UNIT-V

IT ETHICS and EMERGING TRENDS in IT

IT ETHICS
Introduction to Cyber Ethics:
Cyberethics refers to a set of moral rules or a code of behaviour applied to the
online environment. Cyberethics is a branch of applied ethics that examines the
impact that the moral, legal, and social issues have at the intersection of
computer/information and communication technologies. This is also referred to
as internet ethics, computer ethics, and information ethics.
Computer ethics is a field of applied ethics that addresses ethical issues in the
use, design and management of information technology and in the formulation
of ethical policies for its regulation in society.
IMPORTANCE OF CYBERETHICS
Ethics has to do with integrity, value, moral, principles, honesty, conscience,
respect for others, justice, lawfulness, and so on. Ethical practices are very
essential for the protection of data and maintaining of trust in the present age of
cyber security.
The four big areas of computer ethics are:
1. Computer crime
2. Responsibility for computer failure
3. Protection of computer property, records and software
4. Privacy of the company, workers and customers.
Computer crime is an intellectual, white-collar crime. Some examples of this
are the stealing of funds via computers, unauthorized computer entry (where the
perpetrator can steal a company’s trade secrets and data), and hacking.
WHAT IS CYBERCRIME?
Cybercrime is any crime that takes place online or primarily online.
Cybercriminals often commit crimes by targeting computer networks or
devices. Cybercrime can range from security breaches to identity theft. . Protect
yourself against cybercrime through:
 • Make use of strong passwords.
• Keep your software updated.
• Manage your social media settings.
• Strengthen your home network: Make use of strong encryption password
as well as a virtual private network (VPN).
• Talk to your children about the network.
• Keep up to date on major security breaches.
• Take measures to help protect yourself against identity theft.
• Know that identity theft can happen anywhere.
CYBERCRIME DISRUPTION AND PREVENTION
Cybercrime, also known as “computer crime” is the use of computers and the
internet to carry out illegal purposes such as online fraud, identity theft,
cyberstalking and hacking, among others. The rise of online scamming and
cybercrime being curbed by the governments and the tech industry around the
world has been on the scramble for some time now. With the progress on digital
defences, enforcement, and deterrence, the ransomware attacks, business email
compromises, and malware infections keep coming.

Intellectual Property
Intellectual property is a broad categorical description of a set of intangible
assets that are owned by a company or individual. It's legally protected from
outside use or implementation without consent. An intangible asset is a non-
physical asset.
The concept of intellectual property relates to the fact that certain products of
human intellect should be afforded the same protective rights that apply to
physical property, called tangible assets.
Intellectual property is a category of intangible assets. They can't be held and
don't necessarily have a physical presence. These assets are created using
human intellect. Such property can take many forms and can include artwork,
symbols, logos, brand names, and designs.
Types of Intellectual Property
Intellectual property can consist of many types of intangibles.
1. Patents
A patent is a property right for an investor that's typically granted by a
government agency such as the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.2
United States Patent and Trademark Office. "Patent Basics."
The patent allows the inventor exclusive rights to the invention, which could be
a design, process, improvement, or physical invention such as a machine.
2. Copyrights
Copyrights provide authors and creators of original material the exclusive right
to use, copy, or duplicate their material. Authors of books have their works
copyrighted as do musical artists. A copyright also states that the original
creators can grant anyone authorization through a licensing agreement to use the
work.4
3. Trademarks
A trademark is a symbol, phrase, or insignia that's recognizable and represents a
product that legally separates it from other products. A trademark is exclusively
assigned to a company. It owns the trademark so no others may use or copy it.
A trademark is often associated with a company's brand.
4. Franchises
A franchise is a license purchased by a company, individual, or a party called
the franchisee. It allows them to use the franchisor's name, trademark,
proprietary knowledge, and processes.
The franchisee is typically a small business owner or an entrepreneur who
operates the store or franchise. The license allows the franchisee to sell a
product or provide a service under the company's name. The franchisor is paid a
start-up fee in return as well as ongoing licensing fees by the franchisee.
Examples of companies that use the franchise business model include United
Parcel Service (UPS) and McDonald's (MCD).
5. Trade Secrets
A trade secret is a company's process or practice that isn't public information
and provides an economic benefit or advantage to the company or holder of the
trade secret. Trade secrets must be actively protected by the company and are
typically the result of a company's research and development (R&D). This is
why some employers require the signing of non-disclosure agreements (NDAs).
Examples of trade secrets could be a design, pattern, recipe, formula, or
proprietary process. Trade secrets are used to create a business model that
differentiates the company's offerings to its customers by providing a
competitive advantage.
6. Digital Assets
Digital assets are also increasingly recognized as intellectual property. These
would include proprietary software code or algorithms and online digital
content.

Various Laws for Intellectual property Protection in India

• The Trade and Merchandise Marks Act, 1999
• The Copyright Act, 1957 has been amended to protect computer
programs as “literary work”;
 • The Patent Act, 2005.
• The Designs Act of 2000.
• The Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and protection) Act,
1999;
• The Semiconductor Integrated Circuits Layout Design Act, 2000;
• The Protection of Plants & Varieties and Farmers Rights Act, 2001;
• The Biological Diversity Act, 2002

Privacy and Law

Privacy refers to the right to control one's personal information and freedom
from unwarranted intrusion into one's private life, a concept recognized as a
fundamental right in many legal systems, including India, and protected by laws
like the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023.
What is Privacy in Law?
Definition:
Privacy in law generally means the right to be left alone, freedom from
interference or intrusion, and the ability to control how personal information is
collected and used.
Scope:
It encompasses various aspects, including:
• The right to control one's personal information.
• The right to be free from unauthorized surveillance or monitoring.
• The right to have one's personal matters kept confidential.
• The right to have one's communications protected.
Legal Basis:
• In India, the right to privacy is recognized as a fundamental right
under Article 21 of the Constitution, which protects life and
liberty.
• The landmark case of K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017)
affirmed this right.
 • The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, aims to safeguard
the privacy of individuals in the digital age.
Data Protection:
• Privacy laws often focus on protecting personal data and ensuring
its responsible handling.
• These laws regulate how organizations collect, store, use, and share
personal information.
• Individuals have rights over their data, including the right to
access, rectify, and erase their personal information.
Key Principles:
• Lawfulness: Personal information should be obtained and
processed lawfully.
• Purpose limitation: Data should be used for specific, legitimate
purposes and not for unrelated purposes without consent.
• Transparency: Individuals should be informed about how their
data is being collected and used.
• Consent: Consent should be freely given, specific, informed, and
unambiguous.
• Security: Organizations should take appropriate measures to
protect personal data from unauthorized access or misuse.
Examples of Privacy Laws and Regulations:
• India: The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023.
• Europe: The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).
• United States: The Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA).
• Canada: The Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents
Act (PIPEDA).
• Other countries: Most countries have enacted data privacy laws to
regulate how information is collected, how data subjects are informed,
and what control a data subject has over their information once it is
transferred.
Classification of privacy laws
Privacy laws can be broadly classified into:
• Privacy
• Trespassing
• Negligence
• Fiduciary
Privacy Laws focus on protecting individuals’ rights to control their
personal information and prevent unauthorized intrusion into their private
lives. They encompass strict regulations governing data protection,
confidentiality, surveillance, and the use of personal information by both
government and corporate entities.

Trespassing Laws focus on breaches of privacy rights related to physical

intrusion onto an individual's property or personal domain without consent.
This involves illegal activities such as: entering an individual’s residence
without consent, conducting surveillance using physical methods (e.g.,
deploying hidden cameras), or any unauthorized entry onto the individual’s
property.

Negligence laws generally address situations where individuals or entities

fail to exercise appropriate caution in protecting the privacy rights of others,
often holding them accountable through severe penalties like heavy fines.
This aims to ensure compliance and deter future violations, involving
incidents such as any mishandling of sensitive data, poor security measures
leading to data breaches, or any non-compliance with privacy policies and
regulations.

Fiduciary laws regulate the relationships characterized by trust and

confidence, where the fiduciary accepts and complies with the legal
responsibility for duties of care, loyalty, good faith, confidentiality, and more
when entrusted in serving the best interests of a beneficiary. In terms of
privacy, fiduciary obligations may extend to professionals like lawyers,
doctors, financial advisors, and others responsible for handling confidential
information, as a result of a duty of confidentiality to their clients or patients

Computer Forensics (cyber forensics)

Computer forensics is the application of investigation and analysis techniques to
gather and preserve evidence from a particular computing device in a way that
is suitable for presentation in a court of law. The goal of computer forensics is
to perform a structured investigation and maintain a documented chain of
evidence to find out exactly what happened on a computing device and who was
responsible for it.
Computer forensics -- which is sometimes referred to as cyber
forensics, computer forensic science, or digital forensics -- essentially is data
recovery with legal compliance guidelines to make the information admissible
in legal proceedings.
Digital forensics starts with the collection of information in a way that
maintains its integrity. Investigators then analyze the data or system to
determine if it was changed, how it was changed and who made the changes.
Types of computer forensics
There are various types of computer forensic examinations, including:
• Database forensics. The examination of information contained
in databases, both data and related metadata.
• Email forensics. The recovery and analysis of emails and information
contained in email platforms, such as schedules and contacts.
• Malware forensics. Sifting through code to identify possible malicious
programs like Trojan horses or ransomware and analyzing their payload.

• Memory forensics. Collecting information stored in a

computer's RAM and cache.
• Mobile forensics. Examining mobile devices to retrieve and analyze
information such as contacts, incoming and outgoing text messages,
pictures, and video files.
• Network forensics. Looking for evidence by monitoring network traffic,
using tools such as a firewall or intrusion detection system.
How does computer forensics work?
It include the following three steps:
Data collection. Forensic examiners search hidden folders and unallocated disk
space on a digital device for copies of deleted, encrypted or damaged files,
make a digital copy -- i.e., forensic image -- of the device's storage media, and
then lock the original device in a secure facility. The investigation is conducted
on the digital copy. They might also use publicly available information for
forensic purposes, such as social media posts or charges logged in a payment
application.
Analysis. Investigators analyze digital copies of storage media in a sterile
environment to gather the information for a case using various tools including
Basis Technology's Autopsy for hard drive investigations and the Wireshark
network protocol analyzer. A mouse jiggler is useful when examining a
computer to keep it from falling asleep and losing volatile memory data that is
lost when the computer goes to sleep or loses power.
Presentation. The investigators present their findings in a legal proceeding,
where it might be used to determine the result. In a data recovery situation, the
investigators present what they could recover from a compromised system.
Ethics and Internet
Internet ethics, also known as cyber ethics, refers to the moral principles and
standards that guide online behavior, promoting responsible and respectful
interactions, while safeguarding privacy and intellectual property. Computer
ethics is a branch of practical philosophy concerned with how computer
workers should make professional and social judgments.
Computer technology and usage ethical decisions can be divided into three
categories:
• Personal code of an individual.
• Any workplace-based informal code of ethics.
• Formal ethics education.
Key Principles of Internet Ethics:
• Respect for Others: Treat others online with the same courtesy and
respect you would in person.
• Honesty and Integrity: Avoid misrepresenting yourself or spreading
false information.
• Privacy: Respect the privacy of others and protect your own personal
information.
• Copyright and Intellectual Property: Understand and respect copyright
laws and avoid unauthorized use of copyrighted materials.
• Security: Be aware of online security threats and take steps to protect
your data and devices.
 • Responsibility: Be responsible for your online actions and the content
you share.
• Acceptance of Diversity: Be sensitive to different cultures and traditions
online.
• Avoid Bad Language: Refrain from using offensive or abusive
language.
• Safeguarding Personal Information: Do not share personal details like
home address, phone numbers, or passwords.
• Responsible Downloading: Avoid downloading or sharing copyrighted
material.
• Use Internet Ethically: Use the internet for communication, learning,
and entertainment responsibly.
• Be Aware of Online Scams: Be cautious of phishing attempts and other
online scams.
• Report Illegal Activity: If you encounter illegal or harmful content,
report it to the appropriate authorities.
• Develop Digital Skills: Continuously learn and adapt to the evolving
digital landscape.
• Cooperation and Dialogue: Engage in constructive dialogue and
collaboration with others online.
• Data and Privacy: Respect people's privacy by handling their data
responsibly, securely, and transparently.
• Cybersecurity: Cooperate to mitigate cyber threats and strengthen
people's digital security.
Ethical Issues in Computer
Ethical issues like Personal Intrusion, Deception, Breach of Privacy, Cyber-
bullying, Cyber-stalking, Defamation, Evasion Technology or social
responsibility and Intellectual Property Rights i.e. copyrighted electronic
content. In a computer or Internet (Cyberspace) domain of Information security,
understanding and maintaining ethics is very important at this stage. A typical
problem related to ethics arises mainly because of the absence of policies or
rules about how computer technology should be used.

Cybercrime:
Cybercrime encompasses a wide range of criminal activities that are carried out
using digital devices and/or networks. These crimes involve the use of
technology to commit fraud, identity theft, data breaches, computer viruses,
scams, and expanded upon in other malicious acts. Cybercriminals exploit
vulnerabilities in computer systems and networks to gain unauthorized access,
steal sensitive information, disrupt services, and cause financial or reputational
harm to individuals, organizations, and governments.
Computer crime encompasses a broad range of activities, including computer
fraud, financial crimes, scams, cyber trafficking, and ad-fraud.
Computer fraud
Computer fraud is the act of using a computer to take or alter electronic data, or
to gain unlawful use of a computer or system.[10] Computer fraud that involves
the use of the internet is also called internet fraud. The legal definition of
computer fraud varies by jurisdiction, but typically involves accessing a
computer without permission or authorization.
Forms of computer fraud include hacking into computers to alter information,
distributing malicious code such as computer worms or viruses,
installing malware or spyware to steal data, phishing, and advance-fee scams.
Cyberterrorism
The term cyberterrorism refers to acts of terrorism committed through the use of
cyberspace or computer resources.[13] Acts of disruption of computer
networks and personal computers through viruses, worms, phishing, malicious
software, hardware, or programming scripts can all be forms of cyberterrorism.
Ransomware
Ransomware is a type of malware used in cyberextortion to restrict access to
files, sometimes threatening permanent data erasure unless a ransom is paid.
Ransomware is a global issue, with more than 300 million attacks worldwide in
2021.
Obscene or offensive content
The content of websites and other electronic communications may be
distasteful, obscene, or offensive for a variety of reasons. In some instances, it
may be illegal. What content is unlawful varies greatly between countries, and
even within nations. It is a sensitive area in which the courts can become
involved in arbitrating between groups with strong beliefs.
Ad-fraud
Ad-fraud is concerned with the practice of fraudulently representing online
advertisement impressions, clicks, conversion or data events in order to generate
revenue. Ad-frauds are particularly popular among cybercriminals.
Ad fraud is the categorical term inclusive of all forms of online advertising
fraud. A successful ad-fraud campaign generally involves a sophisticated
combination of Identity fraud and attribution fraud: for instance, sending fake
traffic through bots using fake social accounts and falsified cookies; bots will
click on the ads available on a scam page that is faking a famous brand.
TYPES OF CYBERCRIME

1 Malware Attacks
Malware is blanket-term which includes various threats like viruses, worms,
Trojans, etc. These are the self-executing codes designed to harm the victim’s
system. Malware is introduced into the victim’s computer using different means
like email attachments, download from malicious sites, and in some cases even
through infected flash/pen drives. Once attached, they pry on the system’s
vulnerabilities to further deteriorate the system’s condition.
2 Phishing Scams
One of the oldest tricks in the book for cyber-criminals. In this case, a malicious
link is sent to the target’s email. Upon clicking, it directs the target to a phishing
site (aesthetically similar to your email or social network site) where the target
is required to put in his sensitive credentials. The credentials put in are then
accessible to the hackers, and they may use them to their benefit.
3 Password Attacks
These attacks are targeted towards getting access to the victim’s passwords. The
hackers employ different techniques like brute force attacks, or running
malicious codes, or using dictionary attacks to retrieve the victim’s passwords.
In the case of success of any of these methods, the password comes into the
hands of cyber-criminals. Using a strong password and changing passwords at
regular intervals seems to be the only defense against such attacks.
4 DoS Attacks
Another type of cyber-attack used mainly against the corporates is the Denial of
Services (DoS) attack. This method uses transmitting a huge volume of traffic
onto the victim’s network, thereby disrupting the service by overloading it. An
even more dangerous attack is the DDoS (Distributed-Denial-of-Services)
attack, where multiple computers are used to disrupt the services on similar
lines.
5 Malicious Advertising
Ads are rampant on the internet. Malicious codes are inserted in such ads, which
are downloaded to your system upon clicking. These ads are put on prominent
sections on a web page prompting the users to click on these ads. Such ads may
even be present on popular or legitimate sites where the users are completely
unaware of the dangers that they lie.
6 Man-in-the-Middle (MITM) Attack
As the name says, a ‘man’ is present in between the endpoints, and hence, any
information entered by the victims is available to these entities. Usually, present
on transnational and business sites, the “man” can snoop all your information
and use it to their advantage. They may even impersonate your banking sites
and prompt you to fill in your sensitive data.
7 Drive-By Downloads
You may be surprised to know that malicious code may be inserted into your
system even by just visiting a website. A minute code is inserted into the
victim’s computer, which uses another computer to download the rest of its
components. The code then uses the systems or other programs (like Java,
Flash) vulnerabilities to execute further.
Emerging Trends in IT
E-Commerce:
Electronic commerce, or e-commerce, is the buying and selling of goods and
services over the internet. E-commerce can be conducted on computers, tablets,
smartphones, and other smart devices.
• E-commerce is the buying and selling of goods and services over the
internet.
• It is conducted over computers, tablets, smartphones, and other smart
devices.
• Almost anything can be purchased through e-commerce today, and it has
lowered the barriers to entry for many types of businesses, such as
retailers.
• E-commerce can be a substitute for brick-and-mortar stores, though some
businesses choose to maintain both.
• E-commerce operates in several market segments, including business-to-
business, business-to-consumer, consumer-to-consumer, and consumer-
to-business.

Advantages and Disadvantages of E-commerce

Advantages:

• Convenience: E-commerce can happen 24 hours a day, seven days a

week. Consumers can buy at their convenience, and business owners can
make sales while they sleep.
• Increased selection: Many stores offer a wider array of products online
than they could ever carry in their brick-and-mortar counterparts. And
many stores that solely exist online offer consumers exclusive inventory
that is unavailable elsewhere.
• Potentially lower start-up costs: E-commerce companies may require a
warehouse or manufacturing site, but they usually don't need a physical
storefront. The cost to operate digitally is often less expensive than
needing to pay rent, insurance, building maintenance, and property taxes.
• International sales: As long as an e-commerce store can find a way to
ship its products to its customers, it can sell to anyone in the world and
isn't limited by physical geography.
• Opportunity to collect valuable data: Willingly or unknowingly,
consumers share a lot of information on their interests and shopping
habits when they buy or even just browse online.
 Disadvantages:

• Limited customer service: If you shop online for a computer, you

cannot simply ask an employee to demonstrate a particular model's
features in person. And although some websites let you chat online with
a staff member, that is not a typical practice. A disadvantage for
shoppers, this can also be a money-saver for retailers.
• Lack of instant gratification: When you buy an item online, you must
wait for it to be shipped to your home or office.
• Inability to touch products: Online images do not necessarily convey
the whole story about an item, and e-commerce purchases can be
disappointing when the items don't live up to the buyer's expectations.
Case in point: an item of clothing may be made from shoddier fabric
than its online image indicates.
• Dependence on technology: If a website crashes or must be temporarily
taken down for any reason, the business is effectively closed until things
return to normal.
• Greater competition: Although the low cost of starting an e-commerce
business can be an advantage, it also means competitors can just as
easily enter the market.

Types of E-commerce
Business-to-Consumer (B2C)

B2C e-commerce companies sell directly to the product's end-user instead of

distributing goods through an intermediary such as another retailer.

This type of business model may be used to sell products (like your local
sporting goods store's website) or services (such as a lawn care mobile app to
reserve landscaping services). This is the most common business model and the
concept most people likely think about when they hear the term e-commerce.

Business-to-Business (B2B)

Similar to B2C, an e-commerce business can sell goods to another company.

B2B transactions often entail larger quantities, more detailed specifications,
and longer lead times. The buyer can also arrange for recurring orders if the
purchase is for ongoing manufacturing processes.

Business-to-Government (B2G)

Some e-commerce businesses serve as government contractors, providing

goods or services to government agencies and other entities. Often these
arrangements require bidding on projects though an established procurement
process and can involve large quantities of a given item.

Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C)

Individuals can sell things to other individuals on their individual websites or

through e-commerce platforms that facilitate the process. Examples of the latter
include Craigslist, eBay, Etsy, and many others.

Consumer-to-Business (C2B)

Some platforms allow individuals to more easily engage with companies and
offer their services, especially related to short-term contracts, gigs, or freelance
opportunities. Upwork is one example.

Consumer-to-Government (C2G)

C2G is a way for individuals to interact with government. For example,

uploading your federal tax return to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) website
can be considered an e-commerce transaction as it involves an exchange of
information. Taxpayers can also pay what they owe or request a refund for the
amount they may have overpaid.

EDI (Electronic Data Interchange)

Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) is the computer-to-computer exchange of
business documents in a standard electronic format between business partners.

Computer-to-Computer:
Computer-to-computer EDI replaces postal mail, fax and email. While email is
also an electronic approach, the documents exchanged via email must still be
handled by people rather than computers. Having people involved slows down
the processing of the documents and also introduces errors. Instead, EDI
documents can flow straight through to the appropriate application on the
receiver’s computer (e.g., the Order Management System) and processing can
begin immediately. A typical manual process looks like this, with lots of paper
and people involvement:

The EDI process looks like this — no paper, no people involved:

How EDI Works?

There are three steps in the process of sending EDI documents: prepare the
documents, translate them into an EDI format and transmit them to a partner.

One common process automated with EDI is the exchange of purchase orders
(POs) and invoices. To give you a good example of how EDI works, we'll
illustrate the EDI process for POs and invoices.

1. Document Preparation

Following the example of a PO and invoice, this is where a buyer prepares an

order in a purchasing system.

• The buyer collects and organizes the data so it will work with EDI
• For example, instead of printing a PO, the system creates an electronic
file with the necessary information to build an EDI document

There are several approaches, including:

• Exporting computer-based data from spreadsheets or databases

• Reformatted electronic reports into data files
• Enhancing apps to create output files ready for EDI standard translation
• Purchasing EDI software that can turn documents from your systems into
EDI files
• Human data entry

2: EDI Document Translation

The next step is to feed your document through EDI translation software to
convert your internal data format into the EDI standard format using the
appropriate segments and data elements. Alternatively, you can send your data
to an EDI service provider, who handles translation to and from the EDI format
on your behalf.

3: Connect & Transmit EDI Documents

Once the PO is translated to the EDI 850 purchase order format, it's ready for
transmission to the supplier. There are several ways to connect to a partner via
EDI. The most common of include:

• Direct, point-to-point EDI connection via a secure Internet protocol, such

as AS2

• Connect to an EDI network provider, also referred to as a Value Added

Network (VAN) provider
 • A combination of both Direct EDI and VAN, depending on the partners
involved and the transaction volume

Benefits of EDI for Businesses

Faster Processing

• EDI can speed up business cycles by 61 percent

• EDI enables transactions in minutes instead of days or weeks spent on

postal mail or back-and-forth email communications

• Automating paper-based tasks frees up your staff for higher-value tasks

and provides them the tools to be more productive

• Quick processing of accurate business documents leads to fewer re-

worked orders, stock outs and cancellations

Lower Costs

• EDI reduces the transaction costs of paper, printing, reproduction,

storage, filing, postage and document retrieval, saving businesses more
than 35 percent on transaction costs

• For buyers that handle numerous transactions, using EDI can also result
in millions of dollars of annual savings due to early payment discounts
More Accuracy, Fewer Errors

• EDI reduces error transactions by 30-40 percent

• EDI eliminates human errors from illegible handwriting, lost mail and
keying errors

Better Relationships

• Sellers benefit from improved cash flow and reduced order-to-cash cycles

• In fact, EDI can reduce the order-to-cash cycle time by more than 20%,
improving business partner transactions and relationships

• Reducing errors also saves partners valuable time and frustration

handling data disputes

Strategic Benefits

• EDI provides real-time visibility into transaction status, enabling faster

decision-making and better responsiveness to customer and market
demands, helping businesses adopt a demand-driven approach

• Product enhancements and delivery enjoy shorter lead times

• Streamlines the process of entering new territories, as EDI provides a

common worldwide business language

Environmental Benefits

• EDI promotes sustainability and reduces CO2 emissions by replacing

paper-based processes with electronic alternatives

• EDI increases operational efficiencies, leading to fewer errors and less

energy waste

Mobile Communications Systems Development

mobile communication has witnessed remarkable advancements, transforming
the way we connect, communicate, and access information. From the early days
of brick-sized mobile phones with limited capabilities to today’s sleek
smartphones with lightning-fast data speeds, the journey of mobile networks has
been nothing astonishing.
1G: The Birth of Mobile Communication
The foundations for today’s modern mobile networks were laid as early as the
1940s with early car phone services, but it would take some time for the
technology itself to develop for personal use. We can consider the 1980s as the
first real milestone in the development of the mobile networks in use today.
1G was primarily designed for voice calls and the technology itself was much
simpler when compared with later generations. 1G networks had several
limitations, the analogue technology provided limited capacity and relatively
poor call quality. Perhaps the biggest limitation of these early networks was the
complete lack of security, meaning calls were susceptible to eavesdropping and
interference.
2G: The Advent of Digital Communication
The 1990s witnessed the emergence of 2G mobile networks, which marked a
significant leap forward from the limitations of their 1G predecessors. 2G
networks adopted digital transmission methods, bringing about a host of
improvements that revolutionised the mobile telecommunications industry. The
use of digital signals made 2G networks much more efficient allowing for a
greater number of concurrent calls and users on the network. This improved
capacity as well as developments in reducing the physical size and cost of
mobile phones were crucial in the explosion of demand for mobile services.
3G: The Era of Mobile Internet
3G networks were introduced, ushering in the era of mobile internet. The third
generation of mobile communication brought faster data speeds, enabling users
to browse the web, send emails, and access basic multimedia content on their
phones. This breakthrough laid the foundation for various mobile applications
and services, transforming mobile devices into powerful tools for information
and entertainment.
In the early days of 3G, video calling between mobile devices became available
and was expected to be a significant driver in terms of uptake of 3G devices.
This early video calling technology utilised circuit switching and was billed by
the minute making it an expensive option.
4G: The Rise of Mobile Broadband
Around 2010, 4G networks emerged, and they marked a substantial leap
forward in mobile communication. 4G significantly increased data speeds and
reduced latency, making real-time video streaming, online gaming, and high-
quality video calls a reality. The improved data speeds and low latency of 4G
networks had a profound impact on the mobile application ecosystem. The app-
driven culture exploded, with a surge in mobile apps and services catering to
various needs and interests.
5G: More Than Just Faster Internet
5G is the next step in the evolution of mobile communications. It was designed
to provide greater rates of data transfer, lower latency, and improved reliability
compared to previous generations, enabling new use cases, and transforming a
wide range of industries.
5G networks can support a much larger number of devices than previous
generations and can also handle more data-intensive applications such as Virtual
and Augmented Reality, autonomous vehicles, and the IoT (Internet of Things).
With 5G, we have seen new innovations and opportunities in a variety of market
verticals such as healthcare, manufacturing, transportation, and entertainment.
5G is also a key driver for technologies such as Edge Computing and Artificial
Intelligence. 5G is continuing to grow and develop as MSPs (Mobile Service
Providers).

Smart Card
A smart card is a plastic card with an embedded chip that can store data, process
information, and perform other functions. Smart cards are also known as chip
cards or integrated circuit (IC) cards. A smart card is a plastic card that
contains a microprocessor and a memory chip or just a memory chip. The
microprocessor card has the ability to add, delete and manipulate information on
the card. A memory-chip card, such as a phone card, can only add information.
By maintaining all necessary functions and information on the card, smart cards
do not require access to remote databases.
Smart cards are more secure and functional than magnetic strip cards, and they
don't need to access remote databases to perform transactions.
Smart cards are used in many applications, including:
• Banking: ATMs, payments, and more
• Identification: Driver's licenses, passports, and more
• Public transit: Accessing public transit systems
• Computer security: Authenticating users and providing single sign-on
• Schools: Providing access to campus resources
• Healthcare: Providing access to patient records
• Mobile telecommunications: Subscriber identity modules (SIMs)
Smart cards conform to international standards, including ISO/IEC 7816 and
ISO/IEC 14443.
How Do Smart Cards Work?
A smart card needs a card reader to work correctly; it cannot function in
isolation. Smart cards contain a chip consisting of a contact pad, which makes
electronic interaction between itself and the card reader possible.
The working process of a smart card is comprised of the following steps:
1. First, the smart card makes contact with the card reader, either directly or
indirectly.
2. The smart card reader receives the information stored on the chip.
 3. This information is sent to the controlling terminal for immediate
processing.
The chip exchanges data with card readers through a serial interface either
through direct physical contact or via short-range wireless connectivity
standards like RFID or NFC.
Advantages of Smart Cards
The main advantages of smart cards are:
• High levels of security
• Larger memory
• Prevents fraud
• Reliability
• Information Security
• Privacy
• Ease of use
• Reduced cost for operators and users

Types of Smart Cards

The categorization of smart cards depends on various factors, like the way the
card reads and writes data, the type of embedded chip, and the chip's
capabilities. The various types of smart cards are:

CONTACT SMART CARDS

Contact smart cards are the most common smart cards. These cards require
physical contact with the card reader. These cards are inserted into the card
reader, which reads the information stored on the contact plate and carries out
the required transaction. The most common examples of contact smart cards are
credit cards, ATM cards, and SIM cards.

CONTACTLESS SMART CARDS

As the name suggests, these cards do not need physical contact with an interface
to make any transaction. They only need to be close to a card reader to be read;
there is no need for direct contact. These cards use radio frequencies or Near
Field Communication (NFC) technology to establish a wireless connection.
These cards provide hygienic benefits as there it removes the risk of the
transference of bacteria, viruses and infection. As a result, the use of contactless
smart cards has risen due to the COVID-19 pandemic. A typical example of this
type of card is prepaid contactless travel cards used on buses and trains.
Hybrid Smart Cards
These cards are a combination of both the cards mentioned above. They can
work as contact smart cards as well as contactless smart cards depending upon
the occasion. They have two technologies embedded in them, and each interface
connects to different chips with independent modules.
Memory Smart Cards
These cards can store, read and write data to the chip. The data can be
overwritten but can't be modified programmatically as the card is not
programmable. These cards have limited usage because of low memory
capacities. They are not robust and are used in disposable or single-use
products. These cards are of three types - straight memory cards, protected
memory cards, and stored value memory cards.
Microprocessor Smart Cards
These cards have a microprocessor embedded into the chip to provide dynamic
data processing capabilities. The microprocessor can add, delete, and edit the
existing card data. A smart card operating system manages the data and the
memory allocation. These cards store a large amount of data due to larger
memory spaces.
How Can A Smart Card Be Used
Smart cards are used to deliver quick and secure transactions as well as protect
personal information. The common uses of smart cards in various industries are
as follows:
Banking
One of the most common uses of smart cards is payment cards like credit cards
and debit cards. Most of these cards are "chip and PIN" cards that require a PIN,
while others are "chip and signature" cards that require customer signature for
verification. In addition, these cards can be used as "electronic wallets" where
you can fill the chip with funds for small purchases like taxi rides, groceries,
etc. Smart cards provide the ideal solution for e-commerce transactions as they
offer better protection and confidentiality than other financial systems.
Healthcare
Rapidly increasing healthcare data poses a challenge to maintain the efficiency
of patient care - with some healthcare systems still relying heavily on paper-
based data collection and transference. Smart cards address these challenges by
providing secure storage and instant access to a patient's medical history.
Telecommunication
Subscriber Identity Molecules (SIM) cards used in mobile phones are reduced-
size smart cards. The SIM card utilizes a unique identifier to manage the
privileges of each subscriber to identify and bill them correctly. The security
provided by SIM cards also prevents wireless providers from fraud.
ID Verification & Access Control
Various business offices and universities use smart cards to verify identity. They
can offer a tamper-proof solution for companies requiring security demands to
store information, like fingerprints. Many U.S. government facilities use
contactless readers for access.
Information Technology
Smart cards can be used as a security token and store certificates for secure web
browsing. They enable secure login, authentication of users, storage of digital
certificates, credentials, passwords, and sensitive data encryption. These cards
make information readily available while maintaining the privacy of individuals
and keeping their information secure from unwanted intrusions.
Educational Institutes
Many schools and colleges also use smart cards for student attendance, tracking
books at the library, access to restricted facilities, and transportation services.
Students can also use them for payment at canteens, vending machines, etc. This
technology also helps reduce the admin burden on staff, free up teaching time,
and provide real-time data on student location and behaviour.

EXPERT SYSTEMS
An expert system is an AI-powered computer program designed to emulate the
decision-making abilities of a human expert in a specific domain, using a
knowledge base and inference engine to solve complex problems.
An expert system is a computer program that is designed to solve complex
problems and to provide decision-making ability like a human expert. It
performs this by extracting knowledge from its knowledge base using the
reasoning and inference rules according to the user queries. The system helps in
decision making for complex problems using both facts and heuristics like a
human expert. It is called so because it contains the expert knowledge of a
specific domain and can solve any complex problem of that particular domain.
These systems are designed for a specific domain, such as medicine,
science, etc.
The performance of an expert system is based on the expert's knowledge stored
in its knowledge base. The more knowledge stored in the KB, the more that
system improves its performance. One of the common examples of an ES is a
suggestion of spelling errors while typing in the Google search box.
Below is the block diagram that represents the working of an expert system:

Characteristics of Expert System

o High Performance: The expert system provides high performance for
solving any type of complex problem of a specific domain with high
efficiency and accuracy.
o Understandable: It responds in a way that can be easily understandable
by the user. It can take input in human language and provides the output
in the same way.
 o Reliable: It is much reliable for generating an efficient and accurate
output.
o Highly responsive: ES provides the result for any complex query within
a very short period of time.
Components of Expert System
An expert system mainly consists of three components:
o User Interface
o Inference Engine
o Knowledge Base

1. User Interface
With the help of a user interface, the expert system interacts with the user, takes
queries as an input in a readable format, and passes it to the inference engine.
After getting the response from the inference engine, it displays the output to
the user. In other words, it is an interface that helps a non-expert user to
communicate with the expert system to find a solution.
2. Inference Engine(Rules of Engine)
o The inference engine is known as the brain of the expert system as it is
the main processing unit of the system. It applies inference rules to the
 knowledge base to derive a conclusion or deduce new information. It
helps in deriving an error-free solution of queries asked by the user.
o With the help of an inference engine, the system extracts the knowledge
from the knowledge base.
o There are two types of inference engine:
o Deterministic Inference engine: The conclusions drawn from this type
of inference engine are assumed to be true. It is based on facts and rules.
o Probabilistic Inference engine: This type of inference engine contains
uncertainty in conclusions, and based on the probability.
Inference engine uses the below modes to derive the solutions:
o Forward Chaining: It starts from the known facts and rules, and applies
the inference rules to add their conclusion to the known facts.
o Backward Chaining: It is a backward reasoning method that starts from
the goal and works backward to prove the known facts.
3. Knowledge Base
o The knowledgebase is a type of storage that stores knowledge acquired
from the different experts of the particular domain. It is considered as big
storage of knowledge. The more the knowledge base, the more precise
will be the Expert System.
o It is similar to a database that contains information and rules of a
particular domain or subject.
o One can also view the knowledge base as collections of objects and their
attributes. Such as a Lion is an object and its attributes are it is a
mammal, it is not a domestic animal, etc.
Components of Knowledge Base
o Factual Knowledge: The knowledge which is based on facts and
accepted by knowledge engineers comes under factual knowledge.
o Heuristic Knowledge: This knowledge is based on practice, the ability to
guess, evaluation, and experiences.
Knowledge Representation: It is used to formalize the knowledge stored in the
knowledge base using the If-else rules.
Knowledge Acquisitions: It is the process of extracting, organizing, and
structuring the domain knowledge, specifying the rules to acquire the
knowledge from various experts, and store that knowledge into the knowledge
base.
Why Expert System?

1. No memory Limitations: It can store as much data as required and can

memorize it at the time of its application. But for human experts, there
are some limitations to memorize all things at every time.
2. High Efficiency: If the knowledge base is updated with the correct
knowledge, then it provides a highly efficient output, which may not be
possible for a human.
3. Expertise in a domain: There are lots of human experts in each domain,
and they all have different skills, different experiences, and different
skills, so it is not easy to get a final output for the query. But if we put the
knowledge gained from human experts into the expert system, then it
provides an efficient output by mixing all the facts and knowledge
4. Not affected by emotions: These systems are not affected by human
emotions such as fatigue, anger, depression, anxiety, etc.. Hence the
performance remains constant.
 5. High security: These systems provide high security to resolve any query.
6. Considers all the facts: To respond to any query, it checks and considers
all the available facts and provides the result accordingly. But it is
possible that a human expert may not consider some facts due to any
reason.
7. Regular updates improve the performance: If there is an issue in the
result provided by the expert systems, we can improve the performance of
the system by updating the knowledge base.
Advantages of Expert System
o These systems are highly reproducible.
o They can be used for risky places where the human presence is not safe.
o Error possibilities are less if the KB contains correct knowledge.
o The performance of these systems remains steady as it is not affected by
emotions, tension, or fatigue.
o They provide a very high speed to respond to a particular query.
Limitations of Expert System
o The response of the expert system may get wrong if the knowledge base
contains the wrong information.
o Like a human being, it cannot produce a creative output for different
scenarios.
o Its maintenance and development costs are very high.
o Knowledge acquisition for designing is much difficult.
o For each domain, we require a specific ES, which is one of the big
limitations.
o It cannot learn from itself and hence requires manual updates.
Applications of Expert System
o In designing and manufacturing domain
It can be broadly used for designing and manufacturing physical devices
such as camera lenses and automobiles.
 o In the knowledge domain
These systems are primarily used for publishing the relevant knowledge
to the users. The two popular ES used for this domain is an advisor and a
tax advisor.
o In the finance domain
In the finance industries, it is used to detect any type of possible fraud,
suspicious activity, and advise bankers that if they should provide loans
for business or not.
o In the diagnosis and troubleshooting of devices
In medical diagnosis, the ES system is used, and it was the first area
where these systems were used.
o Planning and Scheduling
The expert systems can also be used for planning and scheduling some
particular tasks for achieving the goal of that task.

AAKRATI NIGAM
(ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DCSIS)