DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

• Digestion is defined as the process by which food is broken down into simple
chemical substances that can be absorbed and used as nutrients by the body

• Most of the substances in the diet cannot be utilized as such.

• These substances must be broken into smaller particles, so that they can be
absorbed into blood and distributed to various parts of the body for
utilization.
0RGANS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
functions of digestive system
1. Ingestion or consumption of food substances
2. Breaking them into small particles
3. Transport of small particles to different areas of the digestive tract
4. Secretion of necessary enzymes and other substances for digestion
5. Digestion of the food particles
6. Absorption of the digestive products (nutrients)
7. Removal of unwanted substances from the body
 FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• Digestive system is made up of gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) or alimentary
canal and accessory organs, which help in the process of digestion and
absorption
• GI tract is a tubular structure extending from the mouth up to anus, with a
length of about 5-7 meters(30 feet). It opens to the external environment on
both ends.
• GI tract is formed by two types of organs:
1. Primary digestive organs.
2. Accessory digestive organs.
1. Primary Digestive Organs
• Primary digestive organs are the
organs where actual digestion takes
place. Primary digestive organs are:
• Mouth
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine.
2. Accessory Digestive Organs
• Accessory digestive organs are those
which help primary digestive organs in
the process of digestion.
• Accessory digestive organs are:
• Teeth
• Tongue
• Salivary glands
• Exocrine part of pancreas
• Liver
• Gallbladder.
 WALL OF GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
wall of the GI tract is
formed by four layers which
are from inside out:
1. Mucus layer
2. Submucus layer
3. Muscular layer
4. Serous or fibrous layer.
 1. MUCUS LAYER
• Mucus layer is the innermost layer of the
wall of GI tract. It is also called
gastrointestinal mucosa or mucus
membrane. It faces the cavity of GI tract.

• Mucosa has three layer of structures:

i. Epithelial lining
ii. Lamina propria
iii. Muscularis mucosa.
1. Epithelial lining
• Epithelial lining is in contact with the contents of GI tract.
• The type of cells in this layer varies in different parts of GI tract.
• The inner surface of mouth, surface of tongue, inner surface of
pharynx and esophagus have stratified squamous epithelial cells.
• However, mucus membrane lining the other parts such as stomach,
small intestine and large intestine has columnar epithelial cells.
Lamina Propria
• Lamina propria is formed by connective tissues, which contain fibroblasts,
macrophages, lymphocytes and eosinophils.
Muscularis Mucosa
• Muscularis mucosa layer consists of a thin layer of smooth muscle fibers. It is
absent in mouth and pharynx. It is present from esophagus onwards.
SUBMUCUS LAYER
Submucus layer is also present in all parts of GI tract, except the mouth
and pharynx.
It contains loose collagen fibers, elastic fibers, reticular fibers and few cells
of connective tissue. Blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerve plexus are
present in this layer.
MUSCULAR LAYER
Muscular layer in lips, cheeks and wall of pharynx contains skeletal
muscle fibers. The esophagus has both skeletal and smooth muscle
fibers. Wall of the stomach and intestine is formed by smooth muscle
fibers.
 4. SEROUS OR FIBROUS LAYER
• Outermost layer of the wall of GI tract is either serous or fibrous in nature.
• The serous layer is also called serosa or serous membrane and it is formed
by connective tissue and meso epithelial cells.
• It covers stomach, small intestine and large intestine.
• The fibrous layer is otherwise called fibrosa and it is formed by connective
tissue. It covers pharynx and esophagus.
 Mouth and
Salivary Glands
• Mouth is otherwise known as oral
cavity or buccal cavity. It is formed
by cheeks, lips and palate. It
encloses the teeth, tongue and
salivary glands.
• Digestive juice present in the
mouth is saliva, which is secreted
by the salivary glands.
FUNCTIONS OF MOUTH
• Primary function of mouth is eating and it has few other important
functions also.
Functions of mouth include:
1. Ingestion of food materials
2. Chewing the food and mixing it with saliva
3. Appreciation of taste of the food
4. Transfer of food (bolus) to the esophagus by swallowing
5. Role in speech
6. Social functions such as smiling and other expressions.
 SALIVARY GLANDS
In humans, the saliva is secreted by three
pairs of major (larger) salivary glands and
some minor (small) salivary glands.
MAJOR SALIVARY GLANDS
Major glands are:
1. Parotid glands
2. Submaxillary or submandibular glands
3. Sublingual glands.
 1. Parotid Glands
• Parotid glands are the largest of all salivary
glands, situated at the side of the face just
below and in front of the ear.
• Each gland weighs about 20 to 30 g in
adults.
• Secretions from these glands are emptied
into the oral cavity by Stensen duct.
• This duct is about 35 mm to 40 mm long
and opens inside the cheek against the
upper second molar tooth
• Parotid secretions rich in water and
electroytes
Submaxillary glands or submandibular glands
• are located in submaxillary triangle,
medial to mandible. Each gland
weighs about 8 to 10 g.
• Saliva from these glands is emptied
into the oral cavity by Wharton duct,
which is about 40 mm long.
• It secretes water and mucous
secretions
 3. Sublingual Glands
• Sublingual glands are the smallest
salivary glands situated at the
floor of the mouth.
• Each gland weighs about 2 to 3 g.
Saliva from these glands is poured
into 5 to 15 small ducts called
ducts of Rivinus.
COMPOSITION OF SALIVA
• Mixed saliva contains 99.5% water and 0.5% solids. Composition of
saliva
 FUNCTIONS OF SALIVA
Saliva is a very essential digestive juice. Since it has many functions, its absence leads
to many inconveniences.

1. PREPARATION OF FOOD FOR SWALLOWING - When food is taken into the

mouth, it is moistened and dissolved by saliva. It facilitates chewing. By the movement
of tongue, the moistened and masticated food is rolled into a bolus.

2. APPRECIATION OF TASTE - Taste is a chemical sensation. By its solvent action,

saliva dissolves the solid food substances, so that the dissolved substances can stimulate
the taste buds. The stimulated taste buds recognize the taste.

3. DIGESTIVE FUNCTION Saliva has three digestive enzymes, namely salivary

amylase, maltase and lingual lipase
 STOMACH
• Stomach is a hollow organ situated just below the diaphragm on the left
side in the abdominal cavity. Volume of empty stomach is 50 mL.
• Under normal conditions, it can expand to accommodate 1 L to 1.5 L of
solids and liquids. However, it is capable of expanding still further up to 4 L.
• The stomach is a J-shaped enlargement of the GI tract directly inferior to
the diaphragm in the abdomen. The stomach connects the esophagus to
the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine
 FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF STOMACH

• In humans, stomach has

four parts:
1. Cardiac region,
2. Fundus
3. Body or corpus
4. Pyloric region.
The cardia surrounds the superior opening of the stomach. The rounded portion
superior to and to the left of the cardia is the fundus.
Inferior to the fundus is the large central portion of the stomach, the body.
The pyloric part is divisible into three regions.
The first region, the pyloric antrum, connects to the body of the stomach.
The second region, the pyloric canal, leads to the third region,
the pylorus, which in turn connects to the duodenum.
When the stomach is empty, the mucosa lies in large folds, or rugae,
The pylorus communicates with the duodenum of the small intestine via a
smooth muscle sphincter called the pyloric sphincter.
The concave border of the stomach is called the lesser curvature; the convex
border is called the greater curvature.
 Histology of the Stomach
• The stomach wall is composed of the same basic layers as the rest of the GI
tract, with certain modifications.
• The surface of the mucosa is a layer of simple columnar epithelial cells -
surface mucous cells
• Epithelial cells extend down into the lamina propria, where they form
columns of secretory cells - gastric glands.
• Several gastric glands open into the bottom of narrow channels - gastric pits.
• Secretions from several gastric glands flow into each gastric pit and then into
the lumen of the stomach.
▪ The submucosa of the stomach is
composed of areolar connective
tissue.
▪ The muscularis has three layers of
smooth muscle (rather than the two
found in the esophagus and small
and large intestines):
▪ an outer longitudinal layer
▪ a middle circular layer
▪ an inner oblique layer.
▪ The oblique layer is limited primarily
to the body of the stomach.
▪ The serosa is composed of simple
squamous epithelium and areolar
connective tissue
The gastric glands contain three types of exocrine
gland cells that secrete their products into the
stomach lumen
1. mucous neck cells- Both surface mucous cells
and mucous neck cells secrete mucus
2. chief cells- secrete pepsinogen and gastric
lipase
3. parietal cells- produce intrinsic factor
(needed for absorption of vitamin B12) and
hydrochloric acid.
4. G cell- which is located mainly in the pyloric
antrum and secretes the hormone gastrin
FUNCTIONS OF THE STOMACH
1. Mixes saliva, food, and gastric juice to form chyme.
2. Serves as reservoir for food before release into small intestine.
3. Secretes gastric juice, which contains HCl (kills bacteria), pepsin
(begins the digestion of proteins), intrinsic factor (aids absorption of
vitamin B12), and gastric lipase (aids digestion of triglycerides).
4. Secretes gastrin into blood
 Pancreas
• Pancreas is a dual organ
having two functions, namely
endocrine function and
exocrine function. Endocrine
function is concerned with
the production of hormones .
• The exocrine function is
concerned with the secretion
of digestive juice called
pancreatic juice
 Anatomy of the Pancreas
• The pancreas a retroperitoneal gland
about 12–15 cm (5–6 in.) long and 2.5 cm
(1 in.) thick, lies posterior to the greater
curvature of the stomach.
• The pancreas consists of a head, a body,
and a tail and is usually connected to the
duodenum by two ducts
• The head is the expanded portion of the
organ near the curve of the duodenum;
superior to and to the left of the head are
the central body and the tapering tail.
Pancreatic juices are secreted by exocrine cells into small ducts

that ultimately unite to form two larger ducts, the pancreatic duct and the
accessory duct(minor dueodenal papilla)

These in turn convey the secretions into the small intestine.

The pancreatic duct, or duct of Wirsung is the larger of the two ducts.

pancreatic duct joins the common bile duct from the liver and gallbladder

and enters the duodenum as a dilated common duct called the

hepatopancreatic ampulla or ampulla of Vater (major dueodenal papilla)
 Histology of the Pancreas
• The pancreas is made up of small
clusters of glandular epithelial cells.
About 99% of the clusters, called acini ,
constitute the exocrine portion of the
organ.
• The cells within acini secrete a mixture
of fluid and digestive enzymes called
pancreatic juice.
• The remaining 1% of the clusters, called
pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans),
form the endocrine portion of the
pancreas.
• These cells secrete the hormones
glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, and
pancreatic polypeptide.
Composition and Functions of Pancreatic Juice
• Each day the pancreas produces 1200–1500 mL (about 1.2–1.5 qt) of
pancreatic juice, a clear, colorless liquid consisting mostly of water, some
salts, sodium bicarbonate, and several enzymes.
The enzymes in pancreatic juice include
a) starch-digesting enzyme - pancreatic amylase
b) proteins into peptides- trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase and
elastase , triglyceride (fat and oil)- pancreatic lipase
c) nucleic acid digesting enzymes - ribonuclease and deoxyribonuclease that
digest ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) into
nucleotides.
Functions of pancreas
The pancreas has two main functions:
• Exocrine function: The pancreas produces enzymes that help to digest food
in the small intestine. These enzymes include amylase, which breaks
down carbohydrates; lipase, which breaks down fats; and trypsin and
chymotrypsin, which breaks down proteins.

• Endocrine function: The pancreas also produces hormones, including insulin

and glucagon, which help to regulate blood sugar levels. Insulin promotes
the uptake of glucose into cells, while glucagon promotes the release of
glucose from the liver.
 LIVER AND GALLBLADDER
• The liver is the heaviest gland of the body, weighing about 1.4 kg (about 3 lb)
in an average adult. The liver is inferior to the diaphragm and occupies most
of the right part of the abdominopelvic cavity
• The gallbladder (gall- bile) is a pear-shaped sac that is located in a depression
of the posterior surface of the liver. It is 7–10 cm (3–4 in.) long and typically
hangs from the anterior inferior margin of the liver
 Anatomy of the Liver and Gallbladder
• The liver is divided into two principal lobes—a large right lobe and a
smaller left lobe—by the falciform ligament
• the right lobe include an inferior quadrate lobe and a posterior caudate
lobe based on internal morphology
• The falciform ligament extends from the undersurface of the diaphragm
between the two principal lobes of the liver to the superior surface of the
liver, helping to suspend the liver in the abdominal cavity.
• The parts of the gallbladder include the broad fundus, which projects
inferiorly beyond the inferior border of the liver; the body, the central
portion; and the neck, the tapered portion. The body and neck project
superiorly.
Histology of the Liver and Gallbladder
1. Hepatocytes (hepat- liver; -cytes cells). Hepatocytes arethe major
functional cells of the liver and perform a wide array of metabolic,
secretory, and endocrine functions. These are specialized epithelial cells
with 5 to 12 sides that make up about 80% of the volume of the liver.
Hepatocytes form complex three-dimensional arrangements called
hepatic laminae
• The hepatic laminae are highly branched, irregular structures. Grooves in
the cell membranes between neighboring hepatocytes provide spaces for
canaliculi into which the hepatocytes secrete bile.
• Bile, a yellow, brownish, or olive-green liquid secreted by hepatocytes,
serves as both an excretory product and a digestive secretion.
 2. Bile canaliculi- small canals

These are small ducts between hepatocytes that collect bile produced by
the hepatocytes. From bile canaliculi, bile passes into bile ductules and
then bile ducts. The bile ducts merge and eventually form the larger right
and left hepatic ducts, which unite and exit the liver as the common
hepatic duct .
The common hepatic duct joins the cystic duct from the gallbladder to
form the common bile duct. From here, bile enters the small intestine to
participatein digestion.
3. Hepatic sinusoids

• These are highly permeable blood

capillaries between rows of hepatocytes
that receive oxygenated blood from
branches of the hepatic artery and
nutrient-rich deoxygenated blood from
branches of the hepatic portal vein.
• the hepatic portal vein brings venous
blood from the gastrointestinal organs
and spleen into the liver. Hepatic
sinusoids converge and deliver blood
into a central vein. From central veins
the blood flows into the hepatic veins,
which drain into the inferior vena cava
 Functions of the Liver and Gallbladder
1. Carbohydrate metabolism- The liver is especially important in
maintaining a normal blood glucose level. When blood glucose is low,
the liver can break down glycogen to glucose and release the glucose
into the bloods When blood glucose is high, the liver converts glucose
to glycogen and triglycerides for storage

2. Lipid metabolism. Hepatocytes store some triglycerides, break down

fatty acids to generate ATP; synthesize lipoproteins, which transport fatty
acids, triglycerides, and cholesterol to and from body cells, synthesise
cholesterol.
3. Protein metabolism. Hepatocytes deaminate (remove the amino group, NH2,
from) amino acids so that the amino acids can be used for ATP production.
Hepatocytes also synthesize most plasma proteins, such as alpha and beta
globulins, albumin, prothrombin, and fibrinogen.
4. Processing of drugs and hormones. The liver can detoxify substances such
as alcohol and excrete drugs
5. Excretion of bilirubin. bilirubin, derived from the heme of aged red blood
cells, is absorbed by the liver from the blood and secreted into bile. Most of the
bilirubin in bile is metabolized in the small intestine by bacteria and eliminated
in feces.
5. Synthesis of bile salts. Bile salts are used in the small intestine for the
emulsification and absorption of lipids.
6. Storage- the liver is a prime storage site for certain vitamins (A, B12, D, E,
and K) and minerals(iron and copper), which are released from the liver

7. Phagocytosis. The stellate reticuloendothelial (Kupffer) cellsof the liver

phagocytize aged red blood cells, white blood cells,and some bacteria.

8 Activation of vitamin D. The skin, liver, and kidneys participate in

synthesizing the active form of vitamin D.
 SMALL INTESTINE
➢Most digestion and absorption of nutrients occur
in a long tube called the small intestine.
➢Its length alone provides a large surface area for
digestion and absorption, and that area is further
increased by circular folds, villi, and microvilli.
➢ The small intestine begins at the pyloric
sphincter of the stomach, coils through the
central and inferior part of the abdominal cavity,
and eventually opens into the large intestine.
➢ It averages 2.5 cm (1 in.) in diameter; its length
is about 3 m (10 ft) in a living person and about
6.5 m (21 ft) in a cadaver due to the loss of
smooth muscle tone after death.
Anatomy of the Small Intestine
• The small intestine is divided into three regions
• The duodenum - the shortest region, is
retroperitoneal. It starts at the pyloric sphincter
of the stomach and is in the form of a C-shaped
tube that extends about 25 cm (10 in.) until it
merges with the jejunum.
• The jejunum – mid is about 1 m (3 ft) long
and extends to the ileum.
• the ileum- The longest region of the small
intestine, measures about 2 m (6 ft) and joins
the large intestine at a smooth muscle sphincter
called the ileocecal sphincter (valve)
 Histology of the Small Intestine

• The wall of the small intestine is composed of the same four layers that make up most of the
GI tract: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis,and serosa
• The mucosa is composed of a layer of epithelium, lamina propria, and muscularis mucosae.
• The epithelial layer of the small intestinal mucosa consists of simple columnar epithelium that
contains many types of cells
• Absorptive cells- of the epithelium digest and absorb nutrients in small intestinal chyme
• goblet cells- which secrete mucus
• the intestinal glands also contain paneth cells and enteroendocrine cells.
• Paneth cells - lysozyme, a bactericidal enzyme, and are capable of phagocytosis.
• Three types of enteroendocrine cells are found in the intestinal glands of the small intestine:
• S cells- hormone secretin , CCK cells- cholecystokinin, K cells- glucose-dependent
insulinotropic peptide
• The lamina propria of the small intestinal mucosa contains areolar connective tissue and
an abundance of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT).
• Groups of lymphatic nodules referred to as aggregated lymphatic follicles, or Peyer’s
patches , are also present in the ileum. The muscularis mucosae of the small intestinal
mucosa consists of smooth muscle.
• The submucosa of the duodenum contains duodenal glands, also called Brunner’s glands
which secrete an alkaline mucus that helps neutralize gastric acid in the chyme.
• The muscularis of the small intestine consists of two layers of smooth muscle. The outer,
thinner layer contains longitudinal fibers; the inner, thicker layer contains circular fibers.
• the serosa completely surrounds the small intestine.
• special structural features of the small intestine facilitate the process of digestion and
absorption. These structural features include circular folds, villi, and microvilli.
• Circular folds or plicae
circulares are folds of the
mucosa and submucosa
These permanent ridges,
which are about 10 mm (0.4
in.) long, begin near the
proximal portion of the
duodenum and end at about
the midportion of the ileum.
• Circular folds enhance
absorption by increasing
surface area and causing the
chyme to spiral, rather than
move in a straight line, as it
passes through the small
intestine.
• the small intestine consists villi ( tufts of hair), which are
fingerlike projections of the mucosa that are 0.5–1 mm
long
• The large number of villi (20–40 per square millimeter)
vastly increases the surface area of the epithelium
available for absorption and digestion and gives the
intestinal mucosa a velvety appearance.
• Each villus (singular form) is covered by epithelium and
has a core of lamina propria embedded in the connective
tissue of the lamina propria are an arteriole, a venule, a
blood capillary network, and a lacteal, which is a
lymphatic capillary Nutrients absorbed by the epithelial
cells covering the villus pass through the wall of a
capillary or a lacteal to enter blood or lymph, respectively.
• the small intestine also has microvilli ( micro- small), which are projections of
the apical (free) membrane of the absorptive cells. Each microvillus is a 1μm-
long cylindrical, membrane-covered projection that contains a bundle of 20–30
actin filaments.
• the microvilli are too small to be seen individually instead they form a fuzzy
line, called the brush border, extending into the lumen of the small intestine
• There are an estimated 200 million microvilli per square millimeter of small
intestine. Because the microvilli greatly increase the surface area of the plasma
membrane, larger amounts of digested nutrients can diffuse into absorptive
cells in a given period.
• The brush border also contains several brush-border enzymes that have
digestive functions
 Role of Intestinal Juice and Brush-Border Enzymes
• About 1–2 liters of intestinal juice, a clear yellow fluid, is secreted each day.
Intestinal juice contains water and mucus and is slightly alkaline (pH 7.6).
• Together, pancreatic and intestinal juices provide a liquid medium that aids the
absorption of substances from chyme in the small intestine. The absorptive
cells of the small intestine synthesize several digestive enzymes, called
brush-border enzymes, and insert them in the plasma membrane of the
microvilli.
the brush-border enzymes are
• carbohydrate digesting enzymes - dextrinase, maltase, sucrase, and lactase;
• protein-digesting - peptidases (aminopeptidase and dipeptidase)
• nucleotide-digesting enzymes- nucleosidases and phosphatases.
FUNCTIONS OF THE SMALL INTESTINE
1. Segmentations mix chyme with digestive juices and bring food into
contact with mucosa for absorption; peristalsis propels chyme through
small intestine.
2. Completes digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids; begins
and completes digestion of nucleic acids.
3. Absorbs about 90% of nutrients and water that pass through
digestive system.
 LARGE INTESTINE

• The large intestine is the terminal portion of the GI tract. The overall functions
of the large intestine are the completion of absorption, the production of certain
vitamins, the formation of feces, and the expulsion of feces from the body.
Anatomy of the Large Intestine
• The large intestine, which is about 1.5 m
(5 ft) long and 6.5 cm (2.5 in.) in
diameter, extends from the ileum to the
anus.
• Structurally, the four major regions of the
large intestine are the cecum, colon,
rectum, and anal canal
• The opening from the ileum into the large
intestine is guarded by a fold of mucous
membrane called the ileocecal sphincter
(valve), which allows materials from the
small intestine to pass into the large
intestine.
• Hanging inferior to the ileocecal valve is the cecum,
a small pouch about 6 cm (2.4 in.) long. Attached to
the cecum is a twisted, coiled tube, measuring about
8 cm (3 in.) in length, called the appendix or
vermiform appendix
• The open end of the cecum merges with a long tube
called the colon ( food passage), which is divided
into ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid
portions.
• the ascending colon ascends on the right side of the
abdomen, reaches the inferior surface of the liver,
and turns abruptly to the left to form the right colic
(hepatic) flexure.
• The colon continues across the abdomen to the left
side as the transverse colon. It curves beneath the
inferior end of the spleen on the left side as the left
colic (splenic) flexure and passes inferiorly to the
level of the iliac crest as the descendingcolon.
• The sigmoid colon (sigm- S-shaped) begins near
the left iliac crest, projects medially to the midline,
and terminates as the rectum at about the level of
the third sacral vertebra.
• The rectum, the last 20 cm (8 in.) of the GI tract,
lies anterior to the sacrum and coccyx.
• The terminal 2–3 cm (1 in.) of the rectum is called
the anal canal
• The mucous membrane of the anal canal is
arranged in longitudinal folds called anal columns
that contain a network of arteries and veins.
• The opening of the anal canal to the exterior,
called the anus, is guarded by an internal anal
sphincter of smooth muscle (involuntary) and an
external anal sphincter of skeletal muscle
(voluntary).
• Normally these sphincters keep the anus closed
except during the elimination of feces
 Histology of the Large Intestine
• The wall of the large intestine contains the typical four layers found in the rest
of the GI tract: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa.
• The mucosa consists of simple columnar epithelium, lamina propria (areolar
connective tissue), and muscularis mucosae (smooth muscle) . The epithelium
contains mostly absorptive and goblet cells
• The absorptive cells function primarily in water absorption; the goblet cells
secrete mucus that lubricates the passage of the colonic contents.
• Both absorptive and goblet cells are located in long, straight, tubular intestinal
glands (crypts of Lieberkühn) that extend the full thickness of the mucosa.
• lymphatic nodules are also
found in the lamina propria
of the mucosa and may
extend through the
muscularis mucosa into the
submucosa
• The submucosa of the
large intestine consists of
areolar connective tissue.
• The muscularis consists of
an external layer of
longitudinal smooth muscle
and an internal layer of
circular smooth muscle
 FUNCTIONS OF LARGE INTESTINE

ABSORPTIVE FUNCTION
Large intestine plays an important role in the absorption of various substances such as:
Water, Electrolytes, Organic substances like glucose, Alcohol Drugs like anesthetic agents,
sedatives and steroids.
FORMATION OF FECES
After the absorption of nutrients, water and other substances, the unwanted substances in
the large intestine form feces. This is excreted out.
SECRETORY FUNCTION
Large intestine secretes mucin and inorganic substances like chlorides and bicarbonates.
SYNTHETIC FUNCTION
Bacterial flora of large intestine synthesizes folic acid, vitamin B12 and vitamin K. By this
function, large intestine contributes in erythropoietic activity and blood clotting
mechanism.
 Digestion, Absorption of Carbohydrates

CARBOHYDRATES IN DIET
• Human diet contains three types of carbohydrates
MONOSACCHARIDES
• Monosaccharides consumed in human diet are mostly glucose and fructose.
DISACCHARIDES
• Two types of disaccharides are available in the diet.
Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose), which is called table sugar or cane sugar
Lactose (Glucose + Galactose), which is the sugar available in milk.
POLYSACCHARIDES
Large polysaccharides are glycogen, amylose and amylopectin, which are in the form
of starch Glycogen is available in non-vegetarian diet.
• Amylose and amylopectin are available in vegetarian diet because of their plant
origin.
 DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
IN THE MOUTH
Enzymes involved in the digestion of carbohydrates are known as amylolytic enzymes.
The only amylolytic
enzyme present in saliva is the salivary amylase or ptyalin
IN THE STOMACH
Gastric juice contains a weak amylase, which plays a minor role in digestion of
carbohydrates.
IN THE INTESTINE
Amylolytic enzymes present in the small intestine are derived from pancreatic juice and
intestine
Amylolytic Enzyme in Pancreatic Juice
• Pancreatic juice contains pancreatic amylase
Amylolytic Enzymes in intestine
• Amylolytic enzymes present in succus entericus are maltase, sucrase, lactase,
 FINAL PRODUCTS OF CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION
Final products of carbohydrate digestion are monosaccharides, which are glucose,
fructose and galactose.
Glucose represents 80% of the final product of carbohydrate digestion. Galactose and
fructose represent the remaining 20%.
ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are absorbed from the small intestine mainly as monosaccharides,
glucose, galactose and fructose.
ABSORPTION OF GLUCOSE- glucose is absorbed into the portal vein by facilitated
diffusion.
ABSORPTION OF GALACTOSE- is absorbed into the portal vein by facilitated
diffusion.
ABSORPTION OF FRUCTOSE- Fructose is absorbed into blood by means of
facilitated diffusion.
 Digestion, Absorption of Proteins
• Foodstuffs containing high protein content are meat, fish, egg and milk.
• Dietary proteins are formed by long chains of amino acids, bound together by
peptide linkages.
DIGESTION OF PROTEINS
Enzymes responsible for the digestion of proteins are called proteolytic enzymes.
IN THE MOUTH
Digestion of proteins does not occur in mouth, since saliva does not contain any
proteolytic enzymes. So, the digestion of proteins starts only in stomach
IN THE STOMACH
Pepsin is the only proteolytic enzyme in gastric juice
IN THE SMALL INTESTINE
Most of the proteins are digested in the duodenum and jejunum by the proteolytic
enzymes of the pancreatic juice and intestine (peptidases trypsin, chymotrypsin,
carboxypeptidase and elastase)
ABSORPTION OF PROTEINS
Proteins are absorbed in the form of amino acids from small intestine.
The amino acids are actively absorbed by means of sodium
cotransport and facilitated diffusion.
Absorption of amino acids is faster in duodenum and jejunum and
slower in ileum.
 Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
• Lipids are mostly consumed in the form of fats, which are also known as
triglycerides. Triglycerides are made up of glycerol nucleus and free fatty acids.
Triglycerides form the major constituent in foods of animal origin and much less in
foods of plant origin.
Dietary fats are classified into two types:
1. Saturated fats
2. Unsaturated fats.
SATURATED FATS
Saturated fats are the fats which contain triglycerides formed from only saturated fatty
acids. The fatty acids having maximum amount of hydrogen ions without any double
bonds between carbon atoms are called saturated fatty acids.
UNSATURATED FATS
fats containing unsaturated fatty acids are known as unsaturated fats.
 DIGESTION OF LIPIDS
Lipids are digested by lipolytic enzymes.
IN THE MOUTH
Saliva contains lingual lipase. This enzyme is secreted by lingual glands of mouth and
swallowed along with saliva. So, the lipid digestion does not commence in the mouth
IN THE STOMACH
Gastric lipase is the lipolytic enzyme present in gastric juice
IN THE INTESTINE
Almost all the lipids are digested in the small intestine because of the availability of bile
salts, pancreatic lipolytic enzymes and intestinal lipase.
Lipolytic Enzymes in Pancreatic Juice
Pancreatic lipase is the most important enzyme for the digestion of fats.
Lipolytic Enzyme in intestine
Intestinal lipase is the only lipolytic enzyme present in intestine
 ABSORPTION OF LIPIDS
Monoglycerides, cholesterol and fatty acids enter the cells of intestinal mucosa by
simple diffusion.
Triglycerides and cholesterol esters are coated with a layer of protein, cholesterol and
phospholipids to form the particles called chylomicrons.
• Chylomicrons cannot pass through the membrane of the blood capillaries because
of the larger size. So, these lipid particles enter the lymph vessels and then are
transferred into blood from lymph.
 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Describe digestion in small instestine ------ 5 M/10M
2. Write the structure and functions of stomach ------ 5 M
3. Name salivary glands and write the composition of saliva ------2M
4. Digestion in stomach-------5M
5. Functions of small intestine ------2M
6. Enlist the organs of digestion in order ------2M
7. Explain how digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats take place---10M
8. Functions of liver ------2M
9. Functions of saliva------2M
10. Write the anatomy of pancreas . Discuss endocrine and exocrine secretion ---10M
11. Name digestive enzymes------2M
12. Functions of stomach------2M
13. Composition of bile ------2M
14. Name digestive enzymes of pancreatic and gastric juice ------2M
15. Mention the functions of pancreatic enzymes ------2M
16. Anatomy of liver mention its functions ------10M