Diffraction: Fresnel’s and Fraunhoper diffraction; Diffraction by single and double slit; Diffraction gratings.

Diffraction
Diffraction is the scattering behavior a wave exhibits when it travels through a small opening or
around the end of an object. In general, it is hard to separate diffraction from interference since
both occur simultaneously. The silver lining which we witness in the sky is caused due to
diffraction of light. When the sunlight passes through or encounters the cloud, a silver lining is
seen in the sky.

When light passes through an aperture, slit or around a bend/edge of an object, it experiences
expe this
scattering effect, causing it to propagate outward

Diffraction: When the light falls on the obstacle whose size is comparable with the wavelength
of light then the light bends around the obstacle and enters in the geometrical shadow.
shadow This
bending of light is called diffraction. The degree of bend is dependent on the relative difference
between light wavelength and size of the slit.
 If the slit size is larger than light’s
wavelength, diffraction still occurs but
is unnoticeable to the naked eye.
 If the slit size is smaller than or equal to
light’s wavelength, considerable
diffraction occurs. Smaller the slit,
greater the degree of diffraction.

Why does it occur?

In accordance with Huygen’s Principle as a wave from a single source propagates through
space, each wavefront can be thought of as consisting of numerous individual secondary
wavefronts. Diffraction occurs because part of the wave (some of the secondary wavelets) that is

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Diffraction: Fresnel’s and Fraunhoper diffraction; Diffraction by single and double slit; Diffraction gratings.

obstructed changes phase or amplitude and interferes with the rest of the unaltered wave (the rest
of the secondary wavelets). This causes multiple interference patterns resulting in the diffraction
of the wave.

Fresnel’s assumptions
Fresnel in 1815 combined the Huygens principle of wavelet and the principle of interference to
explain the bending of light around obstacles and also the rectilinear propagation of light.

1. According to Huygen’s Principle, each point of a wavefront (wavefront is a locus of points in

a medium that are vibrating in same phase) is a source of secondary disturbance and wavelets
coming from these points spread out in all directions with the speed of light. The envelope of
these waves constitutes the next wavelet.
2. According to Fresnel, a wavefront can be divided into a large number of strips or zones
called Fresnel zones of small area. The resultant effect at any point will depend on the
combined effect of all the secondary waves coming from various zones.
3. The effect at a point due to any particular zone depends on distance of the point from the
zone.
4. The effect will also depend on the obliquity (inclination) of the point with reference to the
zone under consideration.

What affects the diffractive behavior of a light source at a boundary?

-The wavelength of the light source
-The distance from light source to the boundary
-The distance from the boundary to the screen where the diffraction pattern is projected
-The size, shape, and nature of the boundary or the obstruction

Interference Fringe
The alternating bright and the dark band formed due to interference is called fringe. When
two light waves superimpose it forms constructive interference and destructive interference. The
bright band is due to constructive interference and the dark band is due to destructive
interference.

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Diffraction: Fresnel’s and Fraunhoper diffraction; Diffraction by single and double slit; Diffraction gratings.

Types of diffraction
The diffraction phenomena are classified into two ways
I. Fresnel diffraction
II. Fraunhofer diffraction.
Fresnel diffraction:-In this diffraction the source and screen are separated at finite distance. To
study this diffraction lenses are not used because the source and screen separated at finite
distance. This diffraction can be studied in the direction of propagation of light. In this
diffraction the incidence wave front must be spherical of cylindrical.
Fraunhofer diffraction:-In this diffraction the source and screen are separated at infinite
distance. To study this diffraction lenses are used because the source and screen separated at
infinite distance. This diffraction can be studied in any direction. In this diffraction the incidence
wave front must be plane.

Differences between Fresnel and Fraunhofer's diffraction-

If the source of light and the screen are at a finite distance from the obstacle causing the
diffraction then it is Fresnel diffraction. If there is an infinite distance between the source and the
screen from the obstacle then it is Fraunhofer diffraction.

Fresnel's diffraction Fraunhofer's diffraction

1. The source of light and the screen on which the 1. The source of light and the screen on which the
diffraction pattern is observed are at finite diffraction pattern is observed are at infinite
distance from the obstacle or aperture. distance from the obstacle or aperture.
2. The incident wavefront and the diffracted 2. The incident wavefront and the diffracted
wavefronts are spherical or cylindrical. wavefronts are plane wave fronts.
3. The incident beam is a divergent beam whereas 3. The incident beam is a parallel beam and the
the diffracted beam is a convergent beam. diffracted beam is also parallel beam.
4. No changes in the wavefront are made by using
either lenses or mirrors. 4. The incident rays from a source are made
parallel using a convex lens and the diffracted
rays are brought to focus on a screen using
another convex lens (converging lenses).
5. The centre of the diffraction pattern is either 5. The centre of the diffraction pattern is always
bright or dark. The pattern is the image of the bright. The pattern is the image of the source
obstacle or aperture. itself.

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Diffraction: Fresnel’s and Fraunhoper diffraction; Diffraction by single and double slit; Diffraction gratings.

Diffraction grating
A diffraction grating defines an optical component with a periodic structure that splits the light
into various beams that travel in different directions. It is an alternative way to observe spectra
other than a prism. Generally, when light is incident on the grating, the split light will have
maxima at an angle θ. To calculate the angle for diffraction grating we is used following relation
n = dsinn
Where n is the order of grating,
d is the distance between two fringes or spectra
λ is the wavelength of light
θ is the angle to maxima

A diffraction grating is an optical element that divides (disperses) light composed of lots of
different wavelengths (e.g., white light) into light components by wavelength. The simplest type
of grating is one with a large number of evenly spaced parallel slits. When white light enters the
grating, the light components are diffracted at angles that are determined by the respective
wavelengths (diffraction).

The tracks of a compact disc act as a

diffraction grating, producing a separation of
the colors of white light. The nominal track
separation on a CD is 1.6 micrometers,
corresponding to about 625 tracks per
millimeter. This is in the range of ordinary
laboratory diffraction gratings. For red light of
wavelength 600 nm, this would give a first
order diffraction maximum at about 22° .

A diffraction grating is an optical element that divides (disperses) light composed of lots of
different wavelengths (e.g., white light) into light components by wavelength.

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Diffraction: Fresnel’s and Fraunhoper diffraction; Diffraction by single and double slit; Diffraction gratings.

What are the two types of diffraction gratings?

There are typically two different types of diffraction grating – the ruled grating and the
holographic grating.

Q. What is a rule grating?

A. A ruled diffraction grating is produced by a ruling engine that cuts grooves into the coating
on the grating substrate (typically glass coated with a thin reflective layer) using a diamond
tipped tool.

Q. What is a holographic grating?

A. A holographic grating is a type of diffraction grating formed by an interference-fringe field
of two laser beams whose standing-wave pattern is exposed to a set of photosensitive
materials.

Fraunhofer diffraction due to a single slit

Figure – 1
The figure-1 represents a narrow slit AB of width ‘e’. Let a plane wavefront of monochromatic
light of wavelength '' is incident on the slit. Let the diffracted light be focused by means of a
convex lens on a screen. According to Huygen's wave theory, every point of the wavefront in the
plane of the slit is a source of secondary wavelets. The secondary wavelets traveling normally to
the slit i.e., along OP0 are brought to focus at P0 by the lens. Thus P0 is a bright central image.
The secondary wavelets traveling at an angle '' are focused at a point P1 on the screen.
The intensity at the point P1 is either minimum or maximum and depends upon the path
difference between the secondary waves originating from the corresponding points of the
wavefront.

Theory:

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Diffraction: Fresnel’s and Fraunhoper diffraction; Diffraction by single and double slit; Diffraction gratings.

In order to find out the intensity at P1, we draw a perpendicular AC on BR.

The path difference between secondary wavelets from A and B in direction is BC i.e. ,
∆= 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (1)

So, the Phase Difference ∆𝜑 = × ∆= (𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) (2)

 

Let us consider that the width of the slit is divided into ‘n’ equal parts and the amplitude of the
wave from each part is ‘a’. So, the phase difference between two consecutive points
𝛿= (𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) (3)

Then the resultant amplitude R is calculated by using the method of vector addition of
amplitudes. The resultant amplitude of ‘n’ number of waves having same amplitude 'a' and
having common phase difference of 'δ ' is

𝑅=𝑎 (4)

Substituting the value of in equation (4)

n 1 2𝜋
sin
. (𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
𝑅=𝑎 2 𝑛 
1 1 2𝜋
sin . (𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
2 𝑛 
𝜋
sin 𝑒 sin 𝜃
𝑅=𝑎 
1 𝜋
sin 𝑒 sin 𝜃
𝑛 
Let us consider 𝛼 = 𝑒 sin 𝜃 (5)

sin 𝛼
𝑅=𝑎 𝛼 (6)
sin
𝑛
For the large value of n, the value of ‘  n’ is very small, Therefore 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 ≈

sin 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝑅=𝑎 𝛼 = 𝑛𝑎
𝛼
𝑛
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝑅=𝐴 (7)
𝛼
where A=na is total amplitude of n vibration.
So the resultant intensity at P1 is I = R2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼
𝐼=𝐴 (8)
𝛼

Condition for Principle Maxima: From equation (7)

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Diffraction: Fresnel’s and Fraunhoper diffraction; Diffraction by single and double slit; Diffraction gratings.

A α α α
𝑅= α− + − +⋯
α 3! 5! 7!
Aα α α α
𝑅= 1− + − +⋯
α 3! 5! 7!
α α α
𝑅 =A 1− + − +⋯
3! 5! 7!
In the above expression for 𝛼 = 0 values the resultant amplitude is maximum 𝑅 = 𝐴. Then
Imax = R2 =A2 8(a)
𝜋
∴ 𝛼= 𝑒 sin 𝜃 = 0

sin 𝜃 = 0
𝜃=0
For 𝜃 = 0 and 𝛼 = 0 value the resultant intensity is maximum at P0 and is known as principal
maximum. Intensity at principle maxima is A2.

Condition for Minima:

From equation (7), the intensity will be minimum when sin α=0
sin α = 0
sin α = sin(mπ)
α = ±mπ where m = 1, 2, 3, ….
and 𝛼 = 𝑒 sin 𝜃 = ±𝑚𝜋


So we obtain the minimum intensity positions on either side of the principal maxima for
all 𝛼 = ±𝑚𝜋 values. The value of m=1,2,3,4,5,...... gives the direction of first, second,
third,.....minima.

Condition for Secondary Maxima: In the diffraction pattern, there are secondary maxima in
addition to principal maxima. The condition of secondary maxima may be obtained by
differentiating equation (8) with respect to α and equating it to zero. Hence

dI d  2 sin 2 
 A 0
d d   2 
dI  sin    cos   sin  
 2 A  0
d    2 
 A 2  0; sin   0
Because sin   0 correspond to minima positions
 cos   sin   0
   tan  (9)

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Diffraction: Fresnel’s and Fraunhoper diffraction; Diffraction by single and double slit; Diffraction gratings.

equation (9)) are obtained graphically by plotting the curves y=

The values of ''' satisfying the eq
and y = tan on the same graph. The point of intersection of the two curves give the values of 
which satisfy equation (9).
3 5 7 (2n  1)
The points of intersections are   0, , , ,....... 
2 2 2 2

But , gives principal maximum, substituting the values of '' in equation (8), we get

From the above expressions, Imax, I1, I2,I3… it is evident that most of the incident light is
concentrated at the principal maximum.

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Diffraction: Fresnel’s and Fraunhoper diffraction; Diffraction by single and double slit; Diffraction gratings.

Diffraction at Double Slit

[page 6 eq. 7]

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Diffraction: Fresnel’s and Fraunhoper diffraction; Diffraction by single and double slit; Diffraction gratings.

Difference between Diffraction and Interference

Interference Diffraction
It is the modification in the intensity of light It is the bending of light around the corners of small
due to super position of two or more light obstacles and hence it’s spreading into the region of
waves. geometrical shadow.
It is due to the superposition of finite It is due to the superposition of infinite number of
number of waves from different coherent secondary waves from different points of the same
sources. wavefront.
Interference fringes are of equal width. Diffraction fringes are of unequal width. The width of the
central band is maximum and the widths of the less bright
bands gradually decrease.
Interference pattern consists of alternately Diffraction pattern consists of a central bright band of
bright and dark bands, all the bright bands maximum brightness, surrounded on either side by
being of the same brightness. alternately dark and less bright bands called secondary
maxima.
In an interference pattern, a good contrast In a diffraction pattern the contrast between the secondary
between dark and bright bands exists. The maxima and minima are comparatively lesser. The
intensity of dark bands is nearly zero. intensity of secondary maxima decrease with distance.

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