COMPRESSION OF THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF SANDCRETE BLOCK

PRODUCED FROM QUARRY DUST, LATERTIC SOIL, AND RIVER SAND

BY

OSSAI STANLEY SAINT

22BH/0242/CE

A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY, FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC
NEKEDE, OWERRI, IMO STATE

IN PARTIAL FUFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

HIGHER NATIONAL DIPLOMA (HND) IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

NOVEMBER, 2024

i
 APPROVAL PAGE

This is to certify that this Project “Compression of the Compressive Strength of

Sandcrete Block Produced from Quarry Dust, Latertic Soil, and River Sand” was
carried out by OSSAI STANLEY SAINT with Reg. No 22BH/0242/CE and has been
approved by the Department of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering Technology,
Federal Polytechnic Nekede, Owerri

………………….…………… ……….………………
Engr. Onyewuchi Chibueze M. Date
(Supervisor)

……………………………… …….…………………
Engr. Charles Ikhuriona Date
(Head of Department)

………………………………. ……………………….
Engr. Anyanwu S. C. Date
(Dean SET)

………………………………. ……………………….
Engr. Dr. O.H Ibearugbulem Date
(External Supervisor)

ii
 DEDICATION

This project is dedicated to Almighty God for his divine Mercy, protection and
guidance throughout my stay in the institution.

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I want to thank the almighty God for his grace and love towards me and making
this work a successful one.

My special thanks goes to my project supervisor Engr. Onyewuchi Chibueze O.,

whose academic advice and contribution gave me the right sense of direction
needed for the success of this work. Also thank Engr. Charles Ikhuriona, the Head
of Department (HOD) and every other lecturer in Civil Engineering Department.

Finally, to my Parents, Mr./Mrs. Sunday Ossai, Pst. Engr. Cliff Ariaga. O, Pst. Engr.
Austin Amadi, friends and well-wishers, may God bless you all.

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 ABSTRACT

Sandcrete blocks are essential components in construction, enhancing and

supporting sustainable performance in building structures. Their significance in
society is undeniable, as they are widely used in constructing schools, hospitals,
apartments, and more. This project focuses on evaluating the use of lateritic soils
and quarry dust in sandcrete block production, with specific objectives to
examine the materials involved, such as river sand, quarry dust, and laterite soil.
The study also aims to produce and cure blocks by replacing river sand with
quarry dust and lateritic soil, determine the optimum compressive strength of
these blocks based on the replacements, and assess their water absorption
capacity.

The compressive strength of a material is critical in assessing its ability to

withstand a force that may cause it to crumble, and it is a key factor in building
design. Testing the compressive strength ensures that the mixture meets
specified strength requirements. This strength is measured after 14 and 28 days
of curing the sandcrete blocks. Each block is tested on a compressive machine,
with values carefully recorded. During testing, precise positioning and alignment
of the blocks are maintained to ensure even loading along the thrust axis, which
is essential for accurate measurement.

Keywords: Laterite soil, Quarry dust and Sandcrete.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page

Certification - - - - -- - - - - i

Dedication - - - - - - - - - ii

Acknowledgements - - - - - - - iii

Abstract - - - - - - - - - iv

Table of Contents - - - - - - - - v

Chapter One
Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study - - - - - 1
1.2 Statement of Problem - - - - - - 3
1.3 Objectives of the Study - - - - - - 3
1.4 Significance of the Study - - - - - 4
1.5 Scope of the Study - - - - - 4

Chapter Two
Literature Review
2.1 Sandcrete Block - - - - - - - 5
2.1.1 Characteristic of Sandcrete Blocks - - - - 5
2.1.2 Types of Sandcrete Blocks - - - - - - 6
2.2 Blocks - - - - - - - - 7
2.2.1 Types of Blocks - - - - - - - 8
2.2.2 Block Production Practice in Nigeria - - - - - 12
2.2.3 Quality of Sandcrete Blocks - - - - - 18
2.2.4 Standardization and Regulation of Quality - - - 20
2.2.5 Standard Requirements - - - - - - 22
2.2.6 Standard Enforcement - - - - - - 24
2.2.7 Standard Production Methods - - - - - 25

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2.3 Quarry Dust - - - - - - - 26
2.3.1 Quarrying of Laterite Masonry Blocks - - - 27
2.4 Laterite Soils - - - - - - - 28
2.4.1 Composition and Characteristics of Laterites - - 29
2.5 Lateritic Block - - - - - - - 30
2.5.1 Laterite Soil Sustainable as A Building Material - - - 30
2.6 Aggregate - - - - - - - - 32
2.6.1 Fine Aggregate - - - - - - - - 32
2.6.2 River Sand - - - - - - - - 33
2.6.3 Properties of River Sand - - - - - 35

Chapter Three
Material and Method
3.1 Material - - - - - - - - 36
3.1.1 Cement - - - - - - - - 36
3.1.2 River-Sand - - - - - - - - - 36
3.1.3 Lateritic Soil - - - - - - - 36
3.1.4 Quarry Dust - - - - - - - 36
3.1.5 Water - - - - - - - - - 37
3.2 Methods - - - - - - - - 37
3.2.1 Sieve Analysis - - - - - - - 37
[Link] Procedure for Sieve Analysis - - - - - 37
3.2.2 Specific Gravity - - - - - - - 38
3.2.3 Bulk Density - - - - - - 38
3.2.4 Production of Sandcrete Block - - - - 39
[Link] Batching of Sandcrete - - - - - 39
[Link] Batching of Sandcrete with Quarry Dust and Laterite - 39
[Link] Calculation of the Mass of Constituent Material
for the Sandcrete Block Production - - - - 39
[Link] Method of Production/Moulding - - - - 40
[Link] Quality Control Tips for Block Production - - 41

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3.2.5 Curing - - - - - - - - 42
3.2.6 Compressive Strength Test - - - - - 42
3.2.7 Water Absorption Test - - - - - - 42

Chapter Four
Result Presentation and Analysis
4.1 Results - - - - - - - - 43
4.1.1 Result for Sieve Analysis - - - - - 43
4.1.2 Results for Specific Gravity - - - - - 46
4.1.3 Result Bulk Density - - - - - - - 49
4.1.4 Compressive Strength Test Results - - - - - 51
4.2 Analysis of Results - - - - - - 52
4.2.1 Sieve Analysis Results - - - - - - 52
4.2.2 Bulk Density Test Results - - - - - 53
4.2.3 Compressive Strength Results - - - - 53

Chapter Five
Conclusion and Recommendation
5.1 Conclusion - - - - - - - - 54
5.2 Recommendations - - - - - - 54
References

viii
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Sandcrete can be used in construction to reduce costs and the volume of

materials needed. Galetakis et al. created self-flowing castable building elements
with quarry dust, while Li et al. improved concrete strength by replacing fly ash
with 20% granite dust. Thomas and Harilal used quarry dust and fly ash to make
concrete via a cold bonding process, resulting in significantly enhanced
mechanical properties. However, research on red earth as a construction material
is scarce, aside from its similarity to clay. Red earth, also known as Murrum or
Moorum, forms in tropical regions through weathering, producing iron, aluminum,
manganese, and titanium oxides. The seasonal water table changes in these
regions lead to red earth’s characteristic reddish-brown color. This material,
widespread in high-rainfall regions, especially in inter-tropical Africa, is often
found below grasslands or forest clearings.

Subbarao and colleagues used red earth mixed with cement to create building
blocks and pavement materials. Red earth is a promising alternative to river
sand, a primary component of sandcrete blocks in many developing countries.
The use of sandcrete blocks dates back to the colonial period in the late 19th and
early 20th centuries. Despite new building materials, sandcrete blocks remain
popular, commonly used in walls, drainage structures, and other masonry works.
Global demand for sand as a fine aggregate in sandcrete block production has
risen significantly, leading to strain on natural sand supplies in many developing
countries, driving up sand and sandcrete block prices. Recently, river sand,
essential for conventional concrete, has become more costly and scarce. To
address the demand for river sand, alternatives like red earth, lateritic soil, and
quarry dust are being explored for sandcrete block production.

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One of the main obstacles to solving housing shortages is the high cost and
limited availability of building materials. Low-cost housing solutions should ideally
rely on locally available, abundant, and renewable raw materials. This need has
led to extensive research into alternative materials for low-cost construction.

1.2 Statement of Problem

Today, many building structures suffer from block deterioration due to the use of
substandard materials in construction. This project investigates the use of
lateritic soils and quarry dust as additives in laterite, applied within specified
limits. Additionally, environmental pollution is a concern when using quarry dust;
however, this research aims to reduce pollution by incorporating quarry dust into
sandcrete block production, contributing to a more sustainable and cleaner
environment.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The primary goal of this project is to evaluate the use of lateritic soils and quarry
dust in manufacturing sandcrete blocks. The specific objectives include:

1. Analyzing the materials used in sandcrete block production, such as river

sand, quarry dust, and laterite soil.
2. Producing and curing blocks with quarry dust and laterite soil as substitutes
for river sand.
3. Identifying the optimal compressive strength of the blocks with these
replacements.
4. Measuring the water absorption of the blocks.
5. Providing recommendations based on the findings.

1.4 Significance of the Study

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The significance of this study lies in enhancing block production by incorporating
lateritic soil and quarry dust into sandcrete. It is essential for civil engineering
professionals to understand the impact of these additives on sandcrete
properties. Additionally, this approach aims to help reduce environmental
pollution associated with quarry dust.

1.5 Scope of the Study

This study focuses on using lateritic soil and quarry dust to enhance sandcrete.
The scope is limited to analyzing these materials through laboratory tests,
including Atterberg limits and particle size distribution for laterite, quarry dust,
and river sand. Additionally, the compressive strength and water absorption of
the blocks will be measured.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Sandcrete Block

Sandcrete blocks are crucial components in construction, contributing

significantly to sustainable building performance. Their importance in society is
evident, as they are used extensively in constructing schools, hospitals,
apartments, tunnels, dams, pavements, and more. Made from a blend of
powdered Portland cement, water, and sand, sandcrete blocks form a light gray
block with a textured surface and impressive strength when thoroughly mixed.

2.1.1 Characteristic of Sandcrete Blocks

Sandcrete blocks are produced from a mixture of Portland cement, blended

cement, sand, and water.

Advantages: These blocks are affordable, lightweight, durable, easy to install,

fireproof, require low maintenance, and can be decorated. Face plates can be
used to create various surface textures, such as cobblestone, brick, ashlar, and
rockface (the most common), with more decorative finishes including scrolls,
wreaths, and roping designs.

Blocks can be solid or hollow, with two or three cores for stretcher blocks; other
standard shapes are also commonly available, and it’s advisable to check the
local market for specific options. Block ends may be flat or flanged, and the
compressive strength and fire resistance of each block depend on its
configuration. Lightweight aggregates were introduced around 1917, leading to
the development and patenting of cinder blocks.

2.1.2 Types of Sandcrete Blocks

Sandcrete blocks are categorized into three types based on their construction
and size:

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 1. Solid Sandcrete Blocks: Composed of approximately 55% solid material,
these blocks are highly dense and are primarily used in demanding
construction projects. They contain stone chips, aggregates, and other
bonding materials to enhance their strength.
2. Hollow Sandcrete Blocks: Made with 25% solid materials, these blocks
are lightweight and have a lower density, making them ideal for decorative
constructions. They are available in three varieties: standard core-filled
blocks, column blocks, and slump blocks. Standard core-filled blocks are
suitable for structural and partition walls, while column blocks are used to
reinforce steel bars. These hollow blocks are later filled with concrete for
added support.
3. Interlocking Sandcrete Blocks: Designed with an interlocking system,
these blocks fit together easily. They come in various sizes, from very small
to large, and are versatile for both decorative and load-bearing
applications.

2.2 Blocks

Blocks are defined as walling units that exceed the dimensions specified for
bricks in the British Standard (BS 5628), with the height not exceeding either its
length or six times its thickness (Chudley, 1997). A structural block, often
referred to as a masonry unit (MU), is used in wall construction. It is a type of
precast concrete product, meaning the blocks are formed and hardened before
being transported to the construction site (Seeley I, 1999). Most structural blocks
contain one or more hollow cavities. The use of structural blocks is becoming
increasingly popular in developing countries, such as Nigeria, where they offer a
viable alternative to fired clay bricks, stabilized soil, stone, timber, and other
conventional materials in low-cost housing. The ingredients for making these
blocks are locally available and of good quality (Eze-Uzoamaka, 2000).

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Structural blocks are manufactured in various shapes and sizes, including solid,
cellular, or hollow, and can be dense or lightweight, air-cured or steam-cured,
and either load-bearing or non-load-bearing. They can be produced manually or
with machinery. In Nigeria, the most common block sizes are 450x225x225mm
and 450x225x150mm (Thomas, 1995). The primary properties of the most
common types of concrete blocks include: (a) high compressive strength,
resistance to weathering, impact, and abrasion; (b) low tensile strength; (c) the
ability to be molded into components of various shapes and sizes; and (d) good
fire resistance up to approximately 400°C (Oyekan and Kamiyo, 2011).

2.2.1 Types of Blocks

he construction industry offers various types of blocks, each serving different

purposes:

1. Sandcrete Blocks: These blocks are primarily used for wall construction
and are made from a mixture of coarse natural sand or crushed rock dust,
cement, and water. Sandcrete blocks are defined by NIS 87 as composite
materials, molded into various shapes and sizes. They are divided into two
main categories: lightweight and dense. Lightweight blocks are non-load
bearing and unsuitable for use below the damp-proof course or in
substructures, while dense blocks are load-bearing and suitable for
substructures, offering durability even in extreme climates (Seeley, 1999).
The properties of sandcrete blocks include strength, durability, fire
resistance, and thermal insulation. Their compressive strength depends on
the water-cement ratio and the degree of compaction. The recommended
compressive strength, according to BS 2028, is a mean of 3.45 N/mm², with
the lowest individual strength being 2.59 N/mm². The Federal Ministry of
Works and Housing in Nigeria recommends a compressive strength of 2.1
N/mm² as the mean strength.

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2. Soilcrete Blocks: Also known as stabilized mud blocks (SMB), these are
made from naturally occurring materials like lateritic soil mixed with
cement and water. They are an energy-efficient, cost-effective alternative
to traditional burnt clay bricks. Soilcrete blocks, being larger than burnt
clay bricks, speed up construction and reduce mortar usage. They are
environmentally friendly, requiring no fuel for manufacturing. However,
they should not be used for heavily loaded structures such as isolated load-
bearing columns or piers (Oyekan and Kamiyo, 2011).
3. Concrete Blocks: These blocks are made from cast concrete, typically
consisting of cement, sand, gravel, and water, with or without additives.
Concrete blocks are commonly used for load-bearing walls and other
structural elements such as dams and retaining walls. They can be
produced with hollow cores to reduce weight or improve insulation
(Adcocgba, 2001). The most common size in Nigeria is 450mm x 225mm x
225mm. Concrete blocks often have tapered cores, making them easier to
handle and allowing for better mortar adhesion. Various specialized shapes,
such as U-shaped or knockout blocks, are also available for specific
construction needs.
4. Aerated Concrete Blocks: These are precast masonry units made by
mixing Portland cement, sand, water, and an aerating agent to introduce
air voids in the mix. Aerated concrete is a type of lightweight concrete, also
known as cellular concrete. There are two main types: foamed concrete
(non-autoclaved aerated concrete, NAAC) and autoclaved aerated concrete
(AAC). Foamed concrete is made by injecting stable foam into a cement
paste or mortar mix, while AAC is produced by adding aluminum powder
and other additives to a slurry of high-silica sand, cement, or lime, and
water. Foamed concrete is known for its high flowability, low density,
minimal aggregate consumption, and excellent thermal insulation
properties. Its density can range from 1600 to 400 kg/m³, making it suitable
for structural, partition, insulation, and filling applications (Adcocgba,
2006).

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 5. Clay Bricks: Traditionally, a brick refers to a building unit made from clay,
but it can now refer to any rectangular masonry unit made from clay-
bearing soil, sand, lime, or concrete. Bricks come in various classes, types,
materials, and sizes, varying by region and time period. They are produced
in bulk and can be fired or non-fired. Fired bricks, one of the oldest and
most durable building materials, have been used since around 5000 BC.
Air-dried bricks (mud bricks) are an older form, often containing straw as a
mechanical binder. Bricks are laid in courses and various bond patterns to
form durable structures (Manasseh and Joel, 2010).

2.2.2 Block Production Practice in Nigeria

Sandcrete technology, or block molding, is increasingly essential to infrastructure

development worldwide. In Nigeria, block molding is one of the construction
industry’s largest sectors, with block production factories located in nearly every
Local Government Area. This industry is highly profitable when managed
effectively, and numerous block molding firms have emerged across Nigeria to
support the country’s growing construction needs. However, there are currently
no strict regulations regarding qualifications for block production, meaning
anyone with basic materials, equipment, and infrastructure can start producing
blocks, whether for personal or commercial use (Uzoamaka, 2002). Beyond
commercial producers, many contractors and clients produce blocks for their
projects to reduce costs and ensure quality. Sandcrete blocks are composed of
natural sand, water, and cement (Okolie, 2008). Cement, the main binding
material, is the costliest ingredient, leading some manufacturers to reduce its
content to keep prices low and increase profit margins (Oyetola & Abdulahi,
2006).

Due to economic constraints, particularly in West Africa, sandcrete blocks are

widely accepted for reducing construction costs. However, improper block
composition can lead to cracks in walls post-construction. Using alternative,
affordable local materials as stabilizers could improve sandcrete block properties

8
while lowering production costs. The Raw Materials Research and Development
Council of Nigeria has identified several local materials as potential substitutes
for imported ones, including cement-stabilized blocks, sun-dried soil blocks, and
rice husk ash (RHA). Poor-quality building materials are a significant factor in
structural failures, and standardizing block production processes could help
address this issue (Hornbostel, 2000).

The Nigerian block industry faces significant challenges due to the large number
of unregulated and untrained producers. Identifying the industry’s specific
challenges and opportunities could lead to higher standards and better outcomes
for the construction sector overall (Umaru, Aiyejina, & Ajagbe, 2012). Quality
block production depends on various factors, including the materials used, mix
ratios, and manufacturing processes, all of which influence sandcrete block
properties (Morenikeji, 2015). Approximately 95% of Nigerian walling materials
are made from sandcrete blocks due to their strength, stability, durability, and
fire resistance (Oyetola & Abdullahi, 2006). Although sandcrete blocks have less
strength than fired clay bricks, they are far more affordable (Chandrasekhar,
2003).

Innovations like the Hydraform interlocking block system, originally from South
Africa, have also impacted Nigerian block production. Hydraform blocks can be
stacked without cement, offering a more efficient, mortar-free construction
method. These blocks interlock on all sides, requiring mortar only for the
foundation and top rows, making construction faster and reducing costs
(Ganesan, Rajagopal & Thangavel, 2008).

In many parts of Nigeria, hollow sandcrete blocks containing sand, cement, and
water are a primary cost in construction. Rising material costs have limited
housing availability for urban and rural populations, emphasizing the need for
affordable alternatives. Substituting or supplementing cement with locally
available materials could offer significant benefits. For example, replacing fine
aggregates with quarry dust has been shown to improve block strength and

9
durability. Research indicates that a sandcrete mix ratio of 1:6 (cement to sand)
allows up to 25% quarry dust substitution, enhancing block performance and
sustainability while also addressing pollution concerns associated with quarry
dust disposal (Cisse & Laquerbe, 2000; Oyekan & Kamiyo, 2008).

2.2.3 Quality of Sandcrete Blocks

Quality is defined as meeting a product or service's intended purpose or adhering

to specific standards (Taylor, 2002). The author further explains that quality
encompasses the overall characteristics a product or service must have to fulfill
both explicit and implicit needs.

The Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON), established by Act 56 in 1971, is

the sole regulatory body responsible for ensuring the quality and standardization
of all products in Nigeria, including sandcrete blocks. SON developed the Nigerian
Industrial Standard (NIS) for sandcrete blocks, a reference document outlining the
minimum requirements for producing and using sandcrete blocks. Abdullahi
(2005) noted that sandcrete blocks are commonly used as walling units in Nigeria
and Ghana. Made from cement, sand, and water, these blocks are molded into
various shapes and sizes (Anosike, 2011). However, block quality varies due to
different production methods and variations in materials. Blocks are construction
units for walls and partitions, designed in dimensions suitable for bricklayers to
handle easily.

Hodge (2012) noted that sandcrete blocks are available for constructing both
load-bearing and non-load-bearing structures, with load-bearing blocks needing
to meet specific building regulations regarding solid mineral content and overall
block width. Sandcrete blocks play a critical role in transferring the load from
upper structural elements to the foundation. Load-bearing walls are those that
support the entire structure and transmit its weight to the ground to ensure
stability (Duncan, Eluwa, & Ajagbe, 2012). However, sandcrete blocks have a
naturally low compressive strength, making them vulnerable to seismic events.

10
Research indicates that many sandcrete blocks fall below the required
compressive strength for safe housing construction (Oyekan & Kamiyo, 2008).

Sandcrete blocks have long been integral to Nigerian construction (NIS 87:2000).
Despite this, bricks serve as alternative building materials. However, high-quality
clay for brick production is not available everywhere in Nigeria, leading to
variations in brick quality. Anosike and Oyebade (2012) observed that increased
use of bricks has sparked greater interest in improving sandcrete block
production. In some areas of Nigeria, such as parts of Ondo and Ekiti States,
rivers provide easy access to river sand, which is more accessible than clay for
block production. In other places, like Minna, sand is readily available from local
sources, further promoting its use in block making.

2.2.4 Standardization and Regulation of Quality

In Nigeria, the responsibility for standardizing and regulating the quality of all
products lies with the Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON). Created under Act
No. 56 of 1971 and later amended in 1976, 1984, and 1990, SON holds the sole
authority over national standards, quality control, metrology, and standards for
both domestically produced and imported goods and services. The 1976
amendment (Act No. 20) empowered the Minister of Industry to declare
mandatory industrial standards for products and processes recommended by the
Nigerian Standards Council (UNESCO, 2008). The 1984 amendment (Act No. 32)
changed the organization’s name from the Nigerian Standards Organization
(NSO) to the Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON), resolving confusion with
the Nigerian Security Organization. Act No. 18 of 1990 granted SON partial
autonomy from the Ministry of Industry, enabling it to operate with greater
independence and allowing it to sue and be sued under its corporate name.

According to Section 3, Subsection 1 of the 1971 Act No. 56, SON’s statutory
functions include:

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 1. Conducting tests and ensuring compliance with standards approved by the
Council.
2. Investigating the quality of facilities, materials, and products in Nigeria, and
establishing a quality assurance system, including certification for factories,
products, and laboratories.
3. Providing reference standards for the calibration and verification of
measurements and instruments.
4. Compiling an inventory of products needing standardization.
5. Publishing Nigerian Industrial Standards.
6. Promoting the adoption and maintenance of acceptable standards by
industries and the public.
7. Developing testing methods for materials, supplies, and equipment,
including items used by federal or state government departments and
private businesses.
8. Registering and regulating standard marks and specifications.
9. Preparing and distributing standard samples.
10. Establishing and maintaining laboratories or other necessary
institutions for fulfilling its functions.
11. Compiling and publishing general scientific and other relevant data.

These roles ensure SON's central position in promoting and maintaining quality
standards across Nigeria.

2.2.5 Standard Requirements

The Federal Building Code (First Edition, 2006) mandates that all materials and
components used in building construction should be chosen to ensure aesthetic
appeal, durability, functionality, distinct character, and affordability (Afolayan,
Arum, and Daramola, 2008). Locally sourced materials are encouraged to
promote availability, identity, job creation, and affordability. The National
Building Code includes the following specifications:

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1. Sandcrete Blocks: Defined as a composite material made of cement,
sharp sand, and water.
o Mold dimensions for sandcrete blocks are specified as 450mm x
225mm x 150mm, 450mm x 225mm x 225mm, and 450mm x
225mm x 100mm.
o Blocks are generally joined using a sandcrete mortar mix.
2. Aggregate: This includes coarse and fine materials sourced from natural
deposits, blast furnace slag, crushed clay, and furnace clinker.
3. Sand: Must be clean, sharp, fresh water or pit sand, free from clay, loam,
dirt, organic materials, or saline contaminants, passing primarily through a
4.70mm sieve. Lagoon sand, if used, must be thoroughly washed and
approved by the supervisor.
4. Mix Proportion: The block mix should not exceed a 1:6 ratio of cement to
sand, although a 1:4½ ratio is permitted if the block web thickness is
25mm or less.
5. Strength Requirements: Sandcrete blocks should meet crushing
resistance standards. For load-bearing walls in two- or three-story buildings,
the 28-day compressive strength should be at least 2.00 N/mm² (300 psi)
as an average, and 1.75 N/mm² (250 psi) for individual blocks.
6. Molding: Sandcrete blocks intended for load-bearing walls in two- or three-
story buildings must meet the 28-day strength criteria specified by the
Nigerian Industrial Standards (NIS) for sandcrete blocks.
7. Compaction: Depending on available tools, compaction should be done
either:
o Using an approved standard machine, or
o With a metal mold and manual compaction.
8. Production/Processing: Blocks should be cast with a 1:6 cement-to-sand
ratio by volume, using a suitable machine. If mixed by hand, the mixture
should be consistent in color and texture. Water should be added gradually
for adhesion, and the mix rammed into molds, then finished with a steel
tool (Okoli, Owoyale, and Yusuf, 2008).

13
 9. Curing: After casting, blocks should be kept on pallets under cover for at
least 24 hours, kept wet with a fire hose. They can then be moved from the
pallets, stacked up to five blocks high, and continue curing under cover for
at least seven days (Anosike, 2011).
10. Physical Requirements: Special-sized blocks or bricks of 11.25mm
(4½ inches) thickness or less should be solid with grooved and tongued
joints. Hollow blocks must be at least 50mm thick and are recommended
where vertical reinforcement is required.

2.2.6 Standard Enforcement

Oyekan and Kamiyo (2008) highlighted that the Federal Building Code requires
the establishment of a Code Enforcement Division or Unit within the Development
Control Departments of all Federal, State, and Local Government Urban
Development Agencies in Nigeria. These units are responsible for the following:

a) Ensuring the Code's provisions are enforced by qualified, registered

professionals. b) Applying the Code’s provisions to achieve its intended
objectives. c) Requesting assistance and cooperation, as necessary for official
duties, from officers in various Government Ministries, Departments, Parastatals,
Police, and other Law Enforcement Agencies.

2.2.7 Standard Production Methods

Nunnally (2007) noted that Sandcrete blocks, often hollow, are produced using a
vibrating machine for large-scale manufacturing and a hand mold for smaller-
scale production. Baiden and Tuuli (2004) added that the commonly produced
hollow Sandcrete blocks in Nigeria are made with a standard 1:6 cement-to-sand
mix ratio—one part cement to six parts coarse sand by volume. The typical sizes
are 225 x 225 x 450mm and 150 x 225 x 450mm, with about one-third of their
volume as hollow space. Solid core blocks of size 100 x 225 x 450mm are also
produced, mainly for non-load-bearing partition walls. During manufacturing, the
materials are typically hand-mixed and repeatedly turned to ensure uniform color

14
and consistency (Goncalues and Bergmann, 2007). Water is added through a fire
hose, mixed for adhesion, then rammed into molds, compacted, and smoothed
with a steel tool. After being removed from the molds, the blocks are placed on
pallets in rows with spacing, cured by daily watering, and stored for transport to
construction sites. Hydraform blocks, on the other hand, consist of soil mixed
with 8-10% cement. For Hydraform production, laterite or “Murrum” soil is
preferred, ideally with 5-35% clay and silt content. Black cotton soil, which
contains highly reactive clay and high organic content, is unsuitable as it tends to
crack upon drying (Ogonna, 2017).

2.3 Quarry Dust

The process of producing aggregate for concrete generates a substantial amount

of fine particles, commonly referred to as quarry dust (QD), during the crushing
operations at quarries. Without proper disposal, QD can lead to environmental
issues like land and air pollution. Recently, numerous studies have investigated
the potential of incorporating QD as an aggregate in concrete, offering a way to
reuse and recycle this material. However, most research has been conducted as
separate experimental studies by different researchers. This work seeks to
consolidate the existing knowledge on using QD as a concrete constituent and its
effects on concrete properties. A comprehensive review of QD’s physical and
chemical properties is provided, as well as an analysis of how its inclusion
influences the workability and mechanical characteristics of concrete.
Additionally, this study presents a consolidated view on the durability and
dimensional stability of concrete containing QD. In conclusion, QD proves to be a
viable alternative as a fine aggregate and filler in concrete, and, when used in
appropriate amounts, can help achieve the desired concrete properties.

2.3.1 Quarrying of Laterite Masonry Blocks

The methods used for quarrying, dressing, and constructing with laterite blocks
are quite different from those used with other types of stone masonry materials.
Laterite blocks are initially soft and easy to quarry and shape, but they harden

15
upon exposure to atmospheric oxygen. This ease of cutting and shaping,
combined with their hardening over time when exposed to air, makes laterite
highly versatile and suitable for various building applications. Previously, manual
quarrying and dressing of laterite were common but required significant labor
and time. In Kerala, however, the first machine-based quarrying of laterite was
introduced in 1993, popularizing the use of a mobile rotary saw. This process
includes the following steps:

1. Removing the topsoil to expose the surface.

2. Marking lines on the leveled horizontal layer of laterite.
3. Moving cutters along these lines to the desired depth.
4. Finally, prying the stones loose manually with bars and transporting them
to the construction site.

The midland region of Malabar, characterized by rolling hills, valleys, and river
drainage, is rich in laterite deposits. Kerala, often referred to as the type locality
of laterite, has a climate of prolonged rainfall interspersed with dry seasons and
sloping terrain, which supports laterite formation (Narayanaswamy, 2001).

2.4 Laterite Soils

Laterite is a soil and rock type that is rich in iron and aluminum, commonly
forming in hot, humid tropical climates. Due to its high iron oxide content, laterite
often has a reddish, rust-like appearance. This soil forms through prolonged,
intense weathering of the underlying parent rock. The tropical weathering
process, which involves extensive chemical alteration, results in considerable
variation in the thickness, quality, chemical composition, and mineral content of
the soil that develops.

Laterite has been described both as a soil and as a rock type, which has led to
different perspectives on its classification (such as whether it is a complete
weathering profile or just a type of weathered material). This ambiguity has
16
prompted some specialists in regolith formation to suggest that the term
"laterite" be abandoned, due to the confusion surrounding its usage. However,
this is unlikely, as similar materials are found abundantly worldwide, and it
remains practical to refer to these as laterite.

Historically, laterite was cut into brick-like shapes and used in monument
construction. After 1000 AD, sites like Angkor Wat and other Southeast Asian
temples were built with rectangular enclosures using laterite along with brick and
stone. Since the mid-1970s, laterite has also been used experimentally as a base
layer in low-traffic roads with bituminous surfacing instead of stone. Thick layers
of laterite are porous and slightly permeable, allowing them to serve as aquifers
in rural areas. In addition, locally sourced laterite has been utilized in sewage
treatment facilities, where an acid solution and subsequent precipitation are used
to remove phosphorus and heavy metals.

2.4.1 Composition and Characteristics of Laterites

Laterite primarily consists of the minerals kaolinite, goethite, hematite, and

gibbsite, which develop during the weathering process. Many laterites also
contain quartz, a relatively stable mineral that remains from the original parent
rock. The reddish-brown color characteristic of laterite is due to the iron oxides
goethite and hematite. Laterite can vary in texture, being either soft and crumbly
or firm and physically durable. The typical thickness of laterite layers is a few
meters, though they can sometimes be much deeper. Slightly elevated terrains
that reduce surface erosion are conducive to laterite formation. The uppermost
layer of the laterite profile is known as lateritic soil, which is referred to in soil
science by names like oxisol, latosol, and ferallitic soil.

2.5 Lateritic Block

17
A lateritic block is made from a mixture of lateritic soil. When moist, laterite is
soft and can be easily shaped into uniform blocks using a spade. It is typically
mined below the water table, which keeps it wet and malleable. When exposed to
air, the moisture between the flat clay particles evaporates, and the iron salts
form a strong lattice structure, causing the material to harden and become more
resistant to environmental conditions. The technique of quarrying laterite for
masonry is believed to have been introduced from the Indian subcontinent.

2.5.1 Laterite Soil Sustainable as a Building Material

 Laterite, a key resource in tropical humid regions, contributes significantly to

the economy through its various uses, including as a mineral ore potentially
providing aluminum (in Africa), iron (in Goa and Canara), and nickel (in
Indonesia).
 It serves as a substrate in aquatic structures like ponds and reservoirs, as well
as an alternative building material for low-cost housing, such as stabilized bricks
made from laterite soil.
 In road construction, laterite is used as a road substrate, often stabilized with
fly ash and fine materials.
 Laterite is also employed as a masonry material, similar to other stones
(Gidigasu, 1976). The building sector is responsible for more than 50% of CO2
emissions and energy consumption due to the production of construction
materials and operations (Lawane, 2012). The International Conference on
Building Materials for Construction, held at 2iE in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso,
discussed the environmental impact of construction materials in African
countries. The conference highlighted the need for local materials, particularly
laterite, to achieve sustainable construction. In Africa, laterite is increasingly
prioritized as a locally available masonry material for housing, addressing both
economic and environmental challenges when compared to concrete or cinder
block construction (Lawane, 2012). Economic growth in developing countries has
led to higher housing demands, and building materials play a significant role in
meeting these needs. Various global technical organizations have developed

18
guidelines to assess environmental quality, such as lead and bream, combining
material characteristics with their lifecycle analysis (Kibort, 2013). The growing
use of laterite in construction projects in India and Africa (e.g., Burkina Faso) was
also discussed in a technical study (Tsobnang, 2013). Thus, it is crucial to develop
strategies for the efficient and optimal use of laterite in construction to yield both
economic and environmental benefits.

2.6 Aggregate

Aggregate refers to a group of mineral materials, including sand, gravel, and

crushed stone, that are combined with a binding medium (such as water,
bitumen, Portland cement, lime, etc.) to create composite materials like asphalt
concrete and Portland cement concrete. It is also used as a base and subbase
layer in both flexible and rigid pavements. Aggregates can be classified as either
natural or manufactured. Natural aggregates are typically sourced from larger
rock formations through open excavation (quarrying), and the extracted rock is
then mechanically crushed to suitable sizes. Manufactured aggregates are often
byproducts of other industrial processes.

Since aggregates are less expensive than cement, it is beneficial to use as much
aggregate as possible in concrete. High aggregate content provides technical
benefits, such as improved volume stability and enhanced durability compared to
a mixture of only hydrated paste (Neville, 2011). Some of the advantages of
using aggregates include: a) Reducing the overall cost of concrete by lowering
the cement requirement (about 1/4 to 1/8 of the cement price). b) Mitigating
thermal cracking, as 100 kg of ordinary Portland cement generates a
temperature rise of around 12˚C. c) Reducing shrinkage, since a 10% decrease in
aggregate volume can lead to double the shrinkage. d) Adding unit weight to the
concrete.

2.6.1 Fine Aggregate

19
Fine aggregate is a material that passes through a No. 4 sieve but is typically
retained on a No. 200 sieve. For improved workability and cost-effectiveness (by
reducing the amount of cement used), fine aggregates should have a rounded
shape. The role of fine aggregate is to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate and
enhance the workability of the mix.

According to ASTM C 33 or AASHTO M 6/M 43, fine-aggregate gradation can vary

within a broad range, although other organizations may impose stricter
specifications. The ideal grading of fine aggregate depends on factors such as the
type of work, the mixture’s richness, and the maximum size of the coarse
aggregate. In leaner mixes or when smaller-sized coarse aggregates are used, a
grading that closely follows the recommended percentage passing through each
sieve is preferred for better workability. Generally, if the water-cement ratio is
kept consistent and the fine-to-coarse aggregate ratio is properly adjusted, a
wide range of gradation can be used without significantly affecting strength.
However, optimal cost savings are sometimes achieved by tailoring the concrete
mix to match the local aggregate gradation.

2.6.2 River Sand

River sand is primarily used in the construction industry for making concrete and
cement-sand mortar. It is typically obtained by dredging riverbeds. One of its key
characteristics is that, due to years of abrasion, the sand particles are generally
rounded and smooth. Additionally, because it has been washed over time, it
contains very low amounts of silt and clay. These properties enhance the
workability of both concrete and mortar. Using river sand can help reduce the
water demand or need for superplasticizers to meet specific workability
requirements, allowing for a mix with lower water and cement content. The low
silt and clay content of river sand also improves the quality control of concrete
and mortar production, as excessive silt or clay can negatively impact both

20
workability and strength. However, there are two main drawbacks to using river
sand:

1. Since river sand is transported by river water from upstream, its mineral
composition can vary significantly, making it difficult to determine whether
it could cause any harmful alkali-aggregate reactions.
2. River sand dredged from areas near the sea may contain salt, which can
lead to high chloride levels in the concrete or mortar, potentially causing
issues.

2.6.3 Properties of River Sand

The physical properties of river sand are given in table 2.2 below

Table 2.2: Physical properties of river sand

Property Values
Specific gravity 2.60 – 2.72
Bulk density 1460kg/m3 - 1680kg/m3
Moisture content 1.50% - 1.75%
Particle size 0.075mm – 6mm
Absorption 0
Source: Ilangovanaet al (2006)

The chemical properties of river sand are given in table 2.3 below

Table 2.3: Chemical properties of river sand

Compounds Quantity (%)

SiO2 80.78
Al2O3 10.52
Fe2O3 1.75
CaO 3.21
K2O 1.23
Na2O 1.37

21
MgO 0.77
Source: Ilangovana et al (2006)

22
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIAL AND METHOD

3.1 Material

The material used in the production of sandcrete blocks are as follows.

3.1.1 Cement

The cement used was Elephant Superset Portland limestone cement, purchased
from a cement shop in Nekede, Owerri. It was stored in a dry, leak-proof, and
moisture-resistant environment at a standard room temperature.3.1.2 River-
Sand

The sand used was river sharp sand sourced from Otamiri River in Nekede. It was
delivered in a wet state. The fine aggregate was clean, sharp, and free from
organic matter or any contaminants.

3.1.3 Lateritic soil

The sample was taken from a borrow pit at Nekede, at a minimum depth of six
(6) meters, using a disturbed sampling method. The sample had a reddish color
and a sticky texture.

3.1.4 Quarry Dust

This sample was collected from Imo State Airport under supervised authority. The
quarry dust, a by-product of the crushing process, is a concentrated material
used as aggregate in Sandcrete block production. It was delivered in a dry state.

3.1.5 Water

The water used in the Sandcrete block production was sourced from a tap in the
concrete laboratory of the Civil Engineering Department at Federal Polytechnic
Nekede, Owerri. It was supplied through the school's central water distribution
network.

23
3.2 Methods

3.2.1 Sieve Analysis

A sieve analysis test was conducted in the laboratory to determine the particle
size distribution of the soil by passing it through a series of sieves. A set of British
Standard (BS) sieves, with sizes ranging from 1.18mm, 0.6mm, 0.425mm,
0.3mm, 0.212mm, 0.15mm, 0.075mm, to a pan, was arranged accordingly. A
weighing balance was also used for the analysis. The sieves were stacked with
the largest aperture sieve at the top and the smallest aperture at the bottom.
The analysis was performed on all the samples, including river sand, laterite, and
quarry dust.

[Link] Procedure for Sieve Analysis

1. 1. The sieves were thoroughly cleaned and free from any particles to
ensure accurate measurements.
2. Each sieve was measured, and the mass of the empty sieve was recorded
using a weighing balance and a recording sheet.
3. A 500.00g sample was selected for the analysis.
4. The sample was poured into the properly arranged sieves, covered, and
then placed into a mechanical shaker to be shaken.
5. After shaking, the sieves were weighed individually, along with the soil
retained, to determine the mass of the sieve plus the retained soil, as
shown in the table below.
Note: The same procedure was repeated for the other samples.

3.2.2 Specific Gravity

This test was conducted in the laboratory to determine the weight of a specific
volume of sample compared to the weight of an equivalent volume of water. The
procedure for the specific gravity test is as follows:

24
 1. An empty density bottle was cleaned, dried, and weighed, recorded as
(Mo).
2. The bottle was filled with one-third of the total sample volume, weighed,
and recorded as (Ms).
3. Distilled water was then added to the bottle, and the total weight was
recorded as (Mb).
4. The contents of the bottle were emptied and thoroughly rinsed.
5. The bottle was refilled with distilled water to the meniscus, and the weight
was recorded as (Ma).

The specific gravity (G) was then calculated using the formula below.

MO
G= .
MO+( ma−mb)

3.2.3 Bulk Density

The test was conducted in the laboratory to determine the density, which refers
to the quantity of a material's particles packed into a specific volume. As the
packing of particles increases, the density of the substance also increases. Higher
density values indicate a higher level of compaction. Mathematically, density is
calculated by dividing the mass of the sample by the volume of the [Link]
m
density =
v

3.2.4 Production of Sandcrete Block

[Link] Batching of Sandcrete:-

The sand and Portland cement were measured using a head-pan and weighing
balance, then spread evenly on a clean, hard surface and mixed thoroughly until
a uniform color was achieved. A specific amount of water was added to the

25
mixture and stirred to form a paste. This paste was placed in a well-lubricated
mold, compacted with a rammer, and the surface of the mold was smoothed. The
sandcrete block was then formed.

[Link] Batching of Sandcrete with Quarry Dust and Laterite.

The batching process was carried out manually with great care to ensure a
proper mixture. The samples were measured at varying percentages (5%, 10%,
20%, 30%, 40%, 50%) using a head-pan and shovel, then weighed on a balance
and spread across a clean, hard surface. A specific amount of water was
measured and gradually added to form a paste. The mixture was then placed into
a mold, compacted with a rammer, and the surface of the mold was smoothed.

[Link] Calculation of the Mass of Constituent Material for the Sandcrete

Block Production

[450 x 225−2 x 125 x 150 ]225

V= 9 =0.014344m3
10

Bulk density of block =1800kg/m3

Mass of block = SV =1800 x 0.014344 = 25.82kg

For 6 samples =154.92kg

Adding 5% waste, Mass =162.66kg

For control (using 1:6) 0.5 w/c

1
Cement = x 81.33 = 23.24kg
7

6
Sand = x 81.33 = 139.42kg
7

26
 Water = 0.5 x 11.62 = 11.62kg

Mix Percentage Cement( Sand(kg) Quarry Laterite Water(kg)

No Replacement kg) Dust(kg) (kg)
(%)
M0 0 23.24 139.42 11.62
M 10 10 23.24 125.48 6.98 6.98 11.62
M 20 20 23.24 111.54 13.94 13.94 11.62
M 30 30 23.24 97.59 20.19 20.19 11.62
M 40 40 23.24 83.65 27.88 27.88 11.62
M 50 50 23.24 69.71 34.86 34.86 11.62

[Link] Method of Production / Moulding

Below is the method which was used to produce a sandcrete block using lateritic
soil and quarry dust.

 Hand ramming compaction mould method

In the hand ramming compaction moulding method, the equipment consists of a

pre-fabricated steel mould box designed to the required block size. The mould
ensures that when the cement and sand mixture is compacted, the resulting
sandcrete block perfectly fits the mould and meets the necessary specifications.
After hand ramming, the compressed wet block can be removed, thanks to a
detachable steel plate at the bottom of the mould. The mould box features two
curved steel handles for easy removal of the compacted unit. A wooden bat,
shaped like a chisel, is used as the compaction tool. The cement-sand mixture is
pressed against the flat end of the bat, then driven into the steel mould. The
compacted block is extracted by flipping the box upside down. To support the
block, the mould's open end is placed on a wooden pallet. After turning the block
over, a removable steel plate is positioned on top. This is the most common
method of block moulding in rural areas of Nigeria.

27
[Link] Quality Control Tips for Block Production

 Water, sand, and aggregates should be free of any organic impurities and
clean.
 Ideally, the sand used for block production should be dry. If wet, the moisture
content and water absorption must be measured to properly control the water-
cement ratio.
 Cement and aggregates should be thoroughly mixed until the color is
consistent.
 Only add sufficient water to achieve a workable mixture.
 The wheelbarrow used for measurement (65-liter builder’s wheelbarrow)
should not be overfilled.
 Never re-temper mixtures by adding more water, as this weakens the final
product. The mixture should be used within two hours of initial mixing.
 Full compaction is essential. Inadequate compaction reduces the strength of
the block.
 Blocks must be cured after demoulding. Curing involves maintaining the
blocks at the right temperature and moisture to promote cement
hydration and maximize strength. The curing period should last at least 14
days.

3.2.5 Curing

The sandcrete blocks were cured for the required periods of 7 and 28 days
to ensure proper setting.

3.2.6 Compressive Strength Test

The compressive strength test was conducted in the laboratory of the Civil
Engineering Department at Federal Polytechnic Nekede, Owerri, using a
compressive strength machine. This test was used to evaluate the quality of the
block units and their response to curing. It measures the unit's ability to

28
withstand an axial load applied to either the block's bed face or edge, or the ratio
of the crushing load a sample can endure relative to its net area. Mathematically,
maximum crus hing load( N )
it is expressed as:Compressive Strength =
minimum surface area¿ ¿

3.2.7 Water Absorption Test

This test was performed in the laboratory to determine the amount of water a
block unit can absorb when submerged in water at room temperature for a
specified duration. The result is expressed as a percentage of the block's dry
weight. The absorption rate is defined as the weight of water absorbed when the
block unit is partially submerged in water for one minute. It is mathematically
represented as:Water absorption =¿ ¿

29
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Results

The results are presented and analyzed in the following categories: sieve analysis
for river sand, laterite, and quarry dust; specific gravity; bulk density; water
absorption test; and compressive strength test, with the corresponding data
shown in the tables below.

4.1.1 Result for Sieve Analysis

The table below shows the sieve analysis of the various materials used in this
project.

TABLE 4.1 River Sand

S/N Siev Mass Mass Mass Percen Cumulati Cumulati

e of of of tage ve ve
size empty sieve laterit retain percent passing
(m sieve( + e ed retained
m) g) latent retain
retain ed (g)
ed (g)
1. 1.18 329.88 389.7 59.76 11.96 11.96 88.04
4
2. 0.6 316.29 430.4 114.17 22.86 34.82 65.18
6
3. 0.42 326.72 467.6 140.89 28.21 63.03 36.97
5 1
4. 0.03 300.66 398.8 98.15 19.65 82.68 17.32
1

30
5. 0.21 301.64 367.6 66.03 13.22 95.9 4.1
2 7
6. 0.15 332.73 347.4 14.7 2.9 98.8 1.2
3
7. 0.07 284.36 284.3 0.14 0.028 98.83 1.17
5 6
8. Pan 405.95 411.5 5.62 1.13 100 0
7
499.46

Chart Title
100
90
80
70
60
River Sand
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 10

Figure 4.1 Line Chart of Sieve Analysis for River Sand

Table 4.1.1 Laterite

Sieve Mass Mass of Mass Percenta Cumulati Cumulati

S/ Size of sieve + of ge ve ve
No (mm) empty latent laterit retained percent passing
Sieve( Retained e Retained
g) (g) Retain

31
 ed (g)
1 1.18 329.88 345.65 15.77 3.16 3.16 96.84
2 0.6 316.32 423.34 107.02 21.41 24.57 75.43
3 0.425 329.30 488.40 159.1 31.83 56.14 43.6
4 4.03 300.72 419.72 119 23.81 80.21 19.75
5 0.212 301.69 373.94 72.25 14.46 94.67 5.33
6 0.15 332.74 351.64 18.9 3.78 98.45 1.55
7 0.075 284.36 284.64 0.28 0.06 98.51 1.49
8 Pan 405.87 41.35 7.48 1.49 100 0
499.8

32
 Figure 4.1.1 Line Chart of Sieve Analysis for Laterite

Table 4.1.2 Quarry Dust

S Sie Mas Mas Ma Per Cum Cumul

Chart Title
/ ve s of s of ss cen ulati ative
120
N siz emp siev of tag ve passin
100
e ty e + late e perc g
(m siev
80 late rite ret ent
m) e(g) nt ret ain reta
60 Laterite
reta ain ed ined
40 ine ed

20
d (g)
(g)
0
1.2.3 357. 1 465. 108 21. 21.6 78.35 10
6 65 78 .13 65 5
2.1.1 330. 442. 111 22. 43.9 56.04
8 96 39 .43 31 6
3.0.6 316. 390. 74. 14. 58.8 41.11
33 88 55 93 9
4.0.4 326. 382. 55. 11. 70.0 29.99
25 63 19 56 12 1
5.0.3 300. 349. 49. 9.8 79.8 20.15
65 80 15 4 5
6.0.2 301. 374. 73. 14. 94.5 5.49
12 65 86 21 66 1
7.0.1 332. 355. 22. 4.4 98.9 1.01
5 72 11 39 8 9
8.0.7 284. 284. 0.3 0.0 99.0 0.94

33
 5 37 72 5 7 6
[Link] 405. 410. 4.6 0.9 100 0
n 92 59 7 4
499
.44

Chart Title
90

80

70

60

50 Quarry Dust

40

30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

34
1.1.2 Results for Specific Gravity

The following results, shows the specific gravity of materials used in this project.

TABLE 4.1.3 Specific Gravity for River Sand

Test Li Value
Mass of bottle 24.60
Bottle + sample 65.86
Bottle + sample + water 99.64
Bottle + water 73.96

35
 mo
mo+(ma−mb)

Mo = mass of dry soil

Ma = mass of flask + water

Mb = mass of flask + water +soil

65.86 – 24.60 = 41.26

41.26
¿
41.26+(73.96−99.64)

=2.65

TABLE 4.1.4 Specific Gravity for Laterite

Test Li Value
Mass of bottle 24.76
Bottle + sample 50.88
Bottle + sample + water 90.17
Bottle + water 74.00

mo
mo+(ma−mb)

mo = 50.88-24.76

=26.12

26.12
¿
26.12+(74.00−90.17)

= 2.63

36
TABLE 4.1.5 Specific Gravity for Quarry Dust

Test Li Value
Mass of bottle 24.74
Bottle + sample 51.18
Bottle + sample + water 90.18
Bottle + water 74.02

mo
mo+(ma−mb)

51.18-24.74

= 26.44

26.44
26.44+(74.02−90.18)

= 2.57

4.1.3 Result Bulk Density

The result below shows the bulk density of the various materials used in this
project.

Bulk density for River sand

Weight of compacted sample = 3171

Mass of soil = 5154 – 3171

= 1983

Volume of mould = πr 2h

37
Height of mould = 130mm

Diameter = 103mm

Radius = 51.5

= 3.142x51.52x130 = 1083cm3

M
Bulk density =
v

1983
¿
1083

= 1.83g/cm3

Bulk density for Quarry dust

Weight of compacted sample = 4934

Mass of soil = 4934 – 3171

= 1763

Volume of mould = πr 2h

Height of mould = 130mm

Diameter = 103mm

Radius = 51.5

= 3.142x51.52x130 = 1083cm3

M
Bulk density =
v

1763
¿
1083

38
= 1.63g/cm3

Bulk density for Laterite

Weight of compacted sample = 4875

Mass of soil = 4875 – 3171

= 1704

Volume of mould = πr 2h

Height of mould = 130mm

Diameter = 103mm

Radius = 51.5

= 3.142x51.52x130 = 1083cm3

M
Bulk density =
v

1704
¿
1083

= 1.57g/cm3

4.1.4 Compressive Strength Test Results

The compressive strength of the sandcrete blocks are as follows.

Table 4.1.6: 28 days compressive strength test result on the Sandcrete

block

water- Block Mass Density Av. Failur Comp. Av.

39
Cemen No. (Kg) (Kg/m3) Density e Load Strength Comp.
t Ratio (Kg/m3) (KN) (N/mm2) Strength
(N/mm2)
M01 28.80 2106.27 218 3.58
0.50 M02 28.65 2095.30 2092.86 214 3.51 3.51
M03 28.40 2077.01 210 3.45
M101 27.80 2033.14 214 3.51
0.50 M102 28.05 2051.42 2046.55 220 3.61 3.55
M103 28.10 2055.08 216 3.55
M201 27.72 2027.28 218 3.58
0.5 M202 27.50 2011.20 2020.22 222 3.64 3.60
M203 27.65 2022.17 218 3.58
M301 26.92 1968.78 220 3.61
0.5 M302 27.06 1979.02 1976.58 224 3.68 3.63
M303 27.10 1981.94 220 3.61
M401 26.55 1941.72 215 3.53
0.5 M402 27.15 1985.60 1962.44 218 3.58 3.54
M403 26.80 1960.00 215 3.53
M501 26.55 1941.72 195 3.20
M502 26.05 1905.15 1942.94 202 3.32 3.21
M503 27.10 1981.94 190 3.12

Figure 4.2: Line chart of the average compressive strengths

40
 Y-Values
3.7
3.63
3.6
Compressive Strength (N/mm2)

3.6 3.55 3.54

3.51
3.5

3.4

3.3
3.21
3.2

3.1

3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Percentage Replacement (%)

1.2 Analysis of Results

4.2.1 Sieve Analysis Results

The sieve analysis results indicate that the materials used fall within Zone II for
fine aggregate grading, as specified in BS-882 (1992). From Tables 4.1, 4.2, and
4.3, the fineness modulus for River Sand, Laterite, and Quarry Dust are 2.93,
3.78, and 4.48, respectively, all within the acceptable range of 2.3–5.0 for
concrete aggregates. The calculated coefficient of uniformity (Cu) is 2.18, and the
coefficient of gradation (Cc) is 0.99, indicating that the materials are nearly
uniformly graded, in accordance with BS-882 (1992).

4.2.2 Bulk Density Test Results

The bulk density values for river sand presented in section 4.1.3 align with the
standard range for sandcrete block materials. The measured bulk density for river
sand was 1.83 g/m³, closely matching the value reported in previous studies by
Ilangnovana et al. (2006), who observed a bulk density of 2.00 g/m³ for river

41
sand. Differences in bulk density values may arise due to the inherent
characteristics and properties of the original materials.

4.2.3 Compressive Strength Results

Table 4.3 shows the results from the compressive strength test conducted on
sandcrete blocks made with lateritic soil, quarry dust, and cement at a mix ratio
of 1:6. The results indicate that compressive strength increases with replacement
percentages up to 30%, after which a decrease is observed from 40% to 50%
replacement. As illustrated in Figure 4.2, the sandcrete blocks produced with
lateritic soil and quarry dust as sand replacements achieved an optimal
compressive strength of 3.63 N/mm² at a 30% cement replacement level.

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS AND REC0MMENDATI0NS

5.1 Conclusions

The aim of this project is to examine the strength characteristics of sandcrete

hollow blocks produced with lateritic soil and quarry dust. Based on the results
obtained from various laboratory tests, as well as the analysis and discussion in
Chapter Four, the following conclusions are drawn:

42
  Sandcrete blocks made with lateritic soil and quarry dust achieve optimal
compressive strength at a 30% replacement level, with a value of 3.63
N/mm².
 As the percentage of lateritic soil and quarry dust replacement increases,
the compressive strength also increases, reaching a peak at 30%
replacement. Beyond this, with further increases to 40% and 50%
replacement, the compressive strength declines.

5.2 Recommendations

Upon completing this project, the following recommendations are suggested:

 Use a 30% replacement of lateritic soil and quarry dust with cement in
sandcrete block production.
 Conduct further research on producing sandcrete blocks with other
materials to explore their effects.

43
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