Cape Unit 2 Revision Summary- Module 1

Charge is the product of current and time. 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 = ±𝑁𝑒 (units C or As)

1 Coulomb is the quantity of charge when a current of 1A flows for 1s in a conductor.(1C = 1As)

The potential difference (p.d), V is the work done, W in moving a unit positive charge, Q from one point to another.
V= W/Q W =VQ W = VIt

1 volt is the potential difference between two points when 1J of work is used to move 1C of charge between the two
points (1V = 1JC-1)

Ohm’s law states that at constant temperature current through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference across it.
I ∝ V or V = IR (k = 1/R)

Power of an electrical device is given by P = IV P = I2R, P = V2 / R

Resistivity is a measure of the resisting power of a specified material to the flow of an electric current.
R=ρL
A

Electromotive force(e.m.f) of a source is defined as the energy converted from chemical energy into electrical
energy per unit charge flowing through it. (V= W/Q). The e.m.f. Is associated with sources or active devices and is
the voltage across the terminals of a cell when no current flows.

The potential difference(p.d.) between two points in a circuit is the energy converted from electrical energy to
other forms of energy (e.g heat, light) per unit charge flowing through it. (V= W/Q). The p.d. is associated with
passive devices(resistor) and is the voltage across the terminals of a cell when current flows in a circuit..

The drift velocity is the mean value of the velocity of the electrons in a conductor when an electric field is applied.
I = nAve
I = current flowing in the conductor/A n = number of free electrons per unit volume / m-3
e = charge on each electron/C v = mean drift velocity of the electrons/ms-1

Recall Q = It ,Q = ne, and v = distance

time
I=Q
t
Q = nALe (since n is the number of free electrons per unit volume(AL)
Time taken for electrons to travel
from one end of the section to next t = L
v
I = Q = nALe
t L/ v
I = nAve
 Ohmic and non Ohmic devices using an I-V graph

A-Metallic Conductor
Ohmic conductors (wire) obey Ohm’s law. Constant resistance. The current I is directly proportional to the p.d,V .

B- Filament Lamp
The filament lamp does not obey Ohm's law(non-ohmic). The resistance of a filament lamp increases at high
currents as the temperature of the wire increases. As the temperature increases the kinetic energy of the atoms
inside increases and the atoms vibrate about their mean positions. The electrons in the lamp collide with these
atoms and hence the movement of the electrons becomes restricted.

C-A semiconductor diode does not obey Ohm's law(non-ohmic). When the semiconductor diode is connected in
reverse- biased it does not allow current to flow and hence the resistance is infinite in reverse- [Link] forward-
biased it begins to allow a current to flow when V is approximately 0.6V(threshold voltage). Semiconductor diodes
have very high resistance below a threshold voltage and low resistance beyond it.

A thermistor is a device that changes resistance with varying temperature.(resistance depend on temperature)

Variation of resistance for a thermistor with n.t.c

E = IR + Ir , where IR is the p.d. across the external load and Ir the p.d. across the internal resistance of the cell
E = V + Ir , where V is the p.d. across the external load

Kirchoff’s first law states that the sum of the current flowing into any point in a circuit is equal to the sum of the
currents flowing out of that point.
Kirchoff’s first law is based on the conservation of charge

Kirchoff’s second law states that the algebraic sum of the e.m.f.s around any loop in a circuit is equal to the
algebraic sum of the p.d.s around the loop.
Kirchoff’s second law is based on the conservation of energy

Series circuit the current is the same(IT = I1 = I2 = I3), p.d’s splits up(VT = V1 + V2 + V3) and RT = R1 + R2 + R3

Parallel circuit the voltage is the same(VT =V1 = V2 = V3),current splits up(IT =I1 +I2 + I3) and 1 = 1 + 1 + 1
RT = R1 R2 R3
Resistors in Series Resistors in Parallel

A potential divider circuit is used to produce a small p.d. from a larger p.d.
V1 = R1 V
R1+R2
where V1 is the output voltage and V is the input voltage

A potentiometer is a device used to measure an unknown current, e.m.f. or a potential difference. It uses the
principle of the potential divider to measure the potential differences.
Es = E2
l1 l2
Where Es is known e.m.f of a standard cell ,l1 is balance point of Es , l2 balance point of E2 and E2 is the e.m.f to be
determined

Wheatstone Bridge

A conductor (all metal) is a material that allows electricity to flow through it whereas an insulator (plastic, air)
does not allow electricity to flow through it .In an insulator all electrons are firmly bound to their atoms whereas
in a conductor electrons can move freely from atom to atom

Coulomb’s Law states the force between charges is directly proportional to the product of their charges and is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
F = Q1Q2 = kQ1Q2 since 1 = k = 9 x 109 Nm2C-2
4𝜋𝜺0r2 r2 4𝜋𝜺0
The electric field strength E at a point in an electric field is the force acting per unit positive [Link] S.I units is
the newton per coulomb (NC-1). The electric field strength E is a vector quantity.
E =F = Q = kQ since 1 = k = 9 x 109 Nm2C-2
Q 4𝜋𝜺0r2 r2 4𝜋𝜺0
When solving questions for E a negative sign indicates attraction and a positive sign indicates repulsion. The
negative sign is omitted when finding the resultant force. The direction that E acts is found by placing a positive
charge at the point where the field strength has to be found and note the direction that positive charge will move
w.r.t. the point charge.

Field strength between charged parallel plates, is given by E = V/d

Force on a charged particle is given by F = EQ or F = VQ

d

Acceleration of charged particle in a uniform electric field

Recall F = EQ and F = ma therefore EQ = ma
a = EQ
m

The field strength, E at a point is numerically equal to the potential gradient at that point.
potential gradient = ΔV
Δx

The electric potential V at the point P is defined as V = W / Q, where W is the work done in bringing a unit positive
charge from infinity to the point P. The S.I unit of electrical potential is the volt (V). Electrical potential is a scalar
quantity.
V= Q = kQ
4𝜋𝜺0r r
2
ΔW = QΔV , ΔV = V1 - V2 ΔW = Potential or Kinetic Energy(½ mv ), Loss in P.E = gain in K.E
When solving questions for V the signs must be included and the resultant is found by simply adding all potentials V.

The electron follows a curved path (parabolic path) as it passes through an electric field. Once the electron exists
in the electric field it will continue to move in a straight line with a resultant velocity , v.
Before entering the plate the vertical component of the electron's velocity is zero ( projected horizontally). The
downward force on the electron will cause it to accelerate towards the positive plate. The horizontal component of
the electron's velocity is unaffected / constant. (force does not act horizontal).

A body in the earth’s gravitational field will have a constant horizontal velocity, vh and accelerate vertically (vv
increases) This is called a projectile motion and will give a parabolic path. This is similar to what happens to a
charged particle in an electric field. That is , there is a constant horizontal velocity, and an accelerated vertical
velocity.( vv =0 initially then vv increases whereas vh= constant)

Capacitors are electrical components found in many electrical devices and is a device that stores electric charge.
The capacitance of a capacitor is the charge stored per unit potential difference.
The unit of capacitance is the farad (F) . C = Q / V

The capacitance of a capacitor depends on the cross sectional area of the plates, the separation of the plates and
the material used as the dielectric. C = εA
d

The permittivity of a material is a measure of its ability to transmit an electric field. The relative permittivity of a
material 𝜀𝑟 (also known as its dielectric constant) is the ratio of the permittivity of the material to the permittivity of free
space 𝜀0 . It is a dimensionless quantity.
𝜀𝑟 = ε hence 𝐶 = 𝜀𝑟𝜀𝑜𝐴
𝜀0 𝑑
 Capacitors in Series Capacitors in Parallel

When a capacitor is connected to a power supply, it begins to accumulate charge. Electrons flow towards
one plate, while electrons flow away from the opposite plate. As more electrons move towards the negative
plate, work has to be done against the repulsive force of the electrons already on the plate. As more
electrons move away from the positive plate, work has to be done against the attractive forces of the
positive charges already on the plate. The work done is stored as electric potential energy.
Energy stored in a capacitor 𝑊 =𝐶𝑉2 / 2, 𝑊 =𝑄𝑉/ 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊 =𝑄2 /2𝐶

Charging a Capacitor

Discharging a Capacitor

The time constant, 𝞽 , of a circuit is the time taken for the charge on the capacitor to fall to 1/e1 (0.368) of its initial
value for a discharge curve or the time taken for the charge on the capacitor to fall to (1-1/e1 ) that is 0.632 of its
initial value for a charging curve . The time constant, 𝞽 = CR.

Magnetic flux density , B, is numerically equal to the force acting per unit length on a straight conductor carrying a
current normal to the field.

1 tesla is the magnetic flux density of a field producing a force of 1N per meter on a wire carrying a current of 1A
normal to the field.
a. magnetic field pattern in a wire b. magnetic field pattern in a flat coil

c. magnetic field pattern in a solenoid d. Direction of field pattern in a flat

Magnetic flux Pattern

Magnetic flux density

F = BILsinθ F = BQvsinθ

If a charged particle is moving in a magnetic field , it experiences a force because of the interaction of the two
magnetic fields. A particle with charge Q, travelling with a speed v at right angles to a magnetic field experiences a
force F = BQv. The motion of a particle in a magnetic field is similar to that of circular motion and the force F
provides the necessary centripetal force need to maintain the circular motion of the charged particle.

Force acting on a positive charge Force acting on a negative charge Force acting when angle between
when v and B is at right angles when v and B is at right angles v and B is θ

Charged particles from the Sun on approaching the Earth, may become trapped in the Earth’s magnetic field near
the poles. The trapped charged particles cause the sky to glow. This phenomenon is called the aurora borealis.
The Van Allen radiation belt is a torus (donut shape) of highly charged particles around the Earth. These charged
particles are held in two distinct belts by the Earth’s magnetic field. The inner belt is made up of protons and the
outer belt is made up of energetic electrons. These radiation belts pose a challenge for orbiting satellites
The radius of curvature is directly proportional to the speed with which the charged particle is moving in a magnetic
field r = mv
BQ

The speed of a charged particle in a magnetic and electric field v = E

B

In the Hall effect a potential difference is set up transversely across a current carrying conductor when a
perpendicular magnetic field is applied.
VH = BI V = Bvd B = V x Bo
net Vo
Where I current, A is the area of the conductor(dt), n is the number of electrons per unit volume and d is the height of
the conductor

A device called a Hall Probe is used to measure magnetic flux density. The Hall probe makes use of the Hall
effect. A small current is passed through the probe and the Hall voltage is measured. The manufacturer of the probe
supplies the values of net. The magnetic flux density B is calculated using:
B = VH net
I
A current balance is also used to measure the flux density of a magnetic field. B = mgy
xIl

When two straight current carrying conductors are placed parallel or perpendicular to each other, a force is
experienced. For parallel wires:
If the currents are flowing in the same direction, the force is attractive.
If the currents are flowing in the opposite direction, the force is repulsive.

For perpendicular wires

If the current moves downwards in the vertical wire then the wire moves anticlockwise
If the current moves to the right in the horizontal wire then the wire moves clockwise

Experiments to demonstrate EM Induction

bar magnet moves inside a solenoid

Magnet and a coil Two coils Wire and magnetic field Fleming’s right hand rule

If the magnet was held stationary and the coil was moved towards instead , an e.m.f. would also have been induced
in the coil.
The solenoid rule helps us determine the direction of the induced current.

The total amount of magnetic flux Φ through an area A at right angles to a magnetic field B is given by
Φ = BA
The unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb). 1 Weber is defined as the magnetic flux when a magnetic flux density of
1T passes perpendicularly through an area of 1m2

If the magnetic field acts at an angle θ of to the area A, then the total magnetic flux is given by
Φ = BAcosθ

Magnetic flux linkage refers to the flux linking or passing through a coil and is numerically equal to NΦ.
flux linkage = NΦ = NBA

Electromagnetic induction occurs when there is relative movement between a magnet and a conductor so that the
magnetic field lines are being cut(when there is a changing magnetic field)

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction states that the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is proportional to the rate
of change of magnetic flux linkage.

Lenz’s law states that the induced e.m.f. (or current) acts in such a direction to produce effects to oppose the change
causing it.

E = -N ΔΦ = -N ΔΦf
Δt
E is the induced e.m.f. , N is the number of turns of the coil, ΔΦ is the change in magnetic flux in a time Δt and f is
the frequency
It can also be expressed as E = -NA ΔB = -NA ΔBf
Δt
N is the number of turns of the coil, A is the cross sectional area of the coil ΔB is the change in magnetic flux density
in a time Δt
For a straight conductor. E = Bvl

To move the magnet towards the coil, mechanical work has to be done to overcome the force of repulsion between
the north poles of the bar magnet and the coil. This mechanical work done is converted into electrical
energy(indicated by the deflection in the galvanometer). If the current were induced in the opposite direction(not
according to Lenz’s) , its action would spontaneously draw the bar magnet into the coil in addition to the heating
effect, which would violate conservation of energy. Lenz law is in accordance with the law of conservation of energy.