Period 3

Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl

Structure G. Ionic G. Ionic G. Ionic G. Atomic S. S. S.

Covalent Covalent Covalent

With Water Violent Slow with cold water, Slow Reaction No Rxn No Rxn No Rxn Reacts
fast with steam

Water prod. NaOH Mg(OH)₂ , MgO Al₂O₃ No prod No prod No prod HCl

With Chlorine NaCl MgCl₂ AlCl₃ SiCl₄ PCl₃/PCl₅ S₂Cl₂ No rxn

Chlorine flame Orange White N/A N/A White N/A N/A

With Oxygen Vigorously Brilliant flame Burn to form Burns at Vigorously Burns No rxn
layer high temps

Oxygen prod Na₂O MgO Al₂O₃ SiO₂ P₂O₅/P₄O₁₀ SO₃ Cl₂O₇

Oxide Na₂O MgO Al₂O₃ SiO₂ P₂O₅/P₄O₁₀ SO₂ SO₃ Cl₂O₇

Bond Ionic Ionic Ionic - covalent Covalent Covalent Covalent Covalent N/A

Acidity Basic Basic Amphoteric Acidic Acidic Acidic Acidic N/A

With Water Dissolves Dissolves N/A N/A Vigorous Does not Dissolves N/A
slightly dissolve but is
an acidic oxide

Water prod NaOH Mg(OH)₂ N/A N/A H₃PO₄ H₂SO₃ H₂SO₄ N/A

Oxidation # +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +6 +7

Chloride NaCl MgCl₂ AlCl₃ SiCl₄ PCl₅ S₂Cl₂

Bond Ionic Ionic, small degree Ionic, high degree of Covalent Covalent N/A
of covalency covalency

Acidity Basic Basic Amphoteric Acidic Acidic N/A

With Water Dissociates Dissociates Dissolves Violent Vigorous N/A

Water prod Na⁺ + Cl⁻ Mg²⁺ + 2Cl⁻ Al(OH)₃ + 3HCl SiO₂ + 4HCl H₃PO₄ N/A

Oxidation # +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +1

Polarization - distortion of an electron cloud by a neighboring ion/molecule/atom

Explain why aluminium is acidic in nature:

-​ NaCl is ionic and simply dissolves to give hydrated ions, NaCl → Na⁺ + Cl⁻. AlCl₃
is ionic with a high degree of covalency so it produces an acidic solution. The
high charge density of the Al³⁺ removes protons from the water molecules and
the release of H⁺ ions produces the acidity/acidic solution. [Al(H₂O)₆]³⁺ + H₂O →
[Al(H₂O₅)(OH)]²⁺ + H₃O⁺

Test to distinguish chlorides

1. Make an aqueous solution of each one of the salts
2. Take the acid-base nature of the solutions with a pH meter
3. Based on results, NaCl = neutral sol’n, MgCl₂ = slightly acidic sol’n, SiCl₄ =
acidic sol’n

Explain electronegativity:
-​ From left to right, the nuclear charge increases, decreasing the atomic radii. As a
result, since the effective nuclear attraction increases, the attraction for electrons
increases, and hence, the electronegativity across the period

Explain oxidation number:

-​ From left to right, the oxide change characters from basic oxides to amphoteric
oxides to acidic for non-metallic oxides

Reaction with water & pH

-​ MgO: Dissolves slightly: pH > 10
-​ P₄O₁₀: Vigorous : pH < 4

Group 2

Element Be Mg Ca Sr Ba

Atomic Radius INCREASES — — — — — — >

IE DECREASES — — — — — — >

Solubility INCREASES — — — — — — >

Water Condition Hot steam Hot steam Water @RT Cold Water Cold Water
 Water prod Be(OH)₂ Mg(OH)₂ Ca(OH)₂ Sr(OH)₂ Ba(OH)₂

Reducing agent REDUCING ABILITY INCREASES — — — >

Reactions MORE VIGOROUS — — — — — >

With Oxgyen 2X(s) + O₂ → 2XO(s)

Flame test N/A Bright White Brick Red/Orange Red/Crimson Apple-green

With HCl X + 2HCl → XCl₂ + H₂

With H₂SO₄ Mg + H₂SO₄ → MgSO₄ + H₂ Some H₂ produced No rxn No rxn

with some CaSO₄

Colour w/H₂SO₄ Colourless White N/A N/A

Sulfate BeSO₄ MgSO₄ CaSO₄ SrSO₄ BaSO₄

Solubility DECREASES — — — — — >

Solubility Colour N/A No ppt Thin, white ppt White ppt Thick, white ppt

Explaining solubility of sulfates:

-​ Going down the group, the solubility of the sulfates decreases. This is because:
1.​ Large size of SO₄ anion and small increase in size of G2 cation results in
small decrease of Lattice energy
2.​ Change in charge density of cations decreases due to increase in size of
cations, hydration energy decreases
3.​ The decrease in hydration energy becomes more significant than the
decrease in lattice energy so the solubility decreases down the group

Carbonate BeCO₃ MgCO₃ CaCO₃ SrCO₃ BaCO₃

MP High @Be, then a decrease to Mg, slight increase to Ca, then general decrease until Ba

Effect of heat XCO₃(s) → XO(s) + CO₂(g) ; All are white solids and produce white solids

Heat required More heat is required as the group is descended due to increased thermal stability

Polarizing effect DECREASES — — — — — >

 Explaining the polarizing trend:
-​ The smaller the positive ion (G2 ion), the higher the charge density and the
greater the effect it will have on the carbonate ion
-​ Ions get bigger as the group is descended so they have less effect on carbonate
ions near them
-​ Therefore you have to heat the compound more to persuade the carbon dioxide
to break free and leave the metal oxide
-​ As the group is descended the size of the cation increases and cannot
polarize the large NO₃⁻ or the CO₃²⁻ to break bonds for decomposition so
heat is required. Therefore, polarizing effect decreases as the group is
descended

Nitrate Be(NO₃)₂ Mg(NO₃)₂ Ca(NO₃)₂ Sr(NO₃)₂ Ba(NO₃)₂

Stability INCREASES — — — — — >

Polarizing effect DECREASES — — — — — >

Effect of heat 2X(NO₃)₂(s) → 2XO(s) + 4NO₂(g) + O₂(g)

Uses of compounds:
-​ MgO - Refractory material (solid that is physically and chemically stable at high
temps)
-​ CaO - Porcelain and glass making, purifying sugar, bleaching powder, water
softeners
-​ Ca(OH)₂ - pH modifier, preparation of ammonia, cement, plaster, mortars
-​ CaCO₃ - Limestone for building, purification of iron

Group 4

Element C Si Ge Sn Pb

Conductivity D - non conductor Semi-conductor Semi-conductor Good conductor Good conductor

Gr - conductor

Structure Giant molecular Giant molecular Giant molecular Giant metallic Giant metallic

Atomic radii INCREASES — — — — — >

 Trend in MP General decrease. Change from giant mol to giant metallic. Many covalent bonds need to be
broken. The larger the atom, the weaker the covalent bond. Sn and Pb have a small # of metallic
bonds which do not require as much energy as the other elements.

Tetrachloride CCl₄ SiCl₄ GeCl₄ SnCl₄ PbCl₄

Bond Covalent

Structure Molecular

Shape Tetrahedral

With water N/A Hydrolysed

Water Reaction No rxn due to no Rapid: Increases readily down the group — — — — — >
space in outer XCl₄ + 2H₂O → SiO₂ + 4HCl
shell/no d orbital

SiCl₄ - volatile liquid at room temp due to the simple molecular structure with weak
VDWF. These bonds easily break, making the liquid volatile
SiO₂ - giant molecular solid with strong covalent bonds in a 3D lattice. Much energy
needed to break bonds so solid at room temp
Uses of SiO₂: Bricks, tiles, pottery

Oxide (2+ State) CO SiO GeO SnO PbO

Stability INCREASES — — — — — > (All readily oxidize to dioxide except PbO which is stable)

Bonds From simple molecular (VDWF) to ionic (Giant ionic)

Nature Neutral Neutral Amphoteric Amphoteric Amphoteric

 Reaction XO + 2H⁺ → X⁺ + 2H₂O

Structure [Link] [Link] [Link] [Link] [Link]

Oxide (4+ State) CO₂ SiO₂ GeO₂ SnO₂ PbO₂ (powerful

oxidizing agent)

Stability DECREASES — — — — — > (PbO₂ decomposes to 2+ state but rest are stable)

Nature Acidic Acidic Amphoteric Amphoteric Amphoteric

Solubility Slight Insoluble Insoluble Insoluble Insoluble

Structure [Link] [Link] [Link] - [Link] [Link] - [Link] [Link] - [Link]

PbO₂ + 4HCl → PbCl₂ + 2H₂O + Cl₂

Group 7 (Halogens)

Element F Cl Br I

Colour Pale-yellow Green Red-Brown Purple

Electronegativity DECREASES — — — — — >

Oxidation states -1 -1, 1, 3, 5, 7 -1, 1, 3, 5, 7 -1, 1, 3, 5, 7

Half Eq’ns F₂(g) + 2e → 2F⁻ Cl₂(g) + 2e → 2Cl⁻ Br₂(l) + 2e → 2Br⁻ I₂(S) + 2e → 2I⁻

Density INCREASES — — — — — >

State Gas Gas Liquid Solid

MP INCREASES — — — — — >

VDWF strength INCREASES — — — — — >

Volatility DECREASES — — — — — >

Oxidizing power DECREASES — — — — — >

Reaction with H Explodes even in Explodes in sunlight; Reacts on heating and Combines only
 dark slow in dark in presence of Pt partially even upon
catalyst heating

Reaction with AgNO₃ No rxn, AgF White ppt, AgCl Cream ppt, AgBr Yellow ppt, AgI
soluble in water

AgNO₃ + dil. NH₃ N/A Soluble;[Ag(NH₃)₂]⁺+Cl⁻ Insoluble Insoluble

AgNO₃ + conc. NH₃ N/A Soluble;[Ag(NH₃)₂]⁺+Cl⁻ Soluble;[Ag(NH₃)₂]⁺+Br⁻ Insoluble

Reaction with H₂SO₄ HF(g) formed HCl(g) formed HBr(g) + little Br₂(g) HI(g) + I₂(g)

Oxidizing agent Reaction

All halogens Sulphite (SO₃²⁻) → Sulphate (SO₄²⁻)

All halogens Hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) → Sulphur (S)

Fl, Cl, Br Fe²⁺ → Fe³⁺

Fl, Cl, Br Thiosulphate (S₂O₃²⁻) → Sulphate (SO₄²⁻)

Iodine Thiosulphate (S₂O₃²⁻) → Tetrathionate (S₄O₆²⁻)

Halide Reaction Prod Observation

NaCl ●​ HCl ●​ Misty Fumes

NaBr ●​ Br₂ ●​ Brown fumes

●​ SO₂ ●​ White choking fumes of gas

NaI ●​ I₂ ●​ Purple fumes, black ppt

●​ H₂S ●​ Smell of rotten eggs/ foul smell

Melting point: Increases due to the increased strength of VDWF as molecular mass
increases down the group. Volatility decreases.

Oxidizing power: Decreases down the group, as the electronegativity decreases,

due to the increased shielding effect because of increased number of shells. (F,
Cl, Br can oxidize thiosulphate to sulphate, however, iodine can only oxidize
thiosulphate to tetrathionate).
Reactivity: Decrease in reactivity due to size of atom (increased number of shells).
Therefore, less pulling of electrons as shielding effect increases. IF THE “INE” IS
HIGHER THAN THE “IDE” A REACTION OCCURS

Reactions with sodium thiosulphate:

-​ 2S₂O₃²⁻(aq) + I₂(aq) → S₄O₆²⁻ + 2I⁻
-​ 2S₂O₃²⁻(aq) + 4Br₂(aq) + 5H₂O → 2SO₄²⁻ + 8Br⁻ + 10H⁺
-​ 2S₂O₃²⁻(aq) + 4Cl₂(aq) + 5H₂O → 2SO₄²⁻ + 8Cl⁻ + 10H⁺

Preparation of Cl₂:
Conc HCl and KMnO₄ : 2KMnO₄(aq) + 16HCl(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + 2MnCl₂(g) + 5Cl₂(g) +
H₂O

Thermal stability: Decreases as the group is descended due to longer bond lengths
(weaker)

Reactions of Chlorine:
-​ With cold NaOH : Once Cl₂ is aqueous, it will react by disproportionation (reduces
and oxidizes simultaneously)
Cl₂(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + NaClO(aq) + H₂O(l)
The mixture of NaCl and NaClO is used as bleach

-​ With hot NaOH : Disproportionation reaction again once in aqueous

3Cl₂(aq) + 6NaOH(aq) → 5NaCl(aq) + NaClO₃(aq) + 3H₂O(l)

-​ Oxidation number of Cl changes from 0 to -1 in NaCl and +1 in NaClO

Transition Elements
A transition element is an element which as an atom or forms at least one ion with a
partially filled d sublevel

Properties:
1.​ High mp & bp
2.​ Variable oxidation states
3.​ Formation of complex ions
4.​ Used as a catalyst
 5.​ Coloured ion formation
6.​ Good conductors of heat/electricity
7.​ Hard, shiny, malleable, ductile
8.​ Form paramagnetic compounds (are magnetic)

Element Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn

Atomic Radii DECREASE — — — — — > (less change than period 3 as s-block element changes are larger than d-block elements)

Ionization Energy INCREASE — — — — — > (small increase due to additional electron in 3d-subshell shielding 4s subshell)

MP & BP INCREASE – – – – – > (Increase due to 4s and 3d electrons delocalized in metallic bonds, drop in Mn and Zn due to
half and filled d-orbitals increasing stability, making electrons less available to the sea of electrons for metallic bonds)

Compared with Ca Have higher mp and bp due to 3d and 4s electrons in metallic bonds while Ca only has 2 4s electrons to delocalize

Density INCREASES – – – – – > (smaller atomic radii than calcium)

Oxidation Numbers +3 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +2,+3 +2

+2,+3,+4 +2,+3,+4, +2,+3,+4, +2,+3,+4,+ +2,+3,+4 +2,+3,+4, +2,+3,+4
+5 +5,+6 5,+6,+7 +5,+6 +5

Electron Config 4s² 3d¹ 4s² 3d² 4s² 3d³ 4s¹ 3d⁵ 4s² 3d⁵ 4s² 3d⁶ 4s² 3d⁷ 4s² 3d⁸ 4s¹ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 3d¹⁰
Oxidising agent have high Eθ values, reducing agents have low Eθ values

Ligand is an ion or molecule which donates a pair of electrons to a central metal atom to
form a complex

Formation of colours:
-​ In complex ions, the d orbitals are split into 2 energy levels, one higher and one
lower
-​ Electrons in the lower energy d orbital absorbs energy of specific wavelength and
undergoes d-d electronic transitions (excited to higher level)
-​ The complimentary colour to the wavelength absorbed is shown

TiCl₃:
-​ d orbitals of Ti³⁺ split in presence of H₂O: [TiH₂O]³⁺
-​ Cl- Ligans have a higher Kstab than H2O so it displaces it and forms TiCl₃
-​ Electrons perform d-d transitions
-​ Energy absorbed in visible region and violet colour produced

Vanadium oxidation states:

 -​ NH₄VO₃ is added to NaOH and then mixed with H₂SO₄, a yellow solution with
VO₂⁺ forms
-​ Shaking the solution with zinc will cause colour changes in this order:
Yellow to green (VO & VO²⁺) → To blue (VO²⁺) → To green again (V³⁺) → To violet
(V²⁺)

Shapes of complexes:
-​ 6 Coordinate bonds = octahedral
-​ 4 Coordinate bonds = tetrahedral or square planar
-​ 2 Coordinate bonds = linear

IMPORTANT EQUATIONS:

PAST PAPER QUESTIONS:

-​ Cr₂O₇²⁻ + 6Fe²⁺ + 14H⁺ → 2Cr³⁺ + 6Fe³⁺ + 7H₂O
Orange Green

-​ 5Fe²⁺ + MnO₄⁻ + 8H⁺ → 5Fe³⁺ + Mn²⁺ + 4H₂O

Green Red

HALF EQUATIONS:

-​ MnO₄⁻ + 8H⁺ + 5e⁻ → Mn²⁺ + 4H₂O

-​ Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6e → 2Cr3+ + 7 H2O
-​ Fe²⁺ → Fe³⁺ + e⁻

Ligand exchange:
Haemoglobin: CO competes with O₂ for the central Fe ion
: The Kstab of carboxyhemoglobin is higher, and hence, more stable
: CO displaces O₂
: The blood carries less O₂ which hinders metabolic activity
(suffocation/death)
: Treated by exposing patient to high conc. of O₂ to shift equilibria left
: This shift allows blood to carry O₂ by it displacing the CO
Cobalt: The stability constant of CoCl₄²⁻ is higher than that of [Co(H₂O)₆]²⁺ so it is more
stable
: As a result, adding Cl⁻ displaces the weaker H₂O ligand which shifts the reaction
right
: This produces CoCl₄²⁻ and a colour change of pink ([Co(H₂O)₆]²⁺) to blue
(CoCl₄²⁻)
 Cations

Group G1 G2 Transition

Flame Test Sodium - yellow Calcium - brick red Copper - greenish blue
orange flame

Potassium - lilac Strontium - crimson red

Barium - apple green

Flame Test Procedure Dip a platinum wire in conc. HCl, place sample of compound on end of
wire, hold wire end with sample over a non luminous flame, observe
colour of flame through diffraction grating

Group G1 & NH₄⁺ Nitrates Sulphates Halides Carbonates Hydroxides

Solution of solid Soluble Soluble Soluble except Ca²⁺, Soluble except Ag⁺ Insol except G1 & Insoluble except G1,
Ba²⁺, Sr²⁺, Pb²⁺ & Pb²⁺ NH₄⁺ NH₄⁺, Ba²⁺, Sr²⁺

Solution of solid Attempt to dissolve, if it doesnt dissolve then heat it, if insoluble try dissolving in nitric acid
procedure

Group Ammonium

Warming/ Warming All give off ammonia gas (pungent) except ammonium
with dilute NaOH nitrate which decomposes to form nitrogen oxide

Group Cations

White ppt INSOL White ppt SOL Coloured ppt

Dilute NaOH Mg, Ca, V Sr, Ba Al, Pb, Zn Cr³⁺ - grey/green

Cu²⁺ - pale blue
Fe²⁺ - dirty green
Fe³⁺ - red brown
Mn²⁺ - cream
Ni²⁺ - green
 Anions

Group Sulphites Sulphates Halides

Test Heat to form Sulphur Add BaCl or BaNO₃ and white ppt With AgNO₃ / Pb(NO₃)₂
dioxide forms (SO₄²⁻) Chloride - white ppt / white ppt
KMnO₇ - purple to Bromide - cream ppt / pale yellow ppt
colourless Iodide - yellow ppt / deep yellow

Chromate Nitrates Carbonates

Test H₂SO₄ turns yellow to Conc H₂SO₄ + Cu - brown fumes NO₂ Add acid for CO₂ gas (limewater milky)
orange
NaOH + Zn/Al powder then heat -
ammonia gas (red litmus paper blue)