruits
These are fleshy fruits. They are either entirely fleshy or have part of it fleshy.
They are further divided into 2 types.

1. Drupes.
These are fruits with only one seed and only part of it fleshy (epicarp and
mesocarp). The endocarp is fibrous and hard, e.g. mango and avocado.

Longitudinal section through a mango.

Fruit stalk (peduncle)

Epicarp

Mesocarp
Endocarp

Seed

2. Berry.
This is a fruit with many seeds and the whole of it fleshy, e.g. tomatoes, guavas,
oranges, bananas etc.

A berry of an orange (T.S).

Epicarp
Pericarp
Mesocarp

Endocarp

Seed

Locule

Septum
Placenta

3. Pome
This is a succulent fruit in which the outer fleshy (normally edible) part develops
from the calyx and receptacle. The ovary forms a papery aore containing seeds e.g.
apple and pears.

PLACENTATION

This is the distribution of the placentae in the ovary or the arrangement of the seeds
on the placenta within the ovary.
There are five types of placentation as shown in the table below.

Type of Description Example

Placentation

Marginal Ovules are situated at or near Beans, peas, cassia

the margin of the ovary

Axile Ovules centrally located in the Orange and tomato

ovary with ovary divided into
many chambers.

Central Ovary is one chambered and Soap wort,

ovules centrally located

Parietal Placenta is found on the inner Passion fruits pawpaw,

wall of the fruit and the ovules cocoa
are attached on the inner wall

Free central Ovules located on the Green pepper

projection from the base of a
one chambered fruit

Basal Ovule found on a placenta that Mango, avocado.

arises from the base of the
ovary, fruit usually single
seeded

FRUIT/SEED DISPERSAL
This is the scattering or spreading/displacement of fruits and seeds from their
parent plants. In some plants, only seeds are dispersed while in others, fruits are
dispersed with seeds.

Importance of dispersal

i) It helps to prevent overcrowding among plants of the same species.

ii) It reduces competition between member plants of the same species.
iii) It helps to minimize the spread of epidemic diseases especially in seedlings if
they are crowded.
iv) It helps plants to colonize new areas which may even be better for the species
survival.
v) It enhances the chances of survival and continuity of the plant species.
Agents of dispersal
They include;
1) Water,
2) Wind
3) Animals
4) Self-dispersal/ explosive mechanism
Fruits and seeds possess specialized structure to aid their dispersal and are adopted
to specific mode of dispersal.

Characteristics of fruits/seeds dispersed by wind

i) They are usually small, light and dry which enables them to easily be carried
or flown by wind.
ii) Some fruits like elm and tecoma have wing like structures that increase their
surface area. This helps in delaying the fall of seeds and fruits and increases
chances of being blown away.
iii) Some fruits like tridax and clancletion have parachute-like hairs called pappus
which enables them to fleet and fly by wind.
iv) Some seeds like silk cotton possess thread-like structures called floss which
increase surface area enabling the seeds to float in air.
v)
Characteristics of fruits/seeds dispersed by water

i) They are usually light and contain air space inside which reduces their
relative density and enable them float on water easily like the coconut.
ii)
Characteristics of fruits/seeds dispersed by animals
 i) Some fruits such as tomatoes, oranges and mangoes are usually large and
brightly coloured especially when ripe. This helps to attract animals.
ii) Some fruits when ripe are scented e.g. jack fruit. This helps to lure/attract
animals.
iii) Some usually possess edible parts which are succulent / juicy and the only
part of the fruit that is eaten and the rest containing the seeds is thrown
away e.g. mango and avocado.
iv) In some fruits, such as guavas, tomatoes, pepper and pawpaw. The whole
fruit is eaten and the seed passed out in the faeces because of their
resistance to digesting i.e. are indigestible.
v) Some fruits e.g. Biden pilosa and desmodium possess hooks and sticks in
the hair of passing animals. They stick in the fur of animals or on clothing
of people.
Self-dispersal

a) explosive mechanism
This happens with dry dehiscent fruits. The pericarp splits open along the sutures
to release the seeds. This is made possible due to the tension that is built during the
process of dying. E.g. legumes, capsule or follicles

b) ribbon fruits
These are succulent, may drop freely from the parent plant. The pericarp then rots,
bearing the seeds that are enclosed within a hard protective testa so that it can
begin germinating.

SEED GERMINATION

This is the growth and development of an embryo of a seed into a seedling or a

young plant under favorable conditions.

Types of germination

1. Epigeal germination
This is where the cotyledons appear above the ground due to the rapid elongation
of the hypocotyl e.g. beans, cotton, sun flower, etc.

2. Hypogeal germination
Is where the cotyledons remain below the ground and the radicle emerges due to
elongation of the epicotyl e.g. maize, mango and black jack.
NB: During germination, the seed absorbs water mainly through the micropyle
which makes the cotyledon swell and split the testa. This process is called
imbibition. The radicle comes out of the testa faster followed by the plumule.

Conditions necessary for germination to occur

a) Environmental or external factors

i) Water
ii) Oxygen
iii) Suitable temperature
b) Internal conditions
i) Viability of the seeds
ii) Amount of food in the seeds
iii) Enzymes
iv) Absence of germination inhibitors e.g. poison

1. Water
Water is needed for the following:

 It activates the enzymes within the seed to hydrolyze the stored food.
 It makes the seed swell, soft and the testa to bursts.
 It dissolves the stored food.
 It is a medium in which all the chemical and enzymatic reactions proceed.
 It is a medium of transport of the dissolved food substances to the developing
shoot and root of the new plant.
 Water is needed for the development of cell vacuoles. Large cell vacuoles
contribute to increase in size of cells.
2. Oxygen
Oxygen is necessary for the process of respiration, the oxidation of food to provide
energy required for growth.

3. Warmth
Suitable temperature is important for the enzyme controlled reactions in the
cotyledon of the germinating seed. At low temperatures, the enzymes are inactive
and at high temperatures, they are denatured hence no germination. Germination
will require an optimum temperature which varies from 10̊C-50̊C for most tropical
seeds.

EXPERIMENTS ON GERMINATION
 An experiment to demonstrate the conditions necessary for germination
Apparatus:

4 test tubes, Cotton wool, Seeds, Oil and Water.

Procedure:

a) Arrange four test tubes labeled 1-4

b) To test tube 1 add moist cotton wool, seeds and leave test tube open.
c) To test tube 2 add dry cotton wool, seeds and leave test tube open.
d) To test tube 3 add seeds, boiled cooled water and a layer of oil.
e) To 4 add seeds, moist cotton wool, ice and leave test tube open. Leave all test
tubes for 3 days.
Setup:

Observations
Seeds germinated in only test tube 1 and those in 2, 3 and 4 did not germinate.

Conclusion:

Air, water and warmth are necessary for germination.

Experiment to show that oxygen is necessary for germination

Apparatus:

2 conical flasks, 2 corks, Water, Cotton wool, Seeds and Pyrogallic acid.

Procedure:
 1. Pour some water in one conical flask and some alkaline pyrogallol in another
conical flask.
 Tie some seeds in wet cotton wool and suspend the cotton wool in the flasks
using a thread.
 Fix the threads using a cork.
 Leave the set up for three days
Set up:

Observation:
After a few days the seeds in B germinated while those in A did not germinate.

Conclusion:

Oxygen is necessary for germination.

Explanation:
Alkaline pyrogallol absorbs oxygen from air in flask A thereby preventing
germination.

The graph showing the change in dry weight of a germinating seedling

This is called the sigmoid curve (S shape) which is true for most organisms.
Description: Briefly the graph slows down at first and then increases rapidly
reaching the maximum when it becomes constant for some time after which it
begins to decrease gradually/slowly.

Explanation:

The decrease in dry mass is due to hydrolyzed food being oxidized to produce
energy required for growth.

The dry mass increased gradually because this period growth proceeds slowly
because the number of dividing cells is small. Then the dry mass increased rapidly
because during this time the first green leaves appear and therefore carries out
photosynthesis. As more leaves appear the amount of food manufactured during
photosynthesis increases hence a rapid increase in the dry mass of the bean
seedling.

The dry mass then increases gradually after a plant approaches its full size of
development because most of the cells becomes differentiated and lose their power
of cell division. This decreases the number of cells formed and hence decrease in
the rate of growth.

The rate of growth then remains constant because the numbers of cells added are
equal to the number of cells which are dying off.

The dry mass decreases after some time because the plant is in senescence stage
where the numbers of cells added are less than the numbers of cells dying off. This
results into a gradual decrease in dry mass until when a plant dies.

SEED DORMANCY

Seed dormancy is the condition where by viable seeds fails to germinate under
certain conditions or resting stage.

Causes of seed dormancy

1. Immature embryo of the seed

This may cause dormancy in seed germination since the embryo may undergo
development before germination occurs.

2. Presence of germination inhibitors

Some chemical substances like acids do not promote germination of seeds when
present. They destroy the enzymes.
3. Extreme temperatures
These greatly offect the function of enzymes in the seed. High temperatures
denature enzymes while low temperatures inactivate them.

4. Presence of hard impermeable seed coat

Some seeds have a strong seed coat that does not allow water and gases to enter the
seeds. Without water and gases, germination will not take place.

5. Dryness of soil and lack of sufficient oxygen enough for seeds.

If oxygen is absent, seed respire anaerobically and obtain less energy. This will not
allow seeds to germinate.

Ways of breaking seed dormancy

1. Harvesting mature seeds. This involves allowing embryos in seeds to develop

up to maturity for certain period called after-ripening period. This allows the
seed to develop fully.
2. By providing growth promoters which deactivate germination inhibitors. These
are chemical substances that can make inhibitors less acive. They contain
nutrients or hormones for proper growth.
3. By exposing seeds to a cool period or chilling to initiate germination. This is
common method of breaking seed dormancy in cereals.
4. By providing suitable conditions of oxygen, temperature and moisture which
favour germination.
5. Removing the hard seed coat by:
Soaking seeds in water to soften it.
Action of fire to burn away the seed coat.
Passing seeds through animal gut.
Churning seed coat in concentrated acids.
Physical removal of the seed coat by using the hand or pricking or by action
of bacteria in the soil.
Importance of seed dormancy

i) It prevents seed germination in unfavorable conditions e.g. seeds dispersed

in winter remain dormant in summer.
ii) It improves the chances of seedling to grow to maturity during favourable
conditions.
iii) Dormant seeds can be stored for a long time and the seed dormancy can be
broken by giving artificial conditions. This helps in their transportation.
iv) It reduces the risk of seeds being frozen to death during unfavorable
conditions.

THE SOIL

Soil is finely divided material covering the earth crust or surface. It consists of air,
water, humus, living organisms, and weathered rocks.
Importance of soil
 Soil provides nutrients e.g. water and minerals to plants which are the chief
producers of food in the environment.
 Soil is a habitat (home) for many organisms such as earth worms, termites,
bacteria fungi and arthropods.
 Soil provides a medium through which man and all other animals dispose of
their wastes.
 Soil is an important natural resource which provides construction materials,
supports agriculture, craft and art materials.

SOIL FORMATION
soil is formed from parent rocks by the process of weathering. This occurs over
several years. The process of weathering takes place in three ways;

1. Physical weathering:
This occurs in the following ways;
i) Alternate heating and cooling of the rocks on exposed mountain sides, causes
expansion and contraction which cause the rock to crack and break up.
ii) By water; this is where rivers and streams wear away the rocks over which they
flow by rolling pebbles and other hard particles on them.
iii) During sandstorm when wind blows sand against bare rocks
iv) Frosting: frost is weather condition where temperatures fall below 0 0C, water in
cracks freezes and expand, causing the rock to break up.

2. Chemical weathering:
This is brought about mainly by the action of water especially rain water on the
rocks. As it rains, rain dissolves carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to form weak
solution of carbonic acid which when falls on soft rocks for example lime, it
dissolves them, this results in the release of mineral elements like calcium,
magnesium, Aluminium, etc. which are components of soil.
In hot damp conditions (tropics) the constituency of rocks especially those
containing iron, oxidizes very quickly. The oxidized rocks disintegrate to form
soil.
3. Biological weathering:
This is brought about by the action and presence of living organisms on rocks.
Certain organisms such as lichens are able to grow on bare rock while other small
flowering plants are able to grow between the rock fragments. When these die,
they form humus which is a component of soil.
Man contributes to biological weathering through direct splitting of rocks during
road and house construction and indirectly through cultivation.

FACTORS INFLUENCING SOIL FORMATION

There are 5 major factors influencing soil formation:
 Climate
 Living organisms
 Nature of soil parent material
 Topography of the area
 Time that the parent rock material is subjected to soil formation.

i) Climate
The main climatic factors involved in the soil formation are rainfall, temperature
and wind.
Rainfall and temperature influence the chemical and physical break down of the
parent rock e.g. rainfall promotes weathering of rocks into small particles by
leaching of soluble constituent compound in the rock.

ii) Living organisms

These include the vegetation cover, living microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) and
invertebrates e.g. earth worms. The vegetation cover influences the characteristics
of the soil formed through the litter and roots remains which add to the soil.
The termites feed on dead vegetation there by decomposing it. The bi-products of
decomposition are added into the soil.

iii) Parent rock

This influences physical properties and chemical constituents of the soil e.g.
granite and sand stones which are rich in mineral content giving rise to sand soil
while volcanic larva produces clay soils.

iv) Topography
It influences the movement of products of weathering which consist of soluble
substances and solid soil particles.
Ti affects soil depth and vegetation thus on a steep or rolling topography there is a
tendency for soil erosion to occur with a result that relatively shallow soils
develop. Therefore it modifies the effects of soil climate and vegetation on soil
formation.

v) Time
The length of time over which soil forming processes have been in action affects
the age of the soil. When soils forming have taken place for a long time, one tends
to get deep mature soils, provided other factors are constant.

SOIL PROFILE
This is the vertical arrangement of the various soil layers called horizons. It
represents the different layers at various stages of soil development. A soil with
distinguished soil layers is known as mature and that without clear profile is
immature or young. The profile consists of the following:
i) Top soil
ii) Sub soil
iii) Parent or underlying rock
Diagram to show the soil profile

1) Horizon A – Top soil

This is the upper most soil layer. It’s usually about 20cm deep and is the most
important horizon that supports the growth of plants. It has got the following
characteristics:
 It’s usually better aerated
 It has more active soil microorganisms
 It contains humus so it’s usually dark in colour.
 It contains more plant root and usually litter.

2) Horizon B – Sub soil

This is a thicker light brown layer lying immediately below the top soil. It’s
composed of mainly rock fragments, clay and gravel. It has the following
characteristics:
 It is less aerated than top soil.
 It contains only deep roots of plants and hardly any other organism.
 It contains very little or no humus
 It tends to contain a lot of mineral salts due to leaching and therefore
referred to as the layer of accumulation.

3) Horizon C – Parent rock

This is a solid rock layer found below the sub soil. It represents the original parent
material which is still intact and unweathered.
The common parent rocks in East Africa are granites, volcanic and sedimentary
rocks. This horizon lack humus completely. It has low air content and mineral
salts.

COMPONENTS OF SOIL
There are basically six components of soil. These are:
i) Inorganic particles,
ii) Humus,
iii) Water,
iv) Air,
v) Mineral salts, and
vi) Soil living organisms.

1. INORGANIC PARTICLES

These are produced during the process of weathering. Soil particle vary in size and
their sizes are used to classify them. The different soil particles are clay, silt, fine
sand, coarse sand and gravel.

Table showing sizes of soil of particles

Soil particle Diameter (mm)
Gravel > 2.0
Coarse 0.2 – 2.0
Fine sand 0.02 –
0.2
Silt 0.002 – 0.02
Clay < 0.002
 Uses of soil particles
i) They provide a surface for anchoring plant roots hence providing support to the
plants.
ii) Soil particles give a rigid frame work to the soil.
iii) They provide mineral elements to the soil which are the absorbed by plants
using roots.

Experiment to show the soil texture of topsoil

Apparatus/materials:
Measuring cylinder, Top soil, Stirrer, Beaker

Procedure:
Put water in a measuring cylinder half way. Pour soil (20cm3) in water and stir
thoroughly. Leave the experiment to stand for 3 minutes and observe.

Observation
When the soil particles settle down, the particles arrange themselves according to
their particle size where the heaviest settle at the bottom and the small and lightest
at the top as shown above.

Conclusion
Soil is made up of different particles, which have varying sizes and densities.

2. SOIL AIR

Soil air exists between the soil particles. Airspaces in the soil are important for
growth of plant roots and health of soil organisms. It is mainly oxygen and
nitrogen. (Carbon dioxide is usually in solution as carbonic acid). The depth to
which the roots can grow depends on how deep the air can penetrate through the
soil
Importance of soil air
 It provides oxygen for respiration of soil organisms and plant roots.
 Oxygen is also needed for the decay that produces humus.
 It also provides nitrogen for fixation by the nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil.
The nitrogen absorbed is needed in the formation of nitrates and proteins.
 Carbon dioxide present in the air helps in increasing soil acidity which favours
proper growth of some plants.
 Carbon dioxide present in the air dissolves in water to form carbonic acid for
weathering.

EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE PERCENTAGE OF AIR IN THE

SOIL
Apparatus
Measuring cylinders (2)
Dry soil sample
Water
Glass rode

Method
1. Measure about 50cc of dry soil in a measuring cylinder and tap the container to
level out the soil.
2. Measure 50 cc of water in another measuring cylinder.
3. Add the two together (observe carefully as you pour the water onto the soil)
4. Allow the mixture to stand until no more bubbles appear. Read and record the
final level of water plus soil in the measuring cylinder.
5. Calculate the air content in terms of percentage.

Example
Volume of soil = 50cc
Volume of water = 50cc
Final volume of water + soil after mixing = 85cc

Volume of air in soil (100-85)= 15cc

Percentage of air in soil sample= vol of air in soil × 100%
vol of soil used
3. WATER
Soil water comes from rain. Also some rise up from the ground water by capillary
action to replace water lost by evaporation from the surface. It is found as a thin
film surrounding the soil particles.

Soil water has the following functions

i) It moistens soil and keeps it humid/moist, making it favorable for survival of
micro-organisms.
ii) It dissolves mineral salts making them available for plants to take.
iii) It dissolves carbon dioxide produced by living organisms to form carbonic
acid which causes chemical weathering of rocks.
iv) It is a raw material for photosynthesis.
v) Water absorbed from the soil allows plant cells to be rigid (turgid), and this is
very important for support of the plant, particularly herbaceous plants.

EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE PERCENTAGE OF WATER IN A

SOIL SAMPLE
Apparatus:
Evaporating dish or basin, fresh soil, weighing scale and oven or Bunsen burner.

Procedure:
a) Weigh a clean evaporating dish and record its weigh. (Let the weight be X g).
b) Fill the evaporating dish with soil and record the weight of the soil plus the
evaporating dish. (Let the weight be Y g).
c) Dry the soil by heating it gently over a Bunsen burner flame for about 30 min.
d) Heating and weighing is repeated until a constant mass is achieved. (Take care
not to burn the soil (no smoke))
e) Re-weigh the soil and the evaporating dish. (Let it be Z g).
f) Then calculate the water content in the soil sample as shown below;

Note:
You should cool in a desiccator before weighing. This ensures that no fresh
vapour enters the soil.

Results:
Weight of the evaporating dish= X
Weight of soil + evaporating dish = Y
Weight of soil + evaporating dish after heating = Z
Weight of soil sample = Y-X
Weight of water in the soil sample = Y-Z

%age of water = weight of water x 100

Weight of soil
Therefore percentage of water = (Y-Z) × 100
Y-Z

4. HUMUS

Humus is decaying plant and animal material- the dead bodies of animals, fallen
leaves, dead plants and animal droppings. It is a dark brown, rather sticky material
that gives soil its dark colour. For the decay process that form humus to work
properly plenty of oxygen is needed.

Importance of humus
i) Because humus is dark-coloured, soil rich in humus absorbs more heat, and this
warmth is useful for the germination of seeds and helps to speed up
decomposition, making more humus.
ii) It has a high absorptive capacity for water.
iii) It forma\s a sticky coat around soil particles and binds several together to form
soil clumps. The clumps structure greatly improves the drainage of the soil.
iv) Humus retains moisture and minerals in the top soil and so, greatly reduces the
effects of drying and leaching (washing of minerals).
v) It is a source of nutrients used by plants after it is decomposed.
vi) It improves soil aeration.
vii) It improves soil structure by reducing the sticky properties of clay.
viii) It stabilizes soil pH.
ix) It leads to improvement of activities of soil organisms by providing them with
food and shelter.
x) It insulates soil against extreme heat and cold temperatures changes.

EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE PERCENTAGE OF HUMUS

(ORGANIC MATTER) IN THE SOIL
Apparatus:
Crucible, soil sample, weighing scale, heat source, wire, tripod stand, pipe clay
triangle

Procedure:
a) Weigh a clean empty crucible and record its weight (W g).
b) Half fill the crucible with soil and record the exact weight of soil plus crucible
on weighing scale (X g).
c) Dry the soil by heating it in an oven at 1050C to constant weight (Y g) (the loss
in weight of soil at this temperature is due to the water driven out by
evaporation)
d) Reweigh the soil and crucible and record the weight.
e) Heat the dried soil on a crucible to redness in an oven.
f) Weigh the soil after cooling and record its weight.
g) Repeat this till a constant weight is achieved (Z g).

Results:
Weight of crucible = W g
Weight of crucible + fresh soil = X g
Constant weight of soil + crucible after heating at 1050C =Y g
Constant weight of soil + crucible after heating after heating to redness = Z g
Weight of soil = X - W
Weight of dry soil = Y-W
Weight of dry soil after burning off humus = Z - P
Weight of humus = Y - Z g

Percentage of humus = weight of humus x 100%

Weight of soil
Percentage of humus = (Y-Z) × 100%
X-W
Exercise
The following experiment was done to find out the percentage of humus in a given
soil sample. The soil sample weighing 120g was heated in an oven kept at 100 o C.
The dry soil weighed 112g. The soil was then heated slowly to burn away humus.
The weight of soil after all humus had burnt was 106g
a) Why was the soil not heated properly at first?
b) What was the weight of humus in the soil?
c) Calculate the percentage of humus in the soil.
d) How many times was water more than humus?

Solution:
a) It was not because it will burn the humus containing water
b) Weight of soil after burning humus = 106g
Weight of dry soil = 112g
 Weight of humus = (112 – 106)
= 6 g

c) Percentage of humus = 6 × 100

20
= 5%

5. MINERAL SALTS

These are chemical elements inform of ions, dissolved in the film of water,
surrounding the soil particle.
Some of the mineral elements in soil are; Sulphur, phosphorous, nitrogen, silicon,
magnesium, iron and Aluminium ions which results from weathering of rocks.

6. SOIL LIVING ORGANISMS

a) Micro organisms
They include bacteria and fungi. They play an important part in maintaining soil
fertility through decomposition of plant and animal remains nitrifying bacteria
convert nitrogen into nitrates thus making it available to plants.
b) Macro organisms.
They include roots of higher plants, earth worms, nematodes e.g. ascaris,
hookworms, filarial worm, and soil arthropods.
Earth worms are common in moist soils rich in humus. They dislike dry or acidic
soils. They tunnel into the soil by force, thus improving the soil aeration and
drainage.

Importance of living organisms

i) They improve fertility of the soil through fixing atmospheric nitrogen by
nitrogen fixing bacteria and decomposing litter and other wastes into humus
carried out by termites and bacteria.
ii) Some living organisms like earth worms burrow in the soil and this improve
soil aeration and drainage.
iii) Some living organisms in soil cause diseases to man and his plants.
iv) Wastes from soil living organisms add fertility to the soil.

EXPERIMENT TO INVESTIGATE THE PRESENCE OF LIVING

ORGANISMS IN SOIL
Apparatus
 Two test tubes
Muslin bag
Top soil
Two corks
Lime water/ bicarbonate indicator solution

Procedure
i) Collect a hand full of fresh top soil and divide it into 2 equal portions.
ii) Sterilize one portion of the soil sample by heating it strongly on a crucible
for 30 minutes. Leave it to cool and place it in a muslin bag.
iii) Place the remaining portion of the fresh soil sample in another muslin bag.
iv) Add equal amounts of lime water or bicarbonate indicator in the test tubes
and then suspend the muslin bags with soil in the test tubes as shown in the
set up below.

Allow the test tubes to stand for about 2 days and observe the appearance of lime
water or bicarbonate solution.

Observation
Lime water turns milky or the bicarbonate indicator solution turns yellow in test
tube A but remains clear in test tube B.

Conclusion
Carbon dioxide was produced in test tube A during respiration indicating the
presence of living organisms.
Lime water remained clear in test tube B because the living organisms in soil in
test tube B were killed by heating

ALTERNATIVE EXPERIMENT
The experiment is set up as shown below;

The setup is left to stand for about 2 days and any changes in the water level in the
U-tube are observed.

Observation
Water level in the u-tube increases in the left arm and decreases in the right arm.
This is due to oxygen in the air inside conical flask A being absorbed by the living
organisms in the soil causing reduced pressure in conical flask A hence the raised
pressure of the remaining gases in conical flask B causing water to raise in the left
arm of the u-tube.

TYPES OF SOIL
Soil is grouped basing on size and nature of soil particles. On this basis, there are 3
main types of soil namely:
Clay soil
Loam soil
Sand soil

1. Sandy soils;
 Sandy soils contain large space between the particles and these spaces allow
water to drain off very quickly.
  They have a gritty feel when wet and felt between the thumb and figure.
 They contain only very small quantities of water and they may be deficient
in calcium and magnesium
 They are described as light soils because they are relatively easy to work
with.

2. Clay soil:
 They have small fine particles i.e. fine texture.
 The soil particles in clay are closely parked together leaving very small
spaces between them. This causes clay soils to have poor water drainage and
also become water logged.
 They are difficult to work with and therefore described as heavy soils.
 They have a sticky feel when wet.

3. Loam soil:
This is a mixture of sand (about40%), silt (about40%), clay (15%), organic
matter (1-4%) it has stable crumb structure and is the best for crop
production.

Differences between clay and sand soil

Clay soil Sand soil
1. Very small air spaces between particles Large air spaces between particles
2. Rich in dissolved salts Poorly dissolved salts
3. Has high water retention capacity Has only very low water retaining capacity
4. Poor drainage i.e. low permeability Very easy drainage i.e. high permeability
5. Water can rise to high level by Water cannot rise to high level by
capillarity capillarity
6. More than 30% clay and less than 40% More than 70% sand and less than 20%
sand clay

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

1. Porosity:
Sandy soil possess large spaces between the soil particles and so more porous.
Clay soils possess very small spaces between the soil particles thus less porous.
Loam soil is moderately porous.

2. Air content:
Sand contains a lot of air so it is well aerated. This is because it has large spaces
existing between the particles.
Clay soil contains little air so it is poorly aerated due to presence of small spaces
between the particles.
Loam soil has varying amounts of air.

3. Drainage of water:
Sand has good water drainage so it allows water to pass through it very quickly.
Clay soil has poor drainage of water and this makes clay water logged. This can be
improved by adding humus to it.
Loam drains water moderately.

4. Water retention capacity:

This refers to the amount of water soil can hold. Sand soil holds little water so it
has a poor water retention capacity. It can be improved by adding humus to it.
Humus sticks sand particles together.
Clay soil tends to become water logged i.e. it holds a lot of water so has a high
water retention capacity.
Loam soil holds water moderately but not becoming water logged.

EXPERIMENT TO COMPARE THE DRAINAGE AND RETENTION OF

WATER IN SAND AND CLAY SOILS

Apparatus
2 filter funnels,
2 measuring cylinders,
2 filter papers
Equal volumes of samples of dry sand and dry clay soils,
Water and
Beakers

Procedure
a) Measure an equal volume of each soil sample.
b) Fold filter papers properly and put one in each funnel.
c) Then place clay soil in the filter paper in one funnel and the sand in the other
funnel.
 d) Place the funnels with their contents over measuring cylinders and at the
same time pour an equal volume of water on each of the soil samples as
shown in the diagrams.

Setup:

Observe which soil allows water to drain through quickly.

Allow the set up to stand for some time till water stops draining through the soils.

Observation
Water passes through sand soil faster than clay soil. So much water is collected in
the cylinder with sand soil and less water is collected in the cylinder containing
clay soil.

Conclusion
Clay soil holds more water than sand soil and sand soils drains water faster than
clay.

Explanation
Sand soil has larger air spaces which enable water to drain through more rapidly
and on the other hand clay soil retains more water than sand because it has many
small particles which can hold more water.

5. Water capillarity through different soils:

Capillarity through soil means how well water can rise up in the soil and this
depends on the size of air spaces between the soil particles.
Sand soil has the lowest capillarity of water while clay soil has the highest water
capillarity and loam soil has medium water capillarity.

EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE AND COMPARE WATER

CAPILLARITY THROUGH SAND, CLAY AND LOAM SOIL
Materials
3 long glass tubes
Glass troughs
Muslin bags and threads
3 retort stands and clamps
3 samples of dry sand, clay and loam soils.

Procedure
a) Tie a muslin sheath tightly at the end of the glass tubes.
b) Fill one glass tube with dry sample of sand soil and pack it well ensuring that
there are no spaces in the soil.
c) Repeat this with clay and loam soils.
d) The glass tubes are stood vertically with the ends tied with muslin sheath
immersed in a glass trough containing enough water.
e) The glass tubes are supported upright with retort stands and clamps as shown in
the diagram below.
Setup

Observation
Water rises faster for a short distance in sand soil while in clay soil water rises
slowly but to higher distances. In loam soil, water rises moderately to a moderate
distance.

Conclusion
Clay soil has the highest capillarity of water.
Sand soil has the lowest capillarity while loam has moderate water capillarity.

Explanation
Water rises to the greatest height at the nearest stages of the experiment in sand
soil because sand has large spaces that enable water to rise more rapidly in the first
hours.
Clay soil shows the highest rise of water hence the highest water capillarity
because it is composed of tiny soil particles which present the large surface area
over which water molecules cling.
Water rises at a slow rate in clay soil because clay has small air spaces between its
particles.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

1. Soil colour
This determines the amount of heat that can be trapped in a soil sample. Dark soils
retain heat more than light soils.
2. Soil pH
This is the degree of acidity or alkalinity of the soil. Most soils in the tropics are
acidic but some are alkaline. Soil pH affects the rate at which mineral salts e.g.
nitrogen, phosphorous, iron are absorbed by plant roots. Most plants grow best in
slightly acidic or neutral soil.

EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE SOIL PH

Materials
Soil
Petri dish
Universal indicator
Indicator chart

Procedure
a) Place about 3g of soil on a Petri dish and soak it with universal indicator.
Leave for 2-3 minutes.
b) Tilt the Petri dish so that the indicator drains out of the soil.
c) Compare the indicator color with the indicator chart.

Alternatively:
a) Soak the soil sample with distilled water.
 b) Drain off/ filter off and test with universal indicator solution or universal
indicator papers.

SOIL EROSION
This is the removal or washing a way of top soil by animals, wind or running
water. The extent of soil erosion is dependent upon the intensity with which the
rain falls and not the amount of water.

Types of soil erosion

Sheet erosion
This is where thin uniform layers of soil are eroded over the whole slope.

Rill erosion
This is where water cuts shallow channels called rills. The channels deepen as
volume of water run off increases.

Gulley erosion
This results from rill erosion when the channels deepen and form galleys. Here a
lot of soil is carried a way over greater distances. It is facilitated by careless
ploughing (up& down the slope). It may follow tracks made by vehicles and from
animals.

Splash erosion or raindrop erosion

This occurs when intense raindrops displace soil.

Wind erosion
In dry conditions, herds of farm animals trample and compact the soil, causing a
layer of dust on top. When wind comes, it can blow away the dust.
CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION
1) Slopes of land
The deeper the slope the greater the erosion and this is coupled with the intensity
of rain.
2) Over grazing
This is caused by the keeping of many grazing animals on a small area. They finish
the grass, i.e. remove the grass cover and open it to water erosion. They trample
the soil and make it dusty, thus erosion can take place.
3) Deforestation
Foliage of trees reduces intensity at which raindrops reach the ground. Extensive
falling of trees in an area removes this cover thus facilitating erosion on slopes.
4) Bush burning
Uncontrolled burning of bushes in dry seasons removes the grass top cover, thus
leaving the soil bars for erosion.
5) Poor farming methods:
Ploughing: It lessens the soil and destroys its natural structure. Failure to replace
humus after successive crops reduces water holding properties, so soil dries easily
and can easily be blown away.
Ploughing up and down a slope accelerates water erosion.
Over cropping; over use of soil depletes fertility, thus causing loss of plant cover.
This leaves the soil bare and so susceptible to erosion.

Methods of reducing (preventing) soil erosion

a) Contour ploughing
Ploughing a long contours i.e. across a slope and not up and down. It allows
furrows to trap water rather than to channel it a way.
b) Strip cropping
This consists of alternate bands of cultivated and uncultivated soil, following
contours. Un tilled soil is covered with grass.
By alternating the grass and crops each year, the soil is allowed to rebuild its
structure while under grass.
c) Terracing
This is cultivation a long contours in horizontal strips supported by stones or walls,
so breaking up the step down water rush of the surface run-off. The steeper the
slope, the closer the terraces must be.
d) Correct crop for soil
Steep slopes which should not be ploughed are covered with pasture crops, their
roots hold the soil
e) Afforestation
This is the Planting large areas of land with trees. They act as wind brakes, hold
the soil together, and prevent raindrops from hitting the soil directly
They conserve water and control flooding.

f) Mulching
covering of top soil with plant material e.g. banana leaves, maize stems after
harvest, cut grass etc. it protects the top soil and conserves the water in the soil.
 Effects of soil erosion (to farmers)
 Nutrients and soil organisms are carried a way in the top soil.
 The soil left behind is unproductive.
 Fields may be cut into irregular pieces by rill and gulley erosion
 Floods carry a way or submerge and suffocate crops and soil organisms.

SOIL FERTILITY AND CONSERVATION

SOIL FERTILITY
Soil fertility refers to the amount of nutrients in the soil that can support the growth
of plants. Soil can lose its fertility through the following ways.
1. Soil erosion.
2. Leaching; this is the washing down of soluble minerals from topsoil layers to
bottom layers where they cannot be accessed by plants.
3. Soil exhaustion; this is the depletion/reduction in soil nutrients as a result of
monoculture, over cropping, etc.
4. Soil compaction; this is the hardening of soil on the surface due to action of
heavy machinery, movement of animals and man on soil, etc. Soil compaction
prevents water from penetrating into the soil.

SOIL CONSERVATION
This is the protection and careful management of soil to maintain its fertility. It
includes methods of controlling erosion and others such as:
Intercropping
Here, plants are alternately planted in a systematic or even random manner e.g.
coffee, beans, and banana can be intercropped.
Fallowing
Land is left to rest and grow back to bush.
Crop rotation
The farmer carefully rotates his crops season after season, so that the plants make
different demands on the soil.
Deep rooted crops like cassava are rotated with shallow rooted ones e.g. g. nuts

Application of manure (organic manure)

1) Green manure;
These are green plants, mostly legumes which can be dug back into the soil.
However, any available green plants can do.
2) Farm yard manure;
This is from wastes of farm animals like urine and faeces when left become
manure. This improves the process of nitrification (addition of nitrates to the soil)
e.g. poultry dropping, goats, pigs, cows etc.
3) Compost manure;
This is made by collecting all available organic materials like chicken waste,
weeds, fresh leaves into a pit with alternating layers of soil, and leaving them to
rot. Water is added periodically to keep it moist for bacteria and fungi in the soil
speed up the process. When well decayed, the compost is spread over the garden.
Organic manure adds humus to the soil and maintains the crumb
Structure
4) Artificial fertilizers;
These are added directly. The most common element lacking in highly cultivated
soils are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. They are supplied in form of K2SO 4,
(NH4)2SO4 and calcium phosphate which lead to high yield.

THE NITROGEN CYCLE

Nitrogen is one of the elements that make up proteins. Nitrogen makes up to 80%
of air but it is un reactive so cannot be used by plants and animals in its elemental
form. It becomes part of the bodies of organisms in a process called the nitrogen
cycle. The changing of nitrogen into more reactive forms is called nitrogen
fixation.
Nitrogen fixation takes place during lightening, in the manufacture of artificial
fertilizers and in the metabolism of the nitrifying and nitrogen fixing bacteria.
Plants absorb nitrogen as ammonium salts or nitrates.
Animals obtain nitrogen they need by eating plants or other animals that have eater
plants
At death or by leaf fall, egestion, excretion (urine), the nitrogen of plants and
animals is returned to the soil
Nitrogen is in constant circulation between autotrophs, heterotrophs, and the soil
in atmosphere
Plants absorb nitrogen inform of nitrates and ammonium salts, for manufacture
/build up of proteins they require.
At death or by leaf fall, egestion, excretion (urine), the nitrogen of plants and
animals is returned to the soil.
 THE CARBON CYCLE
Carbon is an element which occur in all elements that make up a living organism.
Carbon is therefore a major component of all organic matter. Plants get carbon
from the atmosphere in the air during the process of photosynthesis. Plants use
carbon to make food like starch. Starch is eaten by animals to get energy.
When animals die, they decay and release the carbon and other nutrients in the soil.
The circulation of carbon in nature from the atmosphere into the living organisms
and back into the atmosphere forms the carbon cycle.
The cycle

Removal of CO2 from the atmosphere:

Green plants remove CO2 into the atmosphere during the process of
photosynthesis.
Some of the CO2 in the atmosphere dissolves in rain water to form carbonic acid.
This acid reacts with soil mineral salts to form carbonates.

Addition of CO2 in the atmosphere:

a) Combustion (burning)
When carbon containing fuels e.g. petroleum, coal, natural gas, fire wood are
burnt, CO2 is released into the atmosphere. Formation of such fuels over millions
of years is referred to as fossilation.
b) Respiration in animals and plants.
c) Decomposition of organic matter by bacteria and fungi. During this process,
CO2 is released into the atmosphere.
 NUTRITION
Nutrition refers to the process by which living organisms obtain, consume and use
food substances to maintain their life processes (metabolic processes).
These food substances are called nutrients.
These nutrients in green plants include; water, mineral salts, carbon dioxide and in
animals include; carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, etc.

Modes of nutrition
Nutrition is broadly classified into two groups namely;
[Link] nutrition (nourishment on others).
[Link] nutrition (self-nourishment).

1. AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
This is a mode of nutrition where by an organism is able to synthesize its own food
from inorganic nutrients using some external source of energy. Such organisms are
called Autotrophs.
Since the nutrition of all other organisms depends either directly or indirectly on
these Autotrophs, they are referred to as producers.
Autotrophic nutrition can be divided into two depending on the external source of
energy used to drive there processes;
i. Photosynthesis:
This is the type of nutrition where organisms make food with the help of sunlight
energy. Examples include; green plants, algae, photosynthetic bacteria.
ii. Chemosynthesis:
This is where organisms make their own food with the help of energy from specific
chemical reactions (oxidation of various inorganic compounds). Examples include;
chemosynthetic bacteria.

2. HETEROTROPHISM / HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION

This is the mode of nutrition where by organisms obtain their food by feeding on
already manufactured organic (food) compounds.
Heterotrophs are incapable of making their own food.
They include; all animals, fungi, insectivorous plants and most bacteria.

Heterotrophic nutrition is of 5 major types, which include:

1. Parasitism
This is an association between two living organisms of different species in which
one organism (parasite) obtains food and shelter from the other organism (host)
which instead suffers injury and harm. For examples;
 A tape worm in the gut of man
 A cow and a tick.
 A bedbug and a man.
2. Phagocytosis:
This is the process of nutrition where simple cells or unicellular organisms engulf
solid food particles. For examples;
 Amoeba.
 White blood cells.
3. Saprophytic/saprotrophic nutrition:
Saprotrophic nutrition is a mode of heterotrophic nutrition where an organism
feeds on dead decaying matter where by they absorb solutions from this dead
decaying matter.
Saprotrophs lack chlorophyll and thus cannot make their own food. Examples
include; Mushrooms, mucor, common bread mould.
4. Symbiosis / Mutualism;
This is a nutritional relationship between two organisms of different species where
both organisms benefit. However, only one organism benefits nutritionally.
Examples include;
 Fungi and algae (lichen).
 Root nodules
 Leguminous plants and rhizobium bacteria.
 Protozoa and ruminants.
 Egret white bird and a cow.
 Bacteria and man in the small intestine.

5. Holozoic nutrition;
This is the mode of nutrition where by food nutrients are taken into the body and
broken down into smaller soluble molecules which can be absorbed and
assimilated (utilized) by the body.
This mode of nutrition is normally found in mainly free living organisms which
have a specialized digestive tract.
Holozoic nutrition is characterized by the following:
i) Ingestion:
This is the taking in complex organic food into the body.
ii) Digestion:
This is the breakdown of complex organic food into smaller diffusible molecules.
iii) Absorption:
This is the taking up of soluble molecules from the digestive region across a
membrane into the body tissues.
iv) Assimilation:
This refers to utilization of absorbed food molecules by the body to provide either
energy or building up of body tissues.
v) Egestion:
This is the elimination of undigested food materials from the body.

Animals which undergo holozoic nutrition can be classified into three groups;
 Carnivores
 Omnivores
 Herbivores.
Herbivores; These live entirely on plant vegetation.
Carnivores; These feed on flesh e.g. lion, cat, dog.
Omnivores; These feed on both plants and animals e.g. man and a pig.
FOOD
Food is any substance which can be digested and absorbed by the body to maintain
the body’s life processes (Metabolic process).

Food is required by organisms for:

i. Growth so as to build new cells.
ii. Respiration to produce energy
iii. Repair of worn out cells or tissues
iv. Protection of the body against diseases e.g. vitamins, proteins.

CLASSES OF FOOD
There are three classes of food, namely:-
a) Energy giving foods (fats and oils).
b) Body building foods (growth foods) e.g. proteins.
c) Protective foods, these protect the body against infections and diseases e.g.
vitamins and minerals.

TYPES OF FOOD/NUTRIENT COMPOUNDS

There are six different nutrient compounds namely:-
1. Carbohydrates 4. Mineral salts
2. Proteins 5. Roughages and water
3. Vitamins 6. Fats and oils (lipids)

CARBOHYDRATES
 These are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
They are either sugars or starches.
Carbohydrates are grouped into 3 categories which include monosaccharides,
disaccharides and polysaccharides depending on number of sugar molecules they
are composed of.
i) Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides (mono=one, saccharide= sugar) are substances consisting of one
molecule of sugar. They are also known as simple sugars.

Properties of monosaccharides
 They have a sweet taste
 They dissolve in water
 They form crystals
 Can pass through a selectively permeable membrane.
 They change the colour of benedict’s solution from blue to orange when boiled
with the solution thus they are known as reducing sugars.

Monosaccharides include the following:

1. Glucose (present in grapes)
2. Fructose (present in many edible fruits)
3. Galactose (present in milk)
ii) Disaccharides
Disaccharides (di=two, saccharide= sugars) are carbohydrates molecules made up
two simple sugars joined together. When the two monosaccharides combine, it
results in the loss of one molecule of water and this reaction is called a
condensation reaction.
Glucose + Glucose = maltose + water
Glucose + Galactose = lactose + water
Glucose + Fructose = sucrose + water

The disaccharides have the following properties:

i) They are sweeter than monosaccharides
ii) They can be crystallized
iii) They are soluble in water
iv) Do not change the colour of Benedict’s solution when heated with it (apart
from maltose)- they are known as non-reducing sugars
v) Can be broken down into simple sugars by dilute mineral acids and enzymes

Examples of disaccharides include:

1) Sucrose (present in sugar cane)
 2) Maltose (present in germinating seeds)
3) Lactose (present in milk)

iii) Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides (poly = many, saccharide = sugar) are complex carbohydrates
made up of many units of simple sugars.

Properties of polysaccharides include:

 Are not sweet
 Do not dissolve in water
 Cannot be crystallized
 Do not change the colour of Benedict’s solution
Examples include:
1) Starch
2) Glycogen
3) Cellulose.
Functions of carbohydrates
i) They provide energy in the body when oxidized during respiration.
ii) They are the cheap sources of energy for living things
iii) They act as food reserves which are stored within organisms e.g. many plants
store food as starch and animals as glycogen.
iv) They are important components of body structures e.g. cellulose is a component
cell walls, chitin forms exoskeleton of arthropods, and heparin is anticoagulant
in mammalian blood.
v) They are important for commercial values as they provide raw materials for
manufacture of various products such as cellulose provides raw materials for
manufacture of paper and textiles.
Deficiency of carbohydrates results in a deficiency disease called marasmus.
Symptoms of marasmus
i) High appetite.
ii) Dehydration of the body
iii) Growth retardation
iv) Wastage of muscles
v) Misery and shrunken appearance

FOOD TESTS ON CARBOHYDRATES

1. Test for reducing sugars
The reagent used is Benedict’s solution (blue) or Fehling’s solution (blue). Boiling
is required.
Procedure Observation Conclusion
To 1 cm3 of food solution, Colourless or turbid Little or
add 1 cm3 of Benedict’s solution turned to a blue Moderate or
solution and boil. solution, then to a green Much or
solution, to a yellow Too much; reducing
precipitate, to orange sugars present.
precipitate and to a brown
precipitate on boiling.
Colourless or turbid Reducing sugars absent.
solution turned to a blue
solution which persists on
boiling.

If Fehling’s solution is used, the change is from blue solution to orange precipitate
if reducing sugars are present. It remains a blue solution if they are absent.

Examples of reducing sugars include:

1) Glucose (present in grapes)
2) Fructose (present in many edible fruits)
3) Galactose (present in milk)
4) Maltose (present in germinating seeds)

The conclusions based on colour changes are according to the following observations:

Blue solution- no sugars

Green solution- little sugars present

Yellow precipitate- moderate sugars present

Orange precipitate- much sugars present

Brown precipitate- too much reducing sugars present

2. Test for non-reducing sugars

procedure Observation conclusion
3
To 1 cm of food solution Colourless or turbid Little or
3
add 1 cm of dilute solution turned to a blue Moderate or
hydrochloric acid and solution, then to a green Much or
 boil, cool under water solution, to a yellow Too much; non-reducing
then add 1 cm3 of sodium precipitate and to a brown sugars present.
hydroxide solution, precipitate on boiling.
followed by 1 cm3 of Colourless or turbid Non-reducing sugars
Benedict’s solution and solution turned to a blue absent.
boil. solution which persists on
boiling.

Note:
i) When boiled with dilute HCl, the non- reducing sugars breaks down into the
reducing sugars.
ii) Sodium hydroxide solution or sodium hydrogen carbonate powder is added to
neutralize the acid so that Benedict’s solution can work.

Examples of non-reducing sugars include:

i. Sucrose (present in sugar cane)
ii. Lactose (present in milk)

3. Test for starch:

The reagent used is iodine which is a brown or yellow solution).
Procedure Observation Conclusion
3
To 1 cm of food Colourless or turbid Much or moderate or
solution, add 3 drops of solution turned to a black little starch present.
iodine solution. or blue-black or blue
solution or brown
solution with black
specks.
Colourless or turbid Starch absent.
solution turned to a
yellow or brown
solution.

PROTEINS
These are food nutrients containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen and
sometimes sulphur or phosphorus. The smallest and building unit of proteins are
called Amino acids. The amino acid molecule can condense to form dipeptide;
further condensation gives rise to polypeptide molecule (protein).
The amino acids can be differentiated into essential and non-essential amino acids.
There are a total of twenty (20) amino acids present thus allowing the formation of
a variety of proteins.

Types of amino acids:

i) Essential amino acids
These are amino acids which cannot be synthesized in the body. This means
they can only be got from the diet.
ii) Non-essential amino acids
These are amino acids that can be synthesized by the body so they are not
essential in the diet.

Sources of proteins:
Food substances rich in proteins are eggs, lean meat, beans, Soya, milk and its
products, fish and groundnuts.
Properties of proteins
i) Most dissolve in water to form colloidal or sticky suspensions.
ii) They are denatured by high temperatures-there structure is completely changed.
iii) They have both acidic and alkaline properties

The main functions of proteins

i) Body building which brings about growth i.e. from structures like in cell
membrane, certain as in horns, fingernails, hooves etc.
ii) Repair and regenerate tissues that are damaged or worn out.
iii) Synthesis of body chemicals like enzymes, hormones, hemoglobin etc.
iv) Provision of energy in times of starvation.

Note: Protein deficiency results in poor health especially in children where it

causes kwashiorkor.
Symptoms of kwashiorkor
i) Loss of appetite
ii) Diarrhea
iii) The hair becomes soft and can easily be plucked out accompanied by loss of its
colour.
iv) Growth retardation
v) Pot belly i.e. swollen lower abdomen
vi) Swollen legs and joints i.e. Oedema.
vii) Wasted muscles
 TEST FOR PROTEINS
There are two food tests for proteins: the biuret test and Millon’s test. Due to toxic
nature of Millon’s reagent, it not commonly used any more.
The biuret test is more commonly used.
The Biuret test:
Procedure Observation Conclusion
To 1 cm3 of food solution, Turbid solution turned to Proteins present.
add 1 cm3 of sodium a colourless solution then
hydroxide solution, then to a violet or purple
add 3 drops of Copper II solution.
sulphate solution and Turbid or colourless Proteins absent.
shake. solution turned to a blue
solution.
Millon’s test:
Procedure Observation Conclusion
3
To 1 cm of food solution, A pink coagulated mass is Proteins present
add 3 drops of Millon’s formed.
reagent and boil. Turbid or colourless Proteins absent.
solution remained turbid
or colourless.

LIPIDS (FATS AND OILS)

Lipids also contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen but with higher proportions of
hydrogen and less oxygen than carbohydrates. Because of this, they are able to
yield more energy than carbohydrates or proteins weight for weight when oxidized.
Fats differ from oils in that they are solids at room temperature whereas oils are
liquids at room temperature (250C).
Fats are mainly found in animal tissues while oils are obtained from plant tissues.
Examples of fats include; kimbo, cow boy, tamu, margarine, etc.
Examples of oils include; fortune buto, sun seed cooking oil, ufuta cooking oil, etc.
Lipids are made up fatty acids and glycerol.

Food sources:
Ground nuts
Eggs
Sun flower
Palm oil
Castor oil, etc.

Properties of lipids
i) Fats and oils are distinguished from other nutrients in that they make a
permanent translucent mark or spot on papers. This property also provides a
simple test for fats and oils.
ii) They also don’t dissolve in water

Functions of lipids
i) Energy production during respiration
ii) Insulate the body to prevent excessive heat loss; this has been of major
adaptations in some small animals and those animals living in cold regions
where the sub- cutaneous fats are largely deposited under the dermis of the skin.
iii) Prevent water loss and entry in cells and tissues
iv) They are also constituents of waxy cuticle of animals and plants and the cell
membrane.
v) In some areas of animals they act as shock absorbers
vi) They can be used as a source of water in desert animals such as camels- when
stored fat is broken down in the body, much water is produced.

TESTS FOR LIPIDS

They are tested for using the emulsion test or the grease spot (translucent spot) test.
a) The emulsion test:
The reagents used are ethanol and water.
Procedure Observation Deduction
3
To 1 cm of food A turbid solution turns Lipids present.
solution, add 1 cm3 of to a cream emulsion
ethanol and shake. Then Turbid or colourless Lipids absent.
add 5 drops of water solution remains a
and shake. turbid or colourless
solution.

b) Translucent spot test:

Procedure Observation Conclusion
Add 2 drops of test A translucent spot or Lipids present
solution on a piece of patch is left on the
filter paper. paper.
 Allow to dry and No translucent spot is Lipids absent.
observe under light. formed on the paper.

VITAMINS
These are organic compounds required in small amounts in the diet for the normal
functioning of the body. They are designated with alphabetical letters and are
classified into two:
i) Water soluble vitamins
ii) Fat soluble vitamins
Water soluble vitamins are those which dissolve in water. They include vitamins B
and C.
Fat soluble vitamins dissolve in fats but not in water. They include vitamins A, D,
E, and K.

A table showing vitamins and their deficiency diseases

Vitamin Common food Functions Symptom of deficiency
source
A (Retinol) Green vegetables, Growth in children, Night blindness( poor
liver, butter, resistance to dark adaptation),
margarine, egg diseases of eye frequent cold, sore eyes
yolk and carrots (night blindness) and wealthy skin
and respiratory
tract. good
night(Dim light)
vision
B1( Yeast, beans, lean Tissue respiration, Tiredness( fatigue),
Thiamine) meat, egg yolk, keeps the heart, retarded growth in
bread and rice nerves and digestive children and poor
husks organs healthy appetite, constipation(
beriberi)
B2( Yeast, milk ,liver, Tissue respiration, Retarded growth
Riboflavin) cheese, leafy growth and health especially in children,
vegetables. of skin. Keeps cracks on lips, poor
mucus membrane vision and skin
healthy disorders
B3 (Nicotinic Cereal grains, Same as B2 Disorders of central
acid /Niacin) milk and its nervous system(CNS)
products, liver like memory loss &
and yeast depression( pellagra)
B12( Beef, kidney, Forms red blood Low blood
cobamine) liver, yeast cells count(Anemia)
C (Ascorbic Fresh fruits and Development of Scurvy- Sore gums,
acid) row vegetables teeth and bones, poor healing of sores in
normal growth and the gum
sticks together the
cells lining parts of
the body
D( liver, fish, egg Building strong and Weak bones and teeth,
calciferol) yolk, formed hard bones and rickets in children and
beneath skin of teeth, promotes dental caries
man in sunlight absorption of
phosphorus and
calcium in the gut
E( All foods Anti-oxidant to Sterility( infertility) in
tocopherol) prevent excess some animals like rats
energy production.
Promotes fertility in
animals e.g. rats
K(phyllaquin Cabbage, spinach Normal clotting of Prolonged bleeding.
one) blood

TEST FOR VITAMIN C:

The reagent used is DCPIP (Dichloro Phenol Indole Phenol). It is a deep blue
solution. The sources of vitamin C are fresh fruits e.g. oranges, mangoes, lemon,
etc.
Procedure Observation Conclusion
To 1 cm3 of DCPIP The blue DCPIP solution Vitamin C present
solution in the test tube, is decolourised or turned
add the food solution drop to a colourless solution.
wise. The blue DCPIP solution Vitamin C absent
remained blue.
 MINERAL ELEMENTS AND SALTS
These are inorganic food constituents required in small amounts but whose
deficiency affects the normal functioning of the body leading to deficiency
diseases.

Mineral salts can be divided into;

(i) Essential mineral elements (macro elements)
These are mineral elements required in relatively large amounts. They are sodium,
potassium, phosphorous, calcium iron.
(ii) Non-essential or Trace mineral elements (micro- elements)
These are mineral elements required in relatively very small amounts. However,
their presence in the diet is of at most importance. They are Zinc, Molybdenum,
cobalt Manganese.

A table showing some elements and their deficiency diseases

MINERAL SOURCE IMPORTANCE DEFFICIENCY
ELEMENTS
- Beef, liver, - It is a constituent Anaemia
Fe kidney, [Link], of Haemoglobin. - Reduced red blood cell
Iron beans, eggs, account.
green - Reduction in oxygen
vegetables. transportation rate.
Vegetables, - In blood clotting Rickets in children
Ca fish, milk, - hardening of - Delay in blood clotting
Calcium bread, eggs. bones and teeth. - Soft bone, poor skeletal
growth.
- Most foods - Constituent of - It is not likely for one to be
P cell membrane. deficient of phosphorus since
Phosphorus - Formation of it is found in most foods.
teeth & bones.
- Iodised salts - It is a constituent Goitre
I - Marine fish of a haemone - Swelling of the Thyroid
Iodine Thyroxin gland.
- Muscle cramp (sharp pains
in muscles).
Drinking water It is constituent of Weak teeth in children.
F (National water bones and teeth.
Fluorine and sewage co-
operation
K Fish, beef, Transmission of Muscular cramp
Potassium liver, nerve impulse
mushroom and along neurons
some tubers
Na Common Transmission of
sodium salt(NaCl) and nerve impulse
cheese along neurons

WATER AND ROUGHAGES/DIETARY FIBRES

WATER
This compound is made of two elements namely Oxygen and Hydrogen. In living
things, water forms about 60% of weight
Importance of water
 It’s a universal solvent in which absorbed foods, wastes and hormones are
transported around the body in blood.
 The plasma of blood is made up of water.
 It participates in many metabolic reactions or processes as a raw materials e.g
respiration, photosynthesis, gaseous exchange, digestion, and removal of
wastes.
 Plays a role in temperature regulation ie cooling the body on hot days and
plants through transpiration.
 Offers turgidity thus acts as a hydrostatic skeleton- hence supporting organisms.
 It softens food.
 It is used in seed dispersal.
 It is a habitat (home).
 It acts as a Lubricant e.g. salvia lubricant the mouth, tears lubricate eyes,
synovial fluids lubricate the joints.

ROUGHAGES / DIETARY FIBRE

They are indigestible materials in food and consist mostly of cellulose, pectin, and
lignin.
The major sources of roughages include: vegetables, such as cabbages, dodo,
fruits, etc.

Functions of roughages
 They stimulate muscular movements called peristalsis which move food
(propel) through the alimentary canal.
 Some delay food in the intestines whereas others enable food pass through the
intestines very fast.
 The deficiency or lack of roughages causes constipation.

Balanced Diet:
A balanced diet is a meal containing all food nutrients in their right proportions.
If a person depends on a poor diet (unbalanced diet) i.e. containing inappropriate
quantities of nutrients, then the person suffers from Mal nutrition.

Mal-Nutrition:
This simply refers to an unhealthy state of the body resulting from a long term
deficiency or excess of one or more of the essential nutrients.
Malnutrition is normally detected by the onset of some deficiency diseases like
kwashiorkor, marasmus, obesity, etc.
ENZYMES
Enzymes are organic compounds protein in nature that speed up the rate of
biochemical reactions in the body of an organism and remains unchanged at the
end of the reaction.

Importance of enzymes
The rate at which some reactions occur in the body without enzymes is too slow to
sustain life. Enzymes therefore speed up the rate of the reaction without changing
the product formed and the nature of reaction i.e. an enzyme cannot make a
reaction that would not occur to take place and it cannot make an endothermic
reaction exothermic but only ensures that products are formed in the shortest time
possible.
They also control metabolic processes hence promoting normal body functions.

Classification of enzymes
Enzymes are classified depending on the type of reaction they catalyze. The
following are some of the classes of enzymes.
1) Isomerase; these catalyze reactions involving isomerism
2) Phosphorylases; these catalyze reactions involving addition of a phosphate
3) Hydrogenases; these catalyze reactions involving addition of hydrogen.
4) Dehydrogenase; these catalyze reactions involving removal of hydrogen.
5) Kinases; these catalyze reactions involving movement of molecules from one
area to another.
6) Carboxylases; these catalyze reactions involving addition of Carbon dioxide.

Enzyme can also be described as being intracellular or extracellular. Intracellular

enzymes are those which catalyze reactions inside the cells producing them, e.g. all
respiratory enzyme are intracellular. Extracellular enzymes are those produced by a
cell to catalyze reactions outside that cell. All digestive enzymes in man are
extracellular.

Nomenclature of enzymes
Enzymes are named by adding a suffix “ase” to their substrates. A substrate is a
substance, which the enzyme acts upon, or simply it is the raw material for the
enzyme.

Examples of enzymes and their substrates

Enzyme Substrate
Peptidase Peptides
Lipase Lipids
Maltase Maltose
Sucrase Sucrose
Lactase Lactose
Cellulase Cellulose

Some enzymes however retained their names they had before this convention.
Such enzymes include pepsin and trypsin.
Sometimes the enzymes digesting carbohydrates are generally called
carbohydrases and those digesting proteins as proteases.

PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES
1) They are all protein in nature.
2) They are specific in their action i.e. they catalyze specific food i.e. Maltase on
Maltose.
3) They speed up the rate of chemical reactions (they are catalysts).
4) They are effective even in small amounts.
5) They remain unchanged at the end of the reaction.
6) They are denatured by high temperatures since they are protein in nature and
are inactivated by low temperatures.
7) They are inactivated by inhibitor chemicals (poisons e.g. cyanide).
8) They work at a specific PH. (either acidic or alkaline).
9) Their reactions are reversible.
10) Their activity can be enhanced by enzyme activators e.g. chloride ions
activate amylase.

FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITIES

To investigate the effects of a given factor on the rate of enzyme controlled
reactions, all other factors should be kept constant and at optimum levels so as to
obtain accurate results.
The factors are:
i) Temperature
ii) Concentration of the substrate
iii) PH of the medium
iv) Presence of activators
v) Presence of inhibitors
vi) Concentration of the enzyme

1. Concentration of substrate:
A substrate is a substance (food) acted upon by the enzyme to form simpler
products.
The rate of enzyme reaction increases with increase in substrate concentration and
enzymes work slower when the substrate concentrations low.
However, further increase in substrate concentration will not increase enzyme
reaction rate since all its active sites are fully saturated with food.

A graph showing how the rate of reaction varies with substrate

concentration

2. Temperature:
Enzymes work best at optional temperatures of (approximately 370 C). At very
low temperatures, the rate of enzyme reaction is very slow because the enzyme is
inactive at such low temperatures.
As the temperatures increase, the rate of reaction also increases gradually until it
attains a peak where it has maximum activity and this always correspond at
optimal temperatures. An optimal temperature is which promotes maximum
enzyme activity. However with further increase in temperature, the rate of reaction
decreases exponentially, sharply, steeply since at high temperatures, the enzyme is
denatured ie the active site of the enzyme which is (protein in nature) is a altered
(changed) or completely destroyed.

A graph showing the variation of enzyme activity with temperature

3. Enzyme concentration:
As the concentration of the enzymes increases, the rate of reaction also increases
until all the substrates are being acted upon when the rate finally becomes constant.
A graph showing variation of enzyme activity with enzyme concentration
4. The PH of the medium.
Enzyme reactivity is reduced or stopped completely if placed in a medium whose
PH is different from that in which it works best (optimum PH).
PH varies slightly above or below an enzyme’s optimum PH resulting in a marked
fall in the enzyme efficiency. E.g. pepsin enzyme in the human stomach has a
maximum activity with in acidic pH of 1.5 and 2.5 while the enzymes in the
duodenum e.g. trypsin work at maximum with in alkaline pH of 8.5 to 9.5.

A graph showing variation of different enzyme activity with PH

5. Presence of enzyme inhibitors

Enzyme activities decrease in presence of enzyme inhibitors and increase in
their absence.
6. Presence of activators
Enzyme activators increase with presence of enzyme activators and decrease
with absence of enzyme activators.

Mechanism of enzyme action

The widely accepted mechanism by which enzymes are known to work is the “key
and lock” hypothesis.
The hypothesis suggests that the enzyme has a specific region known as the active
site where the substrate fits like a key fits in a lock. The substrate must have a
complementally shape to the active site of the enzyme. In this hypothesis the key is
A graph showing variation of different
analogous to the substrate and the lock to the enzyme. When the substrate
enzyme activity with PH.
combines with the enzyme, an enzyme- substrate complex is formed. This breaks
down to release the products and the enzyme, which can pick other substrates.
Illustration
 MAMMALIAN TEETH
Mammals have different types and shapes of teeth and they are thus termed
Heterodonts. Those which have teeth of the same size and shapes are termed as
Homodonts.
Teeth are embedded in the upper and lower jaws. In mammals teeth consist of an
exposed portion known as a crown and a portion that is firmly fixed or anchored in
a jaw bone called a root.

Types of teeth in mammals

There are 4 types of teeth in mammals and these include;
1) Incisors
These are the front teeth in both the upper and lower jaws in man. The crowns are
chisel shaped (sharp flat edge) and have only one rot. Incisors are used for cutting
food
Structure of an Incisor

2) Canines
These are found next to the incisors and they are normally long and pointed. They
are poorly developed in herbivores and very prominent in carnivores where they
are used for holding and piercing food. They have a conical shaped crown which is
sharp and pointed. They have one root. They are used for tearing flesh.
Structure of canine

3) Premolars
These lie behind the canines on both jaws.
These have flat broad surfaces which are used for grinding food.
Premolars possess two or more cusps and ridges and have two roots.
Premolars are used for grinding and chewing food.
Structure of premolar

4) Molars
They are absent in young mammals.
These have wider crowns with more ridges and cusps compared to premolars.
They may have three or more roots.
Molars are used for grinding and crashing food.
Structure of a molar

Note:
 Elephant tusks are incisors.
 Carnivores have a special type of teeth called the carnassial teeth which are
adopted for cracking bones and scrapping (removing) of meat from bones.

Internal structure of mammalian tooth

Each tooth consists externally of a crown, Neck and root.
1) Crown
This is a region of the tooth which projects above the gum; it is used for breaking
down food.
2) Neck
This is the junction between the crown and the root.
3) Root
This is the region which lies embedded in the jaw bone. It cannot be seen and it
anchors / fixes firmly the root into the jaw bone.
 Functions of the parts of the tooth
1) Crown; this break down food into small particles during chewing, grinding
and cutting.
2) Enamel; this strengthens the tooth to enable it grind and cut. It protects the
dentine and pulp cavity. It is the hardest material in the body. It is white in
colour and made up of calcium phosphate salts.
3) Root; this fixes the tooth into the jaw.
4) Dentine; this strengthens the tooth.
5) Pulp cavity; this contains nerves that provide sensitivity to the tooth and
blood vessels that transport food and oxygen to the tooth.
6) Gum; this is fibrous which fixes or anchors the teeth firmly in the jaw. It is also
called the gingiva.
7) Cement; this is a thin layer of bone-like material that fixes the tooth in the
jawbone.

DENTITION
This refers to the number, arrangement and shape of teeth in an animal.
In mammals, two sets of teeth occur in one’s life time i.e. the milk teeth and
permanent teeth. The first set is called the milk teeth which arises when the animal
is young and lasts for relatively a short time. Milk teeth in man are 20 in number
and normally get replaced by permanent teeth at the age of usually 7 to 11 years.

DENTAL FORMULA
This is a formula indicating the number of each type of teeth in half the upper jaw
and half the lower jaw. The dental formula gives evidence that the dentition of an
animal is closely related to its diet. The number of teeth in the upper jaw is written
above that of the lower jaw. The different types of teeth are represented by letters
i.e.
Incisors (i)
Canines (c)
Molars (m)
Premolars (pm)
Dental formulae of some animals
Mammal Dental formulae Total number of
teeth
Man I2 C1 PM2 M3 32
2 1 2 3
Dog 42
3 1 4 2
I ;C ;pm ,M
3 1 4 3
Rat I1 C0 PM0 M3 16
1 0 0 3
Cow I0 C0 PM3 M3 32
3 1 3 3

E.g. the dental formula of an adult human is written as below:

2 1 2 3
I ; C ; p m , M = 32
2 1 2 3

This means that man has 2 incisors on each half on the top and lower jaws, one
canine on each half of the top and lower jaws, 2 premolars on each half of the top
and lower jaws. Therefore man has 8 teeth on each half on the jaws which adds up
a total of 32 teeth.

Dental care in man

Although hard teeth are delicate and need proper care if their life is to be sustained.
Common problems that may arise if teeth are not cared for include:-
i) Tooth decay or dental caries.
This is caused by lodging (when food gets stuck) of food particles especially
sugars between the teeth. This food is then attacked by micro-organisms (bacteria)
which ferment this food producing an acid which reacts chemically with the
enamel and removes calcium from it making it soft. During chewing, the soft part
of the enamel begins wearing away forming a hole which gets larger and larger as
more food gets stuck in the now bigger hole and fermentation process continues.
Tooth ache commences into the dentine, the pulp cavity with nerves and blood
vessels get affected and a lot of pain is felt.

ii) Periodental diseases.

These are diseases which make the gum soft and flabby so that they do not support
the tooth well. Sometimes these diseases may lead to bleeding of the gum and
passing out of pus. The 2 periodental diseases known are;
 Pyorrhea
 Gingivitis
They are characterized by reddening of the gums, bleeding and presences of pus in
the gums.

Prevention of dental decay and proper care of teeth

 Visit a dentist regularly for checkup.
 Proper cleaning of teeth (brushing after meals)
 Avoid sweet sugary foods like sweets which encourage bacterial growth.
 Avoid opening bottles using teeth carrying desks.
 Avoid eating very hot and very cold foods especially at a go since they result
into alternate expansion and contraction since it leads to cracking or chipping of
the enamel.
 Eating foods rich in calcium, phosphates and vitamins A, D, and C
 Exercising your teeth by eating hard fibrous foods like sugar canes, carrots, etc.
This stimulates the flow of saliva which neutralizes acids formed bacterial
fermentation.

CARNIVORE DENTITION
Carnivorous animals such as dogs, cats and lions are adapted for feeding on other
animals.
Their teeth are adapted for capturing and killing other animals and tearing their
flesh.
Their incisors are chisel shaped and enable them to grip and strip off pieces of
flesh from bones.
Their canines are long, curved and pointed used for piercing the prey and
preventing it from escaping.
The upper fourth premolar and the first lower molar are large and powerful. They
are called carnassial teeth. They overlap like blades of scissors and are used for
tearing and slicing flesh.
The other premolars and molars have jagged edges that fit perfectly together
making them ideal for cracking bones.
Diagram showing dentition in the carnivore e.g. a dog

HERBIVORE DENTITION
Herbivorous animals e.g. cows, goats and elephants eat plant foods such as grass,
leaves and small stems.
Their teeth are adapted for crushing and grinding vegetables.
Their incisors and canines are chisel shaped and only found in the lower jaw.
In the upper jaw, the incisors and canines are replaced by a thick horny pad.
Grass and other vegetation are gripped between the incisors and canines on the
lower jaw and the horny pad.
Between the front teeth and the cheek teeth is a large gap called diastema. It
provides space for the tongue to manipulate vegetation in such a way that the
material being chewed is kept away from that which is freshly gathered.
Dentition of a sheep
 DIGESTION IN MAN
Digestion is the process by which complex food substances are broken down into
simpler soluble compounds that can be absorbed and assimilated (utilized) by the
body.
Digestion can be divided into; physical or mechanical digestion and chemical
digestion.
Physical digestion:
This is the breakdown of food due to the mechanical action of teeth, muscular
contractions and bile juice.
Chemical digestion: This is the breakdown of food due to enzyme action or
enzymatic action.

Extracellular digestion:
When digestion occurs or takes place outside the body or cells, it is called
extracellular digestion. This may not necessarily be outside the body but it may
occur inside the body but not inside cells. E.g. in fungi, man etc.
Intracellular digestion: This is a type of digestion which take place inside the
body cells eg Amoeba, Paramecium.
Note: digestion in man is extracellular digestion because the enzymes are released
in the gut cavity where digestion occurs.

Steps involved in digestion of food

Ingestion Digestion Egestion
Ingestion
Is the taking in of food into the body
Egestion
This is the process by which insoluble undigested compounds of food are
discharged or expelled from the body as faeces.

The human alimentary canal

 Parts of the alimentary canal

iii. The mouth

The mouth has the teeth and salivary glands. The mouth opens to the large space
called buccal cavity. The mouth is roofed by the plate of bone called hard plate
which is continuous with the soft palate (pharynx).
Once food is in the buccal cavity, the teeth break down food particles into smaller
particles providing a large surface area for the enzyme action. On the floor of the
 cavity is the long muscular organ, the tongue which is covered
by the taste buds. The tongue moves food around the mouth for
chewing to occur and mixing with saliva secreted by salivary
glands. Saliva contains enzymes and mucus which moistens,
softens and lubricates food as well as sticking food particles
together into boluses for easy swallowing. The enzyme in the
saliva is called salivary amylase (ptyalin).

iv. Oesophagus
This is a straight tube that passes from the mouth through the
thorax and diaphragm into the abdomen.
When the food is fully chewed, the tongue rolls it into bolus
pushes it against the soft palate at the back of the mouth
(pharynx). This initiates the process of swallowing the food into
the oesophagus. The tube adjacent to the oesophagus is the
trachea which leads to the lungs. During swallowing, the flap of
the tissue called epiglottis above the trachea prevents food from
entering into the trachea.
v. The stomach
The gullet opens to the stomach which has a cardiac sphincter
muscle at the entrance and pyloric sphincter muscle at the exit.
(Sphincter is a circular band of muscle).
4) The small intestine
The small intestine is long and coiled with length of about 6-
7metres in man. It is made up of two parts; ileum and
duodenum.
5) The duodenum
This is the first part of the small intestine. It is short and wider than ileum. It bends
into a loop to accommodate the pancreas.
The ducts passages open into duodenum are;
 The bile duct from the liver and gall bladder,
 The pancreatic duct from the pancreas.

Functions of bile
i) It contains high % of water and adds it to the food coming from the stomach
called chime.
ii) It’s alkaline and neutralizes the HCl of the chime to stop the action of the
stomach enzymes and allow enzymes in the pancreatic juice to begin working.
iii) It reduces the surface tension of fats and breaks them into minute droplets i.e.
emulsifies fat.

6) The ileum
This is the second part of small intestines. It is long and coiled with length of about
6-7metres in man. It involves digestion and absorption.
Its lining has numerous tiny finger-like structures called villi (singular; villus)
which increase surface area for absorption.

7) The large intestines

In man it consists of colon, appendix and rectum which open at the anus.
Note: in rabbits, the large intestine consists of the caecum which is very large and
ends in the blind appendix and small colon leading to the rectum.
DIGESTION IN THE MOUTH
Digestion in the mouth is both physical and chemical.
a) Physical digestion
Physical digestion in the mouth is carried out by the action of teeth or is the act of
Mastication / chewing.

Mastication is important in that;

i) Increase the surface area of food for efficient Enzyme action.
ii) It helps to mix the food with saliva and in so doing; it softens the food, mixes it
with the enzymes and lubricates it with the mucus in the saliva.
iii) With the help of the tongue , the food is rolled into a Bolus (a small ball) for
easy swallowing and movement in the gut.(alimentary canal)
iv) Chewing stimulates enzyme secretion because the secretion of saliva is a reflex
action stimulated by the presence of food in the mouth.
NOTE: The secretion of saliva can also be stimulated by sight, smell and sought of
food.

b) Chemical digestion in the mouth.

Chemical digestion is carried out by the enzyme Salivary amylase
Saliva is an alkaline watery solution and it provides the optimal PH for the action
of amylase i.e a high PH.
Salivary amylase acts only on cooked starch breaking it down to disaccharide
called Maltose.
Cooked starch Salivary amylase Maltose.
(Ptyalin)
The act of swallowing:
Swallowing is a reflex action. Here, food is rolled into a Bolus which is then
transferred into the Oesophagus (gullet).
During the act of swallowing, breathing momentarily stops and the epiglottis
closes the Entrance into the trachea preventing food from entering into the trachea.
At the same time, the soft palate also closes the entrance into the nose cavity
preventing the food from escaping or passing through the nose.
Once the bolus is in the oesophagus, the food moves by a wave of muscular
contractions called Peristalsis.

DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH

Most of the digestion in the stomach is chemical. Food is allowed into the stomach
from the oesophagus by a ring of muscle called the Cardiac Sphincter.
In the stomach, there is only protein digestion.
Gastric juice is secreted and it contains two enzymes, (pepsin and renin),
hydrochloric acid, mucus and water.
Pepsin acts upon proteins/ breaking them down into polypeptides.
Pepsin is initially secreted in an inactive form called Pepsinogen which is activated
into active pepsin by hydrochloric acid. This is the safe guard mechanism because
if pepsin was stored in its active form, it would destroy the gut walls or stomach
walls since they are protein in nature (self-digestion).
Pepsin works at low PH i.e. acidic conditions provided by the presence of
Hydrochloric acid (HCl).
Renin coagulates milk. (Makes it insoluble) i.e. it converts the soluble milk protein
caseinogen to an insoluble curd, casein which is then acted upon by pepsin
breaking it down to polypeptide.
Rennin is an important enzyme especially in young mammals since they feed on
milk.
Caseinogen Renin Casein
(Soluble protein) (Insoluble protein)
Proteins pepsin polypeptides

Functions of HCl in the stomach

i) It kills some bacteria in ingested food.
ii) It activates pepsin and renin and provides ideal medium for their activity.
iii) It stops the action of salivary amylase and ensures protein digestion only.
iv) It prevents fermentation of food in the stomach by bacteria.
Mucus:
Mucus forms a barrier between stomach walls and Gastric juice thus protecting the
stomach walls from the action of hydrochloric acid (which can give rise to stomach
ulcers due to its corrosive action) and also stops the action of pepsin which can
digest the stomach walls also giving rise to ulcers.

DIGESTION IN THE DUODENUM

The chime from the stomach enters the duodenum in small quantities at a time
regulated by the pyloric sphincter. There are access organs which provide
secretions. They secret bile from the gall bladder and pancreatic juice from the
pancrease
The arrival of food in the duodenum stimulates the production of a hormone called
secretin from the pancrease and another hormone called cholecystokinin which
stimulates secretion of bile from the gall bladder. The secretions are alkaline thus
stopping the action of pepsin and provides an ideal medium for enzymes in
pancreatic juice to work. Pancreatic juice contains a number of enzymes which are
called the pancreatic enzymes.
Enzymes Food acted upon Products
Trypsin Proteins Peptides and Amino
acids
Pancreatic amylase Starch Maltose
Pancreatic lipase Lipids Fatty acids and glycerol

Trypsin is also secreted in an inactive form, trypsinogen to prevent it from

digesting the duodenum walls.
Both trypsin and pancreatic amylase act upon proteins and starch that were not
broken down in the stomach and mouth respectively.

DIGESTION IN THE ILEUM

This is where final digestion takes place.
Food moves down from the duodenum into the ileum by peristalsis.
The presence of food in the ileum stimulates the secretion of the intestinal juice,
succus entericus by walls of the ileum.
Succus entericus contains several enzymes which complete the process of
digestion forming a milky fluid substance called chyle (food after final digestion is
called chyle).
Enzymes Food and Upon Products
Sucrase Sucrose Glucose and fructose
Maltase Maltose Glucose and glucose
Lactase Lactose Glucose and galactose
Peptidase Polypeptides Amino acids
Lipase Lipids Fatty acids and glycerol

The composition of chyle is a group of soluble end products of digestion namely;

Glucose, Fructose, Amino acids, Glycerol, Vitamins and Mineral salts.

DIGESTION IN THE LARGE INTESTINES / COLON

In the colon, water and mineral salts are absorbed. The undigested and indigestible
food substances pass down into the large intestines which are eventually removed
from the body as faeces through the anus. There is no digestion in the large
intestine.
Accumulation of hard particles like stones, small sticks in the appendix results into
a condition known as appendicitis. The appendix is thus removed surgically by a
simple operation.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS:
Question 1: Describe the digestion process that occurs when a person consumes
Posho (starch)?

Answer:
A piece of Posho is placed into the mouth, a process called ingestion.
In the mouth; The Posho is thoroughly chewed by teeth, breaking it into smaller
particles. During this chewing, Posho is mixed with saliva to make it soft and easy
to swallow.
Saliva contains salivary amylase which breaks down cooked starch in Posho into
maltose under neutral conditions.
Food is then pushed down the Oesophagus by a process called peristalysis.
In the stomach; no digestion of starch occurs because of acidic conditions due to
presence of hydrochloric acid which provide unfavourable pH for activity of
salivary amylase.
In the duodenum; the pancreatic juice contains pancreatic amylase which speeds
up the breakdown of undigested cooked starch to maltose.
In the ileum, intestinal juice contains maltase which speed up the breakdown of
maltose to glucose molecules which are soluble hence easily absorbed by the body.
This marks the end of the digestion for Posho.
Question 2:
Describe the process of digestion of proteins in man.

Answer:
In the mouth; Protein food is chewed by the teeth and swallowed into the stomach.
In the stomach; gastric juice is produced which contain pepsin that digests
proteins to peptides and rennin coagulates protein milk in babies.
In the duodenum; presence of food stimulates pancreas to secrete pancreatic juice
containing trypsin which digests undigested proteins to peptides.
In the ileum; intestinal juice is produced containing peptidase which break down
peptides to amino acids which are later absorbed through the ileum walls.

THE PROCESS OF ABSORPTION AND ASSIMILATION OF FOOD

ABSORPTION
Absorption is the process by which soluble products of digestion diffuse through
the cellular lining of the villi into the blood stream.
The villi are located in the ileum (small intestine) and thus absorption takes place
in the small intestine. Some nutrients like minerals and vitamins also enter the villi
by active transport.
The ileum shows various adaptions to suit the process of absorption which
includes:
i) It is highly coiled/folded and consequently long thus providing a large surface
area for digestion and absorption of food. (It is six (6) meters long).
ii) Has a thin layer of cells to reduce the diffusion distance over which soluble
food passes through.
iii) They are highly supplied with blood capillaries and lacteals which transport
away absorbed food thus maintaining a diffusion gradient.
iv) Have figure-like projections called the villi which increase the surface area for
absorption of soluble food.
v) The villi also have hair like extensions called the micro villi whichs further
increase the surface area for absorption of soluble food products. The villi are
the actual sites for absorption of soluble food products.
 Diagram of Villus

Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into the lacteal of the villi. These lacteal
later join up to form the lymphatic system carrying these food materials and
distributing them to all parts of the body.
Glucose, Amino acids and Fructose pass into the blood capillaries of the villus
which join up to form the Hepatic portal vein which transport these nutrients to the
liver.

ASSIMILATION
This is the process by which absorbed food materials are built up into complex
constituents of the organism.
Assimilation is also the incorporation/utilization of the products of digestion into
the body’s metabolism for life processes e.g. respiration, growth and repair and
digestion.

Assimilation and metabolism for:

1) Carbohydrates: (Glucose)
Glucose is mainly broken down in the process of respiration to provide energy for
the body’s metabolic process.
Excess glucose is stored as Glycogen (animal starch); however, the liver has the
ability to re-covert back the glycogen to Glucose in periods of starvation.

2) Proteins
Amino acids are used in the synthesis of new proteins especially regulators like
enzymes, and hormones.
Some Amino acids are used in body growth and repair and in absence of Glucose
and Fats, Amino acids can instead be used in the process of respiration to produce
energy.
Excess Amino acids are not stored in the liver, they are instead deaminated by the
liver (removal of the Amino group) to form urea which is then passed on to the
kidneys and excreted in urine.
Deamination is the removal of the amino group from Amino acids to form urea
(which is a toxic waste product).

3) Lipids (Fatty acids & Glycerol)

Fatty acids and glycerol in the absence of Glucose can be oxidized to release
energy. Fats produce much more energy compared to glucose considering the same
amount by mass.
Fats are used for body insulation i.e. they prevent heat loss from the body which is
an important temperature regulatory mechanism.
Lipids are used in the formation of structures like the cell membrane.
Excess fats and Glycerol are stored under the skin in the adipose tissue.

THE LIVER
This is the largest organ in the body and it carries out several functions within the
body. The liver is the body’s metabolic center as it receives all nutrient supplies
from the blood through the hepatic portal vein.
Functions of the Liver
i) Assimilation and metabolism of carbohydrates.
ii) Assimilation and metabolism of proteins.
iii) Assimilation and metabolism of lipids.
iv) Production of heat helps in temperature regulation. Since there are many
metabolic reactions occurring in the liver, there is a lot of heat given off-and
this heat is distributed throughout the body and it plays a great role in
temperature regulation.
v) Manufacture of plasma proteins in clotting of blood. The liver helps to
manufacture proteins like Albumin, Globulin and fibrinogen which are
important in body process like clotting of blood (stopping bleeding).
vi) Production of bile which emulsification lipids. The liver produces bile which is
important in the process of digestion i.e. in the emulsification of lipids.
vii) Storage of iron and other minerals. The liver destroys worn out blood cells
and removes the ion group from them which it stores for future formation of
other blood cells.
viii) Formation of red blood cells with the iron yet from the above process,
coupled with vitamin B12. New red blood cells can formed in the bone narrow
using these raw materials.
ix) Storage of blood. Blood vessels in the liver can expand and contract to great
extents such that the amount of blood in the liver can vary from 300cm3 –
1500cm3 an increase of five times thus the liver can be a blood reservoir.
x) Detoxification. The liver converts toxic substances to harmless substances by
altering their chemical structure and later sends them to the excretory organs for
expulsion e.g. it converts Ammonia to urea which is then expelled by the
kidneys.
xi) Elimination of sex hormones. Testosterone and oestrogen are sent to the
kidneys by the liver for excretion.

DIGESTION IN HERBIVORES
Animals that depend on plant materials (herbivores) like leaves, wood, grass are
faced with a problem of digesting the cellulose that make up the plant walls.
It is necessary to break through the cellulose to release the inside cell nutrients
which are required by the herbivores.
These herbivores cannot secret the enzyme which digests cellulose because they
cannot produce cellulase. However, some protozoans and bacteria can produce the
enzyme cellulase.
Fortunately, some of these micro-organisms can live in the guts of herbivores in a
harmless beneficial nutritional association called symbiosis.

Digestion of cellulose in ruminants

Ruminants are mammals which chew cud.
Cud is imperfectly / incompletely chewed grass or plant materials that are taken
into the stomach (rumen) and later returned back to the mouth for further chewing
through a process called regurgitation.

Ruminants have a complicated stomach made up of four chambers namely;

i) Rumen
ii) Reticulum
iii) Omasum
iv) Abomasum

Diagram showing the stomach of a ruminant and the flow of food through it
In the mouth, the saliva does not contain any enzyme. So only mastication
(chewing) and softening of food takes place.
The food moves through the oesophagus by peristalsis (wave like motion).
1. Rumen:
This is the largest component (chamber) of the stomach. It is used for storing food
as the animal feeds. Fermentation and digestion of cellulose by bacteria and
protozoa occurs in the rumen.
Fermentation is the breakdown of food by bacteria in the absence of oxygen.
During fermentation, there is a release of a weak acid called lactic acid.
Food then moves from the rumen to the reticulum and from the reticulum back to
the rumen where regurgitation takes place (This is where food is returned to the
mouth bit by bit for further chewing and that completes the first cycle.
2. Reticulum:
Bacterial action continues here and also food is sieved where finely ground food
materials are separated from the coarse materials which are then retained. These
coarse materials may include small stories, small pieces of wood, etc.
3. Omasum:
This consists of parallel leaf like compartment with rough surfaces.
Food is ground finely here and water absorption also takes place.
4. Abomasum (True stomach)
Here, enzymatic digestion of proteins takes place like in human and digestion
beyond this point also proceeds like in humans and that is why we refer it as a true
stomach, you can continue in the same line in humans e.g. colon.

Digestion of cellulose in termites

Termites eat wood, dry leaves and other plant materials which contain cellulose.
The digestion of cellulose also takes place in the gut (stomach) with the help of
protozoans which lives symbiotically in the termite’s gut.
These protozoa have the ability to produce the enzyme cellulase which digests
cellulose.
 COMPARISION BETWEEN RUMINANT AND NON RUMINANT
DIGESTION
Similarities:
i) In both, young animals have a single stomach where digestion takes place.
ii) The final digestion of proteins and carbohydrates takes place in the small
intestines.

Differences:
Ruminant Non-Ruminant
1. Chew cud. Do not chew cud.
2. Have a four chambered stomach. Have a single stomach.
3. Ptyalin (salivary amylase is absent in Ptyalin is present in saliva.
saliva.
4. Most digestion and absorption takes Most digestion and absorption takes
place in the stomach. place in the ileum.
5. Water absorption takes place in the Water absorption takes place in the
stomach. colon.

NUTRITION IN PLANTS
Nutrition in plants is by a process called photosynthesis.
The process of photosynthesis is divided into two stages;
i) Light stage
ii) Dark stage
Photosynthesis is the process by which living plants manufacture their own food in
form of carbohydrates (starch) from raw materials i.e. carbon dioxide and water
using sunlight energy trapped by chlorophyll and give off oxygen as a bi-product.

In summary photosynthesis is a natural process that;

(i) requires two raw materials (carbon dioxide and water)
(ii) requires two conditions (i.e. chlorophyll and sunlight energy)
(iii) and forms two products namely (starch or carbohydrates & oxygen)

The process of photosynthesis occurs in all green plants in organs called

chloroplast most of which are found in leaves.
Chloroplast contains chlorophyll which traps sunlight energy.
The process of photosynthesis is very complicated but it can be summarized by the
equations below.
 Carbon dioxide + water Sunlight energy starch (Glucose) + oxygen
Chlorophyll

6CO2(g) + H2O(l) Chlorophyll C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g)

Sunlight energy

The insoluble starch (storage carbohydrates) is them converted to soluble glucose

which is then transported by the phloem to different parts of the plant body
especially storage organs like the roots (in cassava and sweat potatoes) stems (in
sugarcanes and Irish potato) or transported to actively metabolizing parts of the
plants e.g. the growing regions, and the respiring parts.
On reaching these storage organs, the soluble glucose is then reconverted back to
insoluble starch for storage.

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS TO TAKE

PLACE
1) Chlorophyll:
Chlorophyll is a green pigment that absorbs light energy from the sun. The amount
of chlorophyll present in a leaf is directly related to the rate of photosynthesis.
2) Carbon dioxide:
It is absorbed from the atmosphere by terrestrial plants through their stomata. For
aquatic plants like algae, they absorb the carbon dioxide as hydrogen carbonates
which diffuse directly from the water in plant tissues. The use of carbon dioxide is
to combine or react with hydrogen atoms to form carbohydrates. Thus CO 2 is used
as a raw material.
3) Light:
This is the source of energy necessary for the process of photosynthesis to take
place. The rate of photosynthesis increases in light intensity, up to a maximum
when it levels off. The energy of light is used for the following purposes:
i) Used to split water molecules into hydrogen atoms and oxygen. The oxygen
is given off by the photosynthesizing plants. The hydrogen atoms combine
with CO2 to form carbohydrates.
H2O split by light energy 2H+ + O2

ii) Provides energy for photosynthesis. The process by which light energy
splits water into H+ and oxygen is called photolysis of water.
4) Temperature:
Temperature influences the rate of chemical reactions which are controlled by
enzymes which are protein in nature.
The rate of photosynthesis doubles for every ten degrees centigrade (10 0C) rise in
temperature up to about 400C where the rate of photosynthesis drops drastically
because the enzymes are denatured
5) Water:
Water is a raw material for the process of photosynthesis. It is absorbed by the root
hairs from the soil and transported up the rot by the xylem vessels.
A decrease in the concentration of water lowers the rate of photosynthesis.
6) Oxygen:
Oxygen is not necessary for the process of photosynthesis i.e. it is a bi-product of
thus its accumulation instead lowers the rate of photosynthesis.

Adaptation of leaves to carry out photosynthesis

The leaf is the major organ of photosynthesis in a plant.
The leaf is adapted to carry out the photosynthesis process in a number of ways
namely

External adaptations
Leaves are broad and flat:
This provides a large surface area for trapping sunlight and taking in of Carbon
dioxide.
Numerous leaves:
This helps to increase the total surface area exposed to the sun thus increasing the
rate of photosynthesis.
Thinness:
Most leaves are just a few cells thick thus providing a small diffusion distance for
penetration of carbon dioxide and sunlight.
Leaf arrangement / leaf mosaic:
Leaves are usually arranged in such a way that they rarely shade or block each
other thus ensuring that each leaf obtains maximum sunlight for photosynthesis.
This is termed as a leaf mosaic.

Internal adaptation of a leaf

Palisade mesophyll layer
The layer contains numerous chloroplasts especially the palisade thus it is the
best position to receive sunlight.
Their elongated shapes minimize the number of cross wall which would minimize
light penetration by absorbing some of it.
The spongy mesophyll layer
This layer has mainly air spaces thus allowing many gases to easily diffuse into all
the photosynthesizing cells.
Network of veins (vascular tissues)
The vascular tissues include the xylem and phloem where by xylem transports
water and mineral salts up to the stem while the phloem transports food (starch) up
to the stem.
The network contains the phloem and the xylem where by the phloem conducts
food made by the leaf and the xylem conducts dissolved mineral salts up to the
stem.
Presence of stoma:
This controls passage of gases and water vapour between air and the leaf.
There are more stomata on the lower side of the leaf compared to the upper side to
reduce water loss by transpiration.
The cuticle
This is a water tight layer and so it helps to prevent desiccation (water loss) by the
photosynthesizing tissues.
Numerous chloroplasts
These ensure that enough sunlight is trapped by the chlorophyll.
EXPERIMENTS ON PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Experiment 1

AN EXPERIMENT TO TEST LEAF FOR STARCH

The presence of starch is evidence that photosynthesis has been taking place.
Apparatus:
 A green leaf,  absolute alcohol (99%-OH),
 water bath,  beaker,
 Iodine solution,  white surface or tile
 Water
Procedure:
1) A leaf from a health plant which has been receiving sunlight is removed and
placed in boiling water (water bath) for about 5 minutes. This softens the leaf
cell wall protoplasm and makes it permeable to Iodine.
2) The leaf is then placed in a beaker containing 99% alcohol and boiled using a
water bath until all the chlorophyll is dissolved out. This decolorizes the leaf
and makes detection of any colour changes possible and easier.
3) The leaf is then washed in hot water which softens it.
4) The leaf is now spread on a white surface tile and drops of iodine added on it.
Observation:
A blue black colour shows that starch is present.
NOTE: If the brown colour of iodine persists/ remains this shows that the leaf
lacks starch or the starch is absent.
Conclusion:
The presence of starch in a leaf shows that photosynthesis was taking place.

Experiment 2:

AN EXPERIEMENT TO SHOW THAT OXYGEN IS GIVEN OFF

DURING PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Apparatus:
 Afresh water weed.  beaker
 Funnel and wooden blocks.  Water.
 Test tube,  Sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Procedure:
a) The funnel is inverted in the beaker over the plant.
b) Sodium hydrogen carbonate is added to the water to provide CO2
c) The funnel is raised slightly above the bottom of the beaker using small wooden
blocks to allow water to circulate freely under it.
d) The apparatus is then placed in the bright sunlight.
e) Another similar set up is made and placed in darkness. This acts as the control
experiment.
The apparatus is arranged as shown below:

Experimental setup

Observation:
Gas bubbles are evolved and sufficient gas is collected at the top of the test tube.
In the control experiment, no bubbles are involved.
Conclusion:
The gas collected relights the glowing split proving that it is oxygen.
The evolution of oxygen by the water plant in the presence of sunlight is an
indication that photosynthesis is taking place.

NOTE: This experiment can also be carried out to estimate the rate of
photosynthesis (speed) by counting the number of bubbles produced per unit time.

Experiment 3:

AN EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT LIGHT IS NECESSARY FOR

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Apparatus/materials:
 Potted plant  White tile  Boiling tube
 Aluminum foil  Source of heat  Razor blade.
 Water  Wire gauze
 Ethanol  Dropper

Procedure:
1) Get a potted plant and place it in darkness for 24 hours to destarch it.
2) Make a shape in an aluminum foil and make a stencil
3) Place the stencil around the leaf with the cut shape facing upwards where light
strikes.
4) Place the plant in sunlight for 3 hours.
5) Remove the leaf with a stencil from the plant using a razor blade
6) Remove the stencil and carry out the test for starch.
Observation:
The parts, which were covered by the stencil, turned brown while the parts exposed
to light turned blue-black.
Conclusion:
Light is necessary for photosynthesis to take place.
Explanation:
Putting the leaf in darkness removes starch in the leaf by all the starch being
converted into simple sugars. Putting the plant in light is to allow photosynthesis to
take place. Covering the leaf with a stencil is to prevent light from reaching certain
parts of the leaf. During exposure to light, the parts covered do not access sunlight
and do not photosynthesize while the un-covered parts access sunlight and
photosynthesize. Testing for starch helps to find out whether photosynthesis took
place or not.

Experiment 4:

AN EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT CARBONDIOXIDE IS NECESSARY

FOR THE PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Apparatus:
 Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) /  Iodine,
Potassium Hydroxide (KOH),  (99% alcohol)
 Conical flasks fitted with corks  water beaker,
with a hole,  white tile
 well watered destarched plants,  Test tubes.

Procedure:
a) The leaves of a potted plant are destarched by keeping the plant in darkness for
two days.
b) The petiole of the leaf (stalk) is passed through the hole in the cork so that the
leaf is completely enclosed in a flask containing Sodium Hydroxide.
c) The Sodium Hydroxide absorbs all Carbon dioxide enclosed in the flask.
d) The flask is then made air tight by smearing Vaseline at the neck of the flask to
prevent any air from entering.
e) A control experiment is also set up, however here the flask contains water
which does not absorb Carbon dioxide.
f) The plant and the flasks are then placed in sunlight for 6 hours.
g) The enclosed leaves are then removed from the plant and then tested for starch
using Iodine solution.

Experimental set up.

Alternatively

Observation:
The leaf in the flask containing Sodium Hydroxide solution remains brown (the
colour of Iodine persisted) when tested for starch while that (the flask containing
water / control experiment) turned blue black.

Conclusion:
The leaf in the flask containing Sodium Hydroxide didn’t contain starch since it
lacked Carbon dioxide which was absorbed from the flask by the Sodium
Hydroxide solution thus Carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.

Experiment 5:
 AN EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT CHLOROPHYLL IS NECESSARY
FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Apparatus:
 A beaker,
 Alcohol,
 white tile
 Iodine,
 test tube, and
  Plant with variegated leaves.
A variegated leaf is one which has chlorophyll in some parts of the leaf lamina and
not in other parts of the same leaf. It has green and yellow parches on the same
leaf.
Procedure:
a) After a period of destarching (removing starch) by placing a plant in a dark
cupboard for two days, the variegated plant is then exposed to sunlight for
about two (2) hours.
b) The parts of the leaf that are not green are used as the control experiment.
c) At the end of the two hours, the leaf is removed and then tested for starch.
Observation:
The parts that were green are stained blue black with iodine solution while the
yellow patches stained brown with iodine (brown is the colour of iodine).
Conclusion:
The green parts of leaf contained starch because they contained chlorophyll and
thus turned blue black while the yellow patches (non-green parts) did not contain
starch because they lacked chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll is thus necessary for photosynthesis.

GASEOUS EXCHANGE AND COMPESATION POINT

Both respiration and photosynthesis take place in a green plant.
Photosynthesis equation:
6CO2 + 6H2O chlorophyll, light C6H12O6 (Starch) + 6 O2
In darkness, Green plants do not photosynthesize however they continue to respire.
Here oxygen is used up (through respiration) and carbon dioxide given off and
there is an overall net consumption of sugars and starch during respiration.
At low light intensity, some photosynthesis occurs and some carbon dioxide
produced in respiration by plants is used up in photosynthesis. However, there is a
net loss of Carbon dioxide.
As the light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis also increases until a
point is reached when all the Carbon dioxide produced during the process of
respiration is reused in the process of photosynthesis. This point is called the
compensation point.
The compensation point is that point of light intensity at which the rate of Carbon
dioxide produced by respiration is equal to the amount of Carbon dioxide
consumed during photosynthesis.
At the compensation point, the rate of photosynthesis is equal to the rate of
respiration ie the rate at which food (starch) is manufactured is equal to the rate at
which it is used up in the process of respiration and this means that there is no net
gain or loss in the mass of the plant.

IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is the method by which food is made from simple inorganic
materials.
(i) Photosynthesis helps to purify the environment by removing excess Carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere which is a pollutant.
(ii) During the photosynthesis process, oxygen is released back into the
atmosphere and it is very vital in the respiration process of most organisms.
(iii) It provides energy. This energy is mainly organic in nature in form of fuels
like coal, petroleum, firewood, all of which are products of photosynthesis.

Factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis

The rate of photosynthesis can be determined by considering how much oxygen is
evolved by the plant or the amount of oxygen given off by the plant or increase in
the weight of the plant due to accumulation of starch. Some of the factors include
the following:
1) Amount of chlorophyll
The more chlorophyll, the more the light energy absorbed leading to increased rate
of photosynthesis. The less the chlorophyll, the less light energy absorbed leading
to decreased rate of photosynthesis
2) Amount of CO2 in the atmosphere
It is required as a raw material for photosynthesis thus the rate of photosynthesis
increases in CO2 concentration and it decreases with the lowering of CO2
concentration.
3) Light intensity
The rate of photosynthesis increases with increase in light intensity. And it lowers
with decrease in light intensity.
4) Temperature
It is required for the activity of enzymes that control the rate of photosynthesis.
Thus the rate of photosynthesis increases with increase in temperature till the
optimum temperature for enzyme action. Beyond which the enzymes are denatured
leading to decrease rate of photosynthesis.
5) Number of stomata
The more the stomata, the more the gaseous exchange. This avails more CO2 to the
plant leading to high rate of photosynthesis.
6) Surface area for photosynthesis
The larger the area for photosynthesis (more leaves) the more light energy is
absorbed which causes increased rate of photosynthesis.
7) Amount of oxygen
The rate photosynthesis decreases with increase in oxygen concentration and it
increases with the lowering of oxygen concentration.
8) Availability of water

MINERAL NUTRITION IN PLANTS

Pants need mineral elements for proper growth. Mineral elements are divided into
two categories depending on the relative amounts of element needed.
1. Essential macro (elements)
2. Trace micro (elements)

Essential elements:
These are elements needed in large quantities for proper plant growth, e.g.
nitrogen, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, calcium, sulphur, carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, etc.

Trace elements:
These are elements need in small quantities for proper plant growth they include
manganese zinc boron silicon aluminum copper, molybdenum, and iron.

Plants obtain minerals from mineral salts present in the soil; Mineral salts are
absorbed in form of soluble salts e.g. nitrogen as nitrate, phosphorus as phosphates,
sulphur as sulphate.
When a particular element is missing in the in the surroundings, a plant shows
deficiency signs.

Elements, their functions and effects of their deficiency

Mineral Form Function Deficiency symptoms
taken into
plant
Nitrogen - Nitrates - Synthesis of amino acids, Stunted growth, yellow
(NO3-) proteins and nucleotides under developed leaves
- - Forms part of chlorophyll
 Ammonium
ion
(NH4-)
Potassium K+ -Formation of cell
membrane and proteins -Yellow and brown
- Opening of stomata edges of leaves
-Premature death
Calcium Ca2+ - Development of cell wall - Poor root growth
- Activates some enzymes. -Stunted growth
Neutralizes certain acids in
the soil.
Phosphorus PO43- - Formation of ATP -Red leaves
- Synthesis of nucleic acids.
- Formation of proteins.
Magnesium Mg2+ -Part of chlorophyll -Poor root and
molecule development of fruits.
- Activates enzymes. - Stunted growth.
Iron Fe2+ or Fe3+ -Synthesis of chlorophyll -Stunted growth
- Activates enzymes. -Yellow leaves and
veins remain green
Sulphur SO42- -Amino acid and Protein -Yellow leaves
synthesis -Stems become weak
and slender.
Manganese Mn2+ -Activation of enzymes -Premature death of
-Formation of chloroplast shoots
membranes.
Zinc Zn2+ -Activation of enzymes -Poor leaf and stem
-Forms plant growth formation
substances.
Boron Borate -Uptake of calcium -Gray colouration
-Cell differentiation. -Death of stem.
Carbon CO2 Carbohydrate synthesis Not common
Hydrogen H2O Carbohydrate synthesis Not common
Silicon Cell wall formation in -Decrease in weight in
grasses cereals
Aluminum Decrease in cell division -Stunted growth
Copper Important in reactions of -Inhibits respiration and
photosynthesis photosynthesis

CULTURE SOLUTIONS
These are solutions with a balanced concentration of mineral salts. Such solutions
are used to investigate the effect of a missing mineral element on plant life. This is
done by dissolving all other minerals in water except one whose effect is being
investigated.
Experimental apparatus for culture of seedlings

Precautions taken:
1) Walls of the jar should be painted white to keep light away from the culture in
order to prevent the growth of unicellular algae which can bring about shortage
of the minerals
2) The underside of bung should be kept dry otherwise the stem of the seedling
may rote.
3) Air must be blown in through the right angled tube every day to provide oxygen
for the roots
4) The solution should be renewed at the end of every two weeks.

A table showing various elements and their deficiency elements

ELEMENTS ABSORBED FUNCTION DEFICIENCY
AS:
Nitrogen Nitrates, NO-3,- Synthesis of proteins, - Stunted growth.
Ammonium Protoplasm and nuclear - Yellowing of leaves
ions NH+4 acids. (chlorosis)
- Consistent of
chlorophyll and
respiratory pigments.
Phosphorus Phosphate, - Form part of the nuclear - Poor root growth.
3-
PO 4 acid. - Poor fruit
- Necessary in nuclear development.
division. - Stunted growth.
- Acts as a buffer in the - Premature leaf fall.
cell sap.
Calcium Calcium ions - Activates enzymes - Poor root growth.
Ca2+ - Forms part of the cell
wall.
Magnesium Magnesium - Formation of
- Yellowing of leaves
2+
ions Mg chlorophyll of leaves. or chlorosis.
Potassium Potassium ions - Opening of the stomata.- Chlorosi of the
K+ - It is an enzyme margins and tips of
activator. leaves.
- Stunted growth.
Sulphur Sulphate ions - forms part of proteins. - cholorosis
2-
SO 4 - it is a constituent of - weak and slender
enzymes. stems
Iron Iron(II)-Fe2+ - Formation of - Chlorosis.
(green) chlorophyll.
3+
Iron(III)-Fe - Activates enzymes
(brown)
Manganese Manganese - It is an activator of - Chlorosis between
2+
ions Mn enzymes veins
Chlorine Chloride ions, - Activates enzymes. - Chlorosis stunted
-
Cl root growth.
Molybdenum Molybdate ions Important in Nitrogen - Chlorosis of lower
(MnO4)2+ fixation as an enzyme leaves.
activator.
Copper Copper ions, - It is a constituent of - Wilting of leaves
 Cu2+ enzymes
Zinc Zinc ions, Zn2+ - Activates enzymes. -Interveinal chlorosis.
-It is important in the - Stunted growth
formation of growth
hormones.

MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS IN AND OUT OF THE CELL

Substances like nutrients and excretions move in and out of the cell by:
1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis
3. Active transport
4. Phagocytosis
5. Pinocytosis
Movement of substances depends on the permeability of the cell membrane or cell
wall.

DIFFUSION
This is the movement of molecules of gases and liquids from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration. Diffusion occurs because small
molecules are in constant random motion. Molecules of gases and liquids by
random motion tend to distribute themselves evenly, throughout the available
space, unlike in solids where molecules are closely packed together and have no
freedom of movement. Diffusion only takes place where there is a difference in
concentration i.e. where there is a concentration gradient and continues until there
is even distribution of molecules.

EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE DIFFUSION IN GASES

Apparatus
 Wet red litmus paper,
 cotton wool,
 glass tube,
 ammonium solution,
 glass rod
Method
Some strips of wet red litmus papers are stuck on the walls of a glass tube as
indicated below.
The glass tube is corked as one end and a piece of cotton wool is soaked in
ammonium solution and is introduced at the other end which is also plugged.

Procedure
Squares of wet red litmus paper were pushed with a glass rod or wire into a wide
glass tube so that they stick to the side and are evenly spaced out. The glass tube is
corked at one end the other end is closed with a cork carrying a plug of cotton
wool, soaked in ammonia
Observation
The alkaline ammonia gas, diffused along the glass tube, turning the litmus papers
blue in succession from 1to 5, showing that the ammonia gas was diffusing from
one end to the other.
NB: If the experiment is repeated using more dilute solution of ammonia, the rate
of diffusion would be seen to be slower.

EXPERIMENT TO DEMOSTRATE DIFFUSION IN LIQUIDS

Materials
 Glass beaker
 Potassium permanganate crystals
 Water
 spatula
Procedure
Fill a glass beaker with about 50cc of water
Place a few crystals of potassium permanganate at the base of the beaker in the
water.
Leave the set up for about 30 minutes.
Observation
After 30-40 minutes, the potassium permanganate color will have spread first at the
bottom and later upward to color all the water in the beaker.
Conclusion
Diffusion occurs in liquids.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF DIFFUSION

1) Concentration gradient
Concentration gradient is the difference in concentration between the 2 regions
where diffusion takes place. The higher the concentration gradient between the two
regions, the faster is the rate of diffusion.
2) Temperature
The higher the temperature of the substances (molecules), the faster is the rate
diffusion, because temperature increases the kinetic energy of molecules.
3) Size/density of molecules
The smaller the molecules, the faster the rate of diffusion. The denser the particle,
the lower the rate of diffusion.
4) Distance over which diffusion occurs
The shorter the distance between the two regions of different concentration, the
greater is the rate of diffusion like the alveoli of lungs or the epithelial linings of
the ileum are thin to provide a short distance for diffusion thus increasing the rate
of diffusion.
5) Surface area over which diffusion occurs
The larger the surface over which diffusion is to take place, the faster is the rate of
diffusion e.g. diffusion surfaces like the ileum have numerous villi to increase the
rate of diffusion.

Types of diffusion
Simple diffusion
This is the type of diffusion where molecules or ions move freely across the cell
membrane without being aided.
Facilitated diffusion
 This is where molecules or ions move across the cell membrane by being aided by
protein carriers using energy.

Significance of diffusion to organisms

i) It helps substances to move in and out of cells.
ii) Plant root hairs take up some salts by diffusion
iii) Unicellular microorganisms like amoeba, take in oxygen and pass out carbon
dioxide through the cell membrane by diffusion.
iv) Digested food e.g. simple sugars, amino acids, enter the blood from the gut by
diffusion.
v) Once dissolved in blood, the food substances diffuse out of the blood into the
cells where they are needed.
vi) Oxygen diffuses into blood and CO2 out of blood in the lungs of mammals and
gills of fish by diffusion.
vii) Waste products of metabolisms e.g. nitrogen containing substances like urea,
diffuse out of the animal cells into blood.

OSMOSIS

This is the movement of water molecules from a region of their high

concentration to a region of their low concentration across a semi permeable
membrane.
Or
It is the movement water molecules from a solution of low concentration to a
solution of high concentration across a semi permeable membrane.
A semi/partially/selectively permeable membrane is one which can allow the
passage of some materials to occur and prevent other materials from passing across
it.
Diagram showing details of osmosis
When 2 solutions are separated by a semi permeable membrane having small
pores, water molecules continue to move from a dilute solution to a concentrated
solution through it.

Experiment to demonstrate osmosis in an artificial cell

Materials
 Cellophane /visking tube,
 Capillary tube,
 Beaker,
 Syrup or sugar solution,
 Thread or elastic band,
 Clamp

Procedure
a) Tie one end of the visking tubing using a rubber bung.
b) Make a sugar solution and pour it into the tubing
c) Tie the open end of the tubing to the capillary tube using a rubber bung or
thread.
d) Pour some water in the beaker half way full
e) Insert the capillary tube with the visking tubing into water.
f) Note the level of the solution in the capillary tube and that of water in the
beaker.
g) Clamp the capillary tube on a retort stand and leave the set up for 30 minutes.

Observation
In a few minutes, the level of the solution is seen to rise up the capillary tube
Interpretation
Water molecules are passed through the cellophane tubing into the sugar solution
by osmosis, thus increasing its volume and forcing it up the capillary tube.
Water acts as a dilute solution
Sugar solution acts as a concentrated solution
Membrane of the visking tubing acts as the semi permeable membrane.
EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE OSMOSIS IN A LIVING TISSUE
Apparatus
 Fresh Irish potatoes,
 knife,
 Petri dishes,
 sugar or salt
 water
Procedure
a) 3 fresh Irish potatoes are peeled and their ends sliced flat. The interiors are
scooped out to form a cup with walls of uniform thickness.
b) In A, some grains of sugar are placed in the cup, while the other potato B is left
empty as a control.
c) The third potato is boiled to kill or destroy the tissues and also some sugar
grains are put in the cup.
d) All the potato cups are placed in water in Petri dishes. The experiment is let to
run for 2-6 hours.

End of experiment (2-6 hours)

The liquid in the cup potato A had risen to form a sugar solution and in the Petri
dish, the level had fallen.
In potato B and in the boiled potato, the cups were still empty and the water level
in the Petri dishes remained the same.
Conclusion
Osmosis takes place in living tissues and does not take place in boiled tissues. This
is because, by boiling, the tissues are destroyed and loose semi permeability
Explanation
Living tissues have cell membrane or cell walls acting as semi permeable
membrane and allow water to move through by osmosis while boiling a living
tissue makes it impermeable.

Terms used in osmosis

Osmotic potential
This is the ability of a solution to exert osmotic pressure. This describes the
concentration of the solution of the solution in terms of the ability of water
molecules to move hence a solution with high osmotic potential has more water
molecules able to move.

Osmotic pressure
This describes the concentration of the solution in terms of the ability of water
molecules to move hence a solution with high osmotic potential has more water
molecules able to move. This is the pressure exerted by a hypertonic solution to
draw water in to its self.

Water potential
This is the concentration of water in a solution. Therefore a solution has a high
osmotic pressure if it is highly concentrated and vice versa. This is the ability of a
hypotonic solution to loose water to a more concentrated solution.

Hypotonic solutions
This is used to describe a solution containing less solute and more water molecules
compared to another e.g. hypotonic solution has a lower osmotic pressure and is
generally termed as less concentrated.

Isotonic solutions
These are solutions with the same concentration of salts and water i.e. Solutions
with the same isotonic pressure

Hypertonic solutions
This is used to describe a solution with more solutes and less water molecules than
the other. A hypertonic solution has a higher osmotic pressure and is generally
termed as more concentrated solution.
 Osmosis and cells
Animal cells
Unlike the plant cells, animal cells lack a cell wall and only have a cell membrane
which is weak and non-resistant to high internal pressure.

Osmosis and red blood cells

When red blood cells are placed in a dilute solution (hypotonic solution) i.e.
distilled water, the cells swell up and eventually burst (haemolyse). This is because
water moves from the surrounding solution (distilled water) via the semi permeable
cell membrane into cells.

Haemolysis in red blood cells

When the red blood cells are placed in a more concentrated solution (hypotonic
solution) e.g. a strong sugar solution, water moves out of the cells to the
surrounding solution by osmosis. As a result, the cells shrink the process called
crenation or laking.
However, when red blood cells are placed in isotonic solution they neither gain nor
lose water.

Turgor
This is the attainment of enough water in the cell to make it expand to its
maximum volume.
Turgor pressure
This is the force exerted on the cell wall of the plant cell due to pushing of the
cytoplasm as a result of water entering the cell vacuole and expanding.
Turgidity
Is a destination of a cell which has attained enough water and expanded to
maximum size.
When a plant cell is placed in a dilute solution (water) than the cell sap, water
enters by osmosis through the semi permeable cell wall and cell membrane into the
cell sap. The volume of cell sap increases and it makes the sap vacuole expand.
This causes the cytoplasm move towards the cell wall and gaining turgidity.
Time comes when all the cytoplasm is pressing against the cell wall and no more
water can be absorbed. At this state, the cell is said to have gained full turgidity
and the force on the cell wall is called turgor pressure.

Diagram showing a cell gaining turgidity

Plasmolysis
This is the loss of water from the cell to the surrounding causing the vacuole to
shrink and cause the cytoplasm to lose contact with the cell wall.
When the cell is in this condition, it is said to be flaccid or plasmolysed. Therefore
a flaccid cell is one whose cytoplasm has lost contact with the cell wall due to loss
of water from the cell sap of the vacuole.
When the cell is in a more concentrated solution than the cell sap, water moves
from the cell sap through a cytoplasm than the cell wall to the surrounding
solution. This causes the vacuole to shrink and the cytoplasm to lose contact with
the cell wall and the cell is said to be flaccid or plasmolysed.
Diagram showing a plasmolysed cell
 Experiment to demonstrate turgor and plasmolysis
Materials
 Cock borer
 Four beakers
 Water
 Irish potato
 Razor blade
 Sugar crystal
 Procedure
i) Get four beakers and pour ¾ of water in 3 of them and leave one empty.
ii) Mix the sugar in one beaker to make 5% solution
iii) Mix sugar in another beaker to make 50% solution
iv) Leave one with pure water
v) Use a cock borer to make 4 potato cylinders the same length e.g. 3 cm.
vi) Name this initial length
vii) Deep the potato in each cylinder
viii) Leave the setup for one hour and observe.

Setup

Remove the cylinder from each beaker and measure each length. Also feel the
texture. Tabulate your results in the table below.
Initial Final Change in % change in Texture(soft/tough)
length/cm length/cm length/cm length
4.0 4.3 +0.3 +7.5 Tough
4.0 4.0 0 0 Tough
4.0 3.8 -0.2 -5 Soft/flaccid
4.0 3.9 -0.1 -4 Soft

Observation
The cylinder in water had increased in length and became tougher.
The cylinder in 5% sucrose solution didn’t have any change in length and the
texture remained the same
The cylinder in 50% sucrose solution had decreased in length and become soft,
flaccid and curved.
The potato in the empty beaker decreased in length.
Conclusion
Turgor and plasmolysis occur in plant cells.
Explanation
The cylinder in water increased in length because water molecules moved into it
from the surrounding water by osmosis because the cell sap had a higher
concentration than the surrounding water.
There was no change in length for the cylinder in 5% sucrose solution because the
solution had the same concentration as the cell sap of a potato cylinder hence no
net osmosis.
There was a decrease in length for the cylinder in 50% sucrose solution because
water molecules moved out of the cylinder which had a lower concentration by
osmosis.
There was a decrease in length for the cylinder in the empty beaker because water
was lost to the surrounding through evaporation.

Significance of osmosis in plants

i) Absorption of water by root hairs from soil
ii) It enhances movement of water from root hairs via the cortex to the xylem.
iii) For support in non- woody plants
iv) It facilitates opening and closing of stomata
v) In germination, the initial absorption of water is by osmosis

Significance of osmosis in animals

i) It enables movement of water to capillaries in villi
ii) Movement of water in to unicellular animals
iii) Movement of water from tissue fluid to the cell
iv) It enables reabsorption of water into the blood stream via the kidney tubules.

Note: many semi- permeable membranes allow the passage of solute and solvents
though not to the same extent. All that is required for osmosis to occur is that the
solvent molecules move more rapidly than the solute molecules.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
This is the movement of molecules from the region of low concentration to the
region of higher concentration i.e. movement against concentration gradient using
energy.
Energy for this process is derived from respiration. Anything that affects the rate of
respiration, also affects the active transport e.g. cyanides prevent ATP synthesis.
Active transport takes place by means of carrier molecules in the cell membranes
which are protein. The carrier, on reaching the inner part of the membrane releases
the molecules and is set free for further transportation.
 Examples of active transport
1) Up take of mineral salts from soil by plant roots
2) Absorption of some food molecules e.g. glucose
3) Selective re absorption of molecules e.g. glucose

Importance of active transport

1) Used by plant roots or root hairs to absorb minerals from the soil.
2) Used in the absorption of food materials from the ileum into the blood
stream
3) Used in the reabsorption of minerals in the kidney during urine formation
4) Used in the secretion and active uptake of ions in the fish gills from fresh
water

PINOCYTOSIS
This is the process by which animal cells take in liquid materials into their bodies.
Thus it is said to be cell-drinking.

PHAGOCYTOSIS
This is the process by which animal cells take in solid materials. The cell
engulfs/invaginates or takes in solid materials and form a food vacuole where the
food is digested. The food is absorbed into the cytoplasm and undigested particles
are released. It requires energy.

Importance of phagocytosis
1) Used by amoeba during feeding
2) White blood cells destroy pathogens by phagocytosis
3) Unicellular animals egest undigested material by phagocytosis.

aTRANSPORT IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

This refers to the movement of materials from one part of the organism to another.
In plants, it is called translocation. It involves diffusion, osmosis and active
transport in simple organisms and active transport in simple organisms and
transport systems in large higher organisms, (Vascular & circulatory systems).

THE NECESSITY FOR TRANSPORT SYSTEM

All living things need a continuous exchange of certain substances between their
cells and the environment e.g. oxygen, food, materials carbon dioxide, waste
products.
In large complex animals, most of the cells are located far from the surface thus the
need for a transport system.
Flat worms are flattened to shorter distance for transport.

Requirements of transport system

 The materials to be transported
 The medium of transport
 The channels of transport
 Energy

Materials to be transported
In animals, they include respiratory gases oxygen and carbon dioxide, nitrogenous
excretory products e.g. uric acid, nutrients e.g. glucose, amino acid.
In plants, they include oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Mineral elements for plant growth
Manufactured food (autotrophs)
Absorbed food (in saprophytes)
Vitamins, amino acids auxins

The medium of transport

The medium of transport in plants and lower animals is water and it is blood in
vertebrates and in a few invertebrates like arthropods, annelids (earth worm).

The channels of transport

In most animals, these are blood vessels, in others e.g. earth worms, it is the body
cavity (coelom). In higher plants, there is a vascular system or system of xylem
and phloem.

Energy
Circulation of blood in animals requires energy supplied from respiration used in
pumping of the heart and muscle contractions.
 TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
Transporting tissue in plant is xylem and phloem. It involves movement of water,
salts and organic molecules (manufactured food).

THE XYLEM
This Consists of xylem vessels and tracheids. Xylem vessels develop from
cylindrical cells, arranged end to end, in which the cytoplasm die and cross- walls
disappear leaving a dead empty tube. Through this:
Water, mineral salts, move from roots, stems, up to leaves. Xylem vessels are
strengthened by lignin in their walls.
This strength gives support to the soft tissue of roots, stems, and leaves: it also
prevents collapse of the vessels under tension as sap pressure changes.
Structure of xylem

Tracheids
They are similar to xylem vessels; except that they are typically 5 or 6 sided. In
cross- section, instead of being open at each end, their tapering end walls are
perforated by pit (tiny holes in lignified walls). Even xylem has pits in their walls.
NB
Tracheids are more primitive- they are found in gymnosperms e.g. cypress where
there is control of transpiration, for water does not move very fast through them.

Characteristics of xylem tubes

a) Consist of dead tubes
b) They are hollow
c) Its walls are lignified
d) Has no protein filaments
e) Has no cytoplasm
f) Transports water and salts
g) Transports water and mineral salts in one direction
Types of thickenings in the xylem vessels/tissues
1. Annular lignification
 2. Spiral lignification

3. Recticulate lignification

PHLOEM TISSUE
This Consists of sieve tubes and companion cells. The sieve tubes are formed from
cylindrical cells arranged end to end. Unlike the xylem vessels, the cross walls do
not disappear but develop perforations of enlarged pits forming sieve plates. The
protoplast of a sieve tube / elements remains living; although its nucleus
disintegrates as the cell differentiates. Each sieve tube is closely associated with
companion cells which are complete cells.
The companion cells regulate a metabolic activity of the sieve tubes.

Characteristics of phloem tissue/tube

a) Consist of living cells
b) Have a thin cytoplasm
c) Associated with companion cells
d) Consist of sieve cross walls
e) Consist of protein filaments
f) Transport food materials
g) Transport materials in opposite direction

Structure of the phloem tissue

Sieve tubes have perforated cross walls called sieve plates. In between the plates
are sieve pores which allow food substances to pass from one cell to another along
the cytoplasmic filaments (protein filaments). Adjacent to sieve elements are the
companion cells which provide the sieve tube with energy to transport the food
substances.

Differences between xylem and phloem

Xylem Phloem
Consists of dead cell walls xylem Consists of living cells
and phloem
Vessels are lignified They are non- lignified
Consists of open ended vessels and Consists of sieve tubes with sieve
tapering tracheids plates and cytoplasmic strands
Transports water and mineral salts Transports manufactured food
Transportation depends on Depends on respiratory energy
transpiration pull
Structured comparison between xylem and phloem
Similarities
 Both have cells without nucleus e.g. vessels and tracheids in xylem and sieve
tubes in phloem.
 Both are perforated, i.e. xylem is bordered with pits and phloem has sieve
pores in the sieve plates
 Both tissues are surrounded by parenchyma cells as packing tissues.

Differences
xylem Phloem
Consists of dead cells. Consists of living cells
Both tracheids and vessels have Walls are not lignified
lignified walls
Vessels are often ended and tapering Sieve tubes have sieve plates
tracheids perforated with sieve pores.
Do not have companion cells Have companion cells.
Lack micro filaments Have micro filaments

Function comparison
 In both, materials are transported in solution form.
 In both, transport involves use of energy e.g. in xylem, transpiration pull
depend on solar energy and in phloem it depends on respiratory energy.

Differences:
Xylem transport Transport in phloem
Occur in one direction i.e. up the Occur in two directions i.e. up and
plant down.
Depend on transpiration pull/ solar Depend on respiratory energy.
energy
Transport water and dissolved Manufactured food and auxins
minerals.
Occur in dead cells Occur in living cells
Both tracheids and vessels are used Only sieve tubes are used
Occurs in cells with lignified walls Not lignified cells

TRANSPORT OF WATER FROM SOIL TO THE LEAVES

Up take of water also called absorption is a continuous stream through the plant.
Root hairs in the soil are surrounded by a film of water containing mineral salts/
soil solution.
The soil solution once inside the root hair vacuole is called cell sap and is a strong
solution than the soil solution( has a lower osmotic potential and the cell
membrane of the root hair is semi permeable.
The above conditions enable water to move from the soil, passes through the cell
membrane in to the vacuole by osmosis.
Addition of water to the root hair all which is absorbed by osmosis makes it to
attain higher osmotic potential as compared to the neighboring cells with stronger
cell sap.
This enables water to move to and from the root hair to other cells of the cortex
and through the cortex cells until it reaches the xylem which conducts water up the
plant.
The water rises up the xylem by the following forces.

Capillarity
This is the ability of water to move up the fine tube. It is usually caused by the
surface tension but because the capillary tube is narrow, the water rise is limited.

Cohesion – tension forces

This is a force of attraction between the molecules of the same substance.
Cohesion between water molecules allows water in a continuous column without
breaking.
This occurs because as water is lost by transpiration from the leaves, the water
potential at the top of xylem vessels falls below that at the bottom of the xylem in
the root. Water is now pulled by this potential difference because of the cohesion
of the water molecules.

Adhesion
This is the force of attraction between molecules of different substances (unlike)
Adhesion forces between walls of xylem and water molecules support a
considerable weight of water within the xylem tissue and prevent the xylem vessels
from collapsing.

Root pressure
This is regarded as the pressuring force of the water up the stem from the roots
The root pressure is an active process confirmed by the fact that:
It occurs only in living tissues/ plants.
It is affected by the same factors that affect respiration in living cells like oxygen
supply, temperature, starch supply and the presence of respiratory poison like
cyanides.
The root pressure theory has been suggested as a result of a common observation
that water tends to exude from the cut stem indicating that some pressure in a root
is actually pushing the water up. This pressure has been measured using a
monometer attached to the stamp and it is this force which is normally called root
pressure.
The root pressure depends on the type of plant species e.g. vines root pressure is up
to 200 kpa has been demonstrated.
However, like capillary, not pressure is not sufficient on its own to push water to
the leaves of the plant at the top of the tree and can slowly cause guttation in
transpiring herbaceous plants.

Transpiration pull
This is the pulling force generated by the evaporation of water from the leaves.
This is caused when the cells of the spongy mesophyll layer in the leaf lose water
by evaporation in to the air spaces causing their cell sap to become more
concentrated and as a result they draw the water from the surrounding cells by
osmosis.
These in cells in turn get water from the xylem in the veins and then water from the
xylem moves to replace the lost water by evaporation. This evaporation sets up the
passing action on water in the xylem called transpiration pull.

HOW IS THE ROOT HAIR ADAPTED TO ITS FUNCTION OF WATER

ABSORPTION

i) The root hair is slender and flexible and can therefore flow between the soils
particles.
ii) They are numerous which increase the surface area available for water
absorption.
iii) They lack the cuticle which would restrict water absorption.
iv) They are long and narrow which increases surface area to volume ratio that
increases the rate of water absorption.
v) The cytoplasm of the root hair contains numerous mitochondria where
respiration occurs to release ATP needed for active transport of mineral salts
from the soil solution to the cytoplasm of the root hairs.
vi) All the centre of the root hair is a vascular tissue which transports water and
mineral salts to the rest of the plant.
vii) The cell sap of the root hair contains sugars, amino acids and salts, and so its
concentrated than the soil solution and this low osmotic potential enables water
to entre it by osmosis

Longitudinal section of the root hair

Root hairs vacuoles contain a high concentration of solute than the surrounding
water. Water is absorbed by root hairs by osmosis. This causes the root hair,
vacuoles to become less concentrated than those of the adjacent cortex cell. Water
is then passed into the cortex cell by osmosis. Water then enters the xylem tissue.
Water moves through the root cortex from cell to cell by 3 path ways:
 i) Most of the water flows along the cell vacuole.
ii) Some water travels in the cytoplasm.
iii) Some water moves from vacuole to vacuole
The inner most region of cortex is made up of the endodermis strip which controls
the movement of water from the cortex into the xylem.

EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT WATER TRAVELS UP THE PLANT

THROUGH THE XYLEM
Apparatus
 Small plant with flowers,  dye,
 beaker,  knife, and
 water,  microscope

Procedure
 A small plant with light coloured flowers is placed in a beaker containing water
with a dye.
 It is allowed to stay in the water for 24 hrs
 The stem and the roots are cut transversally and then observed under a
microscope
Observation
The dye appears in the flower and along the veins of the leaves.
It is observed that the xylem in the stem and roots are stained with the dye.

EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE ROOT PRESSURE

Apparatus
Potted plant with actively growing shoot, glass tubing, water, retort stand, rubber
tubing.

Procedure
a) Cut the shoot of an actively growing potted plant leaving about 5 cm of stem
above the ground/ soil
b) Firmly fix the glass tubing about 30cm long to the cut end of the stem using
rubber tubing
c) Partly fill the glass tubing with coloured water and support it with a retort stand
d) Make the level of water in the glass tubing
e) Water the soil well and place the apparatus in a warm place for 3 hrs
f) Control experiment is a dry plant.
Diagram

Observation
The level of coloured water rises in the glass tubing.
Conclusion
Water was absorbed by the plant and travelled upwards the stem due to root
pressure

Importance of water to the plant

 Raw material for photosynthesis
 Solvent for mineral salts and oxygen that enable them to diffuse into the roots.
 It is a constituent of the cytoplasm and all sap of the growing plants
 Provides turgidity which provides support in non woody plants
 Cools the leaves of the plants during transpiration

ABSORPTION OF MINERAL SALTS BY THE ROOT HAIRS

Mineral salts are moved in the plant in the xylem in solution with water. Roots
absorb mineral salts in form of ions by diffusion and active transport. Active
transport is the movement of the materials against the concentration gradient by the
use of energy released from respiration.

TRANSPORT OF THE PRODUCTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The process by which the soluble products of photosynthesis are carried in plants is
called translocation. Translocation is the movement of manufactured food from the
side of photosynthesis. Throughout the plant, sugars and amino acids are
transported in the phloem from the leaves to the growing parts of the plant or
storage organs. Food substances may also move from the storage organs to the
growing regions of the plants. In the phloem, food substances may move
upwards/down wards.
 The process of translocation process
The process of photosynthesis leads to accumulation of food substances in leaves.
This causes a high turgor pressure within the leaves.
Food substances in the roots are used for respiration or they are stored in the
storage organs and these results in the low turgor pressure in the root cells. The
difference between turgor pressure in the roots and leaves enables the food
substances to move from leaves to other parts of the plant by a process called mass
flow which is the major process of translocation.
There is also a minor process i.e. active transport where the sugars e.g. sucrose are
actively transported from leaves to the storage organs.

EVIDENCE TO SHOW THAT FOOD MADE IN LEAVES IS

TRANSLOCATED BY THE PHLOEM
1) The Ring Experiment:
Remove a ring of the bark from the stem at a point between the ground and the
upper leaves. Leave another plant with the ring on.
The plants are left to stand for one week after which the observation is made.

Observation
The upper part of the stem of the ring plant swells immediately above the ring
while the lower part of the stem remains un swollen.
The un ringed plant remains unchanged.

Conclusion
The phloem transports manufactured food.

Explanation
When a ring of a base is cut, the phloem tissue is removed along with it since it’s
found within the bark. This cuts off the supply of manufactured food to the lower
parts of the plant as a result, the phloem in the upper part of the stem will transport
the food to the part just above the ring. The food will then accumulate in this part
hence it will swell.
When the ring is removed, the tree or plant also dries because the food supply to
the root is cut off therefore the stored food in the roots gets exhausted then the
roots die.

2) Feeding Aphids:
When the proboscis of the sucking aphid is cut, it is found to have penetrated into
the phloem tube and when its contents of the proboscis are analyzed, it is found to
contain products of photosynthesis (sucrose) which are transported to the bark
through the phloem.

3) Radio Active Tracers:

If a plant is exposed to CO2 labeled with radioactive C-14, the C-14 becomes
incorporated into the end products of photosynthesis which are subsequently
detected in the stem. That these substances are confined to the phloem and can be
shown by cutting sections of the stem, placing the sections in contact with
photographic film and making auto radiographing it is found that the sites of
radioactivity correspond precisely to the positions of the phloem.

TRANSPIRATION
This is a process by which plants lose water in form of water vapour mainly
through leaves to the atmosphere. Transpiration can also occur from flowers.

TYPES OF TRANSPIRATION
1. Stomatal transpiration: This is the transpiration through the stomatal opening.
This contributes up to 80-90% of water lost.

2. Cuticular transpiration: This occurs through the leaf cuticle which amounts
for about 20% of the water lost.

3. Lenticular transpiration: This occurs through the stem pores called lenticels
and accounts for about 0.1% of the water lost.

Water can also be lost from the plants as water droplets in a process called
guttation through special structures called hydrates found on leaf types or margins
 AN EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT WATER IS LOST MAINLY FROM
LEAVES DURING TRANSPIRATION
Apparatus
Potted plant,
Polythene paper,
String,
Cobalt (ii) chloride paper or anhydrous copper (ii) sulphate.

Procedure
a) Tie polythene around the tin of the potted plant. Using a string to avoid
evaporation of water from the soil surface.
b) Tie transparent polythene around the leafy shoot of the plant.
c) Set up another similar control experiment but with leaves removed and dry
plant.
d) Leave the experiment to settle for 3 hours in bright sunlight.
e) Remove the polythene around the leafy shoot and test the drops of liquid inside
the polythene using anhydrous copper (ii) sulphate / cobalt (ii) chloride paper.
Diagram

Observation
A vapour forms inside the polythene and turns into drops / liquid which turn
anhydrous copper (ii) sulphate from white to blue or blue cobalt (ii) chloride paper
to pink.
No vapour is observed from experiment with no leaves / dry plant.
Conclusion
Transpiration occurs from the leaves
Note:
A bell jar may be used instead of polythene
A control experiment may also be a covered pot where the plant shoot has been cut
off.
 EXPERIMENT TO COMPARE TRANSPIRATION RATES ON BOTH
SURFACES OF A LEAF
Apparatus
 Potted plant,
 glass slide
 Cobalt (ii) chloride paper
 Rubber bands

Procedure
a) Fix pieces of Cobalt (ii) chloride paper on the upper and lower surfaces of a
leaf still to the plant with glass slides.
b) Tie the slides using the rubber bands
c) Note the time taken for the Cobalt (ii) chloride paper on each slide to turn /
change colour from blue to pink.
Diagram

Observation
The lower surface cobalt (ii) chloride paper turns pink faster than that on the upper
surface.
Conclusion
The lower surface has a higher transpiration rate than the upper surface
This is due to numerous stomata on the lower surface of the leaf.

FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

1) Temperature
Increase in temperature increases the rate of transpiration. This is because high
temperatures provide latent heat of vaporization which increases the evaporation of
the water leading to more water to be lost.
Temperatures also increases the kinetic energy of the air molecules around the leaf
which causes them to move further apart and this increases rate of diffusion from
the leaf

2) Relative humidity
Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. As humidity increases,
the rate of transpiration decreases. This is because the environment becomes
saturated with the water vapour. The water then can be absorbed from the plant
decrease which reduces the rate of transpiration.

3) Wind
Rate of transpiration is higher in windy air than in still air. This is because wind
helps / assists to remove water vapour in the air around the leaf and creates more
spaces that can take up more water vapour.
However, if the wind speed becomes too high transpiration stops due to
mechanical closure of the stomata and the cooling effect the wind has on the leaf.

4) Light intensity
Rate of transpiration is high during the presence of light and low in the dark.
This is because high light intensity result in high rate of photosynthesis which
increase the sugar concentration in the guard cells which lead to wide opening of
the stomata leading to more evaporation from the plant ( also light provide heat
which increase evaporation from the leaf stomata.

5) Availability of water
This affects the turgidity of the guard cells i.e. more water more turgidity which
leads to opening of stomata and enable more water loss and to high transpiration
rate.

6) Atmospheric pressure
Humidity decreases with decrease in atmospheric pressure. Hence decrease in
atmospheric pressure greatly increases the rate of transpiration due to decreased
humidity.

Non environmental factors

7) Distribution of stomata
The rate of transpiration is low when more stomata are on the lower side and is
higher when more stomata are on the upper side of the leaf.
8) Number of stomata
The greater the number of stomata, the higher the rate of transpiration because
more water vapour is lost through the stomata.

9) Surface area for transpiration

Plants with wide/broad leaves have a larger surface for transpiration thus they
experience a higher rate of transpiration. But that with small leaves e.g. desert
plants have a small surface area hence low rate of transpiration.

10) Thickness of the plant cuticle

The rate of transpiration decreases with increase in thickness of the cuticle. For
that reason, plants found in deserts have extremely thick cuticle than those in
tropical regions.

MECHANISM OF STOMATAL OPENNING AND CLOSURE

Stomata open during day and close at night.
During the day, photosynthesis takes place in the guard cells in the presence of
sunlight. This leads to accumulation of sugars in the guard cells which lowers their
water potential.
As a result, water moves into the guard cells by osmosis from the neighbouring
epidermal cells. Turgor pressure of the guard cells increases which causes their
outer thin elastic walls to expand and pull the inner thick inelastic walls outwards,
hence opening the stoma.

Diagram showing a stoma open

At night, there is no photosynthesis due to absence of light. Osmotic pressure

inside guard cells decreases/ water potential increases. This causes the guard cells
to lose water to the neighbouring epidermal cells by osmosis. Turgor pressure
inside guard cells lowers, making the inner walls to move closer together and the
stoma closes.
Diagram showing a stoma open

EXPERIMENTS TO MEASURE THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

1. THE WEIGHING METHOD

This is where a potted plant is weighed on the balance to determine the difference
in weight before and after transpiration. The difference in weight shows the
amount of water lost by the plant in a given period of time.

2. POTOMETER METHOD
This is done using an instrument called a potometer. The potometer works on
assumption that water lost from the leaves during transpiration equals water
absorbed by the plant.
Therefore the potometer:
 Directly measures the rate of water uptake/ absorption of the shoot and
 Indirectly measures rate of water loss / evaporation of water/ transpiration from
the leaves.

Set up of a potometer

Procedure:
a) A leafy shoot of a plant is cut under water to prevent air bubbles from entering
as these would block the xylem vessels.
b) The potometer is filled with water.
c) The leafy shoot is fixed into the cork and then fitted into the mouth of the
potometer vessel.
d) Vaseline is smeared at the interface of the shoot and the cock to prevent entry of
air into the apparatus.
e) A single air bubble is introduced at the open end of the capillary tube by
touching the open end briefly under water and then release.
f) At a given mark V1, reached by the air bubble, a clock is started and after a
given time t, the new position of the air bubble V2, is noted and recorded.

g) In any given set of environmental conditions, about 3 experiments can be

performed, resetting the air bubble after each experiment by opening the tap and
then close.

h) Average rate is then calculated and taken as the rate of transpiration in that
environment.
i) The set up can be moved to different environmental conditions and rate of
transpiration determined in the same way.

Precautions taken when using a potometer in order to ensure accurate results

1. A leafy shoot should be used to ensure significant water loss.
2. The shoot must be cut under water to prevent air from entering and blocking the
xylem vessels.
3. The whole apparatus must be full of water.
4. A single air bubble must be present in the capillary tube fir each experiment.
5. Air bubble must be reset to zero mark before each experiment
6. A graduated capillary tube must be used in order to clearly read results.
7. Air bubble should not cross the T- function at the reservoir

ADAPTATIONS OF PLANTS TO REDUCE TRANSPIRATION RATE

i) Shedding off of leaves in deciduous plants to reduce transpirations since
most of it occur from the leaves
ii) Reducing the number, size and distribution of the stomata and only on lower
epidermis
iii) Structural adjustments in stomata i.e. some plants have sunken stomata and
others have hairy stomata which reduces evaporation from them.
iv) Reduction in leaf structure i.e. some plant leaf are reduced to narrow or
thorny / spines structures that reduce surface area over which transpiration
occurs.
 v) Rolling of leaves to create a humid atmosphere around the stomata in order
to reduce water loss.
vi) Possession to thick cuticle of the leaves to prevent water loss through it.
vii) Thick leaves that store water
viii) Changes in the rhythm of stomata opening i.e. they close during day and
open at night when temperatures are very low.
ix) They shed off their leaves in extremely hot environment to cut down water
loss.
x) Reversed opening and closing of stomata. Stomata open at night and close
during the day when it’s rate of transpiration is likely to be higher.

IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPIRATION (FUNCTIONS / ADVANTAGES)

a) Results in the absorption of water and its movement up the plant to aid
processes like photosynthesis.
b) Contribution to maintenance of continuous stream of water throughout the
plant.
c) Transported water keeps the plant cells turgid and cools the plant.
d) Results in the movement of mineral salts up the plants to where they are
needed.

DISADVANTAGES / DANGERS OF TRANSPIRATION

a) Excessive water loss from the plant may lead to wilting, drying and even death
of the plant.
b) Water may lead to over cooling which affect metabolic activities
c) Over absorption of mineral salts with water lead to soil exhaustion.

TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS IN ANIMALS

The transport system in animals consists of a number of routes through which
specific materials are distributed
Smaller organisms (protozoa) that have large surface area to volume ratio carry out
transport by simple diffusion.
Transport system is important in large organisms (multicellular) because the
increased size of the organisms and the great distance over which materials are
supposed to move makes diffusion rate slow which in turn make it inadequate for
the distribution of these materials
To overcome the physical limitation on size placed by diffusion, multicellular
animals have the major adaptations.
They have organs that provide a large surface area for absorption of nutrients such
as small intestines and exchange of gases such as lungs/ gills, without a great
increase in total body volume. They have a transport (circular) system within the
body, so that substances can be carried to cells that need them and waste products
removed more quickly than in diffusion.
The circulatory system in mammals consist of closed tubes and heart which
provide the forces that drives the fluid (blood) in these which include Arteries,
capillaries and veins.

Plants do not use a circulatory system because:

 The oxygen requirement of the plant is very low as compared to mammals.
 Plants have a continuous series of airspaces throughout the body opening to the
atmosphere by the stomata and ventricles.
 In plants oxygen from the air diffuses through the stomata opening in to the
airspaces and from the air spaces in to the cells by diffusion. And the oxygen
dissolved in the soil water also diffuses through the root hairs in to the plant
sap.
 The carbon dioxide produced during respiration is used up during
photosynthesis.

Types of transport systems in animals

1. Closed circulatory system:

Closed circulatory system e.g. in earthworm, fish and mammals have blood
enclosed in tubes
Here blood is pumped by the heart to tissues through the arteries and return to the
heart through the veins.
The arteries and veins are connected by capillaries which are thin walled
The body cells do not come in to direct contact with blood but are bathed in the
tissue fluids. Substances diffuse out of the blood which is confined to blood vessels
in to the tissue fluid and then across to cells membrane in to the cell.
 Advantages of closed circulatory system
 Distribution of blood/materials is easily controlled.
 Blood moves or flows very fast leading to quick supply of materials.
 Blood flows at a high pressure leading to an effective system.

Demerits of closed circulatory system

 It requires a special heart whose pumping action provides pressure for
movement of blood.
 Blood movement meets a high resistance within vessels.

2. Open circulatory system e.g. in molluses and arthropods

Here the artery that leaves the heart is very short and blood empties in a large
blood filled space called haemocoel. Then blood from these spaces return to the
heart through the short veins.
The organism cells are directly bathed in blood and materials diffuse out of the
blood in to each cell across the cell membrane.
 Advantages of open circulatory system
 Easy diffusion of materials due to absence of vessel barriers.
 It does not require special pumping hearts since blood is flowing through
cavities with less resistance.
Disadvantages of open circulatory system
 Blood flows sluggishly/slowly leading to slow supply of materials.
 Blood flows at a low pressure.
 There is little control over distribution of materials or blood.

TYPES OF CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

1. Single circulatory system
This is the type of circulation where blood from the body cells flows once through
the heart and goes back to the body cells. It has a heart with only two 2 chambers
i.e. one atrium and one ventricle e.g. in fish.
Diagram illustrating single circulation
The demerit of single circulation is that blood moves very slowly leading to slow
supply of materials. Blood pressure is also greatly reduced by gill capillaries.
2. Double circulatory system
In a double circulatory system, blood is pushed out in the heart in to a series of
capillaries and the blood passes through the heart twice in each circulation. It
involves two separate circulation ie
 Pulmonary circulation to the lungs
 Systemic circulation to the rest of the body
That is, blood from the right ventricle is pumped into the lungs through the
pulmonary artery and return to the left atrium via the pulmonary vein and this is
called pulmonary circulation.
Blood from the left ventricle is pumped through the aorta to the rest of the body
and returns to the right atrium through the vena cava and this is called systemic
circulation
Double circulation is further divided into 2;
 Incomplete double circulation
 Complete double circulation
Incomplete double circulation:
Is a system in which blood flows through the heart twice for every complete cycle
through a three-chambered heart. The heart has one ventricle through which both
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood from the two atria flow. Mixing of
oxygenated and deoxygenated bloody is prevented by ridges present in the
ventricle. This system of blood circulation is found in amphibians e.g frogs.
Diagram of incomplete double circulation

Complete double circulation

Is a type of circulation where blood flows through the heart twice within a four-
chambered heart for every complete cycle of circulation. Mixing of oxygenated
and deoxygenated blood is prevented by a wall called septum. It is found in birds,
reptiles and mammals.
Diagram showing complete double circulation
 Advantages of double circulatory system:
High blood pressures required for fast flow of blood is reached than in open
circulation.
Gives more rapid circulation since blood is returned rapidly to the heart for
pumping.
There is complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood which
improves efficiency of oxygen distribution and can therefore sustain the high
metabolic rate required by such animals that possess it.
Blood is pumped directly to where it’s needed
NB:
The amount of blood flowing to a certain organ can be regulated by changing the
diameter of the blood vessel.

Summary of transport in animals

Transport

Lymphatic system Blood system

Open circulation Closed circulation

Single circulation Double circulation

Pulmonary Systemic
circulation circulation

THE MAMMALIAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The continual circulation of blood in mammals is due to the pumping action of the
heart.
The circulation of blood in mammals is divided into two. That is;
1. The pulmonary circulation; this is the circulation of blood from the heart to
the lungs and from the lungs back to the heart. It is the simplest circulation
where blood moves a very short distance. This type of circulation involves the
pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein.
2. The systemic circulation; this is the circulation of blood from the heart to the
rest of the body apart from the lungs and from the rest of the body back to the
heart.

Structure showing the flow of blood in a mammal

 BLOOD VESSELS
These are the tubes that carry blood throughout the body and they include: arteries,
veins, and capillaries
Arteries and veins both have three layers in their walls but the layer of the muscles
(elastic tissue).is much greater in arteries than in the veins.

1. ARTERIES:
These carry blood from the heart to the body capillaries. Arteries divide into
smaller vessels called arterioles which then divide repeatedly to form capillaries.

Characteristics of arteries
 Has three layered wall. These are strong to withstand the higher pressure as
resulting from the pumping action of the heart.
 They have fibrous outer wall so as to withstand high pressure
 They are found deeply in the body.
 They have a pulse beat corresponding to the heart beat.
 Their walls are elastic to allow stretching due to high blood pressure.
 They have no valves except at the base of the pulmonary artery and aorta.
 They have narrow lumen than veins which maintains blood flow at high
pressure.
 They carry oxygenated blood except the pulmonary artery and umbilical artery.
 They all carry blood from the heart to other parts of the body.

Structure of an artery in cross section

Collagen fiber

Elastic fiber
Endothelium

Lumen

2. CAPILLARIES
These are the smallest blood vessels with thin walls to allow diffusion of materials
between blood and the tissue fluid.
They connect arterioles to venules.
They pass very close to the cells taking to the cells food, oxygen, and mineral salts
etc as well as taking a way carbon dioxide, urea and other waste products from the
cells.
They are responsible for the exchange of materials between blood and cells,
because their walls are permeable allowing water, dissolved food substances to
pass through except proteins because they have large molecules.
Blood pressure reduces in them as a result of their resistance, and blood flows in
them slowly without pulse.
The capillaries network is so dense and the capillaries unite to form large vessels
called venules which join to form veins.
Adaptations of capillaries to its functions
 They have a large surface area for exchange of materials.
 They have very thin walls for faster diffusion of materials.
 They have a high diffusion gradient leading to rapid diffusion of materials.
 Slow movement of blood in capillaries makes exchange of materials efficient.

Characteristics of capillaries
 They carry both deoxygenated and oxygenated blood.
 They have a small lumen.
 They have permeable thin walls to allow diffusion of materials.
 They have no valves.
 Blood flows slowly.

 There is a decrease in pressure.

Cross-section through a capillary

Endothelium
Lumen

3. VEINS
These carry blood from tissues to the heart. The pressure in them is steady and less
than in arteries. All veins carry de-oxygenated blood except pulmonary vein. Blood
in the veins flows slowly after losing pressure in the capillaries; however the
sluggish flow of blood is maintained by:
 Possession of valves which prevent back flow.
 Having a wide lumen that offers a low resistance to blood flow.
 Action of skeletal muscles against veins as they contract during movement
increases blood pressure in veins.
 Inhaling lowers the pressure in thoracic cavity leading to flow of blood towards
the heart.

Characteristics of veins / Adaptations

 They have wide lumen to encourage flow of blood at low pressure.
 They have thinner walls than arteries which are adequate to withstand low
pressure.
 They have valves at intervals along their length which prevent blood from
flowing backwards / maintain flow of blood in one direction.
 They are not capable of constricting.
 They transport deoxygenated blood except the pulmonary vein and umbilical
vein.
 They have less elastic muscles.
 They are found near the body surface.

Cross-section through a vein

Collagen fiber

Elastic fiber

Endothelium

Lumen

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ARTERIS, VEINS AND CAPILLARIES

Structural:
Artery Veins Capillaries
Have thick walls with have thin walls with Have thinner walls with
smooth muscles smooth muscles smooth muscles
have more elastic fibres Have few elastic fibres Do not have elastic fibres

Have smaller lumen Have a wider lumen Have largest lumen

relative to diameter relative to diameter relative diameter
Have no valves except at Have valves throughout Have no valves
the base of aorta their length
Can constrict Can’t constrict Can’t constrict
Walls not permeable Walls not permeable Walls permeable

Functional
Artery Vein Capillaries
Carry blood away from Carry blood towards the Carry blood to and from
the heart heart the heart
Carry oxygenated blood Carry deoxygenated Carry both oxygenated
except pulmonary artery blood except pulmonary and deoxygenated blood
and umbilical artery vein and umbilical vein
Blood flow at high Blood flow at low Blood flow at
pressure( flow in pulse) pressure intermediate pressure
Blood flow in pulse Blood does not flow in Blood does not flow in
pulse pulses

THE MAMMALIAN HEART

Its function is to pump blood around the body. The whole heart is surrounded by
the pericardium which has two layers between which is the pericardial fluid that
reduce friction between them.
The heart is made of tissues called cardiac muscles which have the potential to
contract rapidly.
It’s divided in to four chambers. The upper chambers are called atrium / auricle
and the lower chambers are each called ventricle.
The heart is divided in to sections ie left and right by a muscular septum whose
function is to prevent mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
Movement of blood in the heart is maintained in a single direction ie from the
auricle to ventricle and then to blood vessels.
Blood flow in one direction in the heart is maintained by the presence of valves.
The auricles receive blood from all parts of the body while the ventricles pump
blood to the body e.g. the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the
pulmonary vein and pump it to the left ventricle through the bicuspid valve.
The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body from the
vena cava and pumps it to the right ventricle via the tricuspid valve.
The ventricle walls are more muscular (have thicker walls) than those or the
auricles because the auricle pump blood to shorter distance i.e. to the ventricle
while the ventricles pump blood longer distances i.e. to body and lungs.
The walls of the left ventricle that pump blood in to the systemic circulation are
thicker than those of the right ventricle which pump blood to pulmonary
circulation.

Flow of blood through the heart

Blood flows in to the heart from the rest of the body via the vena cava to the right
atrium which pumps it to the right ventricle via the tricuspid valve.
The right ventricle pumps blood to the pulmonary artery to the lungs and blood
flows back to the left atrium via the pulmonary vein which pumps it to the left
ventricle via the bicuspid valve and then finally pumped to the rest of the body via
the aorta.

LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE HEART

THE CARDIAC CYCLE

This refers to the sequence of events by which the heart pumps and is refilled with
blood. The cardiac cycle involves two phases:
 Re-filling of the heart with blood
 Pumping of blood
The pumping action of the heart consists of alternate contraction and relaxation of
cardiac muscles in the walls of the heart. Contraction of cardiac muscles is called
systole while relaxation is called diastole.
During diastole, the cardiac muscles in the walls of the atria relax and expand;
blood from the vena cava and pulmonary vein enter the atria and becomes filled
with blood. The walls of the ventricles relax and expand while those of the atria
contract, forcing blood from the atria into ventricles via bicuspid and tricuspid
valves as semilunar valves remain closed.
 Diagram
Reference: introduction to biology. Pg 99 fig 19.10 (a)

During systole, cardiac muscles of the ventricles contract, forcing blood out of the
heart via the semi lunar valves into the aorta and pulmonary artery. At this time,
the atria relax and expand in order to be re-filled with blood. The cuspid valves
close against high blood pressure to prevent the back flow of blood into the
auricles. The closure of the valves produces the heart sound termed as lub.
Diagram
Reference: introduction to biology. Pg 99 fig 19.10 (b)

After expelling blood, ventricles relax and their pressure lowers compared to aorta
and pulmonary artery pressure.
This would cause back flow of blood to the heart but is prevented by sudden
closure of the semi lunar valves. The closure of the semi lunar valves causes a
second heart sound called dub.
The 2 sounds lub and dub are so close and often described as lub-dub and they
form a single heartbeat.
Initiation and control of the heart beat
Contraction of the heart is initiated by heart, heart muscles / cardiac muscles
themselves.
Therefore the heart muscles are myogenic i.e. the rhythmic contraction a rise from
within the tissue itself.
Heart beat is controlled by collection of cells in the right atrium called pacemakers
located in the sino artrio node (SAN) which are controlled by nervous impulse
from the medulla oblongata of the brain that change the rate of heart beat.

Factors affecting the heart beat rate

 Exercise.
 Lack of hormones in the body e.g. adrenaline
 State of health and diseases e.g. malaria
 Age i.e. its faster in infants than adults.
 Body size i.e. it is faster in small organisms than large
 Sex i.e. faster in female than in male.

NB: In normal adults at rest, heart contracts about 70 / 72 times per minute.

BLOOD PRESSURE
This is the force with which blood flows from one part of the body to another. The
blood pressure is due to the pumping action of the heart as experienced by the
blood vessels. The narrow blood vessels experience high blood pressure and wide
vessels experience low blood pressure. Sometimes fats accumulate in the blood
vessels making their rumens narrow. This increases blood pressure and it is the
major cause of high blood pressure in fat people, however small people also
experience high blood pressure. This is due to conditions like stress, anxiety, fear,
etc. These conditions tend to increase the rate of heartbeat and more blood is
pumped to the blood vessels causing high pressure in them.

BLOOD
Blood is a connective tissue made up of cells suspended in a fluid matrix called
plasma.
There are two types of cells in blood i.e. White blood cells (leucocytes) and red
blood cells (erythrocytes). The platelets (thrombocytes) are fragments of cells.
In an adult human being, there are five to six liters of blood with blood making up
approximately 10% of the body weight.
Main components/nutrients of blood
1. Red blood cells/erythrocytes/red corpusles
2. White blood cells/eucocytes/white corpusles
3. Platelets/thrombocytes
4. Plasma

General importance of blood in the bodies of animals

 1. It transports oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body.
2. It transports digested food from the ileum to other parts of the body for use.
3. It transports Carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.
4. It transports nitrogenous wastes from the liver to the kidney where they are
excreted.
5. It transports hormones from their site of production to where they perform
their functions.
6. It distributes heat and aids in temperature control.
7. It prevents infection by transportation of white blood cells.
8. It regulates the amounts of chemicals such as glucose in the body.
9. It prevents loss of fluids and cells through forming blood clots.

THE RED BLOOD CELLS (ERYTHROCYTES)

Characteristics of Red Blood Cells:
 They have hemoglobin molecules which carry oxygen from the lungs to the
tissues.
 They lack nuclei
 They have thin cell membranes which thinness reduces the diffusion distance
for gases.
 They are manufactured from the red bone marrow
 On average, red blood cells last for four month after which they are destroyed
by the liver to form bile pigment and the iron in haemoglobin is stored in the
liver
 They have a biconcave disk shape
 They are approximately 5 million/mm3 of blood.

Importance of Red Blood Cells:

They transport oxygen from gaseous exchange surfaces to the tissues
They transport carbon dioxide from tissues to the gaseous exchange surfaces.

Adaptation of Red Blood Cells to carry out their function

 They are biconcave in shape so as to avail a large surface area to volume ratio
for absorption of oxygen.
 They have hemoglobin molecules that bind to oxygen and transport it from the
lungs to the tissues.
 They have a thin membrane which reduces the diffusion distance for the
respiratory gases in and out of the cells.
 They lack nuclei which provides enough space for packaging of haemoglobin
 They lack mitochondria and generate their ATP exclusively by anaerobic
respiration to prevent them from using the oxygen they are carrying.
 They have an enzyme, carbonic anhydrase which plays a role in carbon dioxide
transport
 They are numerous per mm3 to increase surface area for transportation of
oxygen
 They have flexible membranes which make them able to squeeze through
capillary networks as they exchange materials they transport with the
surrounding tissues.

NB: The concentration of red blood cells increases as one climbs up a mountain
because the concentration of oxygen in the air reduces with increase in height
above sea level. So the body adopts by producing more red cells to increase the
available total surface area to bind and carry oxygen to the tissues regardless the
reducing oxygen concentration main.

Structure of the red blood cell.

Side view. Surface view

Red blood cells are made from the red bone marrow of short bones in adults and in
the foetus, red blood cells are made in the liver. They last for approximately four
months after which they are taken to the liver or spleen for their destruction. They
are more numerous than any other cells in the blood. Red blood cells are
responsible for transporting oxygen in the body.

THE WHITE BLOOD CELLS (LEUCOCYTES)

These are blood cells made from the white bone marrow of long bones. They are
also made in the spleen and lymphatic system. They are responsible for defense of
the body against infection. They are fewer in blood than the red blood cells.

Characteristics of white blood cells

i) They have no definite shape (they are amoeboid)
ii) They have a nucleus even at maturity.
iii) They are relatively few in blood but their number increases when the body is
attached by an infection.
iv) They lack haemoglobin.
v) They feed on foreign particles by Phagocytes

White blood cells are divided into two major categories. These are;
 1. Phagocytes. These are white blood cells with a lobed nucleus. They ingest
and destroy germs by phagocytes.
2. Lymphocytes. These are white blood cells, which defend the body by
producing antibodies.
Structure of a white blood cell

Production of red and white blood cells

The red blood cells are manufactured form the red bone marrows in adults. Old red
blood cells are taken to the liver for destruction.
White blood cells are manufactured from the white bone marrows of long bones.
Some white blood cells are manufactured from the lymph nodes. Worn out white
blood cells are also taken to the liver for destruction. In the foetus, the liver
manufactures blood cells.

Action of white blood cells on the foreign particles

Some white blood cells attack and destroy the foreign particles directly by
themselves. These are called phagocytes and they destroy the foreign particles by
Phagocytosis. In this process the white blood cells form pseudopodia, which they
use to engulf the foreign particle by Phagocytosis.
After engulfing the foreign particle, a food vacuole is formed into which digestive
enzymes are produced. The enzymes break down the particle and the important
materials are absorbed by the white blood cell while the wastes are excreted out of
the cell through the contractile vacuole.

Illustration of Phagocytosis
Some white blood cells destroy foreign particles by releasing antibodies, which
destroy the particles. White blood cells, which produce antibodies, are called
lymphocytes. There are four types of antibodies produced.
1) Opsonins; these attach to the outer surface of the foreign particle and make it
easier for phagocytic white blood cells to ingest them.
2) Agglutinins; these cause the foreign particles to stick together. In this condition
the foreign particles cannot invade the tissues.
3) Lysins; these destroy bacteria by dissolving their outer coats.
4) Anti-toxins; these combine with and so neutralize the toxins produced by
foreign particles.

THE PLATELETS (THROMBOCYTES)

These are blood cells formed as fragments in the bone marrows during the
formation of red blood cells. They are responsible for blood clotting.
Characteristics of platelets
1. They are cell fragments.
2. They are spherical in shape.
3. They do not have a nucleus.
4. They do not have haemoglobin.

Functions:
They play a role in blood clotting which protects the body against excessive loss of
blood and entry of pathogens through the injured part. Blood clotting is the
process by which blood stops oozing out of a cut or wound. It is important
because of the following reasons.
1. It prevents excessive loss of blood from the body.
2. It is a step towards healing of cuts and wounds.
3. The blood clot creates a barrier to prevent entry of bacteria and other pathogens
in the body.

The Process of Blood Clotting:

When blood is exposed to air as a result of a cut or wound, the platelets in the
blood at the damaged tissue stimulate the release of a chemical called
thromboplastin (thrombokinase). In the presence of calcium ions and vitamin
K, thromboplastin stimulates the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin
enzyme. Thrombin then catalyzes the conversion of soluble blood protein
fibrinogen to the insoluble form fibrin. Fibrin forms fibers, which form a mesh
and trap blood cells and proteins. This mesh dries to form a scab, which is called
the blood clot.
Summary of blood clotting

BLOOD PLASMA
This is the fluid part of blood. It is made up of;
a) A soluble protein
A soluble protein called fibrinogen that plays a role in blood clotting.
j) Serum
k) This is a watery fluid containing a variety of substances transported from one
part of the body to another e.g. hormones, lipids, enzymes, urea carbon dioxide,
plasma, proteins, amino acids etc.
Use of Blood plasma:
 To transport hormones from gland producing them to the target sites.
 To transport food nutrients from the gut to the other parts of the body.
 To transport antibodies to the infected parts of the body.
 To transport Urea from the liver to the Kidneys for excretion.
 To transport carbon dioxide from the body muscles to gaseous exchange
system.
 To transport heat from the liver and body muscles to other body parts hence
maintaining a constant body temperature range.
 To transport platelets to injured sites on the body so as to initiate blood clotting.
 To distribute salts around the body so as to maintain the body’s electrolytes
balance.

CAPILLARY EXCHANGE, FORMATION OF TISSUE FLUID AND

LATER LYMPH.
As blood flows from arterioles into blood capillaries. Pressure builds up in the
capillaries forcing small molecules like food materials and the fluid part of blood
to leave the capillaries and enter the intercellular spaces, leaving behind large
molecules like proteins in plasma and cells.
Once the fluid is in the intercellular spaces of tissues, it is no longer called blood
but tissue fluid.
Once formed, the tissue fluid surrounds the cells. Body cells then get their
requirements e.g. glucose, oxygen, etc. from the tissue fluid and they add excretory
materials to the fluid.
Some of the fluid returns in to the capillaries and the other is drained in to a system
of narrow channels called lymph vessels. The fluid in these vessels is now called
lymph. Lymph is therefore, tissue fluid in the lymph vessels.

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

This is part of the vascular system. It forms the second type of circulation. Most of
the tissue fluid as explained above goes back into the blood capillaries and the
remainder enters the lymphatic system and becomes lymph fluid. The lymph fluid
is transported through lymph vessels. The lymph vessels are similar to veins but
they have more valves than the veins. The movement of the lymph fluid through
the lymph vessels is due to the contractions of the surrounding muscles. As they
contract and relax, they squeeze the lymph vessels to gain the force by which
lymph moves. The walls of the lymphatic vessels have pores, which allow the
entry of cell, wastes and bacteria. Before reaching the blood, lymph passes through
the lymph nodes where the wastes and bacteria are removed.
The lymph joins the blood circulation via the thoracic ducts, which join the vein in
the neck. The right thoracic duct drains its contents of the right side and that of the
left drains the left side. The lacteals of the ileum are also connected to the left
thoracic duct.

Functions of the lymphatic system

1. It transports fatty acids and glycerol from the ileum to the heart where they join
the blood system.
2. It carries excretory substances from tissues to the blood stream.
3. It produces white blood cells, which assist in defense of the body.
4. It filters out bacteria before they reach the blood stream.
5. Transports hormones from glands to other body parts.

Differences between the lymphatic and blood system

Blood circulatory system Lymphatic system
Has a heart which acts as a pump Has no pump
Blood flow is two way, i.e. from Lymph flow is one way, i.e. from
heart to body and back to the heart. body tissues to the heart.
Blood travels at high speed. Lymph travels at a very slow speed
Valves are only found in veins Have valves in all its vessels
Contains blood cells and proteins Only white blood cells present.
Proteins are lacking
Does not contain emulsified fats Contains and transports fatty acids
and glycerol.
Have no nodes Have nodes that produce
lymphocytes

Similarities between blood system and lymphatic system

1. Both have valves in their vessels.
2. Both are means of transporting materials in the body
3. In both a selected muscle provides a force by which substances are moved.
4. Both have vessels through which materials are transported.

BLOOD GROUPS
There are 4 main blood groups i.e.
1) Blood group A
2) Blood group B
3) Blood group AB
4) Blood group O
When one has got less blood than necessary, blood transfusion is carried out. The
one who gives blood to a patient is called a donor and the one receiving is known
as a recipient. Doctors have to match the blood of the donor to that of the recipient
because when incompatibles blood is mixed, the red blood cells stick together
(agglutinate) and blood clots. This is a fatal situation.
Agglutination is caused by the presence of proteins called antigens on the surface
of cells being mixed with specific antibodies, which work against them. Blood
groups are determined by the type of antigens one has in blood. This means that
one having antigen A belongs to blood group A. Those with antigen B belong to
blood group B. Those with antigens A and B belong to blood group AB while
those without antigens belong to blood group O. Each blood produces particular
antibodies, which work against particular antigens when introduced into the body.
For example, blood group A produces antibody b. This means that blood group A
is anti (against) blood containing antigen B (blood group B).

The table below shows the blood groups, the antigens they carry and the
antibodies they produce.
Blood group Antigen present Antibody produced
A A b
B B a
AB A and B None
O No antigen a and b

Note.
Antibodies are represented by small letters while antigens are represented by
capital letters.
Before doctors can carry out transfusion, they carry out tests to make sure that the
patient’s and donor’s blood are compatible (the recipient’s blood must not contain
antibodies that act on the antigens in the donor’s blood. For example antigen A
would agglutinate if mixed with blood containing antibody a. i.e. blood group B.

Table of compatibility:
Recipient

A B AB O
Key
Donor A  X  X
B X   X X --------- Incompatible

 --------- Compatible
 AB X X  X
O    
Note.
1) Blood group AB can receive blood from all other blood groups because it
has no antibodies and it is therefore called a universal recipient.
2) Blood group O can donate blood to all blood groups because it has no
antigens and it is therefore called a universal donor.

“RHESUS FACTOR” System

Rhesus factor is a protein (antigen) ALSO found on the cell membranes of the red
blood cells.
Many individuals have the Rhesus factor and are said to be rhesus positive (Rh+)
while a few do not have the Rhesus factor and are said to be Rhesus negative (Rh-
).
The Rhesus factor was first discovered in a Rhesus Monkey hence its name.
A person who is Rhesus factor positive can receive a successful blood donation
without agglutination from a person of Rhesus positive and a person of Rhesus
negative.
However, a person who is Rhesus negative can only receive a successful blood
donation without agglutination from his fellow Rhesus negative person though
he can be transfused with blood which is Rhesus positive quite successfully only
once and after this transfusion, his body produces antibodies against the Rhesus
factor. Such antibodies attack the Rhesus factor with subsequent transfusion
of Rhesus positive blood leading to agglutination.
The same concept can be applied to pregnancy in that a Rhesus positive woman
can successfully carry on a pregnancy where the fetus is Rhesus positive or
Rhesus negative.
A Rhesus negative woman can successfully carry a pregnancy where the fetus is
only Rhesus negative; with such a woman, the first pregnancy with Rhesus
positive fetus can be successful but during the pregnancy the woman’s blood
produces antibodies against the Rhesus factor. Such antibodies attack the
Rhesus factor if the woman gets subsequent pregnancies where the Fetus is
Rhesus positive.
NB: During blood transfusion both the ABO system and the Rhesus factor
system of blood groups are used together. So a person of blood group
ARh+ can receive blood from a donor of (i) A Rh+ (ii) A Rh- (iii) ORh+ (iv) ORh-

IMMUNITY AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

Immunity is the ability of an organism to resist infection. The immune response is
based upon recognition of a foreign particle and the release of chemicals that
destroy it. The foreign particle may be an antigen, bacteria, virus or any other
pathogen. The substance that destroys these particles can be a white blood cell or
antibodies produced by white blood cells.

Types of immunity
Inborn or innate immunity
This is the type of resistance to diseases that one is born with.
Acquired immunity
This is the type of immunity developed by the body during its life towards various
diseases. It is divided into:
Natural acquired immunity
Artificial acquired immunity
Natural acquired immunity
This is the immunity provided by antibodies which are naturally acquired. It is
further divided into 2 types:
Natural active immunity
Natural passive immunity
Natural active immunity
This is the type of immunity provided by antibodies produced by the body after
being exposed to a particular disease. After production of the antibodies, the body
becomes resistant to the subsequent similar infections e.g. contracting flu and
recovering from it without using any drugs.
Natural passive immunity
This is the immunity provided by antibodies acquired from another individual of
the same species. It is a temporary type of immunity e.g. the body obtains anti
bodies from the mother through breast feeding colostrum.
Artificial acquired immunity
This is the type of immunity provided by antibodies injected artificially from either
the organisms of the same species or artificially made. It is divided into 2 types:
Artificial active immunity
Artificial passive immunity
Artificial active immunity
It is a product of inducing the body to produce antibodies by artificially injecting
one with a vaccine (weakened/attenuated pathogenic organism). This process is
called vaccination or immunization.
Artificial passive immunity
This is the immunity provided by antibodies artificially injected into an individual.
It is temporary and the body is not induced to produce its own antibodies.

GASEOUS EXCHANGE

This is the exchange of respiratory gases between the organism and the
environment. It takes place across specialized surfaces called respiratory surfaces.
Gaseous exchange helps an organism to get rid of CO2 produced during respiration
within cells and at the same time obtain oxygen needed for aerobic respiration to
occur.

Note: Breathing is an active process involving movement of air in and out of the
body whereas gaseous exchange is a passive process involving passage of air
through respiratory surfaces/gaseous exchange surfaces.

Characteristics of a good respiratory surface

Respiratory surfaces are sites where gaseous exchange takes place in the body of
the organism. Respiratory surfaces possess the following characteristics:

1) They have a large surface area to volume ratio to enable rapid diffusion of
gases. This is achieved by folding or branching of structures to form alveoli in
lungs, gill filaments in the gills and tracheoles in insects.
2) They are moist to allow easy diffusion of gases.
3) They are thin walled to reduce on the distance over which diffusion has to take
place.
4) They have a good network of blood capillaries for easy transportation of gases
to the respiring tissues.
5) They are well ventilated to maintain a high concentration gradient that favours
diffusion of gases.
Note; respiratory surfaces of insects are not supplied with a network of blood
capillaries because the blood of insects does not transport gases. The gases are
transported in the tracheole tubes.

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS

Plants do not have a special respiratory surface for gaseous exchange. They use
simple pores i.e. stomata of the leaves and lenticels of the stems for gaseous
exchange.

Gases circulate in the plant by simple process of diffusion due to abundant large
intercellular spaces that make diffusion faster.

Plants do not need special respiratory surfaces and blood transport system because:

They utilize CO2 produced by the plant cells for photosynthesis thus preventing
accumulation.
Plants produce oxygen as a bi-product of photosynthesis which is then used in
respiration.
Plants have numerous stomata and lenticels that favour fast gaseous exchange.
They have large intercellular spaces that favour fast circulation of gases without
blood.
They have low demand for oxygen due to their low metabolic rate because they
are less active since they are immobile.
Gaseous exchange in simple organisms
Small organisms like amoeba, paramecium, hydra and jellyfish have a large
surface area to volume ratio. In such organisms gaseous exchange takes place over
the whole body surface. Because of their small body volume, diffusion alone is
enough to transport oxygen and Carbon dioxide into, around and out of their
bodies.
Larger organisms such as insects and vertebrates have a small surface area to
volume ratio. In these organisms, gaseous exchange takes place in a specialized
region of the body known as a respiratory surface. The respiratory surface is part of
the respiratory organ. It is the actual site where gaseous exchange takes place.

Surface area to volume ratio and gaseous exchange

Surface area to volume ratio is an important aspect in gaseous exchange. It is
obtained by calculating the total surface area and dividing it by the volume of the
object in question.
Consider two boxes A and B below
Box A is smaller than box B. we can work out the surface area to volume ratio of
each box to prove that smaller objects have a larger surface area to volume ratio
than big ones.
Starting with box A
Total surface area.
A = 2(2X1) + 2(1X2) + 2 (2X2)
A = 4 + 4 + 8
A = 16cm2
Volume of A
V = LXWXH
V = 2X1X2
V = 4 cm3
Surface area to volume ratio of A
16

4
=4
Box B
Total surface area.
A = 2(3X2) + 2(3X4) + 2(2X4)
A = 12 + 24 + 16
A = 52cm2
Volume of B
V = LXWXH
V = 4X2X3
V = 24 cm3
Surface area to volume ratio of B
52

24
= 2.3
The surface area to volume ratio of A is larger than that of B.
Therefore the surface area to volume ratio of smaller organisms is larger than
that of larger organisms. This facilitates a faster rate of diffusion to ensure that
all body tissues are supplied with respiratory gases.
Smaller organisms also have a short diffusion distance i.e. it takes less time for
gases to move to all parts of their body. Most of them are single celled and
some have only one layer of cells.
 Larger organisms on the other hand have a smaller surface area to volume ratio.
This reduces the rate of diffusion and diffusion alone cannot meet the
respiratory demands of their large bodies.
They also have a large diffusion distance because they have very many layers of
cells. Due to this large organisms have developed mechanisms, which reduce on
the diffusion distance and increase the surface area to volume ratio.
Mammals have developed a blood circulatory system, which transports blood
containing respiratory gases through highly branched blood vessels to all cells
of the body.
Insects have developed a tracheal system, which has finely divided tubes known
as tracheoles, which carry respiratory gases to and from all cells in the body of
the insect.

Examples of respiratory surfaces and corresponding respiratory organs

Animal Respiratory organ Respiratory surface

Amphibians Lungs Alveolus

Amphibians Skin Skin surface

Amphibians Buccal cavity Buccal cavity epithelium

Birds Lungs Alveolus

Fish Gills Gill filaments

Insects Tracheal system Tracheoles

Mammals Lungs Alveolus

Tadpoles Gills Gill filaments

NB: the movement of gases and water to and from respiratory surface is called
ventilation (breathing).

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN INSECTS

The respiratory organs of insects consist of a network of tubes known as tracheal

tubes, which make up the tracheal system. These tubes reach all the body tissues
like the capillaries.
 The tracheal system of insects

Ventilation mechanism

Inhalation:

When the abdominal wall expands, the internal pressure reduces and the
volume increases.
This forces air containing oxygen in to the insect through the spiracles, to the
trachea and then the tracheoles.
Between the tracheoles and muscles of the insect, gaseous exchange occurs
with oxygen entering in to the tissues and CO2 released from tissues, diffusing
into the fluid in the tracheoles
Exhalation:

Abdominal wall contracts, internal volume decreases while pressure increases,

forcing air with a high concentration of carbon dioxide in the tracheoles out of the
insect through the spiracles.

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN FISH

Fish uses water as a medium of gaseous exchange and their respiratory surface is
the internal gill.
Fish absorb dissolved oxygen from water by use of gills. In most fish there is a pair
of gills on each side of the body and in bony fish the gills are covered by a gill
plate also called the operculum.
Structure of the gill
Parts of the gill:

1. Gill bar: this provides an attachment and support to the gill filaments.
2. Gill raker: These are hard projections from the gill bar.
They trap food suspended in water.
They protect the gill filament by filtering out sand particles in water before
reaching the gill filament.
3. Gill filaments:
These are sites of gaseous exchange in the fish.

They are finger-like projections that increase the surface area for gaseous
exchange.
They have a network of capillaries whose blood moves in the opposite direction
with water (counter current flow) to maintain a high concentration gradient by
carrying away the diffused gases.
Filaments have a thin membrane
They are well ventilated.
They are numerous to increase the surface area.
Mechanism of ventilation in bony fish
Ventilation in bony fish occurs in two phases i.e. inhalation and exhalation.

Inward movement of water

This is the process by which water containing dissolved oxygen is allowed into
the body of the fish.
The fish closes the operculum (gill cover) and opens the mouth.
It then lowers the floor of the mouth cavity. This increases volume of the mouth
cavity and lowers its pressure below that of the surrounding water.
The mouth then opens to let in water into the mouth cavity (buccal cavity)
Water flows into the mouth cavity through the mouth.
It then closes the mouth and rises the buccal cavity to decrease the volume and
increase the pressure in the buccal cavity.
Meanwhile the gullet is closed.
 This makes the water current to flow into the gill chamber.
As water passes over the gill filament, gaseous exchange takes place i.e. oxygen
diffuses into blood while CO2 diffuses from blood into the water.
Out ward movement of water:
For water to flow out after gaseous exchange, the operculum muscle relax then
water flows out.
Meanwhile the buccal floor is still raised and the mouth is still closed.
The buccal floor then lowers to repeat the cycle.

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN AMPHIBIANS

a) Tad pole
Tad poles first use external gills and later internal gills as surface of gaseous
exchange.
The tad pole takes in water through the mouth and the water passes over the
gills and then out of the body through the gill slit.
The oxygen diffuses from the water into the blood while CO2 diffuses from
blood into water.
b) Adult amphibians
In adults gaseous exchange takes place through the;

1. Skin.
2. Lining of the mouth cavity.
3. Lungs.
Amphibians depend mostly on their skin and buccal cavity for their gaseous
exchange while they are in water. Lungs are only used when on land or when the
water dries and the amphibian has to remain in mud.
1. The skin
The skin is thin walled, moist and has a good network of blood capillaries. The
skin acts as a respiratory surface when the amphibian is in and out of water. It’s
used when the oxygen need is low.

On land, the atmospheric oxygen dissolves in the layer of moisture and then
diffuses across the skin into the blood.
At the same time, CO2 diffuses from the blood into the atmospheric air.
In water, the oxygen dissolved in it, diffuses from the water across the skin into
blood. CO2 diffuses from blood into water.

2. The buccal cavity

The buccal cavity has a thin lining which is kept moist. It also has a good network
of blood capillaries. The cavity is ventilated in the following ways.

During inhalation:

The mouth floor lowers when it closes.

This increases the volume of the buccal cavity reducing the pressure within.
This forces the air from the atmosphere through the nostrils into the buccal
cavity.
Oxygen diffuses through the thin cavity membrane into blood while Carbon
dioxide diffuses from blood into the buccal cavity.
During exhalation:
The muscles of the floor of the buccal cavity relax raising the floor of the
mouth.
This leads to a reduction in volume and an increase in pressure within the
mouth cavity.
Air then moves out to the atmosphere through the nostrils.

3. The lungs
The lungs consist of sacs supplied by a good network of blood capillaries.
They have a large surface area.
It is supplied with a lot of blood capillaries
It is thin walled.
Ventilation of the lungs occurs in the following stages;
Inspiration:

The mouth closes and the nostrils open.

Muscles of the floor of the buccal cavity contract to lower the mouth floor. This
increases the volume and reduces the pressure within the buccal cavity.
Air enters through the nostrils into the buccal cavity.
The nostrils close, the muscles of the floor of the buccal cavity relax to raise the
floor of the buccal cavity, while those of the abdominal cavity contract.
This causes the volume of the buccal cavity to reduce and that of the abdominal
cavity to increase.
Pressure in the buccal cavity increases and that in the lungs decreases.
It opens the glottis and air moves from the mouth cavity into the lungs through
the trachea.
Oxygen diffuses from the lungs into blood and Carbon dioxide from the blood
into the lungs.
Exhalation:

For exhalation, the abdominal muscles relax to reduce the volume of the lungs
while the floor of the mouth cavity is lowered to increase its volume.
This creates a higher pressure in the lungs and low pressure in the buccal cavity.
Waste air is forced from the lungs into the buccal cavity
The valve to the lungs (glottis) closes and nostrils open.
Muscles of the floor of the mouth cavity relax raising the floor and increasing
pressure in the buccal cavity.
Waste air is forced from the cavity through the nostrils to the atmosphere.

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN BIRDS

Due to metabolic rate, birds need high supply of oxygen and an efficient gaseous
exchange mechanism.

The respiratory system is made up of lungs and air sacs.

During inhalation, air enters through the trachea, bronchus and to the posterior air
sac to the lings, then to the anterior air sac and finally to the exterior (atmosphere)
through the trachea.

Illustration

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN MAMMALS e.g. man

The respiratory organs in man are lungs and the respiratory surfaces are the sac
like structures called alveoli.
 The respiratory tract (air passage)
Air enters through the nostrils into the nasal cavity where it is warmed to body
temperature.
It begins from the nostrils into the back of the mouth, then into the pharynx from
which it goes into the larynx and then to the trachea. From here, it travels through
the bronchus, bronchioles and lastly to the alveolus.
The membrane of the nasal cavity is covered with cilia between which are goblet
cells, which produce mucus.
Dust and germs inhaled from the atmosphere are trapped in mucus and are carried
by the beating action of cilia towards the back of the mouth where they are
swallowed.
This helps to prevent dust and germs from entering the lungs. Therefore, by the
time air reaches the lungs it is dust and germ free, warm and moist. It is drawn
from the nasal cavity into the trachea (wind pipe).

The trachea

This is a tube running from the pharynx to the lungs. It is always kept open by the
circular rings of cartilage within it. The cartilage prevents the trachea from
collapsing in case there is no air.
Cilia and goblet cells extend into the trachea to draw germs and dust out of trachea
into the mouth where they are lost.
At the lower end, the trachea divides into sub tubes called bronchi, which penetrate
further into the lungs and divide repeatedly to form small tubes called bronchioles.

The bronchioles divide into many small tubes called alveolar ducts, which end in
air sacs called alveoli.

The alveoli are the respiratory surfaces of mammals. There are about 300 million
alveoli in a human lung. This increases the surface area over which gaseous
exchange takes place.

Location of the lungs in the body

They are located in the thoracic cavity, enclosed by thorax wall and diaphragm.
The alveoli
An alveolus is a sac-like structure. The outer surface of the alveolus is covered
with a network of blood capillaries. The alveolus is moist and thin walled. The
oxygen in the alveolus diffuses into blood in the capillaries and it is carried around
the body. At the same time, Carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into the alveolus
and travels through the alveolar duct to the bronchioles then to the bronchi and
trachea and out through the nostrils.

The mammalian lung

These are two elastic spongy-like structures located within the thoracic cavity and
protected by the rib cage. Between the ribs are intercostal muscles, which move the
rib cage. Below the lungs is a muscular sheet of tissue called the diaphragm.

Breathing mechanism in mammals/ lung ventilation

The breathing mechanism in mammals involves two sub-processes that are

inspiration and expiration.

Inspiration:
This is the process by which air is allowed into the respiratory organs (lungs).

The external intercostal muscles contract while the internal intercostal ones
relax.
 This makes the rib cage to move outwards and upwards. The diaphragm
contracts and flattens.
This increases the volume of the thoracic cavity and reduces the pressure in it
below that of the atmosphere.
This causes air to enter from the atmosphere through the nostril, trachea,
bronchi, and bronchioles until it reaches the alveoli.
Expiration:
The internal intercostal muscles contract and the external ones relax.
This makes the rib cage to move downwards and inwards and the diaphragm
becomes dome-shaped.
This reduces the volume of the thoracic cavity and increases its pressure beyond
that of the atmosphere.
This forces the lungs to contract and release Carbon dioxide through the
bronchi, trachea and out through the nostrils.

Gaseous exchange in the alveolus

This take place across walls of alveoli and blood capillaries by diffusion.

During inspiration, air is taken into the lungs filling the alveoli. This air contains
more oxygen and low CO2 concentration. Oxygen in inspired air dissolves in the
moisture of the alveolar epithelium and diffuses across this and capillary walls into
the red blood cells of blood. Inside the red blood cell, oxygen combines with
haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin and carried in this form. At the same time,
CO2 which was carried as bicarbonate ion in blood diffuses from it through the
capillary walls into the alveoli. It leaves the lungs in expired air.

Changes in the composition of gases in blood across the alveolus

Volume of gas carried by 100cc of blood

 Gas Entering lungs Leaving lungs
Nitrogen 0.9cc 0.9cc
Oxygen 10.6cc 19.0cc
Carbon dioxide 58.0cc 50.0cc

The blood that flows towards the lungs contains a larger volume of carbon dioxide
and less oxygen. But as it leaves the lungs, oxygen is added into it and some CO2 is
given off in the lungs. This indicates exchange of gases within the lungs.

Changes in approximate air composition during breathing

Component Inhaled Exhaled

Nitrogen 79% 79%
Oxygen 21% 17%
Carbon dioxide 0.03% 4%
Water vapour Less saturated (variable) Saturated
Temperature Atmospheric temperature Body temperature

Although nitrogen is exchanged within the lungs and blood plasma, it plays no part
in chemical reactions of the body hence its composition remains the same in
inspired and expired air.

Inhaled air has more oxygen compared to exhaled air because it is taken up for the
process of respiration, which produces out CO2. Hence exhaled air contains more
CO2 than inhaled air. However the process of gaseous exchange in alveoli does not
remove all the carbon dioxide and oxygen in air.

Experiment to demonstrate breathing in mammals

Materials

Glass tubing, Bell jar,

Cork, Two balloons,
Rubber tubing, Rubber sheet and
Y tube, Thread.
Procedure

Get a bell jar and fix a cork with glass tubing in its mouth.
 Use a rubber tubing to connect a Y tube to the glass tubing inside the bell jar.
Tie balloons on each end of the Y tube to act as lungs.
Tie a rubber sheet using a rubber band at the open end of the bell jar to act as a
diaphragm.
Tie the end of a rubber sheet using a piece of thread.
Note
The bell jar acts as the thoracic cavity and its walls as the rib cage. The glass
tubing acts as the trachea and the ends of the Y tube act as the bronchi.

Pull the end of the rubber sheet using the thread to represent inhalation and
release it to represent exhalation.
Setup

Observation

When the thread is pulled, the rubber sheet stretches. This increases the volume
in the bell jar and reduces the pressure. Air enters from out through the glass
tube to the Y tube and inflates the balloons.
When the thread is released, the rubber sheet returns to its normal flat shape.
This reduces the volume in the bell jar and increases the pressure. Air is forced
out of the balloons through the Y tube and glass tubing. This deflates the
balloons.
Conclusion: Pulling of the thread represents inspiration and its release represents
expiration.

Important terms related with breathing.

Lung capacity: This refers to the total volume of the lungs when fully inflated. In
an adult man, this is about 5 liters. When breathing at rest only a small volume of
the lung is used. This is called the tidal volume. Tidal volume is the volume of air
breathed in and out at rest. When the body is very active, a larger volume of air is
taken into the lungs. This volume is called the vital lung capacity. However, even
at maximum expiration some air remains inside the lungs to prevent the lungs from
collapsing. This air makes up the residual volume.

Experiment to show that expired air contains Carbon dioxide.

Materials
Two test tubes,
Two corks,
T- Tube,
Two right angled capillary
tubes and
Lime water
Procedure
Place the T tube in the mouth and breathe in and out normally.
Air is made to pass into the lungs from test tube A and out through test tube B.
inhalation air is got from the atmosphere through the capillary tube and lime
water in tube A.
Exhaled air passes through lime water and capillary tube at the B end.
Set up of the experiment

Observation
Lime water in tube B turns milky while that in A remains clear.

Conclusion
Expired air contains Carbon dioxide.

Explanation
It is only Carbon dioxide, which can change the colourless limewater to milky.
Therefore since B had expired air, it proves it.

RESPIRATION AND GASEOUS EXCHANGE

TISSUE RESPIRATION

This is the breakdown of food substances to release energy. It occurs with the help
of enzymes. The major food respired (respiratory substrate) is a carbohydrate
(glucose). All other compounds are converted into a carbohydrate before they are
respired.
The energy released is stored as ATP (Adenosine tri phosphate).
ATP is highly energy rich compound formed between a chemical bond between
ADP (Adenosine di phosphate) and inorganic phosphate groups, i.e.
ADP + Pi ATP
If the energy stored as ATP is required by the body, ATP is suddenly broken down
into ADP and Pi to release energy for the body activities i.e.
ATP ATPase enzyme ADP + Pi + energy

The energy released is used by the body for various activities i.e.
Maintaining blood circulation
Bring about breathing movement
For producing sound
Transmission of nerve impulses from one part to another.
Synthesis of blood proteins
Maintaining the constant blood temperature
Cell division either mitosis or meiosis leading to growth
Active transport of materials into or outside the cell.
Secretion of various materials like hormones, enzymes, etc.

Stages of respiration
Respiration occurs in a series of reaction which are divided into 2 stages
1. Glycolysis
It involves breaking down of six carbon compounds (glucose) into 2 small 3
carbon compounds. This occurs in the cell cytoplasm.
2. Krebs cycle
It involves the breaking down of 3 carbon compounds further to release more
energy than glycolysis. It occurs in the mitochondria.

There are two types of respiration.

1. Aerobic respiration.
2. Anaerobic respiration

AEROBIC RESPIRATION
This is the breakdown of food to release energy in the presence of oxygen. This
type of respiration produces energy, Carbon dioxide and water. This is the most
efficient process by which energy is produced because there is complete
breakdown of food and it therefore produces more energy.
Equation for aerobic respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

Glucose oxygen Carbondioxide water

The Carbon dioxide produced diffuses from the tissues into the blood and it is
transported to the lungs for expiration through the trachea and nostrils. In plants
the Carbon dioxide produced is either lost to the atmosphere through stomata on
leaves or lenticels in stems or used in photosynthesis to produce food.

EXPERIMENT TO DEMOSTRATE THAT LIVING ORGANISMS USE

OXYGEN IN AEROBIC RESPIRATION
Materials:
Conical flask
Delivery tube
Beaker
Sodium hydroxide solution
Water
Germinating seeds
Procedure:
 Some germinating seeds are placed in a conical flask in which a test tube
containing sodium hydroxide is enclosed.
 A delivery tube is then connected to the conical flask with one end deeped in a
beaker containing water.
 The setup is left to stand and observations are made on the level of water in the
delivery tube.

Setup of the experiment

Observation:
After some time, water is seen to have risen in the delivery tube.
Conclusion:
Oxygen is used in aerobic respiration.
Explanation:
As the seeds respire, they use oxygen and produce CO2. However, the CO2 is
absorbed by the sodium hydroxide solution thus it’s not added back to the air in the
flask hence there’s a decrease in the original volume of air in the flask.
EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT LIVING ORGANISMS LIBERATE CO2
DURING AEROBIC RESPIRATION
Materials

 Soda lime (sodium hydroxide),

 Lime water,
 Filter pump,
 Toad ,
 Two delivery tubes,
 Three flasks and Corks.
Procedure

A rat is used as an aerobe and the experiment is fixed as shown below and left
to stand for 40 minutes.
The purpose of sodium hydroxide is to absorb CO2 from the incoming air.
Lime water in flask A is used to confirm the absence of CO2 in the incoming
air.
Lime water in flask C is used to test for the presence of CO2 in exhaled air.
The filter pump ensures one direction of air.
Setup

Observation

Limewater in flask B turned milky while that in flask A remained clear.

Conclusion

The living organism gives out Carbon dioxide during respiration.

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
This is the breakdown of food to release energy in absence of oxygen.
In this process the food is not completely broken down but part of it remains in
form of alcohol in plants and lactic acid in animals.
This process releases Carbon dioxide, energy and lactic acid in animals or ethanol
in plants.
The incomplete break down of food results into less energy released from the same
amount of food.

Most of the energy remains blocked in the intermediate substances (ethanol and
lactic acid). When oxygen is provided lactic acid can be further broken down to
release the remaining energy.

Equation to show anaerobic respiration in plants

OXYGEN DEBT
During vigorous activities the oxygen supply to muscles may not be enough to
meet the energy demands of the organism. In the process the products of anaerobic
respiration accumulate. As a result the rate of breathing of the individual increases
even after an exercise to provide extra oxygen required to oxidise the accumulated
lactic acid to CO2, water and energy.
In this condition the organism is said to be in an oxygen debt. Oxygen debt
therefore is the amount of oxygen needed to break down the accumulated lactic
acid in muscles after vigorous exercises.

Equation for anaerobic respiration in animals

C6H12O6 2CH3CH(OH)COOH + CO2 + 150kj (energy)

Glucse lactic acid

Graph showing change in lactic acid and concentration during and after
exercise

Lactic acid increases rapidly during an exercise till the end. This is due to
increased rate of anaerobic respiration due to lack of enough oxygen supply.
At the end of the exercise, lactic acid content in muscles drops suddenly because it
is being oxidized to CO2, water and more energy in the liver. The oxygen used in
breaking down this lactic acid is attained by breathing deeply.

Anaerobic respiration in plants

When plants respire without oxygen, glucose is broken down into ethanol, CO 2,
water and energy.
enzyme
C6H12O6 C2H5OH + CO2 + Energy (118kj)

Glucose ethanol Carbon dioxide

Little energy is produced, much of it still locked in the partially broken ethanol.

Anaerobic respiration in yeast

 The form of anaerobic respiration carried out by yeast is known as

fermentation.
 Fermentation is any form of anaerobic respiration in solution form.
 In yeast, fermentation leads to production of ethanol, CO2 and energy which is a
chief product. The enzyme which is involved is zymase.
C6H12O6 enzyme C2H5OH + CO2 + Energy (118kj)

Glucose ethanol Carbondioxide

Application of anaerobic respiration

The process is commercially exploited in beer brewing to produce alcohol

It is also used in baking of bread to raise dough.

Experiment to show that CO2 is given off during anaerobic

respiration/fermentation

Materials:

Two test tubes, Glucose,

Delivery tubes, Oil and
Yeast, Lime water.
Procedure

1. Boil about 20 cm3 of glucose solution to drive off oxygen from it and allow it to
cool to room temperature.
2. Add a layer of oil over glucose solution to prevent oxygen from dissolving in it.
3. Add a small quantity of yeast suspension to the glucose solution using a pipette.
4. Pour limewater in one test tube.
5. Using a delivery tube and rubber bangs fix the delivery tube in the test tube as
shown below.
6. Leave the experiment to stand in a warm place for an hour.
Setup

Set up a control experiment in the same way but using a boiled yeast suspension or
without yeast or without glucose.

Observation

Bubbles of a gas are seen in limewater and limewater turns milky.

Conclusion

Carbon dioxide is produced during anaerobic respiration.

Explanation

Yeast breaks down glucose in absence of oxygen to produce ethanol, CO 2 and

some heat.

The CO2 produced turns lime water milky by reacting with calcium hydroxide to
form insoluble calcium carbonate.

Experiment to demonstrate the liberation of heat during fermentation of yeast

OR
Experiment to show the production of energy in absence of oxygen (anaerobic
respiration)

Materials:

10% glucose solution

10% yeast suspension
2 vacuum/thermos flasks
2 thermometers
Cooking oil
Water bath
Cotton wool
Procedure:

100cc of glucose solution is boiled in a beaker over a water bath so as to drive

out any dissolved oxygen and then allowed to cool.

50cc of glucose solution is each poured in each flask and small quantities of oil
are added to prevent entry of oxygen into the glucose solution.

Yeast solution is added below the oil layer of one of the flasks using a
dropper/pipette.

A thermometer is placed in each flask and kept in solution with cotton wool as
shown below.

The thermometer readings are recorded hourly at intervals for some time.

Observation:

After some time, the temperature rises in flask. A steadily while in B, the
temperature remains the same.

Conclusion:

The temperature rises in flask A due to anaerobic respiration of glucose by

producing heat.

In B, there’s no yeast to respire anaerobically hence no heat is produced.

Experiment to show that energy (heat) is released by germinating seeds

during respiration

Materials:

Vacuum flask,
Germinating seeds,
Cotton wool and
 Thermometer.
Sodium hypochlorite solution
Procedure

The seeds are socked in water for 24 hours.

One group of seeds is then killed by boiling them in water.
Both sets of seeds are socked in formalin for 15 minutes in order to kill any
bacterial and fungal spores.
Place moist germinating seeds in one flask.
Place the boiled seeds in another flask.
Insert a thermometer in each of the flasks plugged with cotton wool.
Fix the two flasks on a retort stand in an upside down position so that the
seeds are near the thermometer bulb as shown below.
Setup

Observation

After three days the temperature in the germinating seeds is higher than that of
the boiled seeds. That of the boiled seeds remains constant.

Conclusion

Germinating seeds give out heat.

Explanation

During germination oxygen is absorbed to carry out respiration, which gives out
energy in form of heat.

Similarities between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

1) Both require glucose as a raw material.
2) Both produce energy.
3) Both produce Carbon dioxide.
4) Both take place in living cells.

Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

A common mode of respiration in both Rare process limited to few plants and
plants and animals animals

Produces more Carbon dioxide Produces less Carbon dioxide.

Occurs throughout life Occurs temporary in very active

muscles

Liberates large quantities of energy Liberates less energy

Products are water, Carbon dioxide and Products are Carbon dioxide, energy
energy and alcohol or lactic acid.

Complete breakdown of food Incomplete break down of food.

Oxygen is used Oxygen is not used.

Respiration quotient: This is the ratio of CO2 produced to oxygen used:

Importance of respiration

1) Respiration produces energy that is used to run the various activities in the
body.
2) It is exploited commercially in baking, brewing and making of dairy
products such as cheese, yoghurt and butter.
 Similarities between respiration and photosynthesis

1) Both take place in living cells.

2) Both involve enzymes.
3) Both involve oxygen, Carbon dioxide and glucose.
4) Both involve energy.
Differences between respiration and photosynthesis

Respiration Photosynthesis

Oxygen is absorbed Oxygen is released

Carbondioxide is released Carbondioxide is absorbed

Takes place in light and darkness Needs light to take place

Energy is released Energy is absorbed

Does not require chlorophyll It requires chlorophyll

Take place in plants and animals Takes place in plants only.

EXCRETION AND OSMOREGULATION

Excretion is the removal of waste products of metabolism from the body. Most
of the waste products are toxic when allowed to accumulate in the body.

Importance of excretion
 To remove toxic waste products whose accumulation in the body
poisons/harms the organisms
 To remove excess materials in the body which when left to accumulate
affects the body metabolism.

Excretory products are divided into two groups:

1. Nitrogenous excretory products.

These are excretory products, which contain the element nitrogen. They include
ammonia, urea and uric acid.
Ammonia:
This is a highly toxic nitrogenous waste and it requires a lot of water for its
elimination. It is very soluble in water and due to this it requires less energy to
be excreted. Ammonia is excreted by organisms which live in fresh water and
therefore have a lot of water in their bodies. Such organisms include bony fish,
protozoans, and amphibians when in water,

Urea:
This is a less toxic nitrogenous waste. It requires less water for its excretion. It
however requires a lot of energy for its excretion because of its low solubility in
water compared to ammonia. Urea is excreted by terrestrial organisms, which
have easy access to water, and marine organisms. Such organisms include
terrestrial mammals, amphibians when on land, cartilaginous fish, etc.

Uric acid:
This is less toxic than urea and requires no water for its elimination from the
body. It is insoluble in water. The demerit of excreting uric acid is that it
requires a lot of energy for its excretion. Uric acid is excreted by birds, reptiles
and insects and also common in desert animals.

2. Non nitrogenous excretory products.

These are excretory substances that do not contain the element nitrogen. Such
products include Carbondioxide, excess salts and excess water.

A table showing examples of organisms, their excretory products, their

excretory organs and their habitats
Example of Excretory Excretory Habitat
organism product organ
Bony fish Ammonia Kidney Flesh water
Cartilaginous fish Urea Kidney Marine water
Reptiles Uric acid Kidney Terrestrial
Birds Uric acid Kidney Terrestrial
Tadpoles Ammonia Gills Flesh water
Adult amphibians Ammonia Kidney Flesh water
Urea Terrestrial
Mammals Urea Kidney Terrestrial
Insects Uric acid Malpighian Terrestrial
tubules

Animals producing nitrogenous compounds in form of urea are those living on

land but have easy access to water. This is because though urea is less toxic than
ammonia, it needs a relatively high amount of water to reduce its toxicity to the
body during excretion. Urea is excreted in form of urine, which is a mixture of
urea, salts and water. Urea is excreted by mammals, amphibians when on land
and marine vertebrates.
Animals producing nitrogenous wastes in form of uric acid are those living on
land with little access to water. Uric acid is the least toxic and needs the least
amount of water for its excretion. Such animals conserve their water because it
is not lost during excretion. These animals include, bird, reptiles and insects.

Excretory organs
These are organs that release excretory products. They include the following.
Table showing excretory organs and their corresponding excretory
products
Excretory organ Excretory product
Lungs Carbondioxide and water
Liver Bile pigments
Kidney Urea, excess salts and excess water
Malpighian tubules Uric acid
Skin Excess water, excess salts and some
urea

EXCRETION IN MAN
In man the excretory organs are the kidneys, skin and lungs. Their excretory
waste products are as shown in the table below.
Excretory organ Excretory product Excretory substance
Skin Sweat Urea, excess salts and excess
water
Lungs Exhaled air Carbondioxide and water
Kidney Urine Urea, excess salts and excess
water.

THE KIDNEY AND THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Structure of urinary system

Parts and functions of the urinary system

1) Aorta
It carries oxygenated blood with all food nutrients to the kidney.
2) Renal artery:
This arises from dorsal aorta. It brings blood containing excretory products to
the kidney.
3) Renal vein:
It carries filtered blood from the kidney to the posterior vena cava.
4) Ureter:
These are two narrow tubes arising from hilum of each kidney. They connect
the kidneys to the urinary bladder. They transport urine to the urinary bladder.
5) Urinary bladder:
It is a thick walled elastic sac-like structure which stores urine.
6) Sphincter muscle:
These muscles are elastic thus can contract and relax to control urine flow.
7) Urethra:
It is a passage for urine to the outside of the body.

THE KIDNEY

Structure of the kidney

The kidneys are solid bean-shaped structures and they occur in pairs in
mammals. They are reddish-brown in colour enclosed in a transparent
membrane and attached to the back of the abdominal cavity.
The kidney tissue consists of many capillaries and renal tubules connected
together by connective tissue. The kidney has two major parts.
1. The cortex which is a dark outer part. It consists of the Bowman’s capsule
which is responsible for ultra-filtration of blood passing across it.
2. The medulla, which is a lighter inner, part. It is made up of many cone-
shaped portions called pyramids.
The pelvis is the area where the ureter leaves the kidney.

The kidney performs three major functions in the body.

1. It carries out excretion.
2. It carries out the function of osmoregulation.
3. It contains endocrine glands, which secrete hormones.
The kidney is made up of several microscopic structures (functional units)
called nephrons where the actual excretion and osmoregulation takes place.

THE NEPHRONE
This is the functional unit of the kidney. It carries out the function of excretion
and osmoregulation in the kidney.
The nephron consists of a cup-shaped structure known as the bowmans’
capsule. Blood comes to the nephrone through the afferent vessel, which is a
branch of the renal artery, and it leaves through the efferent vessel.
The efferent vessel joins many other efferent vessels from other nephrones to
form the renal vein.
In the bowmans’ capsule the afferent vessel divides to form capillaries.
The capillaries are highly coiled and they form a knot called glomerulus.
Leading from the bowman’s’ capsule is a highly coiled tube known as proximal
convoluted tubule. This is continuous with a U shaped tubule called loop on
Henle.
The loop is divided into the descending loop and ascending loop.
From the loop of Henle the tube becomes highly coiled to form the distal
convoluted tubule which leads to the collecting duct.

Structure of the nephron

 Parts of nephron
1. Bowman’s capsule:
It contains a dense-network of capillaries called glomerulus. The glomerulus is
formed from the wider arteriole of renal artery called afferent arteriole. It is
located in the cortex.
The Bowman’s capsule serves the function of filtering small molecules in blood
such as urea glucose, etc. through a process called ultra-filtration.

Adaptations of the glomerulus to ultra-filtration

i) Having high blood pressure that forces small molecules out of the
glomerulus. This is due to the afferent arteriole being wider than the efferent.
ii) Having many capillaries that give it a large surface area for ultra-filtration.
iii) Having a semi permeable membrane that can allow any small molecule to
pass through.
Adaptations of the Bowman’s capsule to collect the filtrate
i) Possession of cup-shaped structure which enables it to collect the filtrate.
ii) Having a porous upper membrane that easily allows filtration.
iii) Having a large volume that can accommodate more filtrate.

2. Proximal convoluted tubule:

This is a site where re-absorption of useful materials such as glucose and some
small amino acids and water from glomerular filtrate back to blood takes place.

3. Loop of Henle:
It’s made up of a descending (going down) limb and an ascending (going up)
limb. The main function of the loop of Henle is to make the tissue fluid in the
medulla more concentrated than the glomerular filtrate in the nephron so that
water needed in the body is reabsorbed. It’s known to cause the retention of
water. This is one way of conserving water in camel because of its extremely
long loop of Henle.

4. Distal convoluted tubule:

It chiefly re-absorbs salts like chloride ions together with water, leaving a
concentrated liquid now called urine which passes down to collecting ducts.

5. Collecting duct:
This duct carries urine from the distal tubule to the pelvis of kidney. It allows
outward movement of water thus conserving it.

Adaptations of the nephron to re absorption

i) Having a thin membrane (one cell thick) for easy diffusion of materials.
ii) Having micro villi to increase the surface area for re absorption.
iii) Having numerous mitochondria to provide energy for active reabsorption.

URINE FORMATION
The process of urine formation takes place in the nephrone. It occurs in two
phases.
1. Ultra-filtration.
2. Selective re-absorption.
Ultra filtration
 Much blood comes from the afferent vessel into the glomerulus than that
which leaves through efferent because the afferent vessel is larger than the
efferent vessel.
 This generates pressure in the blood capillaries of the glomerulus forcing
small molecules to filter out of the blood capillaries to form the glomerular
filtrate.
 Blood in the renal artery contains proteins, red blood cells, white blood cells,
urea, water, salts, amino acids and vitamins.
 In the glomerulus, small molecules filter out by ultra filtration to form the
glomerular filtrate. This filtrate contains glucose, urea, water, salts and
vitamins.
 Proteins and blood cells do not filter out because they have bigger
molecules, which cannot pass through the walls of the glomerulus.
 The filtrate formed moves from the Bowman’s capsule through the capsular
space to proximal convoluted tubule where selective reabsorption starts to
occur.

Diagrammatic illustration of ultrafiltration

 Selective reabsorption
In the proximal convoluted tubule:
 Most of the food materials are re absorbed into the blood capillaries by
active transport e.g. all the glucose, vitamins, some salts like sodium
chloride and even some water is re absorbed by diffusion.
In the loop of Henle:
 As the filtrate flows down the descending limb, water is re absorbed back
into the capillaries by osmosis leading to increased concentration of the
filtrate down the descending limb.
 As the filtrate ascends, the thick ascending limb of loop of Henle, salts like
Na and K are reabsorbed by active transport. This leads to a decrease in
concentration of the glomerular filtrate in the ascending limb.
In the distal convoluted tubule:
 Selective re absorption of salts by diffusion occurs.
In the collecting duct:
 Water is lost to the highly concentrated medulla tissues by osmosis from
which later the remaining filtrate is urine which goes via the ureter and
temporarily stored in the urinary bladder.
 Summary of the steps involved in formation of urine in the kidneys
Name Process Examples of molecules
Ultra-filtration High blood pressure forces small Water, glucose, amino
(pressure molecules from the glomerulus into acids, salts, urea, uric
filtration) bowman’s capsule. acid, creatinine.
Selective Diffusion and active transport Glucose, water, salts and
reabsorption return molecules to blood at the amino acids.
proximal convoluted tubule.
Tubular Active transport moves molecules Uric acid, creatinine,
secretion from blood into the distal ammonia and hydrogen
convoluted tubules. ions.
Reabsorption Along the length of the nephron Water and salts.
and notably at the loop of Henle
and collecting duct, water returns
by osmosis following active
reabsorption of salts.
Excretion Urine formation rids body of Water, salts, urea, uric
metabolic wastes acid, ammonia.

Comparison of substances in blood and urine

Nitrogenous waste In blood In urine
Urea 0.03 2.0
Proteins 7-9 0
Glucose 0.1 0
Chloride ions 0.37 0.6
Sodium ions 0.32 0.35
Water 93 95

 There are proteins in blood and there is none in urine because proteins are
not filtered out of the blood vessels into the glomerulus due to the large size
of their molecules.
 Urea is more in urine than in blood because it is filtered out of blood and it is
not reabsorbed back in the blood.
 Water is more in urine than in blood because it is used to dissolve urea.
 However the relative amounts of water in urine and in blood varies
depending on the amount of water in the body, amount of solutes in the
body, temperature and body activity.
 There is glucose in blood and no glucose in urine because glucose is
reabsorbed from the glomerular filtrate back into the blood.
 Salts like chlorides and sodium ions are more in urine than in blood. This is
because they are in excess and they are not reabsorbed back into the blood.
Because of this they tend to concentrate in urine.

EXCRETION IN PLANTS
Plants excrete less poisonous waste products like CO2 through the stomata and
acids through dropping leaves and fruits. Plants do not require specialized
excretory organs due to;
i) Plants can store excess proteins unlike in mammals.
ii) They accumulate less metabolic wastes due to their low metabolic rate.
iii) Plants synthesize their organic food substances according to their
requirements. This ensures that no excess is made.
iv) Plants do not produce nitrogenous waste products. They produce non-
nitrogenous wastes, which are less toxic to their bodies.
v) Some wastes accumulate in particular parts of the plant and they are
eliminated when this part of the plant falls off.
vi) Some of the wastes are useful in other processes within the plants body. For
example Carbon dioxide produced from respiration can be used in
photosynthesis.
vii) They do not locomote and they are less metabolically active than animals.

HOMEOSTASIS
This is the maintenance of a constant internal environment of the body. The
internal environment of the body is composed of tissue fluids, which surround
cells. Homeostasis involves controlling the blood sugar level, salt level, water
level, temperature and Carbon dioxide concentration.

WATER BALANCE AND OSMOREGULATION IN MAN

It is the maintenance of blood concentration constant.
This is the control of the amount of water in the body.
The water level is kept neither high nor low but within a limit according to the
demands of the body.
The level is maintained by loss of excess and gain if more is required.
Water is lost from the body through urine, sweat, expiration, and feaces during
egestion and it can be gained through; drinking eating and water from
metabolism.
The loss and gain of water brings about changes in blood concentration.
These changes are detected in the brain by the hypothalamus. If the blood
passing through the brain is too concentrated, the hypothalamus stimulates the
anterior lobe of the pituitary gland to secrete a hormone called antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) into the blood stream. When the hormone reaches the kidneys,
it causes the walls of the nephrones (distal convoluted tubules and collecting
ducts) to become permeable to water and water is reabsorbed from the
glomerular filtrate back into the blood. The urine that is secreted becomes more
concentrated and yellowish in colour. This reduces the loss of water in urine.
If blood passing through the hypothalamus is too dilute, the production of ADH
from the pituitary gland stops and the nephrones become less permeable to
water. Less water is therefore reabsorbed from the glomerular filtrate resulting
into production of colourless urine in big volumes. This mostly happens during
cold conditions where water loss through sweating is minimal.
When conditions are hot, sweating increases, lowering the water level in blood.
This causes more re-absorption of water in the nephrones resulting in
production of concentrated pale yellow urine.
Because of the high concentration, when urine is poured on grass or any plant,
they get scotched because the cells lose water to the surrounding concentrated
urine and the plant cells become flaccid. This brings about wilting and drying of
the plant.
When the level of water in blood is too low the hormone causes a feeling of
thirst, which makes one to drink water in order to bring back the normal water
level in blood.
Failure of organisms to secrete ADH leads to constant urination of large
amounts of dilute urine thus increases the blood concentration, a condition
known as diabetes inspidus.

EXCRETION AND OSMOREGULATION IN OTHER ANIMALS

THE AMOEBA
Amoeba excretes excess water by use of a contractile vacuole. The contractile
vacuole is a small sac-like structure lying inside the cytoplasm.
The cell membrane surrounding amoeba is semi-permeable and since the
concentration of the cytoplasm is higher than that in the environment
surrounding amoeba, water molecules move by osmosis from out into the
cytoplasm of amoeba. The organism uses some of the water and excess is
secreted into the contractile vacuole, which is formed in the process. As the
vacuole enlarges, it moves towards the cell membrane and finally fuses with it.
It then bursts to release the excess water out. A new vacuole is formed when the
organism is excreting more water.

Illustration

INSECTS
Excretion in insects is carried out by structures called Malpighian tubules,
which are found between the mid gut and the rectum of the insect’s alimentally
canal.
Insect tissues produce nitrogenous wastes in form of potassium urate, which is
liberated into the blood stream and taken to the malpighian tubules. In the
tubules, urate reacts with Carbondioxide and water to form uric acid, which is
released out of the body along with feaces.
Diagram showing the position of the malpighian tubules
 CONTROL OF SALT LEVELS IN BLOOD
If the salt levels are high in blood, the blood concentration increases, this is
detected by the hypothalamus as blood flows through it. It then instructs the
pituitary gland which then instructs the adrenal gland to stop the production of
aldosterone thus little or no salts get reabsorbed back into the blood with in the
nephrons.
If the salt levels are low in blood, the pituitary gland instructs the adrenal gland
to release aldosterone hormone which increases salt re absorption during urine
formation leading to dilute urine.

HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL OF BLOOD SUGAR IN HUMANS

Blood sugar is called glucose. Its concentration is controlled by a section of the
pancreas called islets of Langerhans. This gland regulates responding organs
mainly the liver and muscles through its secretions.

Importance of blood sugar regulation

1. It prevents cells running short of glucose in case its level drops. Blood sugar
(glucose) is the main source of energy.
2. Any slight increase in glucose level alters the concentration of blood’s
osmotic pressure, which results in alteration of the rate at which water moves
in and out of the body cells by osmosis.
Blood glucose concentration is controlled by the pancreas. The pancreas has
glucose receptor cells which monitor the concentration of glucose in the blood,
and it also has endocrine cells (called the islets of Langerhans), which secrete
two hormones. The alpha cells (α cells) secrete a hormone called glucagon,
while the beta cells (β cells) secrete a hormone called insulin. These two
hormones are antagonistic, and have opposite effects on blood glucose.

Mechanism of blood sugar regulation

After a meal of carbohydrates, glucose is absorbed from the gut into the hepatic
portal vein, increasing the blood glucose concentration. This is detected by the
pancreas, which secretes insulin from its beta cells in response.

Insulin causes glucose;

 To be taken up by the liver and converted to glycogen and stored there.
 To be converted into fats. Fats are stored in adipose tissue.
  To be broken down to release energy at higher rate. This energy is stored
in a form of high energy compound called ATP. This reduces blood
glucose in excess.
Once the concentration of blood glucose is lowered to a normal level, the
pancreas stops secreting insulin.
If the glucose level falls too far for example during starvation of fasting, the
pancreas detects this and releases glucagon from its alpha cells.

Glucagon causes;
 Liver cells to convert stored glycogen into glucose.
 Fats in adipose tissue to be converted to glucose.
 The rate of oxidation of glucose to slow down.
This raises the blood glucose concentration to approximately normal level.
Once this happens, the pancreas stops producing glucagon.
Failure to produce insulin causes the presence of much glucose in urine a
condition known as diabetes mellitus.

THE LIVER
The liver is the largest organ in the body of a mammal. It performs several
functions, which include the following.
1. Regulation of blood sugar level.
This is done with the help of a hormone called insulin from the - cells of
the islets of langerhans, in the pancreas. When the blood sugar level is high,
the pancreas produces insulin, which moves to the liver cells through blood.
It then stimulates the liver cells to convert some of the glucose into glycogen
for storage in the body. When the level of glucose drops in blood, it inhibits
the secretion of insulin and stimulates the - cell of the islets of langerhans
in the pancreas to secrete a hormone called glucagon. Glucagon stimulates
the liver to convert glycogen and fats to glucose. This raises the level of
glucose in the blood.
2. Regulation of lipids.
The liver removes lipids from the blood stream by either breaking them
down to release energy or storing them in fat deposits.
3. Regulation of amino acids and proteins
The body cannot store excess proteins and amino acids therefore excess is
sent to the liver where the amino group (NH2) is removed from them and
converted into ammonia or urea to be excreted. This occurs in a process
 called deamination. The remaining part is broken down to release energy or
it is converted into fats for storage.
4. Detoxification.
This is the removal of toxic products from the body. All toxic products from
any part of the body are taken to the liver where their toxicity is neutralized.
5. Production of heat
When the body temperature falls, metabolic processes take place in the liver
to produce heat, which restores the temperature back to normal.
6. Production of bile.
Bile is manufactured in the liver and stored in the gall bladder.
7. Formation of cholesterol.
Cholesterol is a lipid part used in formation of cell membranes.
8. Elimination of sex hormones.
After their role is over, the sex hormones are modified and sent to the kidney
or expelled into bile by the liver.
9. Storage of blood.
The liver has a good network of blood capillaries and most of the blood is
stored in these capillaries. It holds more blood than any other body organ.
[Link] of vitamins.
The liver stores most of the fat-soluble vitamins suck as vitamin E, vitamin
D and vitamin K
[Link] of red blood cells.
In adults the red blood cells are produced from the red bone marrows but in
the foetus they are made in the liver.
[Link] of heamoglobin from red blood cells.

THE SKIN
This is the most extensively distributed tissue found all over the body of
mammals. It is a continuous protective layer over the body.

Functions of the skin

i) To protect the tissue below it from mechanical damage, bacterial and viral
infections.
ii) It also prevents excess loss of water from the body.
iii) It acts as a sense organ and it is sensitive to pain, touch and heat. This helps
the organism to be aware of its environment.
iv) It helps to keep the body temperature of endothermic organisms constant.
v) It synthesizes vitamin D in presence of sunlight.
vi) It acts as an excretory organ. It excretes sweat, which contains urea, water
and excess salts.
 Structure of the skin

The skin consists of two main layers.

1. The epidermis (outer layer)
2. The dermis (inner layer)

THE EPIDERMIS:
This is made up of three sub layers.
a) The Malpighian layer.
b) The granular layer.
c) The cornified layer.
1) The Malpighian layer
This is the inner most sub layer in the epidermis. It consists of dividing cells
which give rise to cells of the granular layer. It secretes a pigment called
melanin, which gives the skin its colour and protects the skin from ultraviolent
rays. Albinos do not produce melanin in their skins.

2) The granular layer

This contains living cells arising from the malphigian layer. It is the biggest
layer of the epidermis. It gives rise to cells of the cornified layer.

3) The cornified layer.

This is the outermost layer of the skin. It is made up of dead cells, which are
keratinized. Cells of this layer continuously ware away and are replaced by cells
from the granular layer. Its function is to protect the inner parts of the body
from mechanical injury and entry of bacteria and other germs. It also offers
water proofing to the skin.

THE DERMIS:
This is the inner layer of the skin. It is below the Malpighian layer. It is thicker
than the epidermis. It contains the sweat glands, nerve fibers, fat cells and blood
capillaries.

Other parts of the skin

1) Hairs.
The hairs extend from the dermis through the epidermis. They arise from hair
follicles in the dermis. They protect the body and trap a layer of air on the skin,
which insulates the body against heat loss.
2) Sebaceous gland
This secretes an oily substance called sebum. This oil softens the cornified layer
and prevents it from cracking. The oil also provides water proofing to the skin.
3) Nerve endings.
These perceive external stimuli and transport impulses to the central nervous
system.
4) Sweat glands.
These are coiled tubular glands located in the dermis. They excrete sweat,
which is released out of the skin through the sweat duct.

CONTROL OF BODY TEMPERATURE (Temperature regulation).

This is the process of maintaining the temperature of the organism within
narrow ranges, which favour body activity, and ensures optimum activity of
body enzymes.
To maintain the body temperature constant, there must be a balance between
heat loss and heat gain.

The body loses heat by;

a) Radiation: Heat diffuses from the warm body to the cold environment.
b) Conduction: The body loses heat to the cold object in contact with it.
c) Convection: Where cold air or wind carries heat from the warm body.
d) Evaporation: e.g. sweating leading to loss of heat

The body gains heat by;

a) Radiation: e.g. from the sun’s heat and reflection from the ground.
b) Conduction: e.g. from the ground via the feet.
c) Convection: e.g. from the wind bringing hot air to the body.
d) Metabolism: e.g. since many of the body’s chemical reactions release heat
e.g. in respiration.

The rate of heat loss and gain depends on;

a) Surface area to volume ratio i.e.
Small organisms having a large surface area to volume ration tend to lose
more heat than the large ones with small surface area to volume ratio.
b) Temperature of surrounding environment:
Organisms tend to lose more heat in cold environment and gain more in hot
environment.
c) Rate of respiration
The higher the rate of respiration, the more heat energy gained by the body.
d) Humidity of the environment
Heat loss increases in humid conditions because high humidity makes the
environment colder.

Endothermic/Homoithermic animals:
Endothermic organisms are those that are able to maintain a constant body
temperature irrespective of the surrounding environmental temperature.
They depend mainly on heat generated within their bodies. They are also called
warm blooded animals e.g. mammals.
Ectothermic/poiklothermic animals:
These are animals that cannot maintain a constant body temperature but their
temperature changes with that of the environment. They are also called cold
blooded animals e.g. reptiles and amphibians.

A graph showing how body temperature varies with environmental

temperature

The body temperature of endotherms remains constant despite the increase in

surrounding temperature.
The body temperature of ectotherms varies with environmental temperature.

Control of body temperature in endotherms

When temperature is high, organisms respond in a way that lowers down the
temperature and when the temperature is low, organisms respond in a way that
raises their body temperature. These responses are categorized into two types.
1. Physiological responses. These are involuntary actions and they occur in
body organs in response to temperature changes.
2. Behavioral responses. These are voluntary responses from the organism.
The organism consciously decides what to do when external and internal
temperatures change.

Response to cold weather in endothermic animals

Physiological means.
1. The erector pill muscles of the hair contract to make the hairs stand upright
to the skin. The hairs trap a layer of air, which insulates the skin.
2. The rate of sweating reduces in order to reduce on the amount of heat lost
through it.
3. The metabolic activity of the liver increases to produce energy in form of
heat.
4. Blood vessels near the skin constrict in the process called vasoconstriction to
reduce on the blood reaching the skin. This reduces heat loss through
radiation.
5. Small animals like the mouse undergo hibernation where they dig holes and
live deep in them to reduce heat loss
6. Shivering. This is the rhythmic contractions of the skeletal muscles. It results
into production of heat energy.

Behavioral means.
Endotherms may raise their body temperature behaviorally through;
1. Sitting near hot bodied to raise their body temperature by conduction or
radiation.
2. Humans take hot drinks.
3. They do physical exercises to raise the metabolic activity of the body.
4. They can take a hot bath
5. They put on thick clothes, which insulate their bodies.

In hot weather
In hot environment, animals control the body temperature by increasing heat
loss and lowering heat production through the following ways:

Physiological means.
1. The erecter pilli muscle of the skin relaxes making the hairs to fall on the
skin. This allows heat loss by radiation.
2. The metabolic rate of the body reduces to reduce on the amount of heat
produced.
3. Sweating increases. In this process excessive heat is lost as latent heat of
vaporization to evaporate the sweat from the body hence losing heat.
4. Vasodilatation. Vessels dilate and allow more blood to reach the skin surface
in order to lose heat to the surroundings by radiation.
5. Animals living in hot environments have a thin fat layer to reduce on the
insulation.

Behavioral means.
1. Some rest on cold bodies like rocks to lose heat by conduction.
2. Humans sit near fans.
3. Some take cold drinks.
4. They put on light clothes
5. Panting. This involves hanging out of the tongue for example in dogs. This
results into evaporation from the mouth, which eventually cools the animal.
6. Swimming.
 Adaptations of mammals to cold conditions
1. They have a lot of hairs over their bodies to trap a layer of air
2. They have a thick fat layer to act as an insulator.
3. Some are very big and thus have a small surface area to volume ratio. This
reduces the rate of heat loss.
4. They have few sweat glands to reduce of the heat lost during sweating
5. They have fewer blood vessels on the skin surface to avoid heat loss through
radiation.

Behavioral:
1. Putting on thick clothes like in humans
2. Doing physical exercises
3. Hibernation. This is a state of long rest by burrowing into crevices and holes
during extreme coldness.
4. Sun bathing

Adaptations to hot conditions

1. Having little hairs on the body to allow easy loss of heat.
2. Having less fat to reduce on the insulation effect of fats.
3. Having a large surface area to volume ratio. To allow a faster rate of heat
loss.
4. Having a lot of sweat glands to increase heat loss.
5. Having many blood vessels near the skin for easy loss of heat by radiation.

Behavioral:
1. Resting under shade.
2. Bathing cold water.
3. Aestivation. This is a state of long rest by burrowing in crevices and holes
during extreme hotness.
4. Putting on lighter clothes.
5. Sitting near cold things.

TEMPERATURE CONTROL IN ECTOTHERMIC ANIMALS

Ectothermic animals are animals whose body temperature changes with that of
the environment. Examples of ectotherms are fish, reptiles and amphibians.
Their body temperature is controlled by only behavioral means.

During hot conditions, they lose heat by.

1. They rest on cold rocks to lose heat by conduction.
2. They rest on cold stones and in shades to lose heat.
3. They burrow in cracks and lose heat by radiation.
4. Aestivation. This is a state of long rest by burrowing underground or under
rocks during high temperatures.
5. Thermal gaping. This is the opening of the mouth to lose water by
evaporation. This results into cooling. Thermal gaping occurs in crocodiles
and a few other reptiles.

During cold conditions, they gain heat by;

1. Resting on hot rocks to gain heat by conduction.
2. They rest under the sun to gain heat by radiation.
3. They rest near hot bodies to gain heat by radiation.
4. They burrow in hot sand to gain heat by conduction.
5. Basking in the sun to gain heat.
6. Hibernation. This is a state of long rest by burrowing into crevices and holes
during extreme coldness.
Merits of being endothermic
1. They are always active because their temperature is maintained at an
optimum temperature for enzyme activity.
2. They can live in a wide range of environments i.e. both hot and cold.
3. Their metabolic rate is maintained at a high rate due to the ability to maintain
a constant body temperature.

Disadvantages of being endothermic

1. Having a high rate of food consumption due to high rate of metabolism.
2. Maintaining the body temperature constant requires much energy.

Advantages of being ectothermic

1. Low food consumption due to low metabolic rate.
2. Easy to control body temperature by only behavioral means.

Disadvantages of being ectothermic

1. They have limited body activity in cold environments.
2. Show response to stimuli due to low metabolic rate.

CO-ORDINATION AND CONTROL

This is the ability of an organism to detect and respond to changes in their

internal and external environment.
It also refers to linking together of all activities in the body. Coordination is
carried out by two systems.
1. Nervous system
2. Endocrine system
The nervous system is a network of conducting tissue running to all parts of the
body and it transmits impulses while the endocrine system is a number of glands
in the body, which produce chemicals known as hormones.

Definitions of important terms

1. Irritability; this is the ability of an organism to detect and responds to a
stimulus in the environment.
2. Stimulus; this is a change in the external or internal environment to which
an organism responds.
3. Response; this is a change shown by an organism in reaction to a stimulus
4. Impulse; this is a nervous information transported along nerves in a nervous
system.
5. Effectors; these are cells or organs in an organism where a response to a
stimulus occurs.
6. Receptors; these are cells or organs that receive the stimulus and change it
into a nervous impulse.
7. Internal environment; this is the immediate surroundings of cells. In
animals the internal environment is the tissue fluid.
8. External environment; this is the surrounding of the entire organism.

COORDINATION AND IRRITABILITY IN PLANTS

Coordination and control in plants is carried out by hormones. Plants lack the
nervous system and information is carried by hormones especially auxins.
Plants do not move from one place to another. Their response involves growth
movements of part of the plant and turgor changes within cells. Parts of the
plant move towards or away from a stimulus due to changes in auxins
concentration in the parts concerned.
Plant responses are divided into three categories.
1. Nastic responses.
This is the movement of part of the plant in response to a non-directional
stimulus. This can be observed in the closing of the leaves of mimosa pudica
when touched (thigmonasty)
2. Tactic responses
This is a type of response where the whole organism moves towards or away
from a unidirectional stimulus. This response is common in lower plants
such as chlamydomonas and chlorella.
3. Tropisms
This is a growth movement of part of the plant towards or away in response to a
unidirectional stimulus.
Note;
Tactic responses and tropisms can be described as negative if movement is
away from the stimulus or positive if the movement is towards the stimulus.
The responses are of different types depending on the nature of the stimulus.

TROPISMS
This is the growth movement of the plant part in response to the direction of
stimulus. The direction of response is related to stimulus and the plants move
towards or away from it.

Characteristics of tropisms
1. It involves growth
2. It is a slow response
3. It occurs at the shoots and root tips
4. It is related to the direction of stimulus
5. It is induced by directional stimulus

Importance of tropisms to plants

1. It enables plants leaves to trap maximum sunlight by enabling plant shoots to
grow upright.
2. It enables plants to become firmly anchored in the soil by the roots growing
towards the ground.
3. It enables plant roots to absorb or obtain water which is necessary for plant
growth.
4. It enhances fertilization in plants since the pollen tubes grow towards the
chemicals of the embryo sac.
5. It enables climbing plants to gain support by twinning around the support.
6. Tropisms allow plant parts to alter direction in response to changing
conditions in the environment.

TYPES OF TROPISMS
Tropisms are divided into different types depending on the nature of the
stimulus.
The table below shows the name of tropism and corresponding stimulus
Name of tropism Stimulus
1. Hydrotropism Water
 2. Thigmotropism / haptotropism Touch
3. Chemotropism Chemicals
4. Geotropism Gravity
5. Phototropism Light
6. Aerotropism Air

Hydrotropism; this is the growth movement of part of a plant towards or away

from water.
Thigmotropism; this is the growth movement of part of a plant in response to
touch.
Chemotropism; this is the growth movement of part of the plant towards or
away from a particular chemical e.g. pollen tube grows towards the embryo sac
through the style during fertilization by responding to the source of chemicals
produced by the embryo sac.
Geotropism; this is the growth movement of part of the plant in response to
gravity.
Aerotropism; this is the growth movement of part of the plant towards or away
from air.
The table below shows some of the tropic movements shown by plants
Type of Stimulus Positive response Negative response
tropism
Phototropism Light Shoot Root
Geotropism Gravity Root Shoot
Hydrotropism Water Roots Shoots
Chemotropism Chemicals Pollen tube -
Thigmotropism Touch Tendrils of passion Root tips when in
fruits contact with an obstacle

PHOTOTROPISM
This is the growth movement of part of the plant in response to unidirectional
light. Plant shoots are positively phototropic that is, they grow towards the
direction of light while the roots are negatively phototropic (they grow away
from the direction of light).

AUXINS AND PHOTOTROPISM

Light from one direction of the shoot causes auxins on that side to escape to the
opposite side without light.
The side without light receives more auxins than one receiving more light.
A high concentration of auxins on the side with little or no light increases the
rate of cell division and elongation on that side.
This causes the shoot to bend towards the direction of light (positive
phototropism)

Illustration

However, high auxins concentration limits growth in plant roots

EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THE EFFECT OF UNIDIRECTIONAL

LIGHT ON GROWTH OF THE PLANT SHOOT
Materials
2 Potted plants, 2 opaque boxes, klinostat and Razor blade

Procedure
a) Get two opaque boxes and using a razor blade cut a small hole on one side of
each.
b) Get two potted plants of equivalent size.
c) Place one in box A and another in box B but fixed on a klinostat to serve as
the control experiment. Place both boxes in light and start the klinostat to
rotate the plant in box B.
d) Leave the experiment for 3-4 days.
Setup
Observation:
The shoot in A bent towards the direction of light while that in B continued to
grow straight.
Explanation:
Light coming from one direction in A made the stationary shoot to bend
towards the direction of light. Because the shoot in B was rotating on a clinostat
all of its sides received equal amounts of light and there was no effect on
growth.
Conclusion:
The shoot responds positively towards light.

PHOTOPERIODISM
This is the response of an organism mainly plants to the relative length of light
and dark periods. It mainly affects the production of flowering hormone
florigen.
Some plants need a relatively longer period of light for flowering. Such plants
have a rich vegetative growth if the light period is long. ( long day plants)
Some plants need a short period of light of flowering e.g. tomatoes, such plants
have a rich vegetative growth if the light period is short (short day plants)
Duration of light has no effect on some plants e.g. sun flower in any season (day
neutral plants)
Due to the above facts, particular plants are grown in particular seasons.

GEOTROPISM
This is the growth movement of the plant part in response to the direction of the
force of gravity. Roots grow towards the direction of force of gravity hence
positive geotropism.

AUXINS AND GEOTROPISM

When a shoot is placed horizontally on the surface, auxins move in response to
the gravitational force to the lower side. Cell division and elongation takes place
more on the lower side than the upper side. This makes the shoot to bend
upwards away from the gravitational pull (negative geotropism)
In the root, a higher concentration of auxins on the lower side reduces the rate
of cell division and elongation in the root. The upper side grows faster than the
lower side causing the root to bend in the direction of the gravitational force
(positive geotropism)
Illustration:

EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE GEOTROPISM IN PLANT

ROOTS (THE EFFECT OF GRAVITY ON ROOTS)
Materials
Cotton wool, Seeds, Petridishes, Water, clinostat, Plasticin

Procedure
a) Place seeds in two petridishes and cover them with moist cotton wool.
b) Leave the seeds for about 3 days to develop radicles.
c) Place one petridish in plasticin perpendicular to the ground making the
radicles horizontal to the surface.
d) Place another petridish on a clinostat and make its radicles horizontal to the
ground.
e) Start the clinostat to rotate such that all sides of the radicles receive the same
gravitational pull.
Setup:

Observation:
The radicles in setup A bent downwards and those in B continued to grow
horizontally.
Conclusion:
Roots are positively geotropic.
HYDROTROPISM
This is the growth movement of a plant and part in response to a unilateral
source of water. The roots grow towards the source of water hence show
positive hydrotropism. The shoots grow away from the source hence negatively
hydrotropic.

EXPERIMENT TO SHOW HYDROTROPISM IN ROOTS

Materials:
Wire gauze
Water
Seedlings
Trough
Anhydrous CaCl2

Procedure:
a) Place wire gauze horizontally above a trough containing water.
b) Place moisture cotton wool on the trough leaving some spaces through
which the radicle can pass.
c) Place germinating seedlings on cotton wool.
d) For the control set up a similar experiment but with a trough containing
anhydrous CaCl2 instead of water.
e) Leave the experiment for 3 days.

Experimental set up

Observation:
In A, the radicle grow towards water while in B, they curve away from dry air.
Conclusion:
Roots positively respond to water i.e. positively hydrotropic.
Explanation:
The calcium chloride absorbs moisture from the bottom of the trough. The
upper part of the trough remains moist hence the radicle bend upwards towards
the moisture.

NOTE:
Consider the demonstration of hydrotropism below.
1. The empty porous pot was put in a dish containing moist saw dust. After
elongation of the radicles, watering of the saw dust stopped and instead
water is poured in the porous pot.
2. The experiment is then left to stand for 4 days.
Setup:

The control experiment for the above experiment is set up as above but without
water in the porous pot.
Observation:
Where water was poured in the porous pot, the radicles grew towards the pot
unlike in the control experiment.
Conclusion:
Roots (radicles) are positively hydrotropic.

CONTROL OF RESPONSES IN PLANTS

Responses in plants are controlled by a group of plant hormones especially
auxins. These auxins are produced at the root and shoot tip and are transported
in the phloem together with manufactured food.
Auxins control responses by controlling growth through stimulation of cell
elongation. High auxins concentration stimulates faster growth in shoots and
inhibits growth in roots.
Light affects the distribution of auxins. When the shoot tip is illuminated from
one side, auxins diffuse to the dark side there by causing faster growth on the
dark side becomes longer than the illuminated side. This causes the shoot to
bend towards light.
Gravity also affects the distribution of auxins. If a seedling is lying horizontally,
more auxins will diffuse on the lower side of the root and shoot due to gravity.
In roots, the high concentration of auxins inhibits growth causing the lower side
to grow slowly, while the upper side grows faster. This results in the roots
bending towards gravity.

Graph showing the effect of auxins concentration on the growth of roots

and shoots.

When the concentration of auxins increases, growth in the shoot also increases
to a maximum beyond which, further increase in auxins concentration inhibit
growth in shoots. Growth response in the root decreases with increase in auxin
concentration.
Importance of auxins
 Causes apical dominancy
 Leads to parthenocarpy
 Causes tropism
 Causes rooting of the stem cutting.

PLANT GROWTH SUBSTANCES

1. Indole Ascetic Acid (IAA)
It is a naturally occurring growth substance in higher plants. It influences cell
elongation and root initiation. It has a powerful effect on growth. It also brings
about development of parthenocarpic fruits. It also checks formation of
branches from side buds. If IAA is applied to the cut end of the main stem, the
side buds don’t develop into branches.
2. Gibberellins
They are produced by plants in varying amounts in seeds and young plants. If a
solution of gibberellins is sprayed on a plant, it increases the water absorbing
capacity of the cells. Gibberellins also contribute to flowering and growth of
fruits.
3. Cytokinins
These promote cell division but only in the presence of auxins. They are also
synthetic chemical compounds which are used for promoting or controlling
growth. Some are used in killing weeds.

EXPERIMENTS TO SHOW THAT AUXINS ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR

GROWTH
Materials
 Coleoptiles (plant seedling)
 Razor blade

Procedure
Using a razor blade cut off the tip of the coleoptile and leave it to stand for 3-6
days.
Setup
Observations
Growth stops taking place.
Explanation
The coleoptile tip produces new cells by cell division and it also produces a
growth-promoting chemical. When the tip is cut off, growth stops.

EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT AUXINS ARE DIFFUSABLE

SUBSTANCES
1. Tips of shoots are removed and then placed on an agar block.
2. Tips are then discarded or thrown away and the agar blocks placed on the
decapitated shoot.
3. It is observed that growth continues.

If auxins are prevented from diffusing to the lower side by a razor blade or a
mica plate curvature growth occurs. The shoot grows towards the side of the
razor blade or the mica plate.
This is because the razor blade blocks the movement of auxins on that side
therefore the side without the block grows faster than the side with the blade.

EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT CUTTING OFF THE COLEOPTILE

ALONE DOES NOT STOP GROWTH
Materials
Coleoptile, Razor blade and Mica
Procedure
Using a razor blade cut off the tip of the coleoptile. Place a piece of mica on the
cut surface of the shoot and replace the tip
Setup

Observation:
No growth takes place
Explanation:
Mica prevents both cells and auxins from getting down to the shoot.

EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT AUXINS OTHER THAN THE CELLS

ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR GROWTH
Materials:
Agar block, Coleoptile and Razor blade
Procedure:
Cut off the tip of the coleoptile using a razor blade. Place back the tip but
separated from the coleoptile by the agar block.
Setup:

Observation:
Growth continued
Explanation:
This shows that auxins were able to diffuse from the tip to the coleoptile
through the agar block whereas the agar block cannot allow cells to pass
through.

EXPERIMENT TO INVESTIGATE THE EFFECT OF AUXIN

DISTRIBUTION ON PLANT GROWTH

Materials:
Coleoptile and Razor blade

Procedure:
Insert a razor blade on one side of the coleoptile tip and leave it to grow.

Setup

Observation:
The coleoptile continues to grow bending towards the side with the razor blade.
Conclusion:
The side without a razor blade grows faster than the one with a razor blade
causing the coleoptile to bend towards the side with a razor blade.
Explanation:
In equal illumination, auxins are equally distributed in the shoot. The insertion
of a razor blade on one side prevents auxins from moving down on that side.
Unequal distribution of auxins causes uneven growth of the shoot.

EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT UNEQUAL AUXIN DISTRIBUTION

IS RESPONSIBLE FOR BENDING
Materials
Agar block, Coleoptile and Razor blade
Procedure
Using a razor blade cut the coleoptile tip and place it on a piece of agar for 1
hour for auxins to penetrate it. Place the agar block on one side of the cut end of
the shoot. Leave the experiment for 3-4 days.
Setup

Observation
The shoot bends to the side with no agar block

Conclusion
Unequal distribution of auxins is responsible for unequal growth of the plant
shoot.

Explanation
The auxins diffuse from the agar into the side of the shoot where the agar is
placed. This causes the cells on that side to divide and elongate faster causing
the shoot to bend.

EXPERIMENT TO FIND OUT THE REGION OF ELONGATION IN A

ROOT
Materials:
 Water
 Ink
 Cock
 Seedlings
 Conical flask
 Dark cup board
 Pin

Procedure:
a) Take bean seedlings with straight radicles.
b) On each seedling mark the radicle every 2mm with lines in black ink.
c) Pin the seedlings to the other side of the cork with the radicles hanging down
wards.
d) Insert the cork into the neck of the flask containing little water.
e) Put the flask in the dark cup board for 3-4 days.
Experimental set up:

Observation:
Some lines on the radicle are 2mm apart while others are more than 2mm apart.
Conclusion:
The region where the lines are further apart is the zone of elongation (region of
growth).

TACTIC RESPONSE (TAXIS)

This is the movement of whole organism or cell from one place to another in
response to a directional stimulus.
It is a positive tactic response when the whole organism moves towards the
stimulus and negative tactic when the organism moves away from the stimulus.

Types of taxis
1. Phototaxis in response to light
2. Chemotaxis in response to chemicals
3. Thigmotaxis in response to touch
4. Geotaxis in response to gravity

Examples of taxis
1. Unicellular organisms e.g. Euglena swim towards light hence positively
tactic (phototactic)
2. Earth worms, wood lice and cockroaches move away from light hence
negative phototactic.
3. Sperms swim towards the chemical produced by the ovum hence positively
chemotactic.
4. White blood cell moves towards harmful bacteria in the body hence
positively chemotactic.
 NASTIC RESPONSE (NASTIC)
This is the movement of a plant part in response to a non-directional stimulus or
it is a response in which plants are not related to the direction of stimulus but to
its intensity.
Nastic response are named depending on the type of stimulus i.e. Photonasty if
the stimulus is light.
Hydronasty if the stimulus is water
Thigmonastic if the stimulus is touch
Lastic movements do not involve growth.

Characteristics of nastic
1) It involves changes of turgidity of plant cells.
2) It is a rapid response.
3) It occurs in any part of a plant
4) The response is not related to the direction of the stimulus
5) It is induced by non-directional stimulus.

Examples of nastic response

1) Opening and closing of flowers in response to light e.g. morning glory.
2) Sudden closer of leaf lets of mimosa pudica in response to touch.
3) Closures of leaves of insectivorous plants e.g. butter walt and pitcher plant
where the insect lands on the leaf. Such plants are found in nitrogen deficient
soil.

Similarities between nastic and tropic movement

 Both are brought about by external stimulus.
 Both occur in plants
 Both involves movement of plant parts.

Differences between tropisms and nastic responses

Nastic response Tropism
i) Does not depend on the direction of It depends on the direction of the
the stimulus. stimulus
ii) It occurs in any part of the plant. It occurs in growing tips of plants
iii) It does not involve auxins It involves auxins
iv) Are usually faster Are usually slower
v) It involve growth and turgor It involves growth only.
changes
 CO-ORDINATION IN ANIMALS
All living organisms are sensitive to changes taking place within their
surroundings. They detect the changes (stimuli) and respond to them
appropriately. The ability of an animal’s body to detect and respond
appropriately to stimuli depends on the nervous system and endocrine system.
The stimuli may be within an animal’s body or in its surrounding. Different
parts of the body of an animal do not work independently of each other.
They depend upon one another performing various functions as a single unit.
The nervous system controls all the organs and makes them to work together.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

This is a system of nerve cells and sensory organs that carry out co-ordination
by transfer of impulses.
+
COMPONENTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Nervous system

Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system

Brain Spinal cord Voluntary nerves Involuntary nerves

The nervous system consists of;

i) Receptors:
These detect the stimuli e.g. sensory endings in the skin, eye and ear.
ii) The central nervous system (CNS)
This interprets and determines the nature of the response. The CNS consists of
the brain and spinal cord.
iii) Peripheral nervous system
This consists of voluntary and involuntary nerves.
iv) Effectors
These are organs that carry out the response.

Functions of the nervous system

1. It receives impulses from all sensory organs of the body.
2. It stores information
3. It correlates various stimuli from different sensory organs
4. It sends messages to all parts of the body making them function accordingly.
5. It’s involved in temperature regulation.

The nervous system is made up of cells called neurons. A neuron is a functional

unit cell of the nervous system that transmits an impulse or an electrical
message.

STRUCTURE OF THE NEURONE

A neuron is made up of a small mass of cytoplasm, a nucleus in a structure
called the cell body, branching cytoplasmic filaments called dendrites and a
single long fiber called axon.

There are three types of neurons.

1. Sensory neuron
2. Motor neuron
3. Interneuron (relay neuron)

SENSORY NEURON
These are neurons that transport impulses from the receptors to the central
nervous system. A sensory neuron has a single elongated dendrite called a
dendron consisting of a fluid filled cytoplasmic tube. It has a cell body in the
middle of a short axon and dendron. It is sometimes surrounded with myelin
sheath. The myelin sheath increases the speed of the impulse in the neuron.

Structure of the sensory neuron

 Characteristics of a sensory neuron
 It has a cell body as a branch on the axil.
 It has one dendron
 The axon and dendron may be covered with myelin sheath.
 The myelin sheath is broken at points called nodes of Ranvier.
 It has a short axon
 It has a long dendron
 The terminal branches are embedded in the receptor.

THE MOTOR NEURONE

This is a neuron that carries impulses from the central nervous system to the
effectors. Motor neurons consist of short dendrites with a cell body at one end
of a long axon. It is also sometimes surrounded by the myelin sheath.

Structure of the motor neuron

 Characteristics of motor neuron
 At one end there is a thick part called the cell body which contains the
nucleus and cytoplasm.
 The cell body has dendrones which branch into dendrites.
 From the cell body is a long fibre called axon.
 The axon may be covered with myelin sheath.
 The myelin sheath is broken at points called nodes of Ranvier.
 The axon ends in branching terminals or end branch.
 It has many dendrones
 The terminal branches are connected to an effector.
 It has a short dendron
 THE INTERNEURONE (RELAY NEURON)
This is a neuron found in the central nervous system and carries impulses from
the sensory neuron to the motor neuron.

Structure of the relay neuron

Characteristics of relay neuron

 Its fibres are not insulated i.e. have no myelin sheath.
 Its cell body is in the middle of the fiber.

General functions of the parts of a neuron

1. Cell body; this consists of a nucleus surrounded by a mass of cytoplasm.
The nucleus controls all activities of the neuron.
2. Axon; this is one or more long cytoplasmic extensions running from the cell
body. Axons carry impulses over long distances in the body. Each axon is
filled with cytoplasm called axoplasm.
3. Myelin sheath; this is a fatty material that covers the axon. The myelin
sheath is secreted by cells called Schwann cells. The myelin sheath insulates
the axon and speeds up transmission of impulses.
4. Dendrites; these are fine structures on the neuron that link up nerve cells to
form a complex network of communication.
5. Schwann cell; this is a cell which secretes the myelin sheath.
6. Node of Ranvier; this is the space on the axon between two adjacent myelin
sheaths. It speeds up nervous transmission.
7. Cytoplasm; this is a site for chemical reactions in the neuron.
8. Dendrone; it is a branch through which impulses are transmitted to the
body.

Comparison between motor and sensory neurons

Similarities:
1. They both transmit impulses.
2. They both have a nucleus.
3. They both have an axon, dendrites and cytoplasm.
4. In both impulses move in one direction.
Differences:
Motor neuron Sensory neuron
i) Has a long axon Has a short axon
ii) It has a cell body at the terminal end Has a cell body located on the axon
of the axon branch.
iii) It has a short dendron It has a long dendron
iv) It carries impulses from the central It carries impulses from the receptors
nervous system to the effectors to the central nervous system.
v) It has several dendrones It has one dendron
vi) Terminal dendrites connect with Terminal dendrites connect to
effectors interneurons.

THE NERVE IMPULSE

An impulse is an electric message transmitted along the nerve fibres. It moves
very fast as ions. The nerve impulse is initiated by stimulation of receptors by a
given stimulus e.g. light, sound etc. the stimulus causes enough stimulation to a
point that triggers off an impulse called the threshold level. If the stimulation
does not reach the threshold, no impulse is formed and that stimulus is not
detected.

TRANSMISSION OF AN IMPULSE
When a stimulus reaches a receptor cell, it generates an impulse which is passed
to the cell body of a neuron. The impulse is then transmitted from one the
dendrites of another neuron via a gap called the synapse.
The arrival of an impulse at the end of an axon triggers the release of the
transmitter substance into the synapse. This diffuses across the gap and
stimulates the dendrites of an adjacent neuron to form an impulse hence the
impulse being passed on.
After the passage of an impulse across the synapse, the transmitter substance is
destroyed and a new one is made within the axon.
The mechanism ensures that an impulse travels only in one direction across a
synapse.

THE SYNAPSE
A synapse is a junction or space between the terminals of two adjacent neurons.
This junction links the dendrites of one neuron to the dendrites of another
adjacent neuron. Movement of impulses across the synapse occurs by secretion
of a chemical called a transmitter chemical in the space known as the synaptic
cleft.
Structure of a synapse

A single impulse may fail to get across the synapse and it may require two or
more impulses arriving quickly in succession (one after the other); temporal or
simultaneously (at the same time) from two or more neurons. This is termed as
summation.
Sometimes inhibitory chemicals are secreted into the synapse and when an
impulse comes, it gets blocked. This is referred to as inhibition.

Functions of the synapse

1) It enables propagation (movement) of an impulse from one neuron to
another.
2) It ensures that an impulse moves in one direction by having vesicles on one
side of the synapse.
3) The synapse acts as a junction in the nervous system that can diverge, or
converge information.
4) It prevents continuous stimulation of body organs.

PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

This is made up of the brain and spinal cord.

THE BRAIN
Structure of the brain

The brain is covered and protected externally by the skull (cranium) and
internally by membranes called meninges.

Functions of the brain

1. It receives impulses from all receptors and sends back impulses to the
effectors.
2. It integrates and coordinates all activities in the body such that the body
works efficiently.
3. It stores information.
4. It is involved in cranial reflex actions but it does not initiate them.

The brain is divided into three major regions, that is;

1. Fore brain
 2. Mid brain
3. Hind brain

1. The fore brain

It consists of:

i) The cerebrum (cerebral hemisphere)

This is the largest part of the brain.
It is made up of 2 hemispheres i.e. the left and the right cerebral hemispheres.
The right hemisphere controls the activities of the left side of the body while the
left hemisphere controls the activities of the right side of the body. The 2
hemispheres are joined by a fibre known as corpus collosum.
It controls all voluntary activities
It is a center of memory and reasoning.
It receives impulses from the sense organ of smell, touch, sight, taste and sound.

ii) The olfactory lobes:

These are paired lobes located ventrally at the base of the cerebrum.
They are small in size. They receive impulses from the olfactory nerves
bringing about the sense of smell.

2. The mid brain

It consists of:
i) Thalamus
It integrates sensory impulses from the eyes, skin and ear and sends them to the
cerebral cortex of the cerebrum.
It also directs impulses from all parts of the body to particular areas of the brain.

ii) Hypothalamus
It is a centre of many activities. It is below the thalamus.
It controls involuntary activities e.g. water and salt balance (osmoregulation)
Controls body temperature, CO2, levels in blood, appetite, sleep, hunger,
wakefulness, sex drive and produces hormones e.g. oxytocin and ADH which
are stored in the pituitary gland.

iii) Pituitary gland

It secretes a number of hormones like the thyroid stimulating hormone, FSH,
LH, ADH, etc. which control various activities.
It also controls other endocrine glands in the body thus called the master gland.
 iv) Optic lobes
These are paired lobes. Their main function is to interpret sight.

3. Hind brain
It is made up of:
i) Cerebellum
This is concerned with maintenance of balance, locomotion and posture. It
receives impulses from the skeletal muscles.

ii) Medulla oblongata

This controls involuntary actions like yawning, vomiting, blinking of the eye,
etc. any injury to this region leads to instant death.

THE SPINAL CORD

This is part of the central nervous system that runs from the brain to the tail
through and covered by the vertebral column.

Functions of the spinal cord

1. It connects the peripheral nervous system to the brain.
2. It is a center for simple spinal reflex actions
3. Receives impulses from receptors
4. Interprets messages especially in reflex arc
5. Sends impulses to the receptors.

VOLUNTARY AND INVOLUNTARY ACTIONS

The nervous system controls several actions in the body. Such actions may be
voluntary or involuntary.
A voluntary action is one initiated consciously under the direct control of the
brain i.e. they are actions one at will e.g. dancing, laughing, stealing, etc. These
actions are performed consciously by an animal. In such actions the animal
chooses to do or not to do something.
Involuntary actions are the ones that occur without conscious thoughts e.g.
breathing, etc.

THE REFLEX ACTION

This is a rapid automatic response of an organism, which is not initiated by the
brain. Reflex actions take place without the awareness of the individual. A
reflex action occurs as a result of impulses travelling along neurons in a path
called a reflex arc.

Characteristics of a reflex action

 It occurs rapidly i.e. The action occurs very fast.
 It is inborn (innate) but not learnt.
 It is co-ordinated by either the brain or spinal cord but usually initiated by
spinal cord.
 It occurs without one’s will.
 It is a repeated response to a similar stimulus.
 Three neurons are involved.

Examples of reflex actions

1) Blinking when a foreign body falls on the eye
2) Withdraw of the arm when someone accidentally touches a hot body.
3) Sneezing
4) Knee jerk i.e. a relaxed leg gives a forward kick when tapped slightly below
the patella.
5) With draw of the foot from a sharp object.

Example of a simple reflex action

1. When one accidentally touches a hot body using a finger, the receptors in the
finger receive the stimulus and change it into nervous impulses that travel
along the sensory neuron to the spinal cord and then cross the synapse.
2. The impulse is then handed over to the relay neuron in the spinal cord (gray
matter) and then cross another synapse.
3. The relay neuron in turn hands over the impulse to the motor neuron.
4. The motor neuron then carries the impulse from the spinal cord to the
effector muscles of the hand. This causes the muscles to contract and the
hand is removed from the hot body.
5. At the same time, the original message is sent to the brain which then
interprets it as pain or heat.

Note; these processes occur rapidly in the body without the awareness of the
individual
Illustration

Advantages of reflex actions to animals

1. They help animals to avoid danger.
2. They control activities in the body, which we do not have conscious control
over.
3. They form a basis of some animals’ behaviour, e.g. amoeba.

THE REFLEX ARC

This is a description of processes, which take place within the body during a
reflex action.
The stimulus is perceived by the receptors, which change it into nervous
impulse (transduction). The impulse travels along the sensory neuron to the
spinal cord. In the grey matter of the spinal cord, the sensory neuron makes
synaptic connections to the relay neuron and impulses move from the sensory
neuron to the relay neuron across synapses. The relay neuron in turn transmits
the impulse to the motor neuron across a synapse. The impulse then moves from
the spinal cord to the effector muscles through the motor neuron. The impulse
causes the muscles to contract or relax depending on the stimulus.
Diagram illustrating a reflex action
 Routes/path of reflex arc
The reflex arc has 5 paths/routes
1. Receptors:
This is the organ or structure that receives the stimulus e.g. the sensory endings
in the skin.

2. Sensory nerve:
This is the part of the reflex arc that carries impulse from receptors to the spinal
cord or to the brain.

3. Relay neuron:
It connects the impulse from the sensory neuron to the motor neuron.

4. Motor neuron:
This carries impulses from the relay neuron to the effectors (muscles)

5. Effectors:
These are the parts of the reflex arc that carries out a response.

Types of reflex actions

They can be grouped according to 2 ways:

1) Spinal reflexes
These are reflex actions that pass through the spinal cord and are interpreted
there e.g. withdrawing a hand from a hot object.

2) Brain/cranial reflexes
These pass through the brain and are interpreted there e.g. closing of the eye
when an object is approaching, coming of tears when one is cutting onions, etc.

3) Instinctive/simple reflex actions

These are reflexes that do not require learning but are inborn e.g. suckling in
human infants, making of a web by a spider, withdrawing a hand from a hot
object.

Characteristics of simple reflexes

 They are rapid responses
 A given stimulus brings about the same response
 They are not learnt but instinct (inborn)

CONDITIONED REFLEX
This is the type of reflex which involves learning organisms learn to respond to
strange (meaningless stimulus) by associating it with another
meaningful/familiar stimulus, e.g. the Ivan Pavlov’s experiment.
A scientist called Ivan Pavlov performed an experiment to demonstrate a
conditioned reflex in a dog. In the experiment, he used to give the dog food at a
particular time. The dog would salivate either after the smell of food or taste of
food (normal response). He then started ringing a bell before giving the dog
food. He did this several times. After several times, the dog salivated when a
bell was rang even without food being presented (conditioned response).
For a conditioned reflex to be established, the brain is necessary thus the dog in
Pavlov’s experiment learnt to associate the sound of the bell with food.
When Pavlov rang the bell without food for a long time, the dog later stopped
salivating implying that the conditioned reflexes are temporary.

Characteristics of conditioned reflex action

 It is a temporary reflex
 It involves learning
 It takes a longer time to learn
 It is co-ordinated in the brain
 It involves more than one stimulus
 It involves association of stimulus
 It is reinforced by repetition
 Responses are involuntary

Similarities between simple and conditioned reflexes

 They both involve the central nervous system particularly the brain.
 Both are autonomic responses
 Both are associated with a stimulus.
 Both involve neurons for the transmission of impulses

Differences between simple and conditioned reflexes

conditioned simple
Stimulus and responses are not directly Stimulus and response are related
related
More than one stimulus is required to Only one stimulus is needed to cause a
cause a response response
It involves learning No learning but in born
Takes time Takes a very short time
It is co-ordinated in the brain only Co-ordinated in either the brain or
spinal cord
Responses occur as a result of Responses occur instantly after a
repetition and practice. stimulus.

Similarities between reflex and voluntary actions

 Both are co-ordinated by central nervous system.
 Both occur as a result of impulse transmission.

Differences between reflex actions and voluntary actions

Voluntary actions Reflex actions
Are not spontaneous Occur spontaneously
Are relatively slow Occur very fast
Are initiated by the brain The brain does not initiate them.
They involve many neurons They involve three neurons

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (HORMONAL SYSTEM)

This is a system of ductless glands that produce chemical substances called
hormones. They are chemical substances that regulate body metabolic activities.
 Characteristics of hormones
 They are protein in nature
 They are produced and work best in minute quantities
 They are secreted directly into blood streams
 Their site of action is far from where they are produced
 The site of action is called the target organ
 They are produced by endocrine glands
 Their effect on the target organ is either by stimulation or inhibition i.e. they
regulate the activities of the target organs.

GLANDS
These are tissues or organs that produce and secrete chemical substances. There
are 2 types of glands i.e. endocrine and exocrine.

EXOCRINE GLANDS
These are glands that secrete their substances to their target organ through their
ducts i.e. these glands have ducts that connect and carry their chemical
substances to their target organs hence they are called duct glands.

Examples:
1) Pancrease releases pancreatic juice.
2) Salivary gland has salivary duct that carries saliva into the mouth
cavity.
3) Sweat glands
4) Tear glands

ENDOCRINE GLANDS
These are ductless glands that secret their hormones directly into the blood
stream. The blood carries the hormones from the glands to their target organs
hence endocrine glands are called ductless because they have no ducts e.g.
pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancrease, etc.

Location of endocrine glands

Endocrine glands are situated in the head, neck, and trunk as shown in the
diagram below.
 HORMONES OF THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR
FUNCTIONS

1. PITUITARY GLAND
This is an outgrowth at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland releases
several hormones most of which stimulate the production of other hormones
from other endocrine glands. Because of this it controls other endocrine
glands and it is referred to as the master gland.

The pituitary as a master gland:

The pituitary gland acts as a master gland because it produces several
hormones most of which stimulate other endocrine glands to produce their
hormones. Because of this, the pituitary controls other endocrine glands.

Hormones produced by the pituitary gland.

1) It produces antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which controls the amount of
water and salts reabsorbed into the blood stream by the kidneys.
2) It produces follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which causes the
development of graafian follicles in the ovary.
3) It produces thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which stimulates the
thyroid gland to secrete thyroxin.
4) It produces adrenal cortical stimulating hormone (ACSH), which
stimulates the adrenal gland to produce a hormone called cortisone.
5) It produces interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH), which stimulates
the testes to produce their hormone called testosterone.
6) It produces a growth hormone, which controls the growth of bones and
other tissues. Over secretion of growth hormone causes gigantism. Under
secretion of growth hormone causes dwarfism.
7) It produces luteinizing hormone (LH), which causes ovulation.
8) Prolactin which stimulates milk production in pregnant females.
9) Oxytocin which causes the contraction of uterus thus inducing birth. It
also stimulates milk flow from the mammary gland.

2. THE THYROID GLAND.

This produces a hormone known as thyroxin, which in young organisms
controls growth and development for example in tadpoles it brings about
metamorphosis.
In adults thyroxin controls the rate of respiration.
In adults too little thyroxin leads to overweight and sluggishness and too
much of it causes thinness and over activity.
Deficiency of thyroxin in infancy cause a type of mental deficiency known as
cretinism which can be cured if identified early by administering thyroxin in
the body.
Thyroxin is made up of an amino acid containing iodine. Lack of iodine
causes the thyroid gland to increase in size as a way of producing more
thyroxin. This leads to a disease known as goiter.

3. ADRENAL GLAND.
There are two adrenal glands situated above each kidney. The gland is made
up of two parts.
a) Cortex; this is the outer part of the adrenal gland.
b) Medulla; this is the inner part of the adrenal gland.
The adrenal cortex produces several hormones including a hormone known
as cortisone, which is responsible for conversion of proteins to glucose. The
adrenal gland is stimulated by the adrenal cortical stimulating hormone
produced by the pituitary to produce cortisone.
The adrenal medulla is stimulated by nervous impulses to produce a hormone
known as adrenaline. Adrenaline is produced when the animal feels
frightened or excited. Adrenaline brings about the following changes in the
body.
i) It increases the rate of heartbeat.
ii) It increases the breathing rate.
 iii) It widens the pupils of the eyes.
iv) It brings about conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver.
v) It brings about the growth of goose pimples on the body.
vi) It increases the rate of respiration in order to ensure adequate supply of
energy to body muscles.
Due to the abundance of energy, there is increased muscle contraction
making the animal to feel stronger. This hormone prepares the animal to fly
or run away or to fight with another. This hormone is therefore known as a
“flight or fight” hormone.

4. THE PANCREAS.
In addition to production of digestive enzymes, the pancreas produces two
hormones known as insulin and glucagon. These hormones are produced
from groups of cells in the pancreas known as islets of estrogen.
Insulin is produced from the - islets of estrogen. Insulin stimulates the liver
to convert excess glucose into glycogen for storage. If the pancreas produces
little or no insulin, the amount of sugar increases in blood resulting into a
disease called diabetes mellitus. The disease is controlled by continuous
injection of insulin in the body.
Glucagon is produced from the - islets of estrogen in the pancreas. When
released in blood, glucagon moves to the liver and stimulates the liver to
convert glycogen to glucose.

5. THE DUODENUM.
The presence of food in the duodenum stimulates the lining to produce a
hormone called secretin. Secretin moves in blood to the pancreas and
stimulates it to produce pancreatic digestive enzymes. This ensures that the
enzymes are produced when food is present.

6. THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS (TESTES AND OVARIES)

The ovary in females produces two major hormones. These are estrogen and
progesterone.
Oestrogen controls secondary sexual characteristics in females such as;
i) Development of breasts.
ii) Growth of pubic hairs.
iii) Widening of hips.
iv) Enlargement of reproductive organs.
v) Softening of muscles.
vi) Softening of the voice.
 Oestrogen also causes repair of the uterine lining after menstruation.

Progesterone is responsible for maintaining the endometrium prior to

implantation.
In males the testes produce a hormone known as testosterone. This hormone
brings about male sex characteristics, which include;
i) Deepening of the voice.
ii) Growth of beards.
iii) Toughening of muscles.
iv) Widening of the chest.
v) Enlargement of reproductive organs.
vi) Growth of pubic hairs.
vii) Sperm production.

7. PARATHYROID GLAND
It secretes parathormone which has the following functions:
 Controls the distribution of calcium and phosphorus in the body.
 It affects development of bones.

8. THYMUS GLAND
This gland is close to the heart and well developed in young mammal but
greatly reduced in adults.
It provides defense (immunity) in young mammals.

Similarities between the nervous and endocrine system

 Both are affected by change in stimulus
 Both cause a response
 They provide a means of co-ordination in the body
 In nature, the messages transmitted are chemical
 Both systems transmit messages.

Nervous system Endocrine system

Nerve impulses are electrical Impulses are chemical
Responses are fast as the impulses are Responses are slow but long lasting
carried fast.
Impulses go along nerve fibres Hormones are carried in blood
This effect is more localized (specific)
Effect is wide spread in the whole
body
Stimulus arises from any part of the Stimulus arises from specific places
body where sensory receptors are only e.g. endocrine glands.
localized.

DISEASES OF THE NEURO-ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

1. Poliomyelitis
It can kill or cripple people. It is caused by a virus which affects the motor
nerve cells in the central nervous system. It enters the body through breathing or
eating contaminated food.

2. Tetanus
It is caused by bacteria which enter the body through open cuts on the skin. It
damages the nervous system causing the muscles of the skin to become stiff and
the jaws immovable.

3. Meningitis
It is caused by bacteria that attack the cerebro spinal fluid.

4. Leprosy
It’s caused by bacteria that enter the body through skin contact and mucus.

5. Celebro malaria
It’s caused by malarial parasites i.e. plasmodia

6. Epilepsy
A patient loses consciousness suddenly and quickly. It is inherited

SENSE ORGANS OR RECEPTOR ORGANS IN MAMMALS

These are organs that perceive the stimulus and change it into nervous impulse
(transduction).
Receptor organs are made up of cells called receptor cells. There are different
types of receptor cells depending on the nature of the stimulus they perceive and
the organ in which they are contained.
Receptor organs and their functions
Receptor cell Nature of Receptor Function
stimulus organs
Photoreceptors Light Eye Vision
Mechanoreceptors Sound and gravity Ear Hearing and
balancing
Chemo receptors Chemicals Nose Smelling
Thermo receptors Temperature Skin Detecting
temperature
Chemo receptors Chemicals Tongue Tasting
Mechanoreceptors Pressure Skin Detecting pressure
changes.

THE MAMMALIAN EYE

The mammalian eye is a receptor organ responsible for sight. It contains
photoreceptor cells, which perceive the light stimulus and change it into nervous
impulse.

Structure of the mammalian eye

 Parts of the eye
1. The conjunctiva:
This is a thin transparent layer lining the inside of the eyelid.
 It protects the eye and holds it in position.
It enables the eye ball to move easily by secreting mucus.

2. The sclera:
This is a tough inelastic layer that gives shape to the eye.
It protects the inner most delicate parts.
It provides attachment for the muscles of the eye.

3. The cornea:
This is a transparent layer in front of the eye.
It refracts (bends) light into the eye.

4. The choroid layer:

It is below the sclerotic layer.
It is pigmented and mainly contains black pigment which stops reflection of
light rays.
It prevents internal reflection of light.
This contains a network of blood vessels supplying oxygen and food to the
eye.

5. The aqueous humour:

It is a solution of sugar, salts and proteins.
The aqueous humor is a watery fluid which maintains the shape of the eye.
It also refracts light into the pupil and the lens.

6. The vitreous humuor:

It is a jelly-like substance that fills the inner cavity of the eye.
It is transparent and maintains the shape of the eye.
It refracts light to the retina.

7. The ciliary body:

This contains ciliary muscles, which control the size of the lens during
viewing nearby or distant objects.

8. The lens.
It is transparent and held by suspensory ligaments.
It refracts light to make an image on the retina.
9. The iris
This is made up of an opaque tissue the center of which is a hole called pupil
that allows in light to form an image on the retina.
The contraction of the muscles of the iris increases the size of the pupil and
relaxation decreases the size of the pupil.
It is therefore responsible for controlling the amount of light entering the
eye.

[Link] retina
This is a layer containing photoreceptor cells (light sensitive cells)
There are two types of light sensitive cells on the retina
i) Rods
ii) Cones
The cones are sensitive to coloured light and are responsible for colour
vision. They are also sensitive to light of high intensity and are used during
daytime.
Most cones on the retina are concentrated on the fovea or yellow spot.
The rods are incapable of perceiving coloured light and are sensitive to light
of low intensity (dim light). They are used during night vision.
Nerve fibers from the photoreceptor cells run to the brain via the optic nerve.
The rods contain a pigment rhodopsin which is rapidly bleached by even a
small amount of light but at the same time it is rapidly generated.
The cones contain a pigment called iodopsin which is less sensitive to light
and is not bleached so quickly.
The retinas of nocturnal animals have mainly rods. Due to this, nocturnals
can’t perceive different colours.
Therefore the retina is where the image is formed in the eye.

[Link].
This is a round black hole in the center of the eye lying behind the cornea. It
allows light to pass into the eye to the lens.

[Link] ligaments.
These are inelastic fibers that hold the lens in position.

[Link] blind spot:

 This is a region where the nerve fibers leave the eye to enter the optic nerve.
It has no light sensitive cells. When an image falls on this point, it is not
taken to the brain thus blind spot.

[Link] fovea
This is a small depression in the center of the retina. It has only cones in a
high concentration. It is therefore a region on the retina that contains the
largest number of sensory cells. Due to this, it produces the most accurate
images in the eye.

[Link] lids
These protect the eye and remove any foreign bodies that enter it. Regular
blinking enables the spread of the fluid all over the exposed surface of the
eye.

[Link] lashes
They prevent dust particles and other objects from entering the eye.

IMAGE FORMATION AND VISION

Light from an external object enters the eye. It is refracted by the cornea into the
aqueous humour. The aqueous humour then refracts it to the lens. The lens
refracts it to the vitreous humour. The vitreous humour finally refracts light and
focuses it to the retina making an image on the retina. The photoreceptors in the
retina change the light stimulus into a nervous impulse. The impulse travels
along the optic nerve to the brain where interpretation of the image is made. The
image formed on the retina is smaller to the real object and it is upside down.
Illustration

CONTROL OF LIGHT AMOUNT ENTERING THE EYE

The iris controls the amount of light entering the eye. It is made up of circular
and radial muscles.
When the circular muscles of the iris contract, the size of the pupil is reduced
and less light is allowed in.
Contraction of the radial muscles widens the pupil so allowing more light to
enter the eye.
In light of low intensity, the pupil widens and in bright light, the pupil reduces
in size. This is done to protect the retina from damage by bright light and the
wide size of the pupil during dim light allows in enough light of low intensity.

Control of the amount of light rays entering the eye when in dim light:
In dim light, radial muscles contract,
Circular muscles relax,
Pupil widens and more light is admitted into the eye.
Dim light:

Control of amount of light rays entering the eye in bright light:

Circular muscles of the iris contract,
Radial muscles relax,
Pupil becomes smaller and narrower,
Less light is admitted into the eye.
Bright light:

ACCOMMODATION OF THE EYE

This is the ability of the eye to change the focal length of the lens when viewing
distant or nearby objects.

Accommodation for a nearby object:

When looking at a nearby object, the ciliary muscles in the ciliary body
contract, the suspensory ligaments slacken. This makes the lens short and thick.
This increases the ability of the lens to refract light and reduces the focal length
of the lens for the nearby object to be seen clearly.
Illustration

Accommodation for a distant object:

When viewing a distant object, the ciliary muscles in the ciliary body relax.
This causes tension in the suspensory ligaments. The suspensory ligaments pull
the lens apart making the lens thin and long. This makes the lens to refract less
and increase the focal length of the lens.
Illustration

Summary of accommodation
Nearby object Distant object
Diverging light rays from a nearby Parallel light rays from a distant
object are refracted by cornea. object are refracted by the cornea.
Cilliary muscles in the cilliary body Cilliary muscles in the cilliary body
contract. relax.
Suspensory ligament slacken Suspensory ligaments develop
tension
The lens become short and thick The lens becomes thin and long
The focal length of the lens decreases The focal length of the lens
increases.
Light rays are refracted to the retina Light rays are refracted to the
retina.
 EYE DEFECTS
An eye defect is a condition where the eye fails to focus an object well unless
aided by external lenses.
The common eye defects include:

1. Short sightedness (myopia):

This is usually caused by a large eyeball or a very strong lens. Light from a
distant object is focused in front of the retina. The individual can only see
nearby object but not distant ones.
Illustration

This can be corrected by putting on diverging (concave) lenses.

2. Long sightedness (hypermetropia):

This is caused by a small or short eyeball or a very weak lens such that a close
object is focused far behind the retina. The individual can see distant objects but
cannot see nearby objects.
Illustration

Long sightedness can be corrected by wearing converging (convex) lenses.

3. Astigmatism
This is caused by unequal refraction of the cornea and lens due to uneven
curving in them. It results into some parts of the object being well focused on
the retina and some not to be focused. It is normally due to old age. This can be
solved by wearing cylindrical lenses.

4. Presbyopia
This condition occurs when the lens hardens due to old age and does not focus.
It can be corrected by wearing spectacles with convex lenses or often 2 pairs of
spots may be necessary i.e. a pair with convex lenses for close vision and a pair
of concave lenses for distant vision or the 2 types of lenses can be combined
into one pair known as bi-focal spectacles.

5. Cataract
It is a condition which occurs when an individual is aging. It is caused by the
eye lens becoming opaque due to a thin covering formed on it. It is corrected by
surgical removal of the thin opaque layer of the lens.

Other eye defects include trachoma, conjunctivitis, colour blindness and

glaucoma.

Colour vision
The cones are photoreceptor cells on the retina, which are concerned with
colour vision. There are three types of cones, which are sensitive to three
primary colours i.e. the blue sensitive cone, green sensitive cone and red
sensitive cone. When blue sensitive cones alone are stimulated, blue colour is
perceived. Stimulation of green alone gives green colour. Stimulation of red
cones produces red colour. Equal stimulation of both green and red gives yellow
colour. Equal stimulation of the entire three gives white colour and when no
cone is stimulated, no colour (black) is perceived. This is known as the
trichromatic theory.
 THE EAR
Structure of the ear

The ear has sensory receptors for hearing and balancing. These are mechano-
receptors because they respond to pressure and gravity. The ear is made up
of three areas i.e. the outer ear, middle ear and inner ear.
 1. The outer ear:
This is the tube opening to the side of the head and inwards stopping at the
eardrum. It has an outer extension called the pinna. The pinna concentrates
and directs the sound vibrations into the ear through the auditory canal. This
makes the ear drum to vibrate.

2. The middle ear:

This is a cavity in the skull filled with air. It communicates with the mouth
cavity through the Eustachian tube. There are three small bones called
ossicles in the middle ear which link the eardrum and the opening of the
skull called oval window that leads to the inner ear.

3. The inner ear:

The inner ear is filled with a fluid and consists of mainly a coiled tube
known as the cochlea. The cochlea has sensory nerve endings leading to the
brain. These transmit nervous impulses from the ear to the brain.

Functions of parts of the ear

1. Pinna:

2. Ear ossicles:
These are 3 tiny bones in the middle ear. They are:
 Malleus (hammer)
 Incus (anvil)
 Stapes (stirrup)
They are joined like a chain and they transmit sound vibrations across the
middle ear from the ear drum to the oval window. They amplify sounds of low
tones.

3. Eustachian tube:
It connects the middle ear to the pharynx of the mouth.
Its function is to equalize air pressure on both sides of the ear drum so that it
can vibrate freely.
It opens when one is swallowing and yawning.
It prevents the eardrum from bulging.
The Eustachian tube is used to balance the pressure inside the ear with that
outside the ear.
When the pressure of air in the middle ear is higher than that of the atmosphere,
yawning takes place and air escapes from the middle ear through the Eustachian
tube to the mouth where it is lost. This reduces the pressure back to normal.
When the pressure of air in the middle ear is lower than that of the atmosphere,
yawning takes place to allow the atmospheric air to go into the middle ear
through the mouth and Eustachian tube. This raises the pressure back to normal.

4. Oval window (fenestra ovalis):

It is a flexible membrane which vibrates and sets up vibrations in the fluids of
the ear called perilymph in the cochlea.
It receives impulses from the steps and transmits them to the cochlea.

5. Round window (fenestra rotunda):

It is a flexible membrane which controls the displacement in the cochlea created
by vibrations of ossicles by releasing pressure when it bulges out wards.

Structure of the semi-circular canals and cochlea

6. Cochlea:
It is a 3 chambered fluid filled tube which is coiled. It contains sensory cells
which pick up vibrations in the fluid and transmit them to the auditory nerve.
The sound vibrations move along the auditory nerve and reach the brain where
they are interpreted as sound. Its 3 chambers include:

i) Vestibular canal (scala vestibuli)

 It is the upper canal which starts from the oval window. It contains
perilymph.

ii) Tympani canal (scala tympani)

It is the lower canal which ends in a smaller membrane called the round
window. It also contains perilymph.

iii) Middle canal (scala media)

It is located between the vestibular and tympanic canal. It is filled with a
fluid called endolymph. It contains sensory cells which detect sound. These
cells form the hearing apparatus called the organ of corti. The organ of corti
is connected to the auditory nerve.

Cross section of a cochlea

7. Semi-circular canal (organ of balance):

These are 3 semicircular canals which are at right angles to each other. They
contain a fluid called endolymph. At one end of the canal, there is a swelling
called ampulla. It contains sensory cells.
When the person moves the head or whole body, the endolymph, in the semi-
circular canals moves in the opposite direction. The moving fluid strikes the
sensory hair cells which are stimulated and sends impulses to the brain.
The 3 semicircular canals give information about the direction of movement of
the body e.g. if a person spins around in one direction and then stops suddenly,
the fluid continues to flow around the sensory hair cells. This gives a sensation
of the ground spin around of the group spinning in the opposite direction.

Section through the ampulla

 The process of hearing
Sound waves are collected and concentrated into the ear by the pinna.
They are then directed to the tympanic membrane (ear drum) through the
auditory canal.
This causes the eardrum to vibrate.
The vibrations of the eardrum are amplified and transmitted by three ossicles
starting from the malleus, incurs and finally the stapes hands them over the oval
window that leads to the inner ear.
Vibrations in the oval window make the fluid in the inner ear and cochlea to
vibrate.
Receptors in the cochlea (organ of corti) receive the information, change it into
impulses and the impulses are taken to the brain via the auditory nerve.

The process of balancing

The semi-circular canals, utriculus and sacculus in the inner ear are all
concerned with the sense of balance and positioning.
The three semi-circular canals are filled with a fluid and each lies in a different
plane.
One is horizontal and two are vertical but at right angles to each other.
At the end of each semi-circular canal is a swelling known as the ampulla,
which contains sensory cells.
Within the ampulla is a structure covered by sensory cells with hairs on their
upper surfaces. The hairs are embedded in a corner of jerry known as cupulla.
The semicircular canals are stimulated by rotation of the head and body in their
respective planes.
The utriculus and sacculus have gelatinous plates in their fluid filled cavities,
which contain granules called otoliths.
The otoliths are attached to sensory fibres. When the head is tilted, the otoliths
pull on the sensory fibres. This causes an impulse to be fired off from these
organs to the brain. A reflex is then set off which causes the body to return to its
normal posture.

Note:
The utriculus responds to vertical movement of the head while the succulus
responds to lateral movement of the head.

Internal structure of the semicircular canal

Common ear disorders

1. Ear ache and ear discharge:
It is usually due to an inflammation in the middle ear.
It occurs when microorganisms reach the middle ear via the Eustachian tube.
Due to severe inflammation, pus may be formed in the middle ear and the ear
drum become perforated. The discharge may lead to permanent deafness.

2. Deafness:
This is caused by accumulation and hardening of wax in the outer auditory
canal which presses against the eardrum.
Blocking of the Eustachian tube, exposure to loud noise over a long period of
time can damage the organ of corti leading to deafness.
Also damage to the cochlea or the hearing centre of the brain can also cause
deafness.

THE TONGUE
The tongue is the receptor organ for the sense of taste. It changes chemicals in
the mouth into nervous impulses. It contains chemo-receptors, which carry out
this function. The tongue contains taste buds, which contain the chemo-receptor
cells. The tongue distinguishes between four different kinds of tastes, i.e. sweet,
sour, salt and bitter.
The taste buds for the different tastes are located in different parts of the tongue
as shown in the diagram below.
When a chemical is placed in the mouth, it dissolves in the moisture (saliva) in
the buccal cavity. The dissolved chemicals then stimulate the taste buds in the
different parts of the tongue depending on the type of taste. Impulses are then
sent from the tongue through a sensory neuron to the brain and the brain
interprets the type of taste.

THE NOSE
The nose is the receptor organ for smell. It is also made up of chemo-receptor
cells and it is stimulated by chemicals in air. This helps the organism to respond
to chemical stimuli at a distance. When air containing a chemical enters the
nose, it dissolves in the moisture (mucus) in the nasal cavity. In this form, it
stimulates the chemo-receptor cells in the nose. These cells send nervous
impulses through a sensory neuron to the olfactory lobe of the brain where
interpretation occurs.

THE SKIN
The skin is a sense organ responsible for the senses of pain, touch, pressure and
temperature. The structure and excretory role of the skin has been discussed
under EXCRETION AND OSMOREGULATION.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Growth is defined as an irreversible or permanent increase in the size and dry

weight of an organism. Growth in multicellular organisms is divided into 3
phases.

1. Cell division
This involves increase in the number of cells mainly as a result of mitosis.

2. Cell expansion
This is the permanent increase in the cell size as a result of uptake of water or
synthesis of living materials.

3. Cell differentiation
This involves specialization of cells to suit particular functions. Growth is
usually accompanied by an increase in the complexity of an organism which is
also called development.

Development is the increase in complexity and change of form of an organism.

FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH

A. External factors
i) Nutrients
Growth of an organism increases in the availability of nutrients and decreases
when nutrients are in short supply. This is because nutrients are used in the
building up of new protoplasm and organic matter. Also nutrients can be
oxidized to provide energy required for growth. Therefore lack of nutrients can
lead to decrease in growth or even death.

ii) Accumulation of the byproducts of metabolism (excretory substances):

Growth may be inhibited by metabolic waste products which are toxic to the
body cells. Fortunately most plants and animals are not affected much because
they can convert these substances to less toxic excretions.

iii) Temperature:
Growth depends on bio-chemical reactions which are catalyzed by enzymes.
Temperature affects growth by affecting enzymes which catalyzes the chemical
reactions in the body. Increase in temperature to the optimum increases the rate
of growth, beyond which retardation of growth occurs.

iv) Light:
In plants, light affects growth by affecting the rate of photosynthesis which adds
more organic matter to the plant. Therefore increase in light intensity in green
plants increases the rate of growth and decrease in light intensity decreases the
rate of growth.

v) PH:
The PH affects the activity of enzymes which catalyzes reactions in the body.
This can result into decrease in growth of an organism.

vi) Carbon dioxide:

In animals, carbon dioxide is a waste product of metabolism. If allowed to
accumulate, it can lead to a decrease in the rate of growth while in plants carbon
dioxide is a raw material for photosynthesis therefore increase in carbon dioxide
concentration increases the rate of growth.

B. Internal factors
i) Hormones:
In animals, the presence of growth hormones and thyroxin in blood increases
the rate of growth while in plants the presence of auxins also increases the rate
of growth.

ii) Hereditary factors:

Growth is under the control of genes which determines the particular size of an
organism.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN PLANTS

In plants, growth is continuous processes which occurs mainly at the tips of the
root and shoot systems. These regions are called meristems. A meristem is a
group of undifferentiated plant cells which are capable of dividing repeatedly
by mitosis.

Types of meristems

i) Apical meristems
They are located at the tip of roots and shoot. They bring about increase in
length or height of the plant. This type of growth which involves increase in
length or height of a plant is known as primary growth.

ii) Lateral meristems

These are laterally situated in the stems and roots of the dicot plants. It brings
about secondary growth after primary growth. Secondary growth (secondary
thickening) involves increase in girth/thickness in a plant.

Lateral meristems are of 2 types namely:

a) Cork cambium; which forms the secondary cortex
b) Vascular cambium; which gives rise to the secondary phloem and xylem
tissues.

SEED GERMINATION

This is defined as the emergence and development of an embryo into a

seedling capable of existing as a new and independent plant under favorable
conditions.

The process of germination

During germination, a seed absorbs water from the soil by imbibition mainly
through the micropyle which makes the cotyledons swell and split the testa. The
water enables the enzymes in the cotyledons to hydrolyze the stored food into
soluble products which are later used by the germinating seed.

The enzymes involved in hydrolysis include diastase, protease and lipase. The
soluble food substances diffuse into the cell where it is required for the growing
embryo. Simple sugars and fats are oxidized to produce energy. Amino acids
are used to make protoplasm of new cells. Absorption of water from the soil
results into increase in the size of the seed and growth of the radicles and
plumule which brings about rapturing of the seed coat and an embryo emerges.

TYPES OF GERMINATION

1. Epigeal germination:
In this type of germination, the cotyledons appear above the ground due to the
rapid elongation of the hypocotyl (i.e. the portion of the stem below the
cotyledons) e.g. in tomatoes, beans, cotton, lettuce.

During epigeal germination the seed absorbs water through the micropyle in a
process called imbibition. This softens the testa and makes the cotyledons to
swell. The testa splits to allow the radicle and plumule to emerge. The water
hydrolyses the stored food reserves and the products are passed from the
cotyledons to the radicle and plumule where they are used for growth. The
radicle emerges first and the hypocotyls start to elongate pushing the cotyledons
upwards. The cotyledons may turn green in some plants and can carry out
photosynthesis. The cotyledons open to allow out the plumule. The leaves are
formed and they start to photosynthesize.

Diagrammatic illustration of epigeal germination

2. Hypogeal germination:
In this type of germination, the cotyledon remains below the ground due to the
rapid elongation of the epicotyl (i.e. the portion of the stem above the
cotyledons) e.g. in broad bean, peas and maize.

During hypogeal germination, the seed absorbs water by imbibition. The

radicle appears first bursting its protective sheath called coleorhizae. The radicle
produces fibrous roots, which absorb water and anchor the plant. The protective
plumule sheath (coleoptiles) opens to allow the plumule out. The epicotyls
elongate pushing the cotyledons below the ground.

Diagrammatic illustration of hypogeal germination

Conditions necessary for seed germination

4. Water
Water is needed for the following:

 It activates the enzymes within the seed to hydrolyze the stored food.
 It makes the seed swell, soft and the testa to bursts.
 It dissolves the stored food.
 It is a medium in which all the chemical and enzymatic reactions proceed.
  It is a medium of transport of the dissolved food substances to the
developing shoot and root of the new plant.
 Water is needed for the development of cell vacuoles. Large cell vacuoles
contribute to increase in size of cells.
5. Oxygen
Oxygen is necessary for the process of respiration, the oxidation of food to
provide energy required for growth.

6. Warmth
Suitable temperature is important for the enzyme controlled reactions in the
cotyledon of the germinating seed. At low temperatures, the enzymes are
inactive and at high temperatures, they are denatured hence no germination.
Germination will require an optimum temperature which varies from 10̊C-50̊C
for most tropical seeds.

EXPERIMENTS ON GERMINATION

An experiment to demonstrate the conditions necessary for germination

Apparatus:

4 test tubes, Cotton wool, Seeds, Oil and Water.

Procedure:

f) Arrange four test tubes labeled 1-4

g) To test tube 1 add moist cotton wool, seeds and leave test tube open.
h) To test tube 2 add dry cotton wool, seeds and leave test tube open.
i) To test tube 3 add seeds, boiled cooled water and a layer of oil.
j) To 4 add seeds, moist cotton wool, ice and leave test tube open. Leave all
test tubes for 3 days.
Setup:
Observations
Seeds germinated in only test tube 1 and those in 2, 3 and 4 did not germinate.

Conclusion:

Air, water and warmth are necessary for germination.

Experiment to show that oxygen is necessary for germination

Apparatus:

2 conical flasks, 2 corks, Water, Cotton wool, Seeds and Pyrogallic acid.

Procedure:

 1. Pour some water in one conical flask and some alkaline pyrogallol in
another conical flask.
 Tie some seeds in wet cotton wool and suspend the cotton wool in the flasks
using a thread.
 Fix the threads using a cork.
 Leave the set up for three days
Set up:
Observation:
After a few days the seeds in B germinated while those in A did not germinate.

Conclusion:

Oxygen is necessary for germination.

Explanation:
Alkaline pyrogallol absorbs oxygen from air in flask A thereby preventing
germination.

MEASUREMENTS OF GROWTH

Measurement of growth involves the use of fresh weight and dry weight of a
seedling.

1. Fresh weight/mass:
This is the total amount of organic matter and water in an organism.

Advantages of measuring growth by using the fresh weight of an organism

 It does not involve the killing of the organism.

 It is a very method of determining growth.
 It is the most suitable method of determining growth of seedlings.
Disadvantages of measuring growth by measuring the fresh weight of an
organism

 It is less accurate since the biggest part of an organism is water.

 It is not reliable because the mass keeps on fluctuating due to water loss by
transpiration and evaporation.

2. Dry weight/mass
This is the total amount of organic matter making up the body of an organism
after removing water. It involves heating of an organism in an oven to a
constant weight.

Advantages

 It is a more accurate method of determining growth.

 It is reliable because constant results are obtained.
Disadvantages

 It involves killing of an organism.

 The volatile tissues may decompose before removing all the water.

CHANGES IN DRY WEIGHT OF A GERMINATING SEED

Description and explanation of the graph:

From point A-B, the dry weight of the seed decreases. This is because the stored
food in food reserves is hydrolyzed (broken down) to produce energy for
germination.

From point B-C, the dry weight increases steadily and rapidly. This is because
the seed has produced leaves, which are carrying out photosynthesis. It makes
food, which causes its dry weight to increase.

From points C-D, the growth rate decreases. This is because the plant has
matured and preparing for flowering and fruiting.

From points D-E, the dry weight remains constant. The plant has produced
fruits and no more growth takes place.

From point E-F, weight drops because the seed are dispersed, the plant leaves
dry and fall off. This causes a reduction in dry weight.
 CHANGE IN TOTAL WEIGHT OF A GERMINATING SEED.

Explanation of the graph:

Most of the changes are similar to those in the graph showing changes of dry
weight with time in a germinating seed except that for dry weight, the weight of
water in the seed is not considered. For the total weight of the seed during
germination, water is put into consideration.

The initial slight increase in weight from point A-B is due to imbibition
(absorption) of water into the seed. The other changes that follow in the
subsequent points on the curve are similar to those in the change of dry weight
with time.

GROWTH CURVE

This is a graph which shows the change of a given growth parameter with time.
This graph is S-shaped in most living organisms and it is called the sigmoid
curve.

The curve shows 4 phases.

1. Lag phase.

This is a period of slow growth. It is the first phase of growth where there are
very few cells dividing and the organism is getting used to the environment.
2. The exponential phase.

This is a phase of rapid growth. It is the second phase where the cells dividing
are many and the organism is used to the environment.

3. Decelerating growth phase.

This is a period where growth slows down. The deceleration in growth may be
due to;

1. Competition for food, space and other resources.

2. The organism is preparing for reproduction.
3. The organism is aging.
4. The plateau phase. /stationery phase.

This is a period where there is no change in the growth parameter under

investigation. At this point the number of cells, which die is equal to those
produced.

After the plateau, the growth decelerates in seasonal organism due to aging and
dispersal. In perennial organisms, growth increases continuously.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN ANIMALS

In animals growth occurs throughout the body of the organism unlike in plants
where growth is localized in specific areas called meristems. Most animals grow
continuously until they reach maturity. This is called continuous growth. In
Arthropods like insects growth is discontinuous, i.e. there are periods of growth
and no growth.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN INSECTS

Insects have an exoskeleton which is rigid and prevents expansion of the insect
during growth. Before the insect grows, it sheds the exoskeleton in a process
called moulting (ecdysis).

Without the exoskeleton, the insect expands and grows. A new exoskeleton then
forms and growth ceases. This kind of growth is referred to as intermittent
growth or discontinuous growth. Successive moults result into formation of a
new form of the insect. This is called metamorphosis. Metamorphosis has
already been discussed under insects.

A graph showing intermittent growth in insects

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN VERTEBRATES

After fertilization, the zygote undergoes three changes during its growth and
development. These changes are;

1. Cleavage:
This is the mitotic division of the zygote to form a mass of cells. The zygote at
this stage is called a blastocyst.

2. Gastrulation.
This is the rearrangement of the cells into distinct layers. The outer cells make
up a layer called ectoderm. The cells in the middle make up a layer called
mesoderm and the inner cells make up the endoderm. From these layers the
various organs and systems are formed.

3. Organogenesis:
This is the formation of organs and organ systems.

REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is the process by which organisms multiply to increase in
number. This is important in maintaining the life of organisms from one
generation to another.
Types of reproduction
There are two types of reproduction.
 1. Asexual reproduction
2. Sexual reproduction.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
This is a type of reproduction, which does not involve fusion of gametes, and
therefore only one individual is involved. This type of reproduction takes
several forms, which include the following.
a) Budding.
This is a mode of asexual reproduction in which an organism develops an
outgrowth (bud), which detaches its self from the parent organism and starts
to grow as a self-reliant organism. It is common in yeast and hydra.
b) Spore formation
This is a mode of asexual reproduction, which involves production of spores.
Spores are microscopic structures, which can be dispersed and have the
ability to germinate into a new organism under favorable conditions. This
mode of reproduction is common in fungi and some bacteria.
c) Fragmentation
This is a mode of asexual reproduction where an organism breaks into many
small parts (fragments) and each is able to grow into a new individual. It is
common in tapeworms and spirogyra.
d) Binary fission
This is a mode of asexual reproduction where a single celled organism
divides up into two parts, which start to grow as separate individuals. It is
common in amoeba and other protozoans
Question:
Describe the process of asexual reproduction in;
i) Amoeba
ii) Rhizopus
iii) Yeast
 iv) Spirogyra

e) Multiple fission
This is a mode of asexual reproduction where a single celled organism
divides into many parts, which grow into separate individuals. This occurs in
plasmodium.

f) Vegetative reproduction
This is a mode of reproduction in plants where part of the plant other than
the seeds develops into a new individual. This normally takes many forms,
which include rhizomes, bulbs, corms, suckers, stolons, runners etc
Table showing various types of vegetative propagation
Name Characteristics Examples
Rhizome Underground stem, swollen with food, has Ginger, cana lily
lateral buds, has scale leaves, has nodes and
internodes.
Stolon Underground stem, not swollen with food, Couch grass, spear
has lateral buds, has scale leaves. grass
Runners Grows on the surface, has fibrous roots, has Star grass
lateral buds, has scale leaves, has nodes and
internodes.
Bulbs Leaves swollen with food, has a short stem, Onions, garlic
has adventitious roots, has scale leaves, has
thick foliage leaves, has lateral buds.
Corms Vertical stem swollen with food, has Yams
adventitious roots, has lateral buds, has scale
leaves.
Suckers New individual plant produced alongside the Pineapple, banana
 parent plant

Advantages of vegetative reproduction

 New plants resemble the parent plant and any good quality in the
parent is retained.
 The growth of the new plant is rapid.
 The reproductive organ stores plenty of food which the new plant
uses.
 It does not involve processes like pollination, fertilization and
dispersal agents are not required.
 Large areas can be covered in relatively little time.
 It involved only one individual.
Disadvantages
 Since new plant grows on its parent, it can lead to crowding.
 Shortage of water and mineral salts is likely to occur due to competition.
 Diseases of the parent plant can be transmitted to the young ones.
 If the parent plant has poor characters, they can be maintained by the young
ones.

ARTIFICIAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

This is a mode of reproduction where man is involved in the propagation
process. It is done in several ways, which include, budding, grafting, layering,
cuttings, etc.
1. Budding
This is the process where a bud is detarched from a plant and grown in suitable
conditions into a new plant.
2. Grafting
This is the insertion of part of one plant onto another plant so as to come into
organic union and to grow as one plant. The part inserted can be a bud or a
shoot of a plant and it is called a scion. The part in the ground on which the
scion is inserted is called a stolk. The scion and stolk should be of different
varieties but same species.
3. Layering
This is where a branch of a plant is bent to touch the ground and allowed to
develop roots. When the roots are developed, it is cut from the plant and it starts
to grow as a separate self-supporting plant.

Advantages of asexual reproduction

1. It is reliable because it is less likely to be affected by adverse environmental
factors like for the case of seeds.
2. It leads to genetic consistence since there is no mixing of genes during
reproduction.
3. It results into early maturity because the organisms produced have enough
food reserve from the parent.
4. It is self-sufficient because it does not rely on external processes like
pollination, fertilization and dispersal.
5. It does not result in indiscriminate and wide spread distribution like in the
case of seeds, which leads to wastage.
6. It does not require formation of sex organs.
7. It is the only means of reproduction in some organisms.

Disadvantages of asexual reproduction

1. It leads to maintenance of bad characters.
2. It does not introduce variations in the offspring since there is no gene
mixing.
3. It easily results into competition between offspring due to overcrowding.
4. It gradually results into reduction of the strength and vigour of the
succeeding generations.
5. There is a high chance of disease transmission from parent to offspring.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
This is a type of reproduction which involves the fusion of male and female
gametes to form a zygote.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN NON FLOWERING PLANTS

Reproduction in spirogyra
Spirogyra is a green non flowering plant belonging to a group of plants known
as algae. The main type of sexual reproduction in spirogyra is conjugation.
i) The opposite cells of the two different filaments lying side by side
develop a swelling or an out-growth which begins to grow towards each
other.
ii) On touching they dissolve to form a conjugation tube and at the same
time the contents change into gametes.
iii) The gametes from one cell (male gamete) migrate through the
conjugation tube to another cell (female) gamete.
iv) The two gametes fuse to form a zygote which develops a thick resistant
wall and becomes a zygospore.
v) When the conditions are favorable, the zygospore germinates and grows
into another filament.
Illustration

Sexual reproduction in fungi (Rhizopus) E.g. mucor

i) The tips of the two hyphae of different mycelia become swollen and grow
towards each other until they touch. The two opposite swellings are
referred to as positive and negative hyphae.
ii) The swellings are cut off from the rest of the mycelia by a cross wall,
nuclear division takes place and each swelling contains several nuclei.
iii) When they touch, the wall dissolves and nuclei fuse in pairs. The thick
outer cover forms around them to form a zygospore. This remains
dormant for as long as conditions are unfavorable but germinate if the
conditions are favorable.
Diagram to show sexual reproduction in rhizopus

The hyphae fuse and

- +
their contents mix to
form a zygote
Two hyphae of different
mating type come
together
A thick wall develops
around the zygote to form
a zygospore
Under favorable
conditions the zygosppore
germinates to produce
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
In flowering plants the flower is the reproductive organ.
The male gametes are the male nuclei found in the pollen grains produced by
the anthers.
The female gametes are the egg nucleus and polar nuclei found inside the
ovules located in the ovary. These two are brought together shortly after
pollination.

POLLINATION
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the
stigma of the same flower or different flowers of the same species.
Pollination is of two types;
 Self-pollination
 Cross pollination
Self-pollination; is the transfer of pollen grain from anther of a flower to the
stigma of the same flower.
Cross pollination; is the transfer of pollen grain from anther of a flower to the
stigma of another flower of the same species. Flower may or may not be from
the same plant.

Features that promote cross pollination

 Brightly colored petals.
 They have a nice scent to attract insects.
 Produce nectar which is food source for the insects.
 Stamen produce sticky pollen grains which adhere firmly to the bodies of
visiting insects.
 The stigma are flat, lobbed and have sticky surface to which pollen grain can
easily adhere.
 Presence of landing plat form and pollen guide which ensures that insects
visit the flower.
 Stamen hanging outside the corolla to ensure that pollen grains are blown
away by wind to another flower.
Characteristics of wind pollinated flowers
 Usually not brightly colored
 Not scented and lack nectar.
 Stamen of wind pollinated flowers produce large quantity of light powdery
pollen grains.
 Usually small and inconspicuous but are borne in large inflorescences.
 The stigma are large often feathery and hang outside the flower by long
styles. This provides a large surface area on which pollen grains floating in
the air may be trapped.
Arrangements that promote self-fertilization (arrangements preventing cross
pollination)
i) Maturation of both male and female parts of the flower at the same time.
ii) Flowers borne underground.
iii) Flowers being bi-sexual.
iv) Flowers remaining closed.
Arrangements that promote cross pollination (arrangements preventing self-
pollination)
i) Possession of unisexual flowers such that both sexes appear on different
plants (dioecious). E.g. in pawpaw
ii) Self-sterility in monoecious plants like maize.
iii) Dichogamy, a condition in which the stamens and pistils do not ripen at the
same time. This results in failure of cross fertilization. If the stamens ripen
before the pistil the condition is referred to as protandry while if the pistil
ripens before the stamens it is called protogyny.
iv) Stigmas being higher than anthers.
Differences between wind pollinated and insect pollinated flowers.
Wind pollinated Insect pollinated
1. Produce light pollen grains Produce relatively large and heavier
pollen grains.
2. They produce large quantities of Produce small quantities of pollen
pollen grains grains.
3. They are usually not scented They are scented.
4. Petals are dull colored. Petals are brightly colored.

N.B:
Self-pollination has the disadvantage of failing to introduce variation in the new
generation. This results into maintenance of poor characters from one
generation to the next.
Cross pollination results into mixing of genetic material which leads to
variation. This results into introduction of new character from one generation to
the next.

FERTILIZATION IN PLANTS
This is the fusion of male and female gamete to form a zygote. Fertilization in
plants is internal taking place inside the ovary in the structure called embryosac.

The process of fertilization in plants:

7. Pollen grain lands on the stigma of a flower of the same species.
8. On the stigma, pollen grain absorbs water, nutrients and then germinates to
form a pollen tube which grows through the style under the control of the
tube nucleus at the tip.
9. Pollen grain has two nuclei i.e. generative nucleus and pollen tube nucleus.
The generative nucleus divides mitotically to form two male nuclei which lie
behind the pollen tube nucleus.

[Link] pollen tube enters the ovary and the tip of the pollen tube breaks. The
pollen tube nucleus disappears.
[Link] of the male nucleus fuse with the egg nucleus to form a zygote which
divides mitotically to form embryo.
[Link] other male nucleus fuses with two polar nuclei to form a triploid
endosperm which develops into endosperm. This is called double
fertilization.

Events after fertilization

7. The zygote divides mitotically followed by growth and development
resulting into an embryo.
8. The triploid endosperm divides mitotically to form good solid organs called
endosperm.
9. The ovules develop into seeds.
[Link] integuments become the seed coat.
[Link] ovary develops into a fruit and ovary wall develops into a fruit wall
which protects the seeds.
[Link], stigma, style and stamen wither and fall off while the calyx may
wither and fall off or may remain in shriveled form.
 REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
Sexual reproduction is the only form of reproduction in vertebrates and few
invertebrates. E.g. Arthropods.
For this reason, most of animals have reproductive organs in which the gametes
are produced. To adopt various conditions in the habitat in which they live
different animals show different forms of fertilization and development.

Reproduction in insects
Insects show internal fertilization and external development with complete and
incomplete metamorphosis.

Metamorphosis:
This is the developmental change from the eggs to the adult stage in the life
cycle of an organism. It is divided into two, i.e. complete and incomplete
metamorphosis.

i) Complete metamorphosis
This is the type of metamorphosis where eggs hatch into larvae, pupa then to
adult. It occurs in houseflies, butterflies and moths. Insects which show
complete metamorphosis are called holometabolous insects.

ii) Incomplete metamorphosis

This is the type of metamorphosis where eggs hatch into nymph that resembles
the adult except that it lacks wings, smaller than the adult and sexually
immature. It occurs in insects such as cockroaches, grass hoppers and locusts.
Insects which show incomplete metamorphosis are known as hemimetabolous
insects.

Sexual reproduction in Bony fish

Like Tilapia, show external fertilization and external development beginning
with laying of large quantities of eggs. Mating may follow courtship in some
species and the eggs after hatching may get minimum parental care in form of
protection from enemies.

Sexual reproduction in amphibians

They show external fertilization and external development. There is some
protection offered to the eggs by a jelly but there is lack of parental care to the
tad poles.

Sexual reproduction in birds

Birds show internal fertilization and external development. Prior or before
fertilization most birds show courtship behavior, nest building and development
begins with laying of eggs which hatches into young ones.
Courtship stimulates the female sexually to a point (nest) where the male bird
is;
 On mating, the male presses his cloaca directly against the female’s cloaca
and sperms are released directly into the oviduct through the cloaca.
 The sperms swim up to the oviduct until they come into contact with the
eggs without shell. Here internal fertilization takes place.
 The fertilized eggs pass to the oviduct where they release albumen and a
hard protective shell.
 The eggs are laid in the nest and incubation starts after all the eggs are laid.
 Structure of the egg.
Chalaza Egg membrane
Shell
Shell membrane
Air space

Albumen
Yolk (Germinal disc) Area, which
develops into the embryo

Parts of the egg

1. Shell; this protects the egg and prevents it from desiccation.
2. Airspace; this stores air for gaseous exchange of the embryo.
3. Charaza; this holds the yolk in position.
4. Albumen; this is a source of proteins and fats to the embryo.
5. Germinal disc; this develops into an embryo.
6. Yolk; this stores food for and surrounds the embryo.

Development:
The living cells in the egg divide to make the tissues and organs of the young
birds. The yolk provides the food for this development. The albumen is the
source of proteins and water. The shell and shell membrane are permeable to
air. Oxygen diffuses into the airspaces and is absorbed through the blood
capillaries of the embryo. The blood carries oxygen to embryo and Carbon
dioxide is eliminated through the egg shell by the reverse process. When the
chick is fully developed, it breaks out of the shell by help of its beak during
hatching.
Incubation:
The female bird is responsible for incubation of the eggs. The function of
incubation is to provide the optimum temperature for the embryo’s
 development in the egg. The incubation period differs from one species of
birds to another.

Differences between internal fertilization and external fertilization

External fertilization Internal fertilization
Water as an external factor is necessary Water as an external factor is not
necessary
A lot of gametes are produced and Less gametes are involved in the
necessary process
Embryos develop not well protected and Embryos develop well protected and
mostly helpless after birth normally offered help after birth
A lot of energy is involved since more Less energy is involved since fewer
gametes are produced. gametes are produced
Chances of fertilization occurring are Chances of fertilization are higher
fewer
N: B the above points can serve as advantages of internal over external
fertilization.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN MAMMALS

Mammals reproduce sexually. They have special reproductive organs that
produce the gametes i.e. sperms and ovum.

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

It consists of the testis, epididymis, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, Cowper’s
gland and penis.

Vertical section through the male urino-genital system

Functions of the parts:
1. Seminal vesicle; secrets viscous fluid-containing fructose which acts as a
nutrient for sperm cells.
2. Prostate gland; this gland secretes an alkaline, milky-white fluid that
neutralizes the acidity of the Vagina.
3. Penis; delivers sperms into the female reproductive organ.
4. Testis; manufactures and store sperms.
5. Scrotal sac; protects the testis.
6. Vas deferens; conducts sperms from the testis to urethra during ejaculation.
7. Urethra; passage of sperms and semen during ejaculation.
8. Cowper’s gland; produces mucus for lubrication of both the male and
female urethra to ease copulation.
Functions of the male reproductive system
 Used in the delivery of sperms into the female reproductive organ.
  Production and storage of sperms.
 Secrets male sex hormones e.g. testosterone hormone.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Function of parts:
1. Uterus; provides suitable environment for growth and development of the
fetus. It is also an area for implantation.
2. Vagina; it provides the following functions;
 Passage of sperms to the uterus.
 Passage of blood during menstruation.
 Allows passage of the fetus at birth.
3. Oviduct (fallopian tube);
 It allows movement of fertilized egg towards the uterus for implantation.
 It provides suitable place for fertilization.
4. Cervix; contains elastic muscles which allows its expansion during birth and
it is the gate way to the uterus.
5. Vulva; This is a collective term for the external genetalia. It is made up of
two skin folds that is the inner fold (labia minora) and the outer fleshy fold
(labia majora). Labia minora contains mucus secreting glands which
lubricates the vagina during sexual intercourse (copulation).
Labia majora cushion the vagina and helps in sexual arousal. In the place
where labia majora and labia minora meet is a bean-like structure called
clitoris. This is the most sensitive part, which brings about sexual
excitement in females.
6. Vagina; This is a muscular tube, which connects the vulva to the uterus. It
has an average length of 10cm. It secretes acidic mucus, which prevents
growth of bacteria and fungi. The mucus also lubricates the vagina. The
vagina plays the following roles.
 It is a passage for menstrual flow.
 It is a birth canal.
 It is where the male inserts his erect penis during sexual intercourse.

General function of the female urino-genital system

 Production of the female gametes i.e. the ovum
 Reception of the male gametes i.e. the sperm
 Provision of a suitable environment for fertilization
 Provision of a suitable environment for the fetus development.
 Provision of a means for the expulsion of the developed fetus during
birth.
 Secretion of hormones like oestrogen

GAMETES
These cannot develop any further until fertilization occurs. There are two types
of gametes namely; male and female gametes also known as sperm cells and
ova (singular; ovum or egg cell) respectively. Both male and female gametes
are haploid.
The structure of a sperm cell (male gamete)
 The structure of the ovum

Functions of the parts:

1. Acrosome; contains juice together with enzymes which dissolve the egg
membrane (Vitelline) to bring about fertilization.
2. Nucleus; contains genetic material which is responsible for transmission of
characters from the parent to the off spring.
3. Middle piece; contains mitochondria which provides energy required for the
movement of the sperm.
4. Tail; propels the sperm forward as it swims towards the ovum.
5. Neck; connects the head and tail of the sperm.
6. Cytoplasm; it acts as a food store for the embryo.
7. Vitelline;
 It provides protection to the inner part of the egg.
 Allows exchange of materials around the egg and its surrounding.

Differences between sperm and ovum

Sperm cell ovum
Has a tail It is spherical and has no tail
It is very small It is big
Has less food store It has more food store
It is mobile It is immobile
It has either X and Y chromosomes It has only X chromosomes (XX)
(XY)
 FERTILIZATION IN MAN
Fertilization in man occurs after copulation where erect penis is inserted into the
vagina. At orgasm, the penis releases large number of sperms (200-300
millions) near the cervix. The cervix relaxes and opens as sperms swim through
its opening to the uterus then to the oviduct where fertilization takes place.
When a sperm get into contact with the egg membrane, it releases enzymes
from acrosome which breaks the egg membrane and enable the sperm cell
penetrate into the cytoplasm of the ovum.
When the sperm cell enters, the egg membrane becomes thickened to form the
fertilization membrane which serves as a barrier preventing the entry of other
sperm cells.
The nuclear membrane of the two gametes breaks down and male nucleus fuse
with a female nucleus to form a fertilized egg. This process is known as
fertilization and the female is said to have conceived.

PREGNANCY
Gestation is the period from fertilization of an ovum to birth. After fertilization,
the under goes cell division by mitosis and move down to the uterus. Its
movement is aided by constriction of the oviduct and it takes about one week.
Finally the fertilized egg (zygote) is embedded in the lining of the uterus a
process known as implantation and it continues with its development.
The fertilized egg now becomes known as the fetus. Later, finger like
connections develop between the fetus and the mother’s blood system. This
later unites to form placenta connected to the fetus by umbilical cord.

Diagram showing blood circulation to and from the fetus

Or summarized as below

Maternal
Maternal
oxygenated blood
deoxygenated
blood
Capillary network in
Uterus
placenta
wall
Umbilical
Umbilical
vein
artery
Umbilical cord

Embryo

Major nutrients needed by a pregnant mother

 i) Calcium and Phosphates. These are needed for the development of
bones and cartilage of foetus.
ii) Iron needed for the formation of foetal red blood cells
iii) Proteins needed for the formation of new tissue.
iv) Vitamins needed for proper growth.
Functions of the placenta
i) It allows exchange of materials without the mother’s blood mixing with
that of the fetus.
ii) It allows transfer of oxygen, water, glucose, amino acids and other
substances into the fetus which are used as nutrients.
iii) Carbon dioxide, urea and other wastes are transferred from blood
circulatory system of the fetus to the mother’s blood across the placenta.
iv) It protects the fetus by preventing certain toxins and foreign materials
from crossing to the fetus.
v) It acts as a barrier to mother’s hormones and some other chemicals which
may affect the fetus.
vi) It allows anti bodies to pass onto the fetus there by providing immunity
against diseases.
Nutrition of the fetus
Soluble food substances, oxygen, water and mineral salt passes across the
placenta by either diffusion or active transport from the mother’s blood to the
fetal blood through the umbilical vein. Waste products such as carbon dioxide
and nitrogenous wastes are brought in to the placenta by umbilical artery where
they are passed into mother’s blood. The placenta is therefore the excretory
organ of the fetus as well as respiratory surface and source of nourishment.

Protection of the fetus

The fetus is contained in a sac called the amnion which is filled with amniotic
fluid. The amniotic fluid protects the fetus from mechanical shock and drying.
The fetus is warmed by blood temperature all the time and regulated by
mother’s blood.
The placenta prevents passage of bacteria, other foreign materials, nervous
transmissions and maternal blood pressure from affecting fetal circulation and
also it keeps out toxins from the fetus.

BIRTH (PARTURITION)
The embryo turns head down wards in the uterus a few days before birth which
occurs at approximately 9 months after fertilization. At time of birth, the uterus
contracts rhythmically.
The opening of the cervix dilates (relax) to allow the young’s head to pass
through. The amniotic fluid passes out through the vagina.
The contraction of the uterus pushes the young one through the vagina to the
exterior. It takes the 1st breathe of life and usually cries, a sign of changed
conditions in its environment. After some time the placenta separates from the
uterus and finally expelled as after-birth.

Differences between sexual and asexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction
i) Two parents are involved Only one parent is involved
ii) Needs males and female gametes Does not need gametes
iii) Off springs are not identical Off springs produced are identical
iv) Rate of reproduction is slow Rate of production is fast
v) Fertilization usually occurs Fertilization does not occur
vi) Usually few off springs are Usually very many off springs are
produced produced

MALE HORMONES
At puberty, the hypothalamus stimulates the anterior part of the pituitary to
release two hormones.
i. The follicle stimulating hormone (F.S.H) which stimulates sperm
production.
ii. The Luteinizing hormone (LH) also known as the interstitial cell
stimulating hormone (ICSH) which stimulates the interstitial cells of the
testis to release another hormone testosterone which stimulates the
development of the male secondary sexual characters.

Secondary characteristics in man

 Deepening of the voice
 Growth of pubic hair
 Enlargement of the penis
 Onset of wet dreams
 Growth of beards
 Growth of hair in the arm pits

Secondary characteristics in females

 Softening of the voice
 Enlargement of breasts
  Enlargement of hips
 Onset of menstruation
 Enlargement of reproductive organs
 Growth of pubic hair
 Growth of hair in arm pits

FEMALE HORMONES AND THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

When the ovum is released by the ovary, the uterus wall thickens with addition
of new layer of cells for the ovum to sink if fertilized. The blood supply also
increases at the same time. If the ovum is not fertilized, the new layer of cells
breaks down and the unwanted cells, mucus and some blood pass out through
the cervix and vagina. This is called menstruation. It takes place once about 28
days, 12-14 days after the release of the ovum.

The menstrual cycle

The menstrual cycle is controlled by four hormones of which two are secreted
from the interior lobe of pituitary gland and the other two from the ovaries.
The pituitary gland secretes Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and
Luteinizing hormone (LH) and the ovary secretes progesterone and
oestrogen. The four hormones are secreted in the following sequences.
FSH Oestrogen LH
Progesterone
It is a reproduction cycle occurring in sexually a mature female in absence of
pregnancy and involves series of changes in the female reproductive system
which is controlled by hormones.

1. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

 Causes the development of the graafian follicles in the ovaries.
 It stimulates the ovary to produce oestrogen.
2. Oestrogen.
 This stimulates the repair of the uterine wall after menstruation.
 When in high levels, it stimulates the pituitary gland to produce LH
 It inhibits the production of FSH from the pituitary gland.
3. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
 This cause ovulation in the middle of the cycle.
 It also stimulates the ovary to produce progesterone from the corpus luteum.
4. Progesterone.
 This maintains the uterine lining in preparation for implantation.
 It inhibits production of FSH and LH if its level is high.
This leads to the breakdown of the corpus luteum within 14 days after ovulation
and hence stops the production of progesterone.
If the ovum is not fertilized;
i) When production of progesterone stops, the endometrium breaks leading
to the flow of blood a process called menstruation.
ii) If fertilization occurs, the placenta produces the progesterone which
prevents menstruation and maintains pregnancy.

Menstruation stops at around the age of 45 years on average and one is said to
have reached menopause. At this stage no more pregnancy is possible.

Graph illustrating the hormonal changes in blood during a menstrual

cycle.
 SAFE PERIODS
It refers to the days within the menstrual cycle when there in no mature ovum in
the reproductive system so a female can have sexual intercourse without getting
pregnant.
During the first safe period, there is development of a graphiam follicle and
takes about 10 days from the end of menstruation.
A female should obtain for first 2 days before ovulation and 2 days after
ovulation because the sperm cannot survive for more than 2 days.
The 2nd safe period starts from around the 18th day up to the 28th day. Thus a
mature egg dies after waiting in vain.
TWINS
These are two babies produced with in the same time to the same mother as a
result of the same pregnancy.
Types of twins
1. Fraternal twins. These are twins who arise from the fertilization of two ova
produced at the same time and fertilized by two different sperms. The babies
are not identical but resembles as normal babies in the family. They may or
may not be of the same sex.
2. Identical twins. These are two babies, who develop from one fertilized
ovum that latter divides into two and the two develop as separate individuals.
Such babies look alike and are of the same sex
Multiple births
These are more than two babies produced to the same mother with in the same
time as a result of the same pregnancy.

METHODS OF BIRTH CONTROL

1. Coitus interruptus where the penis is withdrawn from the vagina before
ejaculation.
2. Rhythmical method where sexual intercourse is avoided at times when
ovulation is likely to occur.
3. Use of condoms and diaphragms which prevents sperm from reaching the
eggs.
4. Vasectomy where vas deferens are cut by surgical means there by
preventing the passage of sperms.
5. Tubal ligation where the fallopian tubes are cut by surgical means there
by blocking the passage of the egg.
6. Use of oral contraceptives known as pills, these prevents development of
the egg.
7. Use of injectable contraceptives. This is taken every 3 months to prevent
ovulation.
 8. Intra uterine devices. This prevents fertilized egg from implanting into
the uterus.
9. Use of intra-vaginal rings. This ring secretes progesterone like substance
which inhibits development of the egg.
[Link] of morning pills which are taken 3 days after sexual intercourse.
[Link] which involves termination of viable pregnancies.

QUESTIONS:
What is vegetative reproduction in flowering plants?
Define the term menstruation.
Describe the menstrual cycle in females
What are the causes of infertility in males
Describe the process of fertilization in man
Describe the different forms of asexual reproduction in flowering plants.

CELL DIVISION
Cell division is a process by which a cell divides to give rise to daughter cells.
In single celled organisms like amoeba, this process results into increase in
number of organisms while in multicellular organisms cell division brings about
growth, repair of worn out tissues and formation of reproductive cells
(gametes). During cell division, the nucleus divides into two followed by the
division of the cytoplasm. The cell membrane constricts to surround the formed
cells each containing a nucleus. This results into formation of daughter cells.
There are two types of cell division.
1. Mitosis.
2. Meiosis.
Important terms used
Chromosome; this is a thread-like structure in the nucleus that carries the genes
of an organism.
Chromatid; this is one half of a chromosome.
Sister chromatids; these are chromatids of the same chromosome.
Homologous chromatids; these are chromatids of different chromosomes in a
bivalent.
Bivalent; this is a pair of homologous chromosomes.
Centromere; this is a structure of chromatid attachment and separation on a
chromosome.
Chiasmata; this is a crossing over point between two homologous chromatids.
Haploid; this is where a cell has half the number of chromosomes compared to
the parent cell.
Diploid; this is where a cell has a whole set of chromosomes.
Replication; this is where a structure produces an exact copy of itself.

MITOSIS
This is a type of cell division where a cell divides to give rise to two daughter
cells each having the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell and
each having exactly the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
The daughter cells are diploid i.e. they have 2 sets of chromosomes.
This cell division consists of 4 stages namely:
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
The resting stage in between the 2 division is called interphase. Through
interphase is regarded as a resting phase, the cell is engaged in several activities
to prepare for division.
The following are the significant features of the stage.
i) Chromosomes are drawn into long threads of chromatids.
ii) The genetic material or chromosomes replicate to provide enough space
for the two cells.
iii) The cell manufactures and stores energy through respiration in
preparation for cell division.
iv) The centrioles replicate if present.

Stage 1: prophase
 The chromosomes thicken and become visible.
 Each chromosome appears to consist of two chromatids lying parallel to
each other and attached at a point called the centromere as shown below.
 The nucleolus disappears.
 The centrioles migrate to opposite poles and start forming microtubules
known as spindle fibers. The region between the two opposite poles is
known as the equator.
 The nuclear membrane disintegrates and disappears towards the end of
prophase.
Early prophase.

Centrioles
at
opposite

Centrioles form
Late prophase.
spindle fibers. Chromosom
Chromatid
The nuclear
membrane Centromere
disappears.

Stage 2: metaphase
 Chromosomes move to the center of the cell and arrange themselves at
the spindle equator.
  Chromosomes attach to the spindle fibers at the centromeres.
 Sister chromatids face opposite poles of the spindle.

Chromosomes

align at the

Stage 3: anaphase
 Centromeres divide and the two chromatids of each chromosome move to
opposite poles.
 Each chromatid now becomes a chromosome.
 Spindle fibers shorten as they pull the chromatids apart.
Stage 4: Telophase
 The chromosomes reach the poles.
 The cell divides by constriction of the cell membrane in animals or by
forming a cell wall plate in plants.
 The nuclear membrane reappears.
 Spindle fibers disintegrate (break down).
 The nucleolus reappears.
 Chromosomes uncoil, become threadlike and invisible.
 This leads to interphase and the cycle repeats.
Animal cell at telophase.
Chromosomes
reach the poles Nuclear
and the cell
membrane re-
constricts
appears and two
daughter cells are
formed
Note; plant cells do not have centrioles but can form spindle fibers during cell
division.
Major events during mitosis
1. Replication of DNA, chromosomes and cell organelles during interphase.
2. Formation of the spindle and disappearance of the nuclear membrane during
prophase.
3. Chromosomes align at the equator during metaphase.
4. Sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles and they become
chromosomes during anaphase.
5. Cells divide into two during telophase.

Significance/importance of mitosis
1. Mitosis results into growth. As cells divide, they produce new similar cells.
This causes an increase in the number of cells in an organism and
consequently growth.
2. It brings about repair. During the course of life cells are damaged and they
die. New cells are produced by mitosis to repair the body by replacing
damaged and dead cells.
3. It is important in asexual reproduction. Cells divide by mitosis to form
spores or tissues that develop into a new individual.
4. It maintains the genetic composition of the organism. Cells produced during
mitosis are similar genetically to the parent cell. This ensures that the
organisms’ identity (genotype) does not change.
5. Gametes in bryophytes (mosses) are produced by mitosis.

Where mitosis occurs

In man, it mainly occurs in;
 The bone marrow
 The epidermal cells of the gut
 The malpighian cells of the epidermis
In plants, it occurs in;
 The apical meristems
 The cambium

MEIOSIS
This is a type of cell division where a cell divides into four haploid daughter
cells each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. It is also
called reduction division because it halves the number of chromosomes in the
daughter cells. Meiosis takes place in reproductive organs during the formation
of reproductive cells (gametes).
Meiosis occurs in two major phases.
1. Meiosis I (first meiotic division)
2. Meiosis II (second meiotic division)
The first meiotic division results into separation of homologous chromosomes
while the second meiotic division results into separation of sister chromatids.
Like in mitosis, during interphase, the cell carries out several activities to
prepare for division. These include;
 Replication of the genetic material
 Replication of the centrioles
 Large stores of energy built up

MEIOSIS 1
The stages of meiosis are;
1. Prophase 1
 This is the longest stage in meiosis. During this stage;
 The nucleolus disappears.
 Centrioles migrate to opposite poles.
 Spindle formation starts.
  Homologous chromosomes lie side by side. This is called synapsis. A
pair of homologous chromosomes at this stage is called a bivalent.
 Chromatids of homologous chromosomes (homologous chromatids)
exchange portions at certain points called chiasmata in a process called
crossing over.
 The nuclear membrane disintegrates.
2. Metaphase 1
During metaphase I
 Spindle formation continues.
 Homologous chromosomes – now in a pair – align themselves at the
equator of the spindle with their centromeres facing opposite poles.
 Spindle fibers attach at the centromere of each chromosome.
3. Anaphase 1
During anaphase I;
 Homologous chromosomes separate and they move to opposite poles.
4. telophase 1
During telophase I
 Chromosomes arrive at the poles.
 The cell divides into two as in mitosis.
 The nuclear membrane reforms in each of the new cells.

Note: A bivalent is a pair of homologous chromosomes. Bivalents are formed

during prophase 1
Structure of a bivalent
Sister chromatids

Centromere
Chiasmata (point of crossing over)

Homologous chromatids
 MEIOSIS II
After meiosis I there is usually a short period of interphase but some times it
does not occur.
Meiosis II is also divided into the following stages.
1. Prophase II
2. Metaphase II
3. Anaphase II
4. Telophase II
1. Prophase II
 A spindle starts to form.
 Centrioles replicate and migrate to opposite poles.
 The nuclear membrane disintegrates at the end of prophase II

2. Metaphase II
During metaphase II;
 Chromosomes align at the equator with centromeres facing opposite
poles.
 Centromeres divide and sister chromatids separate.
 Spindle fibers attach to the sister chromatids at the centromere.

3. Anaphase II
During anaphase II;
 Chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.
 Chromatids now become chromosomes.

4. Telophase II
During telophase II;
 Each cell divides into two. These results into 4 daughter cells formed.
 The nuclear membrane reappears in each cell.
 Spindle fibers disappear.
 The nucleolus reappears.
 Chromosomes uncoil and become thread-like
 Significance/importance of meiosis
1. It is important in formation of gametes.
2. It halves the chromosome number to ensure that the total number is restored
during fertilization.
3. It introduces variations within cells through crossing over during prophase I
4. It results into rapid multiplication of cells since 4 are produced in a single
division.
5. Since it occurs in reproductive cells, it results into varied offspring during
sexual reproduction. This provides a basis for natural selection, which
ensures evolution of the species.
Comparison between mitosis and meiosis
Similarities:
1. Both are types of cell division.
2. They both involve replication of chromosomes.
3. They both involve similar stages e.g., prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
telophase and interphase.
4. In both chromosomes arrange themselves at the equator.
5. In both a spindle is formed.
6. Both begin with a diploid parent cell.

Differences:
Mitosis Meiosis
Occurs in somatic cells. Occurs in reproductive cells.
Involves a single division of Involves two divisions of
chromosomes and cytoplasm chromosomes and cytoplasm.
Does not involve the process of synapsis It involves synapsis
Crossing over does not occur s It involves crossing over between
homologous chromatids.
Formation of bivalents does not occur. There is formation of bivalents.
Two daughter cells are produced. Four daughter cells are formed.
Diploid cells are formed. Haploid cells are formed.
Daughter cells formed have the same Daughter cells formed have half the
number of chromosomes as the parent number of chromosomes compared to
cell the parent cell
Does not involve formation of It involves formation of chiasmata
chiasmata.

ECOLOGY

Ecology is the study of organisms in relation to their environment.

 Definitions of terms used in ecology.
1. Environment:
This refers to everything in the surrounding of an organism that influences its
life. The environment of a tadpole for example is everything in the water where
it lives.

2. Biosphere
This is the part of the earth and its atmosphere that is occupied by living things
or where life exists. It’s the largest habitat.

3. Habitat
This is a place where an organism lives. In the habitat, the organism obtains
water, shelter and it is able to reproduce there. The habitat of a tapeworm is the
mammalian intestines.

4. Population
This is the total group of organisms of the same species living in a particular
place at a given time.

5. Ecological niche
This refers to a particular place an organism occupies within a habitat and the
role it plays there.

6. Community
This is a collection of populations living and interacting with non-living
components. It is therefore the total of all organisms in an area.

7. Autechology
This is the study of only one species of organism in relation to its environment,
e.g. the study of a frog in relation to its habitat.

8. Synecology
This is the ecological study of a community of plants and animals in a particular
area.

9. Ecosystem
This is a unit of the environment consisting of both living (biotic) and nonliving
(abiotic) components interacting to form a self-sustaining unit. E.g. living things
may include fish, cockroaches, and nonliving things may include lake, pond,
forest, etc.
The two major factors within an ecosystem include:
 The flow of energy through an ecosystem.
 Cycling of matter within an ecosystem.

COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
The ecosystem is made up of two components;
1. The abiotic component (non living component)
2. The biotic component (living component)

THE ABIOTIC COMPONENT OF THE ECOSYSTEM.

This is the non-living component of the ecosystem. Living organisms interact
with the non-living components in their community to form a self-sustaining
unit called an ecosystem.
The abiotic components in the ecosystem include the soil factors (edaphic
factors).

Edaphic factors:
These are physical and chemical factors in soil and atmosphere that influence
the life and activities of living organisms. These factors affect different
organisms differently. Such factors include.
1) Light intensity. Light intensity affects the process of photosynthesis in
plants, visibility in some animals and causes responses such as phototropism.
2) Temperature. This affects the activity of enzymes in the body of organisms
and therefore determines the overall activity of an organism. Temperature
also affects germination of seeds.
3) Water. This is a very important edaphic factor. Water is a component of the
bodies of living organisms. It is a raw material for photosynthesis, it aids
dispersal of seeds, it is an agent of pollination, it is a habitat for some
organisms, it is a condition for germination, etc.
4) Humidity. This is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. Humidity
affects the rate of transpiration in plants; it also affects the rate at which
water is lost from the bodies of animals through evaporation.
5) PH. This is the alkalinity or acidity of soil. PH affects the dissolution of
mineral elements in water; it affects growth of plants and microbes in an
area, etc.
6) Nutrients. Presence or absence of a particular nutrient in soil determines the
organisms, which can grow in that soil. Nutrients are required for proper
growth of all organisms in the ecosystem.
7) Oxygen concentration. Most of the organisms are aerobic, i.e. they require
oxygen for their respiration. Oxygen is abundant in air (21% by volume)
however in water the concentration of oxygen varies due to factors that
affect its dissolution in water and over exploitation by organisms. This
affects the growth of organisms in water. In such a case anaerobic organisms
can thrive and aerobic ones die.

BIOTIC COMPONENTS
This is made up of living organisms in the ecosystem. They are categorized into
the following.

i) Producers
These are green plants and some bacteria that are able to manufacture their own
food by use of light, chlorophyll, Carbondioxide and water in the process called
photosynthesis and chemosynthesis. They are nutritionally referred to as
autotrophs.

ii) Consumers
These are organisms, which are not capable of manufacturing their own food.
The consumers get their food by feeding on other organisms.

LEVELS OF CONSUMERS
Consumers are classified into feeding levels called trophic levels. The
classification is based on the type of food they feed on.
The feeding levels/trophic levels of consumers include:
 Primary consumer
 Secondary consumer
 Tertiary consumer

The primary consumers (1st order consumers):

These are organisms that feed directly on plants (producers). They are called
herbivores. Examples are cattle, grasshoppers, goats, sheep, etc.
The secondary consumers (2nd order consumers):
These are organisms that obtain their food by feeding on primary consumers.
They are also referred to as carnivorous organisms since they feed on flesh.
Examples include cats and reptiles.

The tertiary consumers (3rd order consumers):

These are organisms that obtain their food by feeding on the flesh of secondary
consumers. These are usually big carnivorous animals like lions, crocodiles,
vultures and tigers

iii) The decomposers

These are organisms that feed on dead decaying organic matter. They are
commonly called saprophytes. The major examples are bacteria and fungi.
Decomposers are important because they bring about decay of plant and animal
tissues. This helps in the recycling of materials in the soil.
They also reduce the amount if wastes and litter in the environment

BIOTIC INTERACTIONS
Each category of feeding is known as a trophic level. Feeding methods are
useful in showing the relationship that exists in a community by means of food
chains and food webs.

TYPES OF FOOD RELATIONSHIPS

FOOD CHAIN
This is a feeding relationship between organisms showing which organism feeds
on what. It is always expressed in a linear fashion beginning with primary
producers and ending with tertiary consumers.
Organisms at the beginning of a food chain are usually numerous while
organisms at the end of the food chain are often large and few in number.
The food chain shows the passage of energy from producers to consumers.
Energy from the sun is fixed by producers (plants). The herbivores eat the plants
and obtain this energy. The carnivores feed on herbivores and obtain this
energy. At successive levels some energy is lost. At the end of the food chain
energy reduces.
Example 1:
Grass grasshopper dove cat

In the food chain above, the grass is the primary producer, the grasshopper is
the primary consumer, the dove is a secondary consumer and the cat is a
tartially consumer.
Arrows are used to show the movement of energy from one organism to
another. Energy moves from the producers to tertially consumers through the
food chain.
There are usually few links in the chain because as the links increase energy
reduces and organisms feeding at the terminal end of the chain gain little
energy.
Chemicals on the other hand accumulate in tissues and increase in succeeding
levels in the food chain.
Elimination of one level from the food chain disrupts the food chain. For
example in the above food chain, when the grasshoppers are eliminated from
the ecosystem, the following occur.
1) The grass grows and increases in number because the grasshopper that used
to feed on it has been removed.
2) The doves lack food because they feed on grasshoppers, which have been
removed. This causes their numbers to drop.
3) The cats also reduce in number because as the doves die due to lack of food,
the cats lack food and start to reduce because they feed on doves.

Example 2
Draw a food chain for the following organisms;
a) Vegetation, beetle, owl, fox
Vegetation beetle owl fox

b) cow, man, lion and grass.

Grass Cow Man Lion

c) Nile perch, algae, water flea and tilapia

Algae Water flea Tilapia Nile perch

 FOOD WEB
A food web is a number of interlinked food chains. From the above food chains
in example 1 and example 2a, the food web below can be obtained.

From the food chain b and c in example 2 above, the food web below can be
drawn.

Note.
When drawing the food web, the organisms should be arranged in trophic
levels. The produces should be at the bottom followed by primary consumers
and tertiary consumers at the top of the food web.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
These are used to show either the number of organisms or energy present at
each level in the food chain and food web. There are three types of pyramids
namely;
1. Pyramid of numbers
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramid of energy

1. Pyramid of numbers:
This is used to show the number of individuals at each trophic level.
The number of organisms at each trophic level is counted and a pyramid is
drawn with the primary producers at the base. The width of each rectangle
represents the number of organisms at each trophic level.
Illustration Tertiary consumers
Secondary consumers
Primary consumers
Producers
Example 1
Draw a pyramid of numbers for 20 Nile perch, 40 planktons, 34 tilapia, 4 men
4 Men

20 Nile perch
34 Tilapia
40 Planktons

Example 2.
Draw a pyramid of numbers for the food chain below.
1 Guava plant 100 caterpillars 20 birds

Birds

Caterpillars

Guava

A big fruit tree may have several birds feeding on a fruit, man may be an
alternate consumer of the birds while at the same time, several lice may be
parasites to man.
The pyramid of numbers of such a chain may have the following form.

Lice

Man

Birds

Tree

The problem with the pyramid of numbers is that it does not account for size of
the organism at each trophic level. For this reason the pyramid of biomass is
used.

Question:
Husnah carried out an ecological study in Kabowa. In one of the sections, she
found 15 toads, 180 plants, 4 snakes and 120 grass hoppers. Use the information
to answer the questions.
a) Construct a possible food chain for the above information.
b) State the trophic levels occupied by each of the organisms in the
community.
c) Draw the pyramid of number for the community.
d) Explain what would happen to the rest of the organisms if all toads were
destroyed.

Solution:
a) Plants grass hopper toad snakes
b) Plants – producers
Grass hopper – primary consumer
Toad – secondary consumer
Snake – tertiary consumer
c) Pyramid of numbers
Snake Tertiary consumers

Toad Secondary consumers

Grass hopper Primary consumers

Plants Producers

d) The number of grass hopper increases and that of plants decreases due to
the increase in the number of grass hopper.

2. Pyramid of biomass:
This gives the mass of the organism at each trophic level. Biomass refers to the
mass of a living organism. Biomass decreases from producers to tertiary
consumers. Producers have a higher biomass than all other trophic levels.
Considering the food chain in the example 2, above, the pyramid of biomass
would be. Birds
Caterpillar
Guava tree

Even if the guava is one, it has a bigger biomass than caterpillars and
caterpillars have a larger biomass than birds.
In most cases the pyramid of bio mass is constructed using dry weight of
organisms. This is because the fresh mass of an organism varies so much with
water content.
Dry weight is the mass of an organism without water.
Tertiary consumers
Secondary consumers
Primary consumers
Producers

The problem with biomass is that it varies greatly as the organism grows. Using
a pyramid of energy can solve this problem.

3. Pyramid of energy:
This shows the amount of energy at each trophic level. Energy decreases with
succeeding trophic levels. Producers contain more energy than tertiary
consumers. The pyramid of energy gives the most accurate
Tertiary representation.
consumer
Pyramid of energy.
Secondary consumer
Primary consumer
Producer

Energy flow in an ecosystem

Energy flows through food chains and food webs. Energy is obtained from the
sun by green plants. The plants trap light energy and use it to carry out
photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, light energy is converted into chemical
energy. When primary consumers eat the plants, they obtain this energy. The
energy is then passed on to other organisms through their feeding relationships.
At each trophic (feeding) level there is loss of energy because;
i) Some energy is used up during respiration.
ii) Some energy is lost from herbivores in form of indigestible plant
material.
iii) Some organisms die before they are eaten.
iv) Some of the chemical energy is converted into other forms such as sound,
light energy, heat energy, which easily escapes from the organisms.
At each trophic level, decomposers (saprophytes) such as bacteria and fungi
break down dead organic matter to release some of the energy locked in it.
 POPULATIONS
Population is the total number of organisms of same species living in a
particular area at a given time.
Organisms live in a population in order to:
 Gain more protection as the population
 Have increased chances of gathering mates and breeding.
 Ability to get shelter
However organisms in a population face:
 High chances of overcrowding
 High competition among themselves for food, shelter, etc.
 Increased chances of predation.

PATTERNS OF POPULATION DISPERSION

The distribution of individuals in an area is known as population dispersion. It
refers to the way individuals in a population are distributed in a particular area
in which they are living.

Types of population dispersion

1. Random dispersion.
This happens when the environment is uniform throughout the area and
therefore there is no tendency to aggregate. There is no particular order of
distribution

2. Uniform dispersion.
This occurs when competition is very high due to scarcity of resources and the
organisms are evenly distributed in all parts of the environment.

3. Clumped dispersion
Here organisms are found in high numbers in particular areas and low numbers
in other areas. This results from:
1. Self-dispersal
2. Resources being clumped
3. Tendency of individuals in an area to live together.
4. Territorial behaviour
5. Aggregate behaviour where organisms feed together in a group.

There are two types of clumped dispersal.

Regular illustration

Irregular illustration

Importance of distribution
 Individuals acquire themselves enough space within which they can live and
breed i.e. a home with enough resources and suitable breeding resources.
 It improves on the chances of obtaining a mate.

POPULATION GROWTH
This refers to the increase in number of organisms of the same species. Growth
takes place when the birth rate is higher than the death rate. The increase in
number over a period of time when plotted on a graph makes what is known as
a growth curve.

Carrying capacity
This is the total population the environment can support at a particular time
without exhausting the resources.

The population growth curve

The growth curve is S-shaped and it is referred to as a sigmoid curve. It is
divided into five phases.
Phase A
In this phase the rate of growth is low because the numbers of organisms
multiplying are few and the organisms are still adapting to the conditions.
Phase B
The rate of growth increases because the number of reproducing organisms has
increased and the organisms have adapted to the conditions.
Phase C
The rate of growth starts to slow down as the organisms start to die. This is due
to the fact that their number has become big and they have started competing for
food, shelter, mates and space. The available resources cannot support a big
number of organisms.
Phase D
In this phase, the rate of birth is equal to the rate of death hence the population
remains constant.
Phase E
The population is declining because the rate of birth is lower than the death rate.
The organisms die at a higher rate due to competition between them and the
exhaustion of resources.

Growth of the human population

The population is presently growing exponentially. This is shown in the human
population growth curve below:
The exponential human growth is usually due to:
 Advancement in science and technology leading to prevention of
infectious diseases.
 Early warning on natural catastrophes.
 Proper nutrition.
 Decrease in infant mortality.
 Increase in life expectancy in developing countries.
 Increasing agriculture hence leading into more food.

Factors affecting population growth

These factors are grouped into two categories.

1. Density dependent factors; these are factors whose effect depend on the
size of the population, e.g. food, diseases, space, pollution, predation,
competition, light, etc.

2. Density independent factors; these are factors which affect the population
regardless of the population size e.g. earth quakes, floods, droughts,
thunderstorm, lightening, fire strong winds, etc.

POPULATION SIZE
This refers to the number of organisms of the same species in a particular area
at a particular time.

Determinants of population size

Population size depends on the following factors.

1. Natality (birth rate). This is the frequency of birth. Increase in natality

results into increase in population size.
2. Mortality (death rate). This is the frequency of deaths. When the death rate
increases, the population size decreases.

3. Emigration. This is the movement of individuals out of the population. It

results into a decrease in population size.

4. Immigration. This is the movement of individuals into the population. It

causes the population to increase.

METHODS OF ESTIMATING POPULATION SIZE

1. Direct count
This is suitable for large organisms living in an open habitat, e.g. elephants,
lions and buffaloes. In this method, one moves through the area along
predetermined paths and counts the organisms in question. When counting
aggressive animals, a low flying aircraft is used. Several counts are made and an
average is taken to get an estimate of a particular area.

2. Aerial photography
This is suitable for large organisms living in an open area. Photographs are
taken from a low flying aircraft over the study area. When the photographs are
developed the number of organisms in the photographs is determined. The
photographs are taken several times and the average number is taken for the
population of that particular organism in the area.

3. The quadrat
This is a method used for small static organisms like plants or slow moving
animals. A quadrat is a square metal or wooden flame of 1-meter long sides. It
therefore encloses an area of 1m2. The quadrat is thrown at random in the study
area and the individuals covered counted. Several quadrats are thrown at
random and the average number of organisms is taken.
The average number is then multiplied by the total area of the study to get the
estimated population.

4. Line transect method:

This method involves lying along measuring tapes along a selected strip within
the habitat. A record is made of the organisms touching or covered by a line at
all points at regular intervals.
5. Belt transect method:
This is a strip usually a meter wide marked by putting a second line transect
parallel to the other. The species between the line are carefully recorded.

6. Capture mark recapture method:

This is suitable for animals, which are fast moving. E.g. rats and grasshoppers.
In this method animals in an environment are captured and counted (n 1). They
are then marked and released back into the environment.
The traps are then laid after a given period of time.
The organisms captured are counted (n2).
The organisms that were marked and recaptured are also counted (n 3). The
population is then calculated from:

Total population = number of individuals in 1st capture X number of individuals

in 2nd capture
Number of individual in 2nd capture with a mark
P = n1 x n2

n3
Where;
P = population
n1 = number in the first capture
n2 = number in the second capture
n3 = number in the second capture which are marked.

Examples
1. 30 rats were caught in the bush around the school. They were all marked
with ink on the tails and released. After 3 days 20 rats were caught from the
same area. 6 out of the 20 rats had a mark. Estimate the population of rats in
this bush.
Solution.
P = n1 x n2
Using.
n3
P = population.
n1 = 30
n2 = 20
n3 = 6
P = 30 x 20

6
 = 100 rats.
Assignment:
Arthur captured and marked and replaced 45 cockroaches on the first day. She
captured 26 cockroaches from the same area 17 of which were not marked.
Estimate the population in the area.

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN POPULATION

Individual organisms in the population do not live in isolation in a community.
They are continuously interacting with each other in the following ways:
 Competition
 Predation
 Mutualism
 Parasitism

COMPETITION
As the population of the individuals increase, the resources become limited and
the organisms compete for them. Examples of resources competed for include,
food, space, mates, etc. Competition is of two types;

1. Interspecific competition; this is the competition between organisms of

different species, e.g. the competition between goats and cattle for pastures.

2. Intraspecific competition; this is the competition between organisms of the

same species, e.g. the competition between goats for grass.

PREDATION
This is the relationship between a predator and the prey.
A predator is an organism that hunts and kills another organism (prey) for food.
A prey is an organism that is hunted and killed for food.
 The graph showing the predator-prey relationship

Description and explanation of the graph:

The population of the prey is higher than that of the predator at the start. This
leads to an increase in the number of predators.
The prey reaches a peak earlier than the predators. Further increase in the
predator population leads to a decrease in the prey population due to the fact
that they are being fed on by the predators. When the number of prey goes
down, the predators starve and this makes their population to go down. When
the predator number decreases below that of the prey, the population of the prey
increases again due to the fact that the predators are few which would feed on
them.
Note. Both the predator and prey control the population of each other.

Adaptations of predators that enable them to feed on prey

1. They have keen eyesight to see their prey.
2. They have strong jaw muscles to tear flesh of the prey.
3. They have sharp claws to hold and kill their prey.
4. They move very fast to enable them chase the prey.
5. They have streamlined bodies to cut through air during movement.
6. Some have very sharp canines to tear flesh of their prey.
7. They have colours, which help them to camouflage.

Adaptations of the prey to avoid being eaten by predators

1. They perceive sound with high accuracy and are able to sense their predators
at a distance.
2. They are very fast in movement to escape from their predators.
3. They have developed structures for defense such as horns.
4. They normally move in groups to scare their predators.
5. They prefer to stay in areas, which give them good visibility such as
grasslands.
6. They have colours, which help them to camouflage.
7. Mimicry; this is where a palatable harmless organism attains colours of an
unpalatable harmful organism and it is confused for a harmful organism.

FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ORGANISMS

SYMBIOSIS
This is the relationship between two organisms of different species in which
both organisms derive benefits from the association.
Examples
1. In the stomach of cattle and sheep there are bacteria. These bacteria help to
digest cellulose, which is used by the cow. The bacteria benefits by getting
food and shelter from the cow.
2. The nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules of leguminous plants. The
bacteria provide nitrates to the plant by converting nitrogen to nitrates and
the bacteria are protected in the root nodules. The bacteria may also use
sugars produced by the plant during photosynthesis
3. The lichen is composed of a fungus and filament of algae. The fungus
provides water and mineral salts to the algae and the fungus benefits by
using the sugars produced by the algae
COMMENSALISM
This is the relationship between the organisms of different species in which only
one organism (commensal) benefits but the other organism neither benefits nor
loses.
Examples.
1. The shark and the ramora. The ramora is a small fish that lives as a
commensal attached to the shark by its sucker. When the shark feeds, the
ramora feeds on left overs of the shark. The shark neither benefits nor loses.
2. The cattle/buffalos and the egret. The egret gets food in form of insects
forced to fly by grazing animals. The cattle do not gain and do not lose.

PARASITISM
This is the association between two organisms in which one (the parasite) is
nutritionally dependent on the other (host). The host is harmed in the process.
Parasites are divided into two categories:
1. Endo-parasites; these are parasites that live inside the body of the host,
e.g. plasmodium and HIV
2. Ectoparasites; these are parasites which live outside the body of the host,
e.g. ticks, lice and flea.
Parasites can also be described as:

Obligate parasites; these are parasites which cannot live without their hosts.
Examples of obligate parasites are plasmodium and HIV.

Facultative parasites; these are parasites that can spend some time outside the
bodies of their hosts. E.g. Ticks.

Incidental parasites; these are organisms that are not usually parasite but may
become parasitic due to factors like lack of their normal food, increase in their
numbers, etc. an example is Entamoeba gingivalis.

Problems faced by parasites

i) Finding the host may be difficult since most hosts keep on moving from one
place to another.
ii) Deficiency of food in case the host has similar deficiency.
iii) They may be killed by the hosts’ immune reactions.
iv) Death of parasites incase the host dies due to starvation.
v) Inabilities to live in a wide range of environment since most of them have
low power of locomotion i.e. they are not able to live freely.
To overcome some of these problems, the parasites have a number of
adaptations so as to cope up with their mode of life.

General adaptations of parasites

1. They have means of attachment to the host.
2. They have penetrative devices for entering and feeding on the host
3. They show degeneration of unnecessary organs and systems to reduce on
their body size in order to fit in the host. e.g. eyes
4. They produce many eggs, seeds or spores to enhance their survival.
5. They have vector intermediate hosts
6. They produce resistant stages to survive in periods when they are outside the
host

Types of hosts
1. Intermediate host:
This is the host in which the larvae stage of parasites develops from (secondary
host).
2. Primary host (infinite host):
This is the host in which sexual reproduction of a parasite occurs from.
 EXAMPLES OF PARASITES

1. PLASMODIUM SPP
This is a protozoan parasite that causes malaria. It is transmitted from one
person to another by the female anopheles mosquito. The mosquito acts as the
vector.

Life cycle of plasmodium

 Mosquitoes bite a human and inject saliva to stop blood from clotting in its
alimentally canal.
 In the process hundreds of parasites are moved from the mosquito into the
person.
 The parasites move to the liver through the circulatory system.
 They burrow in the liver cells and reproduce very fast.
 Within one to two weeks, the daughter cells break out of the liver and move
to invade the red blood cells.
 In the red blood cells they reproduce rapidly causing the cells to rapture and
invade other red blood cells.
 They then attack new red blood cells causing them to rapture also.
 If a mosquito sucks blood from an infected person, it will take up these
parasites in the red blood cells.
 The parasites reproduce in the mosquito and migrate to the salivary glands
ready to infect the next person when that mosquito bites.
Note.
Each time the daughter cells of plasmodia are released, thousands of red blood
cells rapture and the patient experiences chills accompanied by shivering and
sweating. The patient may also become anemic due to loss of red blood cells.

Control of malaria
 Spraying the walls of dwelling places with insecticides. The insecticide may
also be sprayed directly on the mosquito vector.
 Draining all stagnant water to prevent mosquitoes from breeding there.
 Removing broken bottles, old tins, old car tyres, e.t.c in which water collects.
This also prevents breeding of mosquitoes.
 Sleeping under mosquito nets
 Treating the infected people using anti-malarial drugs.
2. THE TAPEWORM
These are flatworms belonging to phylum platyhelminthes. There are two
common species known.
i) Taenia sagnata (beef tape worm)
ii) Taenia solium (pork tape worm)
They live in the small intestine of humans attached to the wall of the small
intestine by hooks and suckers. They absorb nutrients from the digested food.

Life cycle of a tapeworm

 Within the infected human being, the segments containing fertilized eggs
break off and pass out in feaces.
 These eggs then tend to become attached to leaf blades of vegetation.
 When the eggs are eaten by the pig or cow depending on the species of the
tapeworm, they develop into embryos.
 The released embryos burrow through the intestinal walls into the blood,
which transports them to the muscles.
 Within the muscles they develop into bladder worms.
 If uncooked or partially cocked, meat from an infected cow or pig is eaten,
the bladder worms are released in the intestines where they develop into
tapeworms.

Control
1. Avoid eating raw or half cooked meat.
2. By regular de-worming of infected individuals
3. By proper disposal of wastes
4. Inspection of meat before it is considered fit for human consumption.

Adaptations of tapeworms to parasitic life

i) They have lost the alimentally canal hence absorb already digested food over
the entire body surface by diffusion.
ii) They have a thick cuticle to prevent attack by digestive enzymes of the host.
iii) They produce substances that inactivate the enzymes of the host.
iv) Each mature proglotids of the tapeworm contains both male and female
reproductive organs (hermaphrodites) hence fertilizes itself.
v) They produce large numbers of eggs to ensure their survival.
vi) They have suckers for attachment to intestinal walls. This prevents the tape
worm from being dislodged by host peristaltic movements
vii) They have resistant stages in their lifecycles with secondary and
intermediate hosts to ensure survival during adverse conditions.
viii) There is loss of unwanted organs like locomotally organs, eyes, etc. to
ensure that they occupy as little space as possible within the host.
ix) They have the ability to respire anaerobically and can survive in an oxygen
free environment.

3. SCHISTOSOMES
These are flat worms known as flukes. They are parasites that cause bilharzia
(schistosomiasis)

Life cycle
 Schistosoma requires the use of two hosts to complete its life cycle
 Eggs are shed in faeces or urine of an infected human
 Eggs can survive up to a week in dry land
 If feaces end up in water, larvae called miracidia hatch
 Find a snail and penetrate its foot
 Transform into primary sporocysts ( another larval form)
 Primary sporocysts multiply asexually into secondary sporocysts
 Travel to snails hepatopancreas
 Multiply asexually into many cercariae ( another larval form)
 Cercariae exit the snail into the water (survive for about 48 hours )
 Swim and attach to human skin with suckers
 Find a suitable spot (e.g a hair follicle) and penetrate the skin using special
enzymes
 Transform into schistosomulae as they enter(another larval form)
 Only head parts enter, tails remain behind
 After a few days in rain, enter into the blood stream through dermal
lymphatic vessels or blood venules
 Travel in blood stream to get to specific blood veins
 Schistosoma reaches maturity in 6-8 weeks in humans
 Developed adult male and female find each other and pair up
 Males make a gynaecophoric channel for longer thinner females to reside
 The pair travel to rectal and mesenteric veins
 Attach to venous wall with ventral and oral suckers
 Females lay eggs on endothelial linning of the venous capillary walls
 Some eggs are flushed by circulating blood ending up causing inflammation
in organs like liver, lungs
 Most eggs travel to lumen of intestinal tract( for S. mansoni) ureters and
bladder(for S. haematobium)
 Mature eggs produce special enzymes and can penetrate many membranes
like renal veins or intestinal walls
 Eggs get out of the body in faeces or urine
 Cycle starts again
 Control
i) Boil all the water for drinking and bathing
ii) Proper disposal of feaces and all wastes
iii) Kill snails using chemicals
iv) Treatment of water in swimming pools
v) Drain water around homes.

4. TRYPANOSOMES
These are protozoan parasites living in the blood stream. There are several
different types of trypanosomes and they cause the following diseases.
1. Sleeping sickness (trypanasomiasis)
2. Nagana in cattle
3. Chagas disease.

Life cycle of trypanosomes

The trypanosomes are transmitted by tsetseflies, which act as vectors as well as
intermediate hosts.
When the tsetse fly bites an infected person, it sucks the blood from the
capillary containing trypanosomes. The parasites multiply in the body of the
tsetsefly and migrate to the salivary glands. When the fly bites a healthy person,
it injects saliva, which contains trypanosomes into the blood of the normal
person. These multiply and cause symptoms of the disease and the cycle
repeats.

Control
i) Clearing of bushes to destroy habitats for tsetseflies.
ii) Spraying tsetseflies using insecticides
iii) Treatment of infected animals
iv) Sleeping under treated nets
v) Putting infected areas under quarantine.
vi) Using fly traps to trap tsetseflies

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
This is the successive replacement of organisms in a community from simple
one to the most complex ones gradually. This is a gradual change in the
composition of organisms in the area.
There are two types of succession.
1. Primary succession
2. Secondary succession
1. Primary succession
This is a type of succession where life begins from a bare rock or new pond,
which has never been occupied by living organisms before. The pioneer plants
in such areas are those, which can with stand dry conditions with low water
content and high temperatures. The first organisms to inhabit such an area are
called pioneer organisms.

Stages of succession on a bare rock

Stage 1
The lichens grow on bare rock. When they die, they decompose to form a thin
layer of soil, which traps some moisture.
Stage 2
Mosses start growing on the soil formed by the decayed lichens. When the
mosses die, they decay to form more soil.
Stage 3
The soil formed favours the growth of ferns.
Stage 4
Grasses start to grow due to coming in of favourable conditions such as
moisture, enough soil for anchorage of the plants. During this stage some
rodents may start coming in.
Stage 5
Shrubs are formed and they finally develop into trees. The trees form the climax
community after which no other changes take place.
Lichens. Trees. Climax
Mosses Ferns Grasses Shrubs
Pioneer community

Succession in a new water pond

Floating plants Papyrus Trees (forest)

It takes several years for a climax community to be established. Any

disturbance at any one level causes the process of succession to go back to the
initial stages and it later on re -establishes. The ability of the community to re-
establish after a disturbance is known as resilience.

A climax community is the final steady community that develops at the end of
the succession process.

Characteristics of primary succession

 A pioneer community has very few species of plants and animals.
 The pioneer vegetation is shallow rooted
 The pioneer community colonizes a bare rock.
 It takes a long time to reach the climax community.
2. Secondary succession
This is a type of succession, which takes place in an area, which has ever been
occupied by organisms and destroyed by disasters like fire, floods and human
activities. This type of succession is faster than primary succession.

Characteristics of secondary succession

 It begins on already formed soil or land.
 The pioneer community has a variety of plant and animal species.
 It takes a short time to reach the climax community
 The pioneer vegetation is of higher plants which are deep rooted.

FIRE AS AN ECOLOGICAL FACTOR

 Effects of fire to the ecosystem
This is measured in the destruction made and it depends on the following
factors.
1. Kind and amount of burning fuel e.g. grass generates less heat compared to
wooden materials hence is less destructive.
2. Weather conditions. Fire is spread very fast in dry conditions and thus
destroying a wide area of the eco system than in cold conditions. In cold
conditions, fire spreads very slowly due to the high humidity hence causing
less destruction.
3. Direction of wind. The effect of fire is great to the ecosystem if its burning
against the direction of wind (back fire) because it burns in a particular area
for a long period of time compared to forward fire.

Merits of fire
 It breaks seed dormancy due to hard seed coat leading to fast germination.
 It increases recycling of nutrients in an ecosystem.
 It is used in selective weeding.
 It controls pests and diseases.
 It improves on herbage in an area.
 It improves on light penetration leading to rapid under growth in the forest.
 It improves on the visibility of the prey to predators by burning the
vegetation cover down.

Demerits of fire
 It destroys the habitat of animals which may cause extinction of some
animals.
 It causes air pollution
 It destroys green plants which are producers of the community.
 It destroys animals in the ecosystem.
 It increases predation due to improved visibility.
 It leads to loss of some nutrients from the soil by decomposition e.g. humus
and nitrates.

Forests as a renewable resource

Forests are renewed by afforestation and avoiding deforestation.

Ecological importance of forests

 They act as habitats of organisms.
 Source of food to organisms.
 Used in rain fall formation, this improves on the climate of an ecosystem.
 It forms soil by dropping litter which helps in decomposition into humus.
 Maintains plants and animal diversity.

Ecological effects of deforestation

 Destruction of habitats of animals.
 It leads to soil erosion
 It leads to desertification.
 It increases CO2 content in the atmosphere.
 Increases predation due to removal of vegetation cover.

Importance of forests to wild life conservation

 They are sources of food to animals
 They are habitats to animals.
 Formation of rain falls to prevent drought.
 Reduces soil erosion thereby conserving soil fertility.
 Maintains the bio diversity for a variety of plant and animal species.
 Purifies the environment by removing CO2 and adding oxygen.
 Provides a variety of litter that decomposes to form humus.
 Reduces predation of some wild animals.

POLLUTION
This is the addition of substances to the environment to levels that harm or
destroy living components of the environment (ecosystem). Substances that can
cause pollution to the environment are called pollutants. E.g. sewerage,
fertilizers, oil links, etc.

Types of pollution
1. Water pollution
2. Air pollution
3. Noise pollution
4. Radioactive pollution
5. Sound pollution

Air pollution
The main pollutants of air or atmosphere are poisonous gases e.g. SO2, CO2,
NO2, and CO.
Some of these gases e.g. SO2, CO2, and CO form acidic components that
destroy vegetation. Another air pollutant is smoke that causes poor vision,
reduced light penetration, and reduction of photosynthesis by coating on plant
leaves.
Excess gases in the atmosphere e.g. CO2 and CFCs ( Chloro Floro Carbon) used
in fridges cause global warming.

Water pollution
This is as a result of addition of excess nutrients e.g. nitrates, phosphates,
potassium to water bodies making them too nutritive leading to increased
productivity of water. The highly productive lake is called eutrophic lake and
the process of polluting water bodies by adding excess nutrients is called
eutrophication. The main pollutants that cause eutrophication are fertilizers.
Domestic wastes drained in water bodies, industrial wastes e.g. detergents
which contain a lot of phosphates and nitrates also cause eutrophication in the
lake.

Eutrophication:
This is the accumulation of nutrients (nitrates and phosphates) leading to
increased growth of aquatic plants e.g. algae which decompose after death
leading to a decrease of oxygen contents as a result of being utilized by
decomposers of dead plants. Due to the decrease of oxygen content, in water,
aquatic animals that need oxygen for respiration e.g. fish suffocate and die.

Soil pollution
Use of excess fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides pollutes the soil. Excess
herbicides and insecticides lead to death of living organisms in the soil there by
reducing the rate of decomposition of dead matter.
Non degradable insecticides do not break down but accumulate in animals along
the food chain to poisonous levels that can kill.

Activities of man that have led to the degradation of soil

Environmental degradation is the process of destroying the quality of the
environment. Human activities that have led to degradation of soil are:
1. Over stocking leading to over grazing that reduces the amount of vegetation
cover to expose the soil there by encouraging soil erosion.
2. Deforestation exposing soil to agents of soil erosion.
3. Use of insecticides, pesticides and herbicides which cause the death of soil
organisms hence affecting the rate of decomposition.
4. Burning of vegetation that removes the vegetation cover which encourages
surface run off hence leading to soil erosion.
5. Mining, construction, quarrying leads to the destruction of soil structure
which encourages soil erosion.
6. Digging or cultivating down slope also encourages soil erosion.

Radioactive pollution
This is the release of radioactive chemicals into the environment in large
amounts e.g atomic substances are from atomic bombs.

Human activities that lead to environmental pollution

1. Drainage of excess un treated sewage into the water bodies causing
eutrophication.
2. Application of excess fertilizers that are later eroded in water bodies.
3. Burning of vegetation that exposes the soil to erosion agent and it also leads
to the emission of smoke which causes air pollution.
4. Emission of excess poisonous gases in the atmosphere e.g. SO2, CO2 and CO
form industries and automobiles which cause acidic rains.
5. Use of excess herbicides and insecticides which kill the soil organisms
leading to decreased rate of decomposition.
6. Spilling of oil onto water bodies which leads to suffocation of aquatic
animals.
7. Construction of noisy industries in town which cause sound pollution that
can damage the hearing process of man.
8. Decomposition of non-biodegradable materials into the soil e.g. plastics,
glass, etc. which destroy the soil structure.
9. Deforestation
[Link]
[Link] stocking

UGANDA’S WATER BODIES

The major water bodies in Uganda are lakes and rivers. They are pollution by
sewage from industries; fertilizers used by man, oil from machines e.g. boat
engines.
Water bodies are also invaded by water weeds especially water hyacinth which
is a flowering plant which can also reproduce asexually and with a high rate of
reproduction.

Effects of water hyacinth on water bodies

 They hinder navigation
 They habour dangerous animals e.g. snakes
 Reduction in the amount of fish in water bodies as some dies due to
starvation.
 They reduce on the amount of light penetration in water column.
 Siltation of water bodies i.e. they become shallow as a result of death and
decomposition of water hyacinth.
 Reduction in the amount of water in lakes as a result of increased rate of
transpiration.
 They hinder smooth flow of water in lakes since they block the drainage
channels.
 It has caused economic injuries to the country especially when trying to
eradicate it.

Uses of water hyacinths

 Production of biogas
 Feeds for cattle and pigs.
 A good fertilizer when used as mulches.
 A good raw material for art and craft.
 Raw material for making manure.

Methods of controlling the water hyacinth

1. Physically or removing it manually by hand picking however it is not
effective.
2. By use of machines (mechanical control) however the method is effective
but expensive.
3. By using biological control methods e.g. use of bottles.
4. Use of herbicides (chemical control) and it involves the spraying of
herbicides directly onto the weed. The method is quick but has the following
demerits:
 It contaminates water
 Destruction of aquatic life especially fish
 Pollution of water since the weed is not completely removed but
decomposes in water.
 It is expensive since it involves the use of space air crafts to apply
it.
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